Sets, Functions and Groups 38 Algebra & Trigonometry

SETS, FUNCTIONS AND GROUPS

Set
A set is any collection of objects, if it is possible to decide whether a given object belongs to the
collection or not.
These objects are called the elements or members of the set.
For example, the collection of all students of a class is a set whereas collection of all good books
on mathematics, is not a set, since a mathematics book considered good by one person might be
considered bad by another.
Notations
The sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C etc. and the elements or members of set are
denoted by small letters a, b, c etc.
If x is a member of the set A, we write x  A (read as x belongs to A) and if x is not a member of the set
A, we write x  A (read as x does not belong to A).
Representation of a Set
There are three different ways of describing a set.
(i) The Descriptive Method
A set may be described in words. For example, the set of all vowels of the English alphabets.
(ii) The Tabular / Roster Method
A set may be described by listing its elements within curly brackets. For example, the set A of all
vowels of English alphabets can be written as: A = a, e, i, o, u
Note: In Tabular Method, every element of the set is listed only once.
(iii) Set-Builder Method
In this method, we write a variable (say x) representing any member of the set followed by a
property satisfied by each member of the set.
For example, the set A = a, e, i, o, u may be written as
A = {x/x is a vowel of the English alphabets}
This is read as A is set of all x such that x is a vowel of English alphabets.
Types of Sets
Empty Set or Null set
A set which has no element is called empty set or null set. It is denoted by  or  .
For example, The set of all real numbers whose square is – 1.
A set consisting of at-least one element is called a non-empty set.
A set having only one element is called singleton set. For example 2 is a singleton set.
Finite and Infinite Set
A set which has finite number of elements is called finite set. Otherwise, it is called infinite set.
Note: An empty set  which has no element, is a finite set.
Sets, Functions and Groups 39 Algebra & Trigonometry
Order of a Set
The number of distinct elements in a finite set A is called order or cardinal number of set A and
it is denoted by n(A).
Note: Order of an infinite set is not defined.
Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are equal, if they have the same elements. i.e.
If every element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A, then A = B.
The sets A = 1, 2,3 and A = 1,3, 2 are equal sets.
One-to-One Correspondence
If the elements of two sets A and B can be paired in such a way that each element of A is paired
with unique element of B and vice versa, then such pairing is called a one-to-one correspondence
between A and B.
Equivalent Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if a one-to-one correspondence can be established
between them.
If A and B are equivalent we write A ~ B .
Note:
(i) N ~ O and N ~ W but N is not equivalent to R.
(ii) Equal sets are equivalent but equivalent sets need not be equal.
Example 1 (Textbook Page # 31): Consider the sets N={1,2,3,} and O={1, 3, 5, }
Solution: N = {1, 2, 3, 4, } and O = {1, 3, 5, }
We see that a (1 − 1) corresponding between N and O is as:
{1, 2, 3, }

{1, 3, 5, }
So, the given two sets are equivalent sets.

Subset
If every element of a set A is an element of set B, then A is called subset of B. Symbolically this is
written as A  B (A is subset of B), B is called super set of A. i.e. A  B iff x  A  x  B
Note:
(i) Every set is a subset and a super set of itself.
(ii) The empty set is the subset of every set.
(iii) If a set A has n elements then number of its subsets are 2n .
(iv) If A is not a subset of B, we write A  B .
Proper Subset (LHR 17 G-I)
If A is a subset of B and B contains at least one element which is not an element of A, then A is said to
be a proper subset of B. Symbolically this is written as A  B (A is proper subset of B).
Note: If a set A has n elements then number of its proper subsets are 2n − 1 .
Improper Subset (LHR 17 G-II)
If A is a subset of B and A = B , then A is said to be a improper subset of B.
Note: Every set A is an improper subset of itself.
Sets, Functions and Groups 40 Algebra & Trigonometry
Example 2 (Textbook Page # 32): Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {c, a, b} and C = {a, b, c, d}.
Solution: A = {a, b, c}, B = {c, a, b}, C = {a, b, c, d}
We see that A = B, so A is improper subset of B and vice versa.
Also, we see that: A  C  B  C but A = B  C
So, A and B are proper subsets of C.
Power Set
The power set of a given set A, is a set containing all the possible subsets of A. It is denoted by
P(A). For example, if A = a, b , then P( A) =  ,a ,b ,a, b
Note:
(i) The power set of an empty set is not empty.
(ii) If a set A has m elements, then its power set P(A) contains exactly 2m elements.
Example 3 (Textbook Page # 33): If A = {a, b}, then find the power set of A.
Solution: A = {a, b}
The subsets of A are:
{ }, { a }, { b }, {a, b}
 P(A) = {{ }, { a }, { b }, {a, b}}
Example 4 (Textbook Page # 33): If B = {1, 2, 3}.
Solution: B = {1, 2, 3}
The subsets of B are:
{ }, { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}
 P(B) = {{ }, { 1 }, { 2 }, { 3 }, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}
Example 5 (Textbook Page # 33): If C = {a, b, c, d}.
Solution: C = {a, b, c, d}
The subsets of C are:
{ }, { a }, { b }, { c }, { d }, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}, {b, d},
{c, d}, {a, b c}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}
 P(C) = {{ }, { a }, { b }, { c }, { d }, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c}
{b, d}, {c, d}, {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}}
Example 6 (Textbook Page # 33): If D = {a}, then P(D) = {, { a }}.
Solution: D = {a}
The subsets of D are { }, { a }
 P(D) = {{ }, { a }} = { , {a}}
Example 7 (Textbook Page # 33): If E = { }, then P(E) = {}.
Solution: E = { }
The subsets of E are { }.
 P(E) = {{ }} = {}
Universal Set
If all the sets under consideration are the subsets of a fixed set U, then U is called the universal
set or the universe of discourse.
Sets, Functions and Groups 41 Algebra & Trigonometry

Q.1 Write the following sets in set builder notation:

(i) {1, 2, 3, , 1000}
(ii) {0, 1, 2, , 100}
(iii) {0,  1,  2, ,  1000}
(iv) {0, −1, −2, , −500}
(v) {100, 101, 102, , 400}
(vi) {−100, −101, −102, , −500}
(vii) {Peshawar, Lahore, Karachi, Quetta}
(viii) {January, June, July}
(ix) The set of all odd natural numbers
(x) The set of all rational numbers
(xi) The set of all real numbers between 1 and 2
(xii) The set of all integers between −100 and 1000
(i) {1,2,3,− − − ,1000}
Sol: {x / x  N  x < 1000}
(ii) {0,1,2,3,− − −,100}
Sol: {x / x  W  x < 100}
(iii) {0,1,2,3,− − − ,1000}
Sol: {x / x  Z  −1000  x  1000}
(iv) {0,−1,−2,−3,− − − ,−500}
Sol: {x / x  Z  −500  x  0}
(v) {100,101,102,− − −,400}
Sol: {x / x  N  100  x  400}
(vi) {−100,−101,−102,− − −,−500}
Sol: {x / x  Z  −500  x  −100}
(vii) {Peshawar, Lahore, Karachi, Quetta}
Sol: {x / x is a capital of provinces of Pakistan}
(viii) {January, June, July}
Sol: {x / x is a name of month which begins with J}
(ix) The set of all odd natural numbers
Sol: {x / x is an odd natural number}
(x) The set of all rational numbers
Sol: {x / x  Q}
(xi) The set of all real numbers between 1 and 2
Sol: {x / x  R  1 < x < 2)
(xii) The set of all integers between −100 and 1000
Sol: {x / x  Z  −100 < x < 1000}
Sets, Functions and Groups 42 Algebra & Trigonometry
Q.2 Write each of the following sets in descriptive and tabular forms
(i) {x | x  N  x  10} (ii) {x | x  N  4 < x < 12}
(iii) {x | x  Z  −5 < x < 5} (iv) {x | x  E  2 < x  4}
(v) {x | x  P  x < 12} (vi) {x | x  O  3 < x < 12}
(vii) {x | x  E  4  x  10} (viii) {x | x  E  4 < x < 6}
(ix) {x | x  O  5  x  7} (x) {x | x  O  5  x < 7}
(xi) {x | x  N  x + 4 = 0} (xii) {x | x  Q  x2 = 2}
(xiii) {x | x   x = x} (xiv) {x | x  Q  x = −x}
(xv) {x | x   x  x} (xvi) {x | x   x  Q}
(i) {x / x  N  x  10}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of first ten natural numbers
Tabular form; {1,2,3,− − −,10}
(ii) {x / x  N  4 < x < 12} (MTN 16)
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of natural numbers between 4 and 12
Tabular form; {5,6,7,− − −,11}
(iii) {x / x  Z  −5 < x < 5}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of integers between −5 and 5
Tabular form; {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
(iv) {x / x  E  2 < x  4}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of even integers between 2 and 5
Tabular form; {4}
(v) {x / x  P  x < 12}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of prime numbers less than 12
Tabular form; {2,3,5,7,11}
(vi) {x / x  O  3 < x < 12}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of odd numbers between 3 and 12
Tabular form; {5,7,9,11}
(vii) {x / x  E  4  x  10}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of even integers from 4 upto 10
Tabular form; {4,6,8,10}
(viii) {x / x  E  4 < x < 6}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of even integers between 4 and 6
Tabular form; { }
(ix) {x / x  O  5  x  7}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of odd integers from 5 upto 7
Tabular form; {5,7}
(x) {x / x  O  5  x < 7}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of odd integers between 4 and 7
Tabular form: {5}
Sets, Functions and Groups 43 Algebra & Trigonometry
(xi) {x / x  N  x + 4 = 0}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of natural numbers x satisfying x + 4 = 0
Tabular form; { }
(xii) {x / x  Q  x2 = 2} (FSD 16)
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of rational numbers x satisfying x2 = 2
Tabular form; { }
(xiii) {x / x  R  x = x}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of real numbers x satisfying x = x
Tabular form; R
(xiv) {x / x  Q  x = −x}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of rational numbers x satisfying x = −x
Tabular form; {0}
(xv) {x / x  R  x  x}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of real numbers x satisfying x  x
Tabular form; { }
(xvi) {x / x  R  x  Q}
Sol: Descriptive form; The set of real numbers x which are not rational.
Tabualr form: Q
Q.3 Which of the following sets are finite and which of these are infinite?
(i) The set of students of your class.
(ii) The set of all schools in Pakistan.
(iii) The set of natural numbers between 3 and 10.
(iv) The set of rational numbers between 3 and 10.
(v) The set of real numbers between 0 and 1.
(vi) The set of rational numbers between 0 and 1.
(vii) The set of whole numbers between 0 and 1.
(viii) The set of all leaves of trees in Pakistan.
(ix) P(N) (x) P{a, b, c}
(xi) {1, 2, 3, 4, } (xii) {1, 2, 3, , 100000000}
(xiii) {x | x   x  x} (xiv) {x | x   x2 = −16}
(xv) {x | x  Q  x2 = 5} (xvi) {x | x  Q  0  x  1}

(i) The set of students of your class. (ii) The set of all schools in Pakistan.
Finite Finite
(iii) The set of natural numbers between 3 (iv) The set of rational numbers between 3
and 10 and 10
Finite Infinite
(v) The set of real numbers between 0 and 1 (vi) The set of rational numbers between 0
Infinite and 1
Infinite
Sets, Functions and Groups 44 Algebra & Trigonometry
(vii) The set of whole numbers between 0 and 1 (viii) The set of all leaves of trees in Pakistan
Finite Infinite
(ix) P(N) (x) P{a,b,c}
Infinite Finite
(xi) {1,2,3,− − −} (xii) {1,2,3,− − −, 100000000}
Infinite Finite
(xiii) {x / x  R  x  x} (xiv) {x / x  R  x2 = −16}
Finite Finite
(xv) {x / x Q  x2 = 5} (xvi) {x / x  Q  0  x  1}
Finite Infinite

Q.4 Write two proper subsets of each of the following sets:

(i) {a, b, c} (ii) {0, 1} (iii) N
(iv) Z (v) Q (vi)
(vii) W (viii) {x | x  Q  0 < x  2}

(i) {a,b,c} (RWP 15),(D.G.K 17 G-II) (ii) {0,1}

Two proper subsets are {a}, {a,b} Two proper subsets are {0}, {1}
(iii) N (iv) Z
Two proper subsets are {1}, {2} Two proper subsets are {0}, {−2,−1}
(v) Q (vi) R
1 7 3 Two proper subsets are N, Z
Two proper subsets are 2 ,9  2
   
(vii) W (viii) {x / x  Q  0  x  2}
Two proper subsets are {0,1}, {1,2} 1 1 3
Two proper subsets are 2 ,4  2
   

Q.5 Is there any set which has no proper subset? If so, name the set. (BHP 14)
Sol: Yes, Empty set has no proper subset
Q.6 What is the difference between {a,b} and {{a,b}}? (SRG 15) (GUJ 17)
Sol: {a, b} is a set containing two elements a and b, while
{{a, b}} is a set containing one elements {a, b}
Q.7 Which of the following sentences are true and which of them are false?
(i) {1, 2} = {2, 1} (ii)   {{ a } } (iii) { a }  {{ a }}
(iv) { a }  {{ a }} (v) a  {{ a }} (vi)   {{ a }}
Sol:
(i) {1,2} = {2,1} True (ii)   {{a}} True
(iii) {a}  {{a}} False (iv) {a}  {{a}} True
(v) a  {{a}} False (vi)   {{a}} False
Sets, Functions and Groups 45 Algebra & Trigonometry
Q.8 What is the number of elements of the power set of each of the following sets?
(i) { } (ii) {0, 1} (iii) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
(iv) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} (v) {a, {b, c}} (vi) {{a, b}, {b, c}, {d, e}}
(i) { }
Sol: Number of elements in the set is 0, so its power set will have 20 = 1 elements
(ii) {0,1}
Sol: Number of elements in the set is 2, so its power set will have 22 = 4 elements
(iii) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
Sol: Number of elements in the set is 7, so its power set will have 27 = 128 elements
(iv) {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
Sol: Number of elements in the set is 8, so its power set will have 28 = 256 elements
(v) {a, {a,b}}
Sol: Number of elements in the set is 2, so its power set will have 22 = 4 elements
(vi) {{a,b},{b,c},{d,e}}
Sol: Number of elements in the set is 3, so its power set will have 23 = 8 elements
Q.9 Write down the power set of each of the following sets:
(i) {9, 11} (ii) {+, −, , } (iii) {} (iv) {a, {b, c}}

(i) {9,11} (BHP, SRG 16) (LHR 17 G-II) (RWP 17 G-I)

Sol: Let A = {9,11}  P (A) = {, {9},{11},{9,11}}
(ii) {+,−,,} (LHR 15)
Sol: Let A = {+,−,,}
 {+}{−}{}{}{+−}{+}{+} 
P(A) =  
 {−}{−}{}{+−}{+−}{−}{+−} 
(iii) {} (iv) {a,{b,c}}
Sol: (GUJ 15)(MTN 15) (SHW 17) (MTN G-I 17)
Let A = {  } Sol: Let A = {a, {b,c}}
P(A) = {, {  }} P(A) = {,{a},{{b,c}},{a,{b,c}}}

Q.10 Which pairs of sets are equivalent? Which of them are also equal?
(i) {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3}
(ii) The set of the first 10 whole members, {0, 1, 2, 3, , 9}
(iii) Set of angles of a quadrilateral ABCD,
Set of the sides of the same quadrilateral.
(iv) Set of the sides of a hexagon ABCDEF,
Set of the angles of the same hexagon
(v) {1, 2, 3, 4, }, {2, 4, 6, 8, }
 1 1 1 
(vi) {1, 2, 3, 4, }, 1    
 2 3 4 
(vii) {5, 10, 15, 20, , 55555}, {5, 10, 15, 20, }
Sets, Functions and Groups 46 Algebra & Trigonometry
(i) {a,b,c} , {1,2,3}
Sol: Equivalent sets (each have same number of elements)
(ii) The set of first 10 whole numbers; {0,1,2,3,− − −,9)
Sol: Equivalent sets (each have same number of elements) and Equal.
(iii) The set of angles of quadrilateral ABCD; The set of sides of the same quadrilateral.
Sol: Equivalent sets (each have same number of elements)
(iv) Set of sides of a hexagon ABCDEF; The set of the angles of same hexagon.
Sol: Equivalent sets (each have same number of elements)
(v) {1,2,3,4,− − −} , {2,4,6,8,− − −}
Sol: Equivalent sets (since there is 1−1 correspondence between the element of the sets)
 1 1 1 
(vi) {1,2,3,4,− − −} , 1    − − − 
 2 3 4 

Sol: Equivalent sets (since there is 1−1 correspondence between the element of the sets)
(vii) {5,10,15,20,− − −,55555},{5,10,15,20,− − −,}
Sol: Not Equivalent sets (first is finite set and second is infinite)

