0% found this document useful (0 votes)

428 views

DevPsych Textbook2

This document provides a brief contents for a textbook on human development across the lifespan. It outlines 10 chapters that cover topics like prenatal development, physical and cognitive development from infancy to adolescence, and socioemotional development from childhood to adulthood. The chapters explore development from biological, cognitive, physical, and socioemotional perspectives at different life stages.

Uploaded by

zinzilemfungula064

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

428 views

DevPsych Textbook2

Uploaded by

zinzilemfungula064

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 587

* ¢ CENGAGE

R.V. Kail ¢ J.C. Cavanaugh ® J. Muller

Human
Development
A Life-Span View
Human
Development
A Life-Span View
Human
Development
A Life-Span View
FIRST SOUTH AFRICAN EDITION

R.V. Kail, J.C. Cavanaugh, J. Muller

* CENGAGE
Australia * Brazil * Mexico + Singapore * South Africa « United Kingdom « United States

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned,
or duplicated. m whole
or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mury he wuppreased thom the eBook andice cChapteris)
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed comtent docs sot musically affect the overall kame cxpenence. Cengage Learsung reserves the ngbt to remove additeoeal coesient af any Gre if subsequent neh sextnictooms neqeare it
This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic nghts restrictions,
some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right
to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For
valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate
formats, please visit www.cengage.conv/highered to search by ISBN#, author, tile, or keyword for
materials in your areas of interest.

Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product
text may not be available in the eBook version.

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Coprraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Muy mot be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whale oe in part. Duc to cliectronic nghts, some thind party comtest muy be appressed thom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edttomal sewew bon deaned that any wuppremed coeient docs sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learsing reserves the nght $0 remove additeoeal coetent af any tame if subsequent nghts sedtnctioes neqene it.
* ¢ CENGAGE
Human Development:A Life-Span View © 2019, Cengage Learning EMEA
1st South African Edition
RV. Kail, J.C. Cavanaugh, J. Muller
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as
permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the
Publisher Marinda Louw
copyright owner
Marketing Manager Laura Lichtensteiger

Senior Content Project Manager: Phillipa For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Davidson-Blake [email protected]

Manufacturing Manager: Eyvett Davis For permission to use material from this text or product and for permission
queries, email [email protected]
Typesetter- Lumina Datamatics, Inc.

Cover Design Design Deluxe

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Cover Image* ©vic dd/Shutterstock Inc
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-1-4737-S957-2

Cengage Learning EMEA

Cheriton House, North Way
Andover, Hampshire, SP10 SBE
United Kingdom

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more
than 125 countries around the world Find your local representative at:
www.cengage.co.uk.

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

Nelson Education, Ltd

For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.co.uk.

Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our

preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com.

Printed in Great Britain by Ashford Colour Press

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2019

Coprraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Muy mot be copied, acanned, ce duplicated. 1m whole or in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some therd party costest mury he muppeeascd thom the cook andive oChapter(s).
Edttomad semew bon deemed that any suppromed coer! docs sot muatcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learning rescrwex the might to remove additional coetent af any tame if subsequent rghit sednctioea neqene a.
Brief Contents
CHAPTERS
El The study of human development 2

Part 1 Prenatal development, infancy, and early childhood 36

Biological foundations: Heredity, prenatal development, and birth 36

Fl Tools for exploring the world: Physical, perceptual, and motor development 74

zy The emergence of thought and language: Cognitive development in infancy

and early childhood 116

GB Entering the social world: Socioemotional development in infancy and early childhood 154

Part2 School-age children and adolescents 186

Ga Off to school’ Cognitive and physical development in middle childhood 186

Expanding social horizons: Socioemotional development in middle childhood 222

B Rites of passage Physical and cognitive development in adolescence 258

9 | Moving into the adult social world Socioemotional development in adolescence 280

Part3 Young and middle adulthood 308

Fr) Becoming an adult Physical, cognitive, and personality development in young adulthood 308

fl Being with others: Relationships in young and middie adulthood 342

Working and relaxing 370

Making it in midlife: The biopsychosocial challenges of middle adulthood 402

Part4 Late adulthood 436

The personal context of later life: Physical, cognitive, and mental health issues 436

Social aspects of later life’ Psychosocial, retirement, relationship, and societal issues 476

Dying and bereavement 512

Credits C-1
Index 1-1

Copyright
2019 Cengage Lourning All Rights Ikscrned May met be copied, canned. owduplicted. 2 whole or in part. Dor te clectrmec
rigtes, meme therd amy contest
mary he aupyesueed from the cfok anata of hapter(s).
Estarenad veview ben decreed thot any sappreseed Cresent docs set scatrcally affect
the overall boemete cuperteves. Congage Leasing romrves the right os romeres ehdtioeal everett at any tover if ecteexperi regi seetrictioms meupeers it.
Contents

1 The study of human development 2

1.1 Thinking about development 5 1.3 Doing developmental
Recurring issues in human development 5 research 22
Basic forces in human development.
The Measurement in human
biopsychosocial framework 6 development research 23
Neuroscience. A window into human General designs for research 26
development 10 Designs for studying development 28
1.2 Developmental theories 12 Integrating findings from different studies 31
Conducting research ethically 31
Psychodynamic theory 12
Communicating research results 32
Learning theory 13
Applying research results: Social policy 32
Cognitive-developmental theory 15
The ecological and systems approach 17 Summary 33
Life-span perspective, selective optimisation
with compensation, and life-course Keyterms 35
perspective 19 Test yourself: Recall answers 35
The big picture 21

Part 1 Prenatal development, infancy, and

early childhood 36
Biological foundations: Heredity, prenatal development,
and birth 36
2.1 Inthe beginning: 23 pairs of How teratogens influence prenatal
chromosomes 37 development: 88
Mechanisms of heredity 37 Prenatal diagnosis and treatment 61

Genetic disorders 41 2.4 Labourand delivery 64

Heredity, environment, and development 42 Stages of labour 64

2.2 From conception to birth 48 Approstnes to-chilenirG): 86

Adjusting to parenthood 66
Period of the zygote (weeks 1-2) 49
Birth complications 67
Period of the embryo (weeks 3-8) 51
Infant mortality 69
Period of the foetus (weeks 9-38) 52

2.3 Influences on prenatal Summary 71

development 55 Keyterms 73
General riskfactors §5 Test yourself: Recall answers 73
Teratogens: Drugs, diseases, and
environmental hazards 57

Copyraght
2010 Comgage Losing All Rights Iieservect May met be copied, cored, oe duplicteed, mi whaske
or in part. Due te clectenc rights, wense thend pay contest wery he eappesueed Gorn te efbowk anctte of rapier)
Eddtrend seview ben decrend thot any eappreeeed Cresent does et sxamrcadly affect the overall boemete cupertsres. Congage Leasing romrves the might os comeres abdtieal eceret at any tree if eeteerpent regi seetrictooms rexpeees it.
Tools for exploring the world: Physical, perceptual,
and motor development
3.1 Thenewborn
The newborn’s reflexes
Assessing the newborn
74
75
75
76
3.4 Coming to know the
world: Perception
Smell, taste, and touch
99
100
fa Oy
-~

The newborn's states 77 Hearing 101

Temperament 81 Seeing 101
Integrating sensory information 106
3.2 Physical development 83
Growth of the body 83 3.5 Becoming self-aware 108
The emerging nervous system 87 Origins of self-concept 108
Theory of mind 109
3.3 Moving and grasping: Early motor
skills 92 Summary 112
Locomotion 93 Keyterms 114
Fine motor skills 96 Test yourself: Recall answers 114

The emergence of thought and language: Cognitive

development in infancy and early childhood 116
4.1 The onset of thinking: Piaget's 4.3 Mind and culture:
account 117 Vygotsky's theory 135
Basic principles of cognitive development 117 The zone of proximal development 136
Sensorimotor thinking 120 Scaffolding 136
Preoperational thinking 121 Private speech 137
Evaluating Piaget's theory 123
Extending Piaget's account Children’s naive
4.4 Language 138
theories 125 The road to speech 138
The grand insight Words as symbols 142
4.2 Information processing during infancy What's what? Fast mapping of words 142
and early childhood 129 Speaking in sentences Grammatical
General principles of information processing 129 development 146
Attention 130 Communicating with others 148
Learning 130
Memory 131
Summary 151
Learning number skills 133 Keyterms 153
Test yourself: Recall answers 153

CONTENTS vu

Part 2 School-age children and adolescents 186

Off to school: Cognitive and physical development in
middle childhood 186
6.1 Cognitive development 187 Attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder 203
More sophisticated thinking: Piaget's
version 187
6.4 Academic skills 206
Information-processing strategies for
Reading 206
learning and remembering 189
Writing 208
6.2 Aptitudes for school 192 Skills in mathematics 210
Theories of intelligence 192 Effective schools, effective teachers 212
Binet and the development of intelligence
testing 195 6.5 Physical development 214
Do tests work? 196 Growth 215
Hereditary and environmental factors 197 Development of motor skills 215

The impact of ethnicity and socioeconomic Physical fitness 216

status 198 Participating insports 217

6.3 Special children, special Summary 218

needs 200 Key terms 220
Gifted children 201 Test yourself: Recall answers 220
Children with disability 201

vill CONTENTS

Rites of passage: Physical and cognitive development

in adolescence 258
8.1 Pubertal changes 259 Content knowledge, strategies,
and metacognitive skill 272
Signs of physical maturation 260
Problem-solving and reasoning 272
Mechanisms of maturation 261
Psychological impact of puberty 262 8.4 Reasoning about moral issues 274
Kohlberg’s theory 274
8.2 Health 265
Evaluating Kohlberg’s theory 276
Nutrition 265
Promoting moral reasoning 277
Physical fitness 267
Threats to adolescent well-being 269 Summary 278
8.3 Information processing during Keyterms 279
adolescence 271 Test yourself: Recall answers 279
Working memory and processing speed 271

Moving into the adult social world: Socioemotional

development in adolescence 280
9.1 Identity and self-esteem 281 9.2 Romantic relationships
The search for identity 281 and sexuality 288
Ethnic identity in the South African context 285 Romantic relationships 288
Self-esteem in adolescence 285 Sexual behaviour 289
The myth of storm and stress 286 Sexual minority youth 291
Dating and intimate partner violence 291

CONTENTS 1x

Career development 293 Resilience 303

Youth unemployment 296

Summary 304
9.4 Whenthings gowrong 297 Keyterms 306
Drinking and smoking 297 Test yourself: Recall answers 306
Depression 298

Part3 Young and middle adulthood 308

10 Becoming an adult: Physical, cognitive, and personality

development in young adulthood 308
10.1 Emerging adulthood 309 Fluid and crystallised
intelligence 326
Role transitions marking adulthood 309
Neuroscience research and
Neuroscience, behaviour, and emerging
intelligence 329
adulthood 311
Going beyond formal operations Thinking in
Achieving milestones Education, workforce,
adulthood 330
and Erikson’s intimacy 311
Integrating emotion and logic in emerging and
So when do people become adults? 314
young adulthood 331

10.2 Physical development and 10.4 Who do you want to be? Personality in
health 315 young adulthood 334
Growth, strength, and physical
Creating life stories 335
functioning 315
Possible selves 336
Lifestyle factors in health 316
Personal control beliefs 337
10.3 Cognitive development 324
Summary 339
How should we view intelligence tn
adults? 324 Keyterms 341
Primary and secondary mental abilities 325 Test yourself: Recall answers 341

11 Being with others: Relationships in young and middle

adulthood 342
11.1 Relationship types and 11.3 Family dynamics and the
issues 343 life course 359
Friendships 343 The parental role 359
Love relationships 345 Diverse family forms 362
Violence tn relationships 350
11.4 Divorce and remarriage 364
11.2 Lifestyles and Divorce 365
relationships 352 Remarriage 367
Singlehood 353
Cohabitation 353
Summary 368
LGBTQ relationships 354 Keyterms 369
Marriage 355 Test yourself: Recall answers 369

CONTENTS

pTKORNE Ten, St 12.4 Work and family 391

Occupational choice revisited 372 The dependent care dilemma 392
Occupational development 375 Juggling multiple roles 393
Job satisfaction 377
12.5 Taking time to relax: Leisure
12.2 Gender, ethnicity, and discrimination activities 396
issues 380
Types of leisure activities 396
Gender differences in occupational selection 381
Developmental changes in leisure 397
Women and occupational development 383
Consequences of leisure activities 397
Previously disadvantaged employees and
occupational development 383 Summary 399
Bias and discrimination 384
Keyterms 401
Gender bias, glass ceilings, and glass cliffs 384 y
Test yourself: Recall answers 401
12.3 Occupational transitions 387
Retraining workers 388

1 Making it in midlife: The biopsychosocial challenges

of middle adulthood 402
13.1 Physical changes andhealth 403 13.4 Family dynamics and
Changes in appearance 404 middle age 427
Changes in bones and joints 404 Letting go: Middle-aged adults and their
Reproductive changes 408 children 428
Stress and health 411 Giving back: Middle-aged adults and their ageing
parents 428
Exercise 415
Grandparenthood 430
13.2 Cognitive development 417
Practical intelligence 417 Summary 433
Becoming an expert 419 Keyterms 435
Lifelong learning 419 Test yourself: Recallanswers 435

13.3 Personality 421

The five-factor trait model 421
Changing priorities in midlife 424

CONTENTS xi

15 social aspects of later life: Psychosocial, retirement,

relationship, and societal issues 476
15.1 Theories of psychosocial 15.4 Friends and family
ageing 477 in late life 493
The goal of healthy ageing 477 Friends, siblings, and soctoemotional
Competence and environmental press 478 selectivity 494
Preventive and corrective proactivity Marriage and same-sex partnerships 495
model 480 Caring fora partner 496
Widowhood 498
15.2 Personality, social cognition, Bion ceridigatanihdadl Ane
and spirituality 483
Integrity versus despair 483 15.5 Socialissues and ageing 500
Well-being andemotion 484 Frail older adults 500
Spirituality in later life 485 Housing options 502
Elder abuse and neglect 506
15.3 | used to work at... : Living in Social grants 607
retirement 489
What does being retired mean? 490 Summary 508
Why do people retire? 490 Key terms 510
Adjustment to retirement 491 Test yourself: Recall answers 510
Employment and volunteering 491

x1l CONTENTS

Credits C1-C3

Index 11-116

Note that the complete list of References, as well as the Glossary

are available as online resources.To access these, please register
here: http://login.cengage.com

CONTENTS xu

About the South African editor

Jacomien Muller holds a master's degree in psychology international conferences in psychology and education
from the University of Pretoria. She 1s currently a research She has lectured developmental and neuro-psychology for
associate with the university She 1s the author and several years and delivered presentations 1n various faculty
co-author of accredited articles in national and international departments at the University of Pretoria and Tshwane
publications and has presented papers at national and Unversity of Technology

xIV

Coprraght 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved. My mot be copied, canned, ce duplicated. 1m whole oe in part. Dur to clectronic nghts, some third party contest mury he suppressed thom the cook andlor oChapter(s)
Edatceal sevicw tos deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs aot mutcrally affect
the overall kammy expencnce. Cengage Learaung reacrves the npbt wo remove additional crete! af any time if subeequent nf sednctooes nequare at
About the South African contributors
Suhayfa Bhamjee 1s an attorney who received her LLB from qualifications in human resource management, industrial
the University of Natal and her LLM from the University of psychology, psychology, and higher education. She 1s currently
Kwazulu-Natal (UKZN) She 1s a semor lecturer and the Deputy the Head of Faculty Commerce at the Independent Institute of
Academic Leader of Research and Higher Degrees for UKZN's Education. Erna has taught, researched, and consulted in the
School of Law. She 1s affiliated to a number of NGOs, researching fields of human resource management, general management,
children’s rights and HIV She has presented papers at AIDS psychology, and education. She has co-authored several books
conferences and facilitated workshops across the country. She in her fields of interest.
focuses on criminal law and procedure, and medical bioethics.
Jaclyn Lotter completed her postgraduate studies at Rhodes
Bronwyneé Coetzee has a PhD in psychology from University including an MA in Counselling Psychology
Stellenbosch University She 1s a lecturer in the Psychology and a PhD, which explored the narratives of South African
Department at Stellenbosch University where she teaches and children’s experiences of domestic mobility. She 1s a registered
coordinates undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. Counselling Psychologist and currently holds the position
She supervises several master’s and doctoral students, and of Academic Head at the South African College of Applied
her research interests include psychosocial and behavioural Psychology (SACAP) Her research interests generally centre
aspects of chronic illness in children and adolescents. around OVC, poverty, HIV and AIDS, and resilience In
addition to lecturing and supervising at both an undergraduate
Diana de Sousa holds a PhD degree from the Unwersity of and postgraduate level, across both public and private higher
the Witwatersrand and 1s currently completing a Master's Degree education institutes, Jaclyn has also worked as a psychologist in
in Educational Psychology at the University of Johannesburg. private practice focusing on work with children and families.
She 1s the Head of Teaching and Learning and a Semior Lecturer
at the South African College of Applied Psychology She ts Teresa Mashego holds a PhD degree and 1s a professor
an additional member of the Executive Committee of the and the Head of the Department of Clinical Psychology
Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA) as well as the at the University of Limpopo. She 1s also the chief clinical
Chanr of Registered Counsellor and Psychometry Division of psychologist for the Limpopo Department of Health She
PsySSA. She has authored and co-authored several accredited coordinates provincial clinical psychology services for
articles in national and international publications and has Limpopo and the university clinic for training clinical
presented papers at national and international conferences in psychologists. She 1s an executive committee member of
psychology and education. the Health Professions Council, and a past president of the
Psychological Association of South Africa (PsySSA).
Caroll Hermann holds a PhD from the Unversity of Zululand.
She 1s the author and co-author of numerous accredited articles Mokgadi Setwaba 1s a qualified and practising clinical
published locally and internationally and has presented papers psychologist registered with the Health Professions Council of
at a number of conferences. She 1s a senior lecturer in the South Africa (HPCSA) since 2001 She has 17 years of clinical,
Department of Psychology at the University of Zululand. She lecturing, coordinating and consulting experience. She 1s a
supervises postgraduate students and 1s the external examiner senior lecturer and coordinates Masters Clinical training in
and moderator for undergraduate and postgraduate examination the Department of Psychology at the University of Limpopo.
papers, dissertations, and doctoral theses. She holds a certificate in Advanced Rational Emotive
Behaviour Therapy (REBT) from Albert Ellis Institute and 1s a
Mambwe Kasese-Hara isa semor lecturer in psychology Heart Centred Hypnotherapist.
at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. She
holds a PhD from Durham University (UK) and a master’s Althea Sherry holds a master’s degree in communtty-
degree from Manchester University (UK). Her teaching focus based counselling psychology from the University of
1s developmental and health psychology; her current research the Witwatersrand. Althea works in private practise
interests are in the psychosocial aspects of HIV and AIDS, in Johannesburg, where she sees mothers and babies,
and the development of affected children. She has published adolescents, adults, and couples. She 1s also involved with
several scholarly articles and book chapters. non-profit organisations who contribute towards improving
social conditions 1n South Africa, as well as sessional work
Erna Kruger-Pretorius holds a master’s degree from for the student counselling centre at the University of the
the University of Stellenbosch She holds various other Witwatersrand.

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrmiag. All Rights Riserved. May mot be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole oe in part. Dur to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mary be suppressed teem the cffook andive cChapter(s)
Exttomad semew boo deaned that any wuppromed content docs sot sustcrially affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to memnowe additeoeal crevicnt af any Gane if subsequent nett sextnctioes neqenre it.
Preface
i hat do you want to be when you grow up?’ chapters to topical issues relating to particular points
“Where do you see yourself in the next 5 or 10 in the life span (such as infancy and early childhood,
years?’ “What kind of person do you want to adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and
become?’ These and other questions about ‘becoming; late life).
confront us across our lives. Answering them requires However, the developmental continuity of such
us to understand ourselves in very thorough ways. It topics as social and cognitive development gets lost with
requires us to understand how we develop. narrowly defined, artificial age-stage divisions. Because
Human development is both the most fascinating of this, we dedicate some chapters to tracing their
and the most complex science there is The first South development over larger segments of the life span. These
African edition of Human Development. A Life-Span chapters provide a much more coherent description of
View introduces you to the issues, forces, and outcomes important developmental changes, emphasise the fact
that make us who we are that development is not easily divided into ‘slices, and
Contemporary research and theory on human provide students with understandable explications of
development consistently emphasise the multidisciplinary developmental theories.
approach needed to describe and explain how people
change (and how they stay the same) over time. In addition, Balanced coverage of the entire life span
the great diversity of people requires an appreciation for A primary difference between this title and similar
individual differences throughout development. This title texts is that this book provides a much richer and more
incorporates both and aims to address three specific goals. complete description of adult development and ageing.
© To provide a comprehensive, yet highly readable, Following the introductory chapter, the remaining
account of human development across the life 15 chapters of the text are evenly divided between
span. childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and ageing. This
© To provide theoretical and empirical foundations balanced treatment reflects the rapid emergence of
that enable students to become educated and adult development and ageing as a major emphasis in
critical interpreters of developmental information. the science of human development, and also recognises
© To provide a blend of basic and applied research, that roughly three-fourths of a person’s life occurs
as well as controversial topics and emergent beyond adolescence.
trends, to demonstrate connections between the As a reflection of our modified chronological
laboratory and life and the dynamic science of approach, the content is divided into four main
human development. parts. After an introduction to the science of human
development (Chapter 1), Part One includes a discussion
of the biological foundations of life (Chapter 2) and
Organisation development during infancy and early childhood
A modified chronological approach (Chapters 3-5) Part Two focuses on development during
The great debate among authors and instructors in middle childhood and adolescence (Chapters 6-9) Part
the field of human development is whether to take Three (Chapters 10-13) focuses on young and middle
adulthood. Part Four examines late adulthood (Chapters
a chronological approach (focusing on functioning
at specific stages of the life span, such as infancy, 14 and 15) and concludes with a consideration of dying
adolescence, and middle adulthood) or a topical and bereavement (Chapter 16).
approach (following a specific aspect of development,
such as personality, throughout the life span). Both Content and approach: The biopsychosocial
approaches have their merits We have chosen a
modified chronological approach that combines the
emphasis
best aspects of both. The overall organisation of the text Our text provides comprehensive, up-to-date coverage
is chronological. we trace development from conception of research and theory from conception to old age
through late life in sequential order and dedicate several and death. We explicitly adopt the biopsychosocial

xvi

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 7
e New Real people feature on Muhammad Ali and e Revisions emphasise the diverse nature of South
Nelson Mandela African families
© New coverage of impact of quality of sibling
relationships
CHAPTER 2
© Much revised coverage of divorce
@ Much revised What do you think? feature on © Much revised coverage of maltreatment, including
conception in the 21st century sexual abuse in South Africa
e Much revised coverage of the period of the foetus e Much revised coverage of groups
e Much revised coverage of nutrition during e Much revised coverage of bullying and violence as
pregnancy it relates to children in South Africa
e New material about noninvasive prenatal testing © Much revised coverage of electronic media,
including new Spotlight on research feature
CHAPTER 3
e Much revised coverage of co-sleeping CHAPTER 8
e Much revised coverage of breastfeeding e New content relating to the Umhlonyana and
© New Spotlight on research feature on infant Ulwaluko ceremonies
reaching e Much revised material on causes of death of
© Much revised coverage of handedness South African youth

PREFACE XV

Copyraght
2019 Congage Leeming. All Rights Reserved May net be copsnd, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some thind party content mary be suppecacd Som the cBock andice cChapter(s)
Eddtomed sevew bos doomed thet aay wappromed comimt dace act sxsicmally affect the overall kamung cxpenence. Congage Leasing reserves the night oomove additveal comient af any Gre if subsequent mete sextnichoes oopenne ot.
e Much revised material on evaluating Kohlberg’s e New Real people feature on James Obergefell and
theory, including new material on adolescents’ John Arthur
balancing of fairness with group loyalty e Inclusion of millennial generation lifestyles,
e Much revised coverage of analytic and heuristic including their likely much lower rates of
solutions in problem-solving marriage and likelihood of being less well off than
their parents
CHAPTER 9 e Rewritten discussion of LGBTQ adults
e Revised section on cultural diversity and
© Revised content on identity in the South Africa
parenting in South Africa
context
© New What do you think? feature on paid family
© Revised coverage of adolescent storm and stress
leave
© Much revised coverage of dating violence
© Much revised coverage of sexual minority youth
CHAPTER 12
© New material on social cognitive career theory
© New material on youth unemployment in South © New chapter introduction focusing on the shift to
Africa the ‘gig economy’ and its impact on the meaning
© Much revised coverage of adolescent depression, of work
including new Spotlight on research feature © New material on Super’s concept of career
© New feature on whether adolescents are able to development as related to the South African context
understand the nature of their criminal actions in e Differentiation of mentoring and coaching
the What do you think? feature © New material on gender differences in
© New material on resilience occupational selection in South Africa
© Mention of burnout effects on the brain
CHAPTER 10 © Reduced redundancy in parenting and work-
family conflict sections
e Revised section on emerging adulthood, which
© New Spotlight on research feature on the long-
now includes subsections on neuroscience,
term health effects of leisure activities
behaviour, and emerging adulthood, and
e New Real people feature on the politics of
achieving milestones: education, workforce, and
unemployment
Erikson’s intimacy
e Revised section on role transitions, to reflect a
CHAPTER 13
South African context
e Expanded discussion of relation between © Revised discussion of treatments for arthritis
educational attainment and employment in South © New discussion on differing cultural perspectives
Africa about menopause
e Expanded discussion of quarter-life crisis, including © Revised discussion of the effects of stress on
Robinson's reframing of Erikson’s intimacy-isolation physical health
to commitment-independence and the addition of e Addition of the TESSERA (Triggering situations,
an emerging adult transition phase Expectancy, States/State Expressions, and
e Revised discussion on binge drinking, sexual Reactions model) in the discussion of personality
assault, and alcohol use disorder traits
¢ Revised nutrition discussion to reflect new © Much revised section on the role of grandparents,
dietary guidelines particularly in different South African cultural
® New discussions of emotional intelligence and groups
impression formation
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 11
e Expanded discussion of South African and
e Discussion of Social Baseline Theory to explain international demographics of older adults
how the brain activity reveals how people seek © Reorganised and revised section on biological
social relationships to mitigate risk theories of ageing
e Discussion of violence in relationships, based on © New discussion on African perspectives on
South African statistics mental illnesses

XVi1ll PREFACE

Copyright
2019 Congage Leasing. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcamned, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to electronic nights, some thind party contest mary he suppressed tom the cftook andive eChapter(s).
Edttormad sewiew boo deemed that any wuppromed cretion! docs sot sustcnally affect the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeoeal creviont af any tine if subsequent ngbts setnictioes noqenre it.
e Revised discussion of the role of beta-amyloid Special features
protein in brain ageing and as a biomarker of
Alzheimer's disease Three special features are a significant reason why this
© New Real people feature on the ‘Angelina Jolie textbook is unique. These features are woven seamlessly
effect’ on breast cancer screening into the narrative - not boxed off from the flow of the
e Revised discussion on divided attention chapter. Each box appears in nearly every chapter. The
e Expanded discussion of neuroimaging research three features are:
on creativity and ageing
Spotlight on These features emphasise a fuller
* New What do you think? feature on the question
research understanding of the science and
of whether creativity exists
scope of life-span development.
© Revised discussions about genetics and
dementia, and about the beta-amyloid cascade What do you These features ask students to
hypothesis think? think critically about social and
developmental issues.
CHAPTER 15 Real people: These features illustrate the
Applying human everyday applications of life-span
© Revised discussion of healthy ageing and development development issues.
connection with selective optimisation with
compensation framework
® New discussion of the preventive and corrective Pedagogical features
proactivity model Among the most important aspects of Human Develop-
© New Real people feature on Katherine Johnson ment: A Life-Span View is its exceptional integration
© Revised discussion of spirituality in later of pedagogical features, designed to help students
life, including new material on some African maximise their learning.
traditions
© Section-by-section pedagogy. Each major section of
© Revised discussion on LGBT long-term
a chapter (every chapter has four or five) has been
relationships
carefully crafted: It opens with a set of learning
e Expanded and revised discussion of frailty
objectives, an opening story, typically includes
and disability in late life, especially related to
one or more Think about it questions in the text
socioeconomic factors, and global issues
encouraging critical thinking, and ends with a set
e Revised discussion on elder care and againg in
of questions called Test yourself that reinforces key
place, especially in the South African context
elements of the section. For easy assignment and to
e Revised discussion of financial exploitation of
help readers visually organise the material, major
older adults and the role of financial institutions
units within each chapter are numbered.
in preventing it
e Chapter-by-chapter pedagogy. Each chapter
e New What do you think? feature on the proposed
opens with a table of contents and concludes
NHI in South Africa
with a bulleted, detailed Summary (broken
down by learning objective within each major
CHAPTER 16 section), followed by a list of Key terms (with page
© New discussion about the legal status of living references)
wills in South African law In sum, we believe that our integrated pedagogical
© Discussion of updated brain death criteria and system will give the student all the tools she or he needs
implementation issues to comprehend the material and study for tests.
© New What do you think? featuring the Sean
Davison case
e Discussion of death doulas Supplements
for the instructor
© New Real people feature with focus on Randy
Pausch’s last lecture Online PowerPoint® slides
e Discussion of the model of adaptive grieving These vibrant Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for
dynamics each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing
e Discussion of disenfranchised grief concept coverage using images, figures, and tables
* Added discussion of ambiguous grief directly from the textbook.

PREFACE xix

(Copyraghs
2009 Congage Loemag. All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xcommed or depicted m whole of im part. Dur to clectrorsc rights, scene thand party contest ery be sappeesend fern tae cfiook andive cf hapteris)
Edtorad avarw bos doomed thos aay eappromed coma dare act usally affect the overall ommg ctpenence. Congage Lewsung roerves the nett wm corre adéaeal coment at any Gre if sefeequent meh netnchoes supe
Online instructor's manual Thanks to Jim Brace-Thompson, for his enthusiasm,
This detailed manual provides sample syllabi, course good humour, and sage advice at the beginning of this
guidelines, in-class exercises, and chapter objectives to project; to Nedah Rose for taking the reins and guiding
assist instructors in teaching the course. the eighth U.S. edition; and to Andrew Ginsberg,
Product Manager; Ruth Sakata-Corley, Content
Production Manager, and Vernon Boes, Art Director,
Test bank
for their work in bringing this edition to life.
The test bank offers a good variety and choice of Our thanks are especially extended to the two
questions, per chapter. reviewers of the South African edition: Dr Linet
Nyakundi, of the University of Johannesburg, and Dr
Eleanor Addinall, of Sol Plaatje University.
Acknowledgments. We would also like to thank the many other reviewers
Textbook authors do not produce books on their own. who generously gave their time and effort to help us
We owe a debt of thanks to many people who helped sharpen our thinking about human development and, in
take this project from a first draft to a bound book. so doing, shape the development of this text.

Past reviewers of Human Development: A Life-Span View

Gary L. Allen Cynthia B. Calhoun William Fabricius Brett Heintz
University of South Carolina Southwest Tennessee Arizona State University Delgado Community
Polly Applefield Community College Steve Finks College
University of North Lanthan D. Camblin, Jr. University of Tennessee Sandra Hellyer
Carolina at Wilmington University of Cincinnati Linda Flickinger Indiana Unwersity-Purdue
Ann M. B. Austin Paul Anderer Castillo St. Clair County University at Indianapolis
Utah State University State University of Community College Shirley-Anne Hensch
Kenneth E. Bell New York, Canton Douglas Friedrich University of Wisconsin
University of New Lisa Davidson University of West Florida Center
Hampshire Northern Illinois University Rebecca Glover Thomas Hess
Daniel R. Bellack Catherine Deering University of North North Carolina State
Trident Technical College Clayton College and State Texas University
Maida Berenblatt University J A. Greaves Heather M. Hill
Suffolk County Community Charles Timothy Dickel Jefferson State Community University of Texas, San
College Creighton University College Antonio

Judith Dieterle Susan Horton

L. René Bergeron Tresmaine R. Grimes
University of New Daytona Beach Iona College Mesa Community College
Hampshire Community College Patricia Guth Alycia M. Hund
Belinda Bevins-Knabe Shelley M. Drazen Westmoreland County Illinois State University
University of Arkansas at Suny, Binghamton Community College Kathleen Hurlburt
Little Rock Sandy Eggers Lana-Lee Hardacre University of
David Bishop University of Memphis Conestoga College Massachusetts—Lowell
Luther College Kenneth Elliott Julie A. Haseleu Jenefer Husman
Elizabeth M. Blunk University of Maine, Augusta Kirkwood Community University of Alabama
Southwest Texas State Martha Ellis College Karen Ihnen
University Collin County Community Phyllis Heath St. Cloud Technical and
Josette Bonewitz College Central Michigan Community College
Vincennes University Nolen Embry University Heidi Inderbitzen
Janine P. Buckner Lexington Community Myra Heinrich University of Nebraska at
Seton Hall University College Mesa State College Lincoln

xx PREFACE

Copyragts2009 Comgags Lowseng. All Righes Reserwod Moy act be copand, xcoemod of dupicted m whol of i= part Dur to clectrormc raphe, scene heed party comtcet cary be exppecsend een tee cook andive of Tnapeer’s)
Edeored wvarw tow doomed Gas any eappromed coment dom act sesxmuddy affect he overall komemy cupemence. Congage Lowsang scarves the mete wm comers addtoead comet ot ary Gene of rafeequent rehe aotectoes ger t
Erwin J Janek Julie Ann Mcintyre Joseph M. Price Susan D Talley
Henderson State University Russell Sage College San Diego State University Utah State University
Wayne Joose Bill Meredith Harve Rawson Kelli W Taylor
Calvin College University of Nebraska at Franklin College Virginia Commonwealth
Richard Kandus Omaha Catherine Hackett Renner University
Mt. San Jacinto College Edward J. Morris West Chester University Lorraine C. Taylor
Margaret D. Kasimatis Owensboro Community Rosemary Rosser University of South
Carroll College College University of Arizona Carolina
Michelle L. Kelley Martin D Murphy Lisa Routh Virginia Tompkins
Old Dominion University University of Akron Pikes Peak Community Ohio State University
John Klein Janet D. Murray College Barbara Turnage
Castleton State College University of Central Robert F. Rycek University of Central
Florida University of Nebraska at Florida
Wendy Kliewer
Virginia Commonwealth Mary Anne O'neill Kearney Yolanda Van Ecke
University Rollins College Hamilton Jeff Sandoz Mission College
Holt School University of Louisiana at Anne Watson
Amy Landers
Old Dominion University John W. Otey Lafayette West Virginia University
Southern Arkansas Brian Schrader Carol G. Weatherford
Kirsten D. Linney University
University of Northern Emporia State University Clemson University
Iowa Shana Pack Carolyn A. Shantz Fred A. Wilson
Western Kentucky Wayne State University Appalachian State
Blake Te-Neil Lloyd University
University of South Stacie Shaw University
Carolina Maribeth Palmer-King Presentation College Caitlin Williams
Broome Community San Jose State University
Sanford Lopater College Timothy O. Shearon
Christopher Newport Albertson College of Idaho Nanci Stewart Woods
University Ellen E. Pastorino Austin Peay State
Valencia Community Cynthia K. Shinabarger
Nancy Macdonald Reed University
College
University of South Tarrant County College Sandy Wurtele
Carolina, Sumter lan Payton University of Colorado at
Bethune-Cookman College Marcia Somer
Susan Magun-Jackson University of Hawaii- Colorado Springs
John Pfister Virginia Wyly
University of Memphis Kapiolani Community
Dartmouth College College State University of New
Marion G. Mason
Bloomsburg University of Bradford Pillow Linda Sperry York College at Buffalo
Pennsylvania Northern Illinois University Indiana State University Karen Yanowitz
Michael Jason Mccoy Gary Popoli Tracy L. Spinrad Arkansas State University
Cape Fear Community Hartford Community Arizona State University Christine Ziegler
College College Kennesaw State University
Carrie Switzer
Lisa Mcguire Robert Poresky University of Illinois,
Allegheny College Kansas State University Springfield

PREFACE XX!

Coprraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppressed trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edttomal sewew bon deaned that any wuppromed cretion! docs sot muatcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learsing reserves the night $0 remove additeoeal coetent at any tame if subsequent rghit seatnctioes neqene it.
To the student
[= first South African edition of Human © Real people: Applying human development is
Development: A Life-Span View is written with you, a case study that illustrates how an issue in
the student, in mind In the next few pages, we human development discussed in the chapter is
describe several features of the book that will make it manifested in the life of a real person.
easier for you to learn. Please don't skip this material; it e The end of each chapter includes several special
will save you time in the long run. study tools. A Summary organised by learning
objectives within major section headings provides
a review of the key ideas in the chapter. Next is a
list of Key terms that appear in the chapter.
Each chapter includes several distinctive features to We strongly encourage you to take advantage of
help you learn the material and organise your studying. these learning and study aids as you read the book. Your
e Each chapter opens with an overview of the main instructor will probably assign about one chapter per
topics and a detailed outline. week. Don't try to read an entire chapter in one sitting.
e Each major section within a chapter begins with Instead, on the first day, preview the chapter. Read the
a set of learning objectives. There is also a brief introduction and notice how the chapter fits into the
opening story introducing one of the topics to be entire book. Then page through the chapter, reading the
covered in that section and providing an example learning objectives, opening stories, and major headings.
of the developmental issues people face Also read the italicised sentences and the boldfaced
© When key terms are introduced in the text, they terms. Your goal is to get a general overview of the entire
appear in bold type, and are defined in tinted chapter — a sense of what it’s all about.
boxes. This should make key terms easy to find Now you're ready to begin reading. Go to the first
and learn. major section and preview it again, reminding yourself
e Key developmental theories are introduced in of the topics covered. Then start to read. As you read,
Chapter 1 and are referred to throughout the text. think about what you're reading. Every few paragraphs,
e Critical thinking questions appear in tinted boxes. stop briefly. Try to summarise the main ideas in your
These Think about it questions are designed to own words; ask yourself if the ideas describe your own
help you make connections across sections within experience or that of others you know, tell a friend about
a chapter or across chapters. something interesting in the material. In other words,
e The end of each section includes a feature called Test read actively — get involved in what you're reading. Don't
yourself, which will help you check your knowledge just stare glassy-eyed at the page!
of major ideas you have just read about. The Test Continue this pattern - reading, summarising,
yourself questions serve two purposes. First, they thinking — until you finish the section. Then answer the Test
give you a chance to spot-check your understanding yourself questions to determine how well you've learned
of the material. Second, the questions will relate the what you've read. If you've followed the read-summarise-
material you have just read to other facts, theories, think cycle as you worked your way through the section,
or the biopsychosocial framework you read about you should be able to answer most of the questions.
earlier. The next time you sit down to read (preferably the
e Text features expand or highlight a specific topic. next day), start by reviewing the second major section.
This book includes the following three features: Then complete it with the read-summarise-think cycle.
© Spotlight on research elaborates a specific Repeat this procedure for all the major sections.
research study discussed in the text and When you've finished the last major section, wait
provides more details on the design and a day or two and then review each major section. Pay
methods used. careful attention to the italicised sentences, the boldfaced
° What do you think? offers thought-provoking terms, and the Test yourself questions. Also, use the
discussions about current issues affecting study aids at the end of the chapter to help you integrate
development. the ideas in the chapters

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrming. All Rights ieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, oe duplicated. m whole ce in part. Due to electronic nghts, some thind party costest mary be suppressed teem the cfiock andioe oChapter(s)
Edtonal view tos deaned that azy wippromed coment docs act muuirally affect the overall kamung expenence. Cengage Leartung rencrvex the ngbt remove additioeal coment at any tame if sutmequent neh wcdnchoes nyeine it.
With this approach, it should take several 30- to Part One covers prenatal development, infancy,
45-minute study sessions to complete each chapter. Don't and early childhood Here we will see how genetic
be tempted to rush through an entire chapter in a single inheritance operates and how the prenatal environment
session. Research consistently shows that you learn affects a person's future development. During the first
more effectively by having daily (or nearly daily) study two years of life, the rate of change in both motor and
sessions devoted to both reviewing familiar material and perceptual arenas is amazing. How young children
taking on a relatively small amount of new material. acquire language and begin to think about their world
is as intriguing as it is rapid. Early childhood also marks
Terminology the emergence of social relationships, as well as an
A few words about terminology before we start We understanding of gender roles and identity. By the end of
use certain terms to refer to different periods of the life this period, a child is reasonably proficient as a thinker,
span. Although you may already be familiar with the uses language in sophisticated ways, and is ready for the
terms, we want to clarify how they will appear in this major transition into formal education.
text. The following terms will refer to a specific range Part Two covers the years from primary school
of ages: through high school In middle childhood and
adolescence, the cognitive skills formed earlier in life
Newborn. birth to 1 month evolve to adult-like levels in many areas. Family and
Infant: 1 month to 1 year peer relationships expand. During adolescence, there is
Toddler: 1 year to 2 years increased attention to work, and sexuality emerges. The
Preschooler: 2 years to 6 years young person begins to learn how to face difficult issues
School-age child: 6 years to 12 years in life. By the end of this period, a person is on the verge
Adolescent: 12 years to 20 years of legal adulthood. The typical individual uses logic and
Young adult: 20 years to 40 years has been introduced to most of the issues that adults
Middle-age adult: 40 years to 60 years face.
Young-old adult: 60 years to 80 years Part Three covers young adulthood and middle age.
Old-old adult: 80 years and beyond During this period, most people achieve their most
Sometimes, for the sake of variety, we will use other advanced modes of thinking, achieve peak physical
terms that are less tied to specific ages, such as babies, performance, form intimate relationships, start families
youngsters, and older adults. However, you will be able of their own, begin and advance within their occupations,
to determine the specific ages from the context. manage to balance many conflicting roles, and begin
to confront ageing. Over these years, many people go
Organisation from breaking away from their families to having their
children break away from them Relationships with
Authors of textbooks on human development always parents are redefined, and the pressures of being caught
face the problem of deciding how to organise the between the younger and older generations are felt. By
material into meaningful segments across the life the end of this period, most people have shifted focus
span This book is organised into four parts Prenatal from time since birth to time until death.
development, infancy, and early childhood, School-age Part Four covers the last decades of life. The
children and adolescents; Young and middle adulthood, biological, physical, cognitive, and social changes
and Late adulthood. We believe this organisation associated with ageing become apparent. Although
achieves two major goals. First, it divides the life span many changes reflect decline, many other aspects of old
in ways that relate to the divisions encountered in age represent positive elements: wisdom, retirement,
everyday life Second, it enables us to provide a more
friendships, and family relationships. We conclude this
complete account of adulthood than other books do. section, and the text, with a discussion of the end of
Because some developmental issues relate only
life. Through our consideration of death, we will gain
to a specific point in the life span, some chapters are additional insights into the meaning of life and human
organised around specific ages. Overall, the text begins development.
with conception and proceeds through childhood,
We hope the organisation and learning features of the
adolescence, adulthood, and old age to death But text are helpful to you — making it easier for you to learn
because some developmental processes unfold over about human development. After all, this book tells the
longer periods of time, some of the chapters are story of people's lives Understanding the story is what
organised around specific topics. it's all about.

To THE STUDENT XX

leaching & Learning

Support Resources
engage's peer reviewed content for higher and
further education courses is accompanied by a
range of digital teaching and learning support resources.
The resources are carefully tailored to the specific
needs of the instructor, student and the course.
Examples of the kind of resources provided include.

* A password protected area for instructors with,

for example, a testbank, PowerPoint slides and an
instructor's manual.

* An open-access area for students including, for example,

the complete list of references and glossary terms.

Lecturers: to discover the dedicated lecturer digital

support resources accompanying this textbook please
register here for access: login.cengage.com.

Students: to discover the dedicated student digital

support resources accompanying this textbook,
please search for HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
on: cengagebrain.com

BE UNSTOPPABLE
ela ey {Maem hte le-Lelolg
The study of human
development

Chapter outline

1.1 Thinking about

development 5
Recurring issues in human
development 5
Basic forces in human
development:
The
biopsychosocial framework 6
Real people: Applying human
development: Muhammad
Ali 10
Neuroscience: A window into
human development 10

Developmental theories 12
Psychodynamic theory 12
Learning theory 13
Cognitive-developmental
theory 15
The ecological and systems
approach 17
Life-span perspective,
selective optimisation with
compensation, and life-course
perspective 19
The big picture 21

1.3 Doing developmental

research 22
Measurement in human
development research 23
General designs for research 26
Designs for studying
development 28
Spotlight on research The
stability of intelligence from
age 11 to age 90 years 29
Integrating findings from different
studies 31
Conducting research ethically 31
Communicating research
results 32
Applying research results. Social
policy 32

Summary 33

Key terms 35

All Rights Reserved May net be copscd, scammed, or duplicated, m whole of im part. Dur to clectrorec nights, sone thend party costest mery be suppeesand for the cftook andive cChapter(s
pemed coment dam act sxzicmadty affect the overs keamung expenence. Congage Learzing rewrven the nett wo oomove addstaeal coment at amy orne if sebequent ngho sedtnchoes spans ot
Consider your life to this point. may shape the course of your life
was one of
Make a note to yourself about — or years from now — consider those
the most important people to have ever share with someone else — your forces that you can influence and
lived. Her amazing achievement was fondest memones from childhood those that you cannot. Think about
or the events and people who have how the changes you experience will
not made in sports, government, or any
most influenced you Also make a affect your future
other profession. When she died in note about what you think you might In this course, you will have the
2017 at age 134, she may have been the expenence dunng the rest of your opportunity to ask some of life’s most
oldest person in the world. Johanna life. Put your note in a safe place (if basic questions How did your life
it's stored online, don't forget your begin? How did you go from a single
was born in Krugersdorp, Gauteng,
password). Then many years from now, cell — about the size of the full stop at
and she lived her whole life in South retneve it and see if you were nght. the end of a sentence in this text - to
Africa. She experienced the inventions Thinking about your past and the fully grown, complex adult person
of the light bulb, cars, airplanes, space future expenences ts the beginning you are today? Will you be the same
of an exciting personal journey. or different later in life? How do you
travel, computers, and all sorts of Remember major moments or influence other people's lives? How
everyday conveniences. She survived experiences you've had What do they influence yours? How do the
two world wars, the introduction happened? Why do you think things various roles you play throughout
happened the way they did? What life — child, teenager, partner, spouse,
of the policy of apartheid, the fight
major forces have shaped your life? parent, worker, grandparent — shape
against apartheid, and the coming Likewise, look ahead Vhat future your development? How do you deal
of democracy in South Africa She story do you want to write about with the thought of your own death
survived difficult conditions, even yourself? Think about the forces that and the death of others?
after the end of apartheid, and was
assisted by members of her community
who helped to maintain and repair her ——
house When Johanna died, she left
16 children, 78 grandchildren and 247
great-grandchildren
Have you ever wondered how long
you will live? The people you will meet
and the experiences you will have?
Have you ever thought about how you
managed to go from being a young
child to the more experienced person
you are now? Or what might lie ahead
over the next few years or decades?
Would you like to live as long as the
extraordinary Johanna Ramatse?
What do you think other people
would want? The ‘What do you think?’
feature provides the results of a poll
of Americans, as well as provocative
questions about extending life radically
In this chapter, we will examine
the stages of development a person
is likely to experience as they live
their lives. It looks at a person’s
development through their lifespan
and the contextual aspects that affect
optimal human development and lived
experiences.
Johanna Ramatse died at 134.

opyragts
D009 Comgage Loweeng All Raghes Reserwod May act be copend wcoemed ot dapbceed m whol
of mm part Der to clectrormc rgb. scene Ged pety comacet cary be exppeceend foe fae eBook andive cf eapecr’s)
pad arvarw bos doomed es any mapprceed comer docs act seserudly affect the overall komemy cupemencs. Congage Lowery scecrves the met 9 somaove ahdetaceal comet at any tone of sabeequent ogee aetecoes sogeer ¢
WHAT DO YOU THlNk? “providing more opportunities to learn
wisdom and compassion and to achieve
Nirvana Catholic Christians may see
Would you want to live to be 142? longer lives as diminishing the search
for the transcendent Hindus may
welcome longer life, as their normal
Humans may be close to fundamentally this survey in later chapters, but in blessing is Live long’ Muslim and
redefining the typical life span The general, the results showed that people Jewish people may view longer life as
May 2013 issue of National Geographic are optimistic about their own ageing a reflection of God's plan for humanity.
magazine showed a baby with the and the scientific advances that will For many Protestant Christians, the
caption ‘This baby will Inve to be enable them to enjoy a better quality of key factor would be whether longer
120° Topping that, the 23 February/2 life in old age life spans are seen as a way to avoid
March 2015, double issue of Time A dramatic extension of the death, which would probably lead
magazine devoted its main feature to human life span to 120 years or more them to oppose it. These views reflect
the possibility the baby on their front would likely raise ethical and moral different perspectives that come
cover could live to 142 years (or longer) questions, such as how to define a from interpreting both individual and
As you will learn in this book, our full and purpose-driven life, especially collective experiences In turn, these
knowledge of the factors determining about how we should handle the end are influenced by various biological,
the length of the human life span is of life For questions such as these, psychological, and sociocultural forces
extensive, and we may soon be able many people turn to religious leaders {explored later in this chapter)
to dramatically lengthen the number for guidance As part of their survey As we move along our journey
of years people live But just because research project, the Pew Research through the human life span,
science enables us to think about Center (2013b) also looked at how 18 questions that take us to the overlap
extending life considerably, the key major American religious groups might of science and personal belief will
question is whether people will want to approach radical life extension No occur frequently Later in this chapter,
live to be 142 (or even 120) major religious group in America has we will encounter the rules by which
The Pew Research Center (2013a) taken a formal position on this issue, scientific research is conducted, so
asked a representative sample of 2012 so Pew researchers looked at what you will better understand what the
American adults whether they would bioethicists (people who focus on Pew Research Center did in conducting
want to live decades longer, to at least ethics within health areas, for instance), their survey. In Chapter 16, when we
120 years Interestingly, when people religious leaders, and other scholars encounter the complex personal issues
answered from their own perspective, have said about how therr respective relating to the end of life, you will have
56% said they would not want to live traditions might approach the matter a thorough grounding in how people
that long But when asked what they The Pew report contains links to use (or ignore) research findings in
thought other people would do, 68% related writings in the various religious their own lives
said they thought other people would traditions that, as you might imagine, Back to the question posed here
choose to live to at least 120 We will are different across denomination — would you like to live to 120? 142?
take a closer look at other aspects of Buddhists may see longer life as Longer? What do you think?

These are examples of the questions that create of each person and each person's experiences as well as
the scientific foundation of human development, the similarities and patterns among people. As a science,
multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they human development is firmly grounded in theory and
remain the same over time Answering these questions research as it seeks to understand human behaviour.
requires us to draw on theories and research in the Before our journey begins, we need to collect some
physical and social sciences, including biology, genetics, things to make the trip more rewarding. In this chapter,
neuroscience, chemistry, allied health and medicine, we pick up the necessary GPS coordinates that point us in
psychology, sociology, demography, ethnography, the proper direction: a framework to organise theories and
economics, and anthropology The science of human research, common issues and influences on development,
development reflects the complexity and uniqueness and the methods that developmental scientists use to
make discoveries. Throughout the book, we will point out
human development The multidisciplinary study of how people how the various theories and research connect to your
change and how they remain the same over time.
own experience. Pack well and enjoy the trip.

4 Cuarter 1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

® Identify the basic forces in the biopsychosocial framework, and explain how the timing of these forces affects
their impact.

© Explain how neuroscience enhances our understanding of human development.

Sandile Dube smiled as he held his newborn Nature and nurture

grandson Dumisani for the first time. So many Think about a particular feature that you and several
thoughts rushed into his mind: what would people in your family have, such as intelligence, good
Dumisani experience growing up in an urban looks, or a friendly and outgoing personality. Why is this
area, so different from Sandile’s childhood in rural feature so common in your family? Did you inherit it from
KwaZulu-Natal? Would the poor neighbourhood your parents and they from your grandparents? Or is it
they lived in prevent him from reaching his mainly because of where and how you and your parents
potential? Would he inherit the family genes were brought up? Answers to these questions show different
for good health? Would he manage to get the positions on the nature-nurture issue, which involves the
education that Sandile himself had wanted but degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature)
not been able to acheive? and experiential or environmental influences (nurture)
determine the kind of person you are. The key point is
Like many grandparents, Sandile wonders what the
that development is always shaped by both: nature and
future holds for his grandson. The questions he asks are nurture are mutually interactive influences.
interesting in their own right, but they are important For example, in Chapter 2, you will see that some
for another reason they relate to general issues of individuals inherit a disease that leads to intellectual
human development that have interested philosophers disability if they eat dairy products However, if their
and scientists for centuries. In the next few pages, we
environment contains no dairy products, they develop
introduce some of these issues, which come to the surface
normal intelligence Similarly, in Chapter 10, you will
when any aspect of development is being investigated.
learn that one risk factor for cardiovascular disease is
ioe ete baal heredity but that lifestyle factors such as diet and smoking
play important roles in determining who has heart attacks.
What factors shaped the you that you are right now? As these examples illustrate, a major aim of human
development research is to understand how heredity
You might suspect such things as your genetic heritage,
your family or neighbourhood, the suddenness of some and environment both determine development For
changes in your life and the gradualness of others, and Sandile, it means his grandson's development will surely
the culture(s) in which you grew up or now live You be shaped both by the genes he inherited and by the
also might have noticed that you are like some people experiences he will have
you know - and very much unlike others. So you might
suspect that everyone's life is shaped by a complex set of
factors.
Your speculations capture three fundamental
Think of some common, everyday behaviours
characteristics of human development: nature and
such as dancing and playing soccer with your
nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and universal and
friends. How do nature and nurture influence
context-specific development. A person's development
these behaviours?
is a blend of these characteristics. For example, some
of your characteristics remain the same through life
(continuity) and others change (discontinuity). Because
these characteristics apply to all the topics in this book, nature-nurture issue The degree to which genetic or hereditary
influences (nature) and experiential or environmental influences
we will examine each one of these characteristics of
(nurture) determine the kind of person you are.
human development.

11 THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 5

Copryraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcanned, oe duplicated m whole oe in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some thind party contest muy he wuppeeased feom the cfiook andive cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed coestent docs sot musically affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night to remove additional cresient af any tame if subsequent neh sextnctooes regen it.
Continuity and discontinuity numbers but through everyday tasks such as picking
Think of some ways in which you are still the same as berries and selling goods in street markets (Kisker
you were as a five-year-old. Maybe you were outgoing et al., 2012, Sleeter, 2016). In contrast, many children in
and friendly at that age and remain outgoing and friendly South Africa and elsewhere in the world are formally
today. Such examples suggest a great deal of continuity taught at home or school to identify numbers and to
in development. From this perspective, once a person perform the abstract arithmetic operations needed to
heads down a particular developmental path - for handle these tasks.
example, toward friendliness or intelligence - he or she Can one theory explain development in both groups of
tends to stay on that path throughout life, other things children? The universal and context-specific development
being equal. From a continuity perspective, if Dumisani issue concerns whether there is one path of development
is a friendly and smart 5-year-old, then he should be or several. Some theorists argue that although there
friendly and smart as a 25-year-old and a 75-year-old. seem to be differences in development, there is only
The other view is that development is not always one fundamental developmental process for everyone.
continuous. In this view, people can change from one According to this view, differences in development are
developmental path to another and perhaps several simply variations on the same fundamental process in
times in their lives. Consequently, Dumisani might be much the same way cars as different as a Toyota, a Honda,
smart and friendly at age 5, smart but obnoxious at 25, and a Nissan are all products of fundamentally the same
and wise but aloof at 75 manufacturing process.
The continuity-discontinuity issue concerns whether The alternative view is that differences among people
a particular developmental phenomenon represents a are not simply variations on a theme Advocates of this
smooth progression throughout the life span (continuity) view argue that human development is inextricably
or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity). Of course, on a intertwined with the context within which it occurs.
day-to-day basis, behaviours often look nearly identical, A person's development is a product of complex
or continuous. But when viewed over the course of many interaction with the environment, and that interaction is
not fundamentally the same in all environments. Rather,
months or years, the same behaviours may have changed
dramatically, reflecting discontinuous change. Think each environment has its own set of unique procedures
about how your face may look nearly identical in ‘selfies’ that shape development, just as the ‘recipes’ for different
taken on successive days (continuity) but change cars creates vehicles as different as a small hatchback and
dramatically in photos taken years apart (discontinuity). a stretch limousine.
Throughout this book, you will find examples of Like the nature—-nurture and continuity—discontinuity
developmental changes that represent continuities and issues, the result is a blend, individual development
others that are discontinuities. For example, in Chapter reflects both universal and context-specific influences.
5, you will see evidence of continuity: infants who have For example, the order of development of physical
satisfying emotional relationships with their parents skills in infancy is essentially the same in all cultures
typically become children with satisfying peer relationships. But how those skills are focused or encouraged in daily
But in Chapter 15, you will see an instance of discontinuity life differs.
after spending most of adulthood trying to ensure the If we put all three issues together and use
success of the next generation and to leave a legacy, older personality to illustrate, we can ask how the
adults turn to evaluating their own lives in search of closure development of personality is shaped by interactions
and a sense that what they have done has been worthwhile. between heredity and environment, is continuous or
discontinuous, and develops in much the same way
Universal and context-specific development around the world. To answer these kinds of questions,
In many cultures, mathematical concepts are mastered we need to look at the forces that combine to shape
by young children not through formal education about human development.

continuity-discontinuity issue Concerns whether a particular

developmental phenomenon represents a smooth progression Basic forces in human development:
throughout the life span (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts
(discontinuity).

universal and context-specific development issue Concerns When trying to explain why people develop as they do,
whether there is one path of development or several. scientists usually consider four interactive forces:
biological forces All genetic and health-related factors that affect © Biological forces that include all genetic and
development. health-related factors that affect development.

6 Cuartrer 1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

psychological forces All internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional,

and personality factors that affect development.
A Even with little formal education, this Brazilian boy has well- sociocultural forces Interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic
developed mathematical skills This is an example of cultural factors that affect development.
contextual forces shaping development
life-cycle forces Differences in how the same event affects people
of different ages.
biopsychosocial framework Useful way to organise the
biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces on human
development.

oh
9
Biological forces

Life-
Sociocultural forceS ne cycle
forces

Qn
Psychological forceS mms

@ FIGURE 11 The biopsychosocial framework shows that human development results from
interacting forces

11 THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 7

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcanned, or duplicated. am whole or in part. Duc to clectronic nights, some therd party contest may he wppeeased thom the eBook andice cChapter(s)
Edaomad seview ton deaned that any wuppromed comin! dacs sot maimally affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Leareing rescrvex the night t remove additioeal coment af any tame if audecquent neh sednchoes moqain
others to make up development. Let's look at the different All of these people and institutions fit together to form
elements of the biopsychosocial model in more detail. a person’s culture, which can be defined as the knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviour associated with a group of people.
Biological forces: Genetics and health Culture can be linked to a particular country or people
Prenatal development, brain maturation, puberty (for example, South African culture); to a specific point
and physical ageing may occur to you as outcomes of in time (for example, popular culture of the 2010s); or to
biological forces. Indeed, major aspects of each process groups of individuals who maintain specific, identifiable
are determined by our genetic code. For example, many cultural traditions (for example, Pedi people). Knowing
children resemble their parents, which shows biological the culture from which a person comes provides some
influences on development. But biological forces are not general information about significant influences that
only genetic. They also include the effects of such things become important throughout the life span.
as diet and exercise. Collectively, biological forces can be Culture influences human development, and studying
viewed as providing the raw material necessary and as culture helps us determine how aspects of human
setting the boundary conditions (in the case of genetics) development are similar across cultures, and which
for development. are culture-specific. We can see how important it is to
consider cultural context in a study cited by Papalia, Olds,
and Feldman (1998). Adults in the Kpelle tribe in central
Psychological forces: Known by our behaviour Liberia were asked to sort a number of objects. They
Psychological forces seem familiar because they are the unfailingly sorted the objects on the basis of functional
ones used most often to describe the characteristics of categories. For example, they might sort a car together with
a person. For example, think about how you describe petrol, rather than sorting all the vehicles together, and
yourself to others. Most of us say that we have a nice all the liquids together. Western psychologists associate
personality and are intelligent, honest, self-confident, functional sorting of this type with low levels of intellectual
or something similar. Concepts such as these reflect thought, but the Kpelle said that this was how a ‘wise man’
psychological forces. would sort the objects The experimenter then asked them
In general, psychological forces are all the internal to sort the objects as an unwise man would - and the Kpelle
cognitive, emotional, personality, perceptual, and related people then sorted the objects into the categories that the
factors that help to define us as individuals and that experimenter had expected. This example illustrates why
influence behaviour Psychological forces have received we must be careful not to assume that findings from one
the most attention of the three main developmental group necessarily apply to people in other groups.
forces, and their impact is evident throughout this Understanding the impact of culture is particularly
text. For example, we will see how the development of important in South Africa, a country with 11 official
intelligence enables individuals to experience and think languages and many more that are spoken within its
about their world in different ways. We'll also see how borders. The many customs of people from different
the emergence of self-esteem is related to the beliefs cultures offer insights into the broad spectrum of human
people have about their abilities, which in turn influence experience and attest to the diversity of our population.
what they do. Because of this diversity even people who study at the
same institution, work in the same workplace, or live
Sociocultural forces: Race, ethnicity, and within a few kilometres of each other may have vastly
culture different backgrounds and experiences. It is therefore not
People develop in the world, not in a vacuum. To possible to apply conclusions about one group of people
understand human development, we need to know how to another group of people.
people and their environments interact and mutually
influence each other. That is, we need to view an Life-cycle forces: Timing is everything
individual's development as part of a much larger system Consider the following two females. Nomsa, a 32-year-
in which any individual part influences all other aspects old, has been happily married for six years. She and
of the system. This larger system includes an individual's her husband have a steady income. They decide to
parents, children, siblings, extended family, as well as start a family, and a month later Nomsa learns that she
important individuals outside the family, such as friends, is pregnant Mbali, a 17-year-old, lives in the same
teachers, and coworkers. The system also includes neighbourhood as Nomsa. She has been sexually active
institutions that influence development, such as schools, for about six months but is not in a stable relationship.
media, and the workplace. At a broader level, the society After missing her period, Mbali takes a pregnancy test
in which a person grows up plays a key role. and discovers that she is pregnant.

8 Cuarren ] THe svupyY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Copryright 2019 Cengage Lenening. All Rights Reserved May met be copied, scammed, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Due to clectromc rights, some thind party comtest mury be suppresmed fern dre eflkowk mnclioe eChrapser(s).
Eidhtorted review hon decried that aay suppreaed coment dace mot matonadly affect the overall kammg expenence. Congage Learning reserves the right to remove additional coerterst af ery tiene if ndmeuparrnl rigivis needrictiome neqyauny
4 The culture in which you grow up influences how you experience life.

Although both Nomsa and Mbali became pregnant, the psychological forces of thinking and reasoning also
the outcome of each pregnancy will certainly be affected influenced their choice of diets. (We confess, however,
by factors in each woman's situation, such as her age, her that dark chocolate remains a passion for one of us.)
financial situation, and the extent of her social support However, research on the effects of fat sometimes
systems The example illustrates life-cycle forces: the opposed centuries of cultural food traditions and the
same event can have different effects depending on when ability to afford healthier alternatives, meant that some
it happens in a person's life In the scenarios with Nomsa people were able to change their diets more easily than
and Mbali, the same event - pregnancy — produces others. Finally, the age of the person when this research
happiness and eager anticipation for one woman but became widely known mattered, too. Young children eat
anxiety and concern for the other. what their parents provide, whereas adults may have the
ability to make choices.
The forces interact This example illustrates that no aspect of human
So far, we've described the four forces in the development can be fully understood by examining the
biopsychosocial framework as if they were independent. forces in isolation. All four aspects must be considered in
But as we pointed out, each force mutually shapes the interaction with each other. In fact, we'll see later in this
others. Consider eating habits. When the main authors of chapter that integration across the major forces of the
this text were growing up, a ‘red meat and potatoes’ diet biopsychosocial framework is one criterion for judging
was common and thought to be healthy. Scientists later the adequacy of a developmental theory.
discovered that high-fat diets may lead to cardiovascular Combining the four developmental forces gives a
disease and some forms of cancer. Consequently, view of human development that covers the life span
research changed dietary recommendations. Social yet appreciates the unique aspects of each phase of life.
pressures changed what people eat, the advertisements From this perspective we can view each life story as a
they saw, and the different foods restaurants began to complex interplay among the four forces. Try this for
serve So, the biological forces of the consequences of yourself. Read the short biographies of Muhammad
fat in the diet were influenced by the social forces of Ali and Nelson Mandela in the ‘Real people: Applying
the times, whether in support of or in opposition to human development feature; then think about how each
eating red meat every evening. As your authors became of the developmental forces would explain how these
more educated about diets and their effects on health, men accomplished as much as they did.

it THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 3

Neuroscience: A window into human Neuroscientific approaches are being applied

development to a wide range of issues in human development,
especially those involving memory, reasoning and
Understanding that the four developmental forces emotion (e.g., Linden, 2016; Sugiura, 2016). For
interact is one thing. But what if, like the comic book hero example, neuroscientists are identifying relations
Superman, you could use your X-ray vision and actually between developmental changes in specific regions
see these forces interact® That's what is possible in the of the brain to explain well-known developmental
field of neuroscience. Applied to human development, phenomena such as adolescents’ tendency to engage
neuroscience is the study of the brain and the nervous in risky behaviour and older adults’ short-term
system, especially in terms of brain-behaviour relationships. memory problems.
Neuroscientists use several methods to do this, from Neuroscience brings an important perspective to
molecular analyses of individual brain cells to sophisticated human development. Identifying patterns of brain
techniques that give us images of brain activity activity helps to reveal interactions between biological,
psychological, sociocultural and life-cycle forces, which
neuroscience The study of the brain and the nervous system, allows a better understanding of how each person is a
especially in terms of brain-behaviour relationships.
unique expression of these forces.

10 Cuarprer 1 ‘THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

GS eelae

Recall Interpret
1. The nature—nurture issue involves the degree e How does the biopsychosocial framework provide
to which and the environment insight into the recurring issues of development
influence human development. (nature—nurture, continuity—discontinuity,
universal—context-specific)?
2. Azania remarked that her 14-year-old son has
been incredibly shy ever since he was a baby.
This illustrates the of development. Apply
© How does your life experience reflect the four
3. forces include genetic and health
f developmental forces?
actors.
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
4. Neuroscience examines relations. end of the chapter.

11 THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 11

© Define a developmental theory.

© Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.

© Explain the focus of learning theories of development.

e Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in thinking.

® Identify the main points in the ecological and systems approach.

® Identify the major tenets of life-span and life-course theories.

Ruan has just matriculated from high school, at the involving the life-span perspective, selective optimisation
top of his class. For his proud mother, Sonja, this is with compensation, and the life-course perspective.
a time to reflect on her son’s past and to ponder his As we discuss each theory, it is worth considering
future. Ruan has always been a happy, easygoing that these theories were largely developed based on
child — a joy to bring up. And he's been interested studies and observation by theorists in North America
in learning for as long as she can remember. Sonja and Europe. As we have mentioned, sociocultural forces
wonders why he is always so good-natured and so also shape people, so what is considered ‘normal’ human
curious. If she knew the secret, she laughed, she development cannot be indiscriminately applied when
could write a best-selling book and be a guest on considering the stages-of-development approach.
The Daily Show with Trevor Noah.

To answer Sonja’s questions about her son’s growth, Psychodynamic theory

developmental researchers need to provide a theory of Psychodynamic theories hold that development is
his development. Theories are essential because they largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts
provide the ‘why’s’ for development. What is a theory? they face at different ages. This perspective traces its
In human development, a theory is an organised set of roots to the theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) that
ideas that explains development. For example, suppose suggested that personality emerges from conflicts that
friends of yours have a baby who cries often. You could children experience between what they want to do and
imagine several explanations for her crying. Maybe the what society wants them to do.
baby cries because she’s hungry, maybe she cries to get Building on Sigmund Freud’s ideas, Erik Erikson
her parents to hold her, maybe she cries because she’s a (1902-1994) proposed his psychosocial theory, the first
cross, unhappy baby. Each of these explanations is a very comprehensive life-span view, which still remains an
simple theory: it tries to explain why the baby cries so important theoretical framework.
much. Of course, actual theories in human development
are more complicated, but the purpose is the same - to Erikson’s theory
explain behaviour and development.
Erikson’ psychosical theory proposes that personality
There are no truly comprehensive theories of human development is determined by the interaction of an internal
development to guide research (Newman & Newman,
maturational plan and external societal demands He
2015) Instead, five general perspectives influence current proposed that the life cycle is composed of eight stages
research: psychodynamic theory; learning theory; cognitive and that the order of the stages is biologically fixed (the
theory, ecological and systems theory; and theories eight stages shown in @ TABLE 1.1). The name of each
theory An organised set of ideas that explains development. stage reflects the challenge people face at a particular
age. For example, the challenge for young adults is to
psychodynamic theories Hold that development is largely determined become involved in a loving relationship. Challenges
by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages.
are met through a combination of inner psychological
psychosocial theory Erikson’s theory that personality influences and outer social influences. When challenges
development is determined by the interaction of an internal are met successfully, people are well prepared to meet
maturational plan and external societal demands.
the challenge of the next stage.

12 Cuartrer 1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Basic trust vs Birthtoone To develop a sense

mistrust year that the world is safe, a
‘good place’

Autonomy vs One to three To realise that one

shame years is an independent
person who can make
decisions and doubt

Initiative vs guilt Threetosix To develop the ability

years to try new things and to
handle failure

Industry vs Six yearsto To learn basic skills and

& Erik Erikson inferiority adolescence to work with others

Identity vs Adolescence To develop a lasting,

Learning theory identity
confusion
integrated sense of self

In contrast to psychodynamic theory, learning theory

Intimacy vs Young To commit to another in
concentrates on how learning influences a person's isolation adulthood a loving relationship
behaviour. This perspective emphasises the role of
Generativity vs Middle To contribute to younger
experience, examining whether a person's behaviour is stagnation adulthood people through child
rewarded or punished. This perspective also emphasises rearing, child care, or
that people learn from watching others around them. Two other productive work
influential theories in this perspective are behaviourism Integrity vs Late life To view one’s life as
and social learning theory. despair satisfactory and worth
living
Behaviourism
Early in the 20th century, John Watson (1878-1958) epigenetic principle Means by which each psychosocial strength
believed that infants’ minds were essentially ‘blank slates’ has its own special period of particular importance.
and argued that learning alone determines what people operant conditioning Technique in which the consequences of a
will become. He assumed that with the correct techniques, behaviour determine whether a behaviour is repeated in the future.
almost anyone could learn anything In Watson's view reinforcement A consequence that increases the likelihood of the
then, experience was basically all that mattered in behaviour that it follows.
determining the course of development.

12 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 13

Albert Bandura (1925-) based his social cognitive

theory on this more complex view of reward, punishment,
and imitation. Bandura’s theory is ‘cognitive’ because
he believes people actively try to understand what goes
on in their world; the theory is ‘social’ because, along
with reinforcement and punishment, what other people
do is an important source of information about the
world.
Bandura also argues that experience gives people a
sense of self-efficacy, which refers to people's beliefs about
A B. F Skinner their own abilities and talents. Self-efficacy beliefs help to
determine when people will imitate others. A child who
sees himself as not athletically talented, for example,
Social learning theory will not try to imitate Kagiso Rabada’s fast bowling or
People sometimes learn without reinforcement or Chad le Clos’ swimming stroke as he wins a race. Thus,
punishment. People learn much by simply watching those whether an individual imitates others depends on who
around them, this is known as imitation or observational the other person is, on whether that person's behaviour
learning. Imitation is the reason one toddler throws a is rewarded, and on the individual's beliefs about his or
toy after seeing a peer do so or when a school-age child her own abilities.
offers to help an older adult carry groceries because she's Bandura’s social cognitive theory is very different
seen her parents do the same. from Skinner’s operant conditioning. The operant
Perhaps imitation makes you think of ‘monkey see, conditioned person who responds mechanically to
monkey do, in which people simply mimic what they see reinforcement and punishment has been replaced by
the social cognitive person who actively interprets
punishment A consequence that decreases the likelihood of the these and other events. Nevertheless, Skinner, Bandura,
behaviour that it follows. and all learning theorists share the view that experience
propels people along their developmental journeys.
imitation or observational learning Learning by simply
watching those around them. These theorists would tell Sonja that she can thank
experience for making Ruan both happy and successful
self-efficacy
People's beliefs about their own abilities
and talents.
academically.

14 Cuarter 1 THE stuDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght 3019 Cengage Lesrmang. All Rights Reserved May mot be copecd, ecammed, or duphicated, mm whole or on part. Dur to clectroesc nights, some therd party contest muy he suppecescd form the citook andive of haptcs|s)
Edtonad seview ton doomed that ary euppromed comcm! dacs sot mumcmally affect the overall kamnmy cepenceee. Congage Learning reucrves the night w remove addmosal comicen af any tome of suteequeet ngh scanctons noqeaw &
(1896-1980), the most influential child and adolescent
developmental psychologist of the 20th century,
proposed the best known of these theories. Piaget
believed that children naturally try to make sense of their
world. Throughout infancy, childhood, and adolescence,
individuals want to understand the workings of both the
physical and social world. For example, infants want to
know about objects. “What happens when I push this
toy off the table?’ And they want to know about people:
“Who is this person who feeds and cares for me?’
As children try to comprehend their world, Piaget
believed that they act like scientists, creating theories
&« Albert Bandura
about the physical and social worlds. Children try
to combine all that they know about objects and
people into a complete theory, which is tested daily
by experience because their theories lead children to
expect certain things to happen. As with real scientific
Another way to approach development is to focus on theories, when the predicted events do occur, a child's
thought processes and a person constructing knowledge belief in her theory grows stronger. When the predicted
actively. In cognitive-developmental theory, the key is events do not occur, the child must revise her theory.
how people think and how thinking changes over time. Imagine an infant whose theory of objects includes
Three distinct approaches have developed. the idea that “Toys pushed off the table fall to the floor’ If
One approach suggests that thinking develops in a the infant pushes some other object - a plate or an article
universal sequence of stages; Piaget's theory of cognitive of clothing - she finds that it, too, falls to the floor, and
development (and its extensions) is the best-known she can then make the theory more general ‘Objects
example of this The second approach proposes that pushed off the table fall to the floor’
people process information as computers do, becoming Piaget also believed that children begin to construct
more efficient over much of the life span, information- knowledge in new ways at a few critical points in
processing theory is an example of this view The third development. When this happens, they revise their theories
approach emphasises the contributions of culture on radically. These changes are so fundamental that the revised
thinking and cognitive growth. theory is, in many respects, brand-new Piaget claimed that
these changes occur first at about age two years, again at
about age seven, and a third time just before adolescence.
These changes mean that children go through four distinct
stages in cognitive development. Each stage represents
a fundamental change in how children understand and
organise their environment, and each stage is characterised
by more sophisticated types of reasoning. For example, the
first or sensorimotor stage begins at birth and lasts until
about two years of age. As the name implies, sensorimotor
thinking refers to an infant's constructing knowledge
through sensory and motor skills. This stage and the three
later stages are shown in @ TABLE 1.2.
Piaget's theory has had an enormous influence on how
developmentalists and practitioners think about cognitive
A Jean Piaget development during childhood and adolescence. The
theory has been applied in many ways - from the
creation of discovery learning toys to the ways teachers
Piaget's theory plan lessons. In Chapter 4, we'll see how Piaget explained
The cognitive-developmental perspective began with thinking during infancy and the preschool years. In
a focus on how children construct knowledge and Chapters 6 and 8, we'll learn about his description of
how their constructions change over time Jean Piaget thinking in school-age children and adolescents.

12 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 15

Sensorimotor Birth to two years Infant's knowledge of the world is based on senses and motor skills; by the end
of the period, uses mental representation

Preoperational Two to six years Child learns how to use symbols such as words and numbers to represent
thought aspects of the world but relates to the world only through his or her perspective

Concrete Seven years to Child understands and applies logical operations to experiences provided they
operational thought early adolescence are focused on the here and now

Formal operational Adolescence and Adolescent or adult thinks abstractly, deals with hypothetical situations, and
thought beyond speculates about what may be possible

Information-processing theory
Information-processing theorists draw heavily on how
computers work to explain how thinking develops
through childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
Information-processing theory proposes that human
cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software,
in the way that computers consist of both hardware (disk
drives, random-access memory, and the central processing
unit) and software (the programs the computer runs)
Mental hardware refers to cognitive structures, including
different memories where information is stored. Mental
software includes cognitive processes that enable people
to complete specific tasks such as reading a sentence,
playing a video game, or hitting a baseball. For example,
an information-processing psychologist would say that
for students to do well in an exam, they must encode the
information as they study, store it in memory, and then
retrieve it during the test.
To explain developmental changes in thinking,
information-processing psychologists believe that like
computers, adolescents and adults have better hardware
and better software than do younger children, who have A Information-processing theory helps explain how this girl learns,
stores, and retrieves information as she is studying for an exam
less powerful and sophisticated processors. For example,
adolescents typically solve maths word problems better
than younger children do This is because adolescents Vygotsky's theory
have greater memory capacity to store the facts in the Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was one of the first theorists
problem and because their methods for performing to emphasise that children’s thinking is influenced
arithmetic operations are more efficient. by the sociocultural context in which they grow up
Some researchers also point to deterioration of the A Russian psychologist, Vygotsky believed that because
mental hardware - along with declines in the mental all societies aim to help children acquire essential cultural
software - as explanations of cognitive ageing In values and skills, every aspect of a child’s development
Chapter 14, we will see, for example, that normative must be considered against this backdrop. For example,
ageing brings with it significant changes in people's most parents in South Africa want their children to work
ability to process information. hard in school and go to university because earning
a degree is key to finding a good job. However, in the
African country of Mali, Bambara parents want their
information-processing theory Proposes that human cognition children to learn to farm, herd animals such as cattle
consists of mental hardware and mental software.
and goats, gather food such as honey, and hunt because

16 Cuarprer | THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Copyright 2019 Cengage Leseming. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcamned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectromic nghts, some thind party contest mary he suppressed tom the cffook andive eChapter(s).
Exttomal review hon deaned thot azy wippromed coment dacs act muaicrally affect
the overall kame etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the nett wo remove ahditioeal coment at amy Girne if subeequent gfe wednchoes mqair ot,
these skills are key to survival in their environment. The
ecological
and systems approach _
Vygotsky's key insight was to view development as an
apprenticeship in which children develop as they work Most developmentalists agree that the environment is an
with skilled adults, including teachers and parents, to important force in many aspects of development. However,
only ecological theories (which get their name from the
learn what is valued in their culture. Children’s cognitive
abilities increase through these interactions, when they branch of biology dealing with the relation of living things
to their environment and to each other) have focused on the
encounter information that falls within their zone of
proximal development (ZPD), the gap between what complexities of environments and their links to development.
children already are able to accomplish on their own In ecological theory, human development is inseparable from
and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves. the environmental contexts in which a person develops The
When parents, teachers, or skilled peers assist a child ecological approach proposes that all aspects of development
are interconnected, much like the threads of a spider's web,
by presenting information that is both new and within
the ZPD, they promote problem solving, which in turn so that no aspect of development can be isolated from others
encourages the development of the child’s cognitive and understood independently. An ecological theorist would
abilities (Schaller & Crandall, 2004)
emphasise that to understand why adolescents behave as
For Piaget, information-processing theorists, they do, we need to consider the many different systems that
and Vygotsky, children’s thinking becomes more influence them, including parents, peers, teachers, media,
sophisticated as they develop. Piaget explained this the neighbourhood, and social policy.
change as resulting from the more sophisticated
knowledge that children actively construct. Information-
processing psychologists attribute it to improved mental
hardware and mental software. Vygotsky claimed
learning and thinking developed as a result of and as
part of cultural context What would these theorists
say to Sonja about Ruan’s good nature? Vygotsky would
point out that Sonja communicated key aspects of the
culture to Ruan, which influenced his good nature.
Neither Piaget nor information-processing theorists
would have much to say because their theories do not
handle personality issues very well. What about Ruan’s
academic success? That's a different story. Piaget would
explain that all children naturally want to understand
their world, Ruan is simply unusually skilled in this A Urie Bronfenbrenner
regard. An information-processing psychologist would
point to superior hardware and superior software as the We will consider two examples of the ecological and
keys to his academic success. Vygotsky would emphasise systems approach Bronfenbrenner’s theory and the
Sonja’s influence on Ruan’s intellectual growth. competence-environmental press framework.

Bronfenbrenner’s theory
The best-known advocate of the ecological approach
was Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), who proposed
that the developing person is embedded in a series of
complex and interactive systems. Bronfenbrenner (1995)
divided the environment into the four levels shown in
@ FIGURE 1.2: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the
exosystem, and the macrosystem.

zone of proximal development Gap between what children

already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not
quite ready to do by themselves.
ecological theory Theory that views human development as
inseparable from the environmental contexts in which a person
develops.
A Lev Vygotsky

12 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 17

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party contest mary he suppressed thom the cock andice cChapter|s).
Edtorad seview boo deaned thot any wappromed coment docs sot susicmally affect
the overall kame expenence. Congage Leareung reserves the night to cemmove additeoeal coesient at any Gre if subsequent neh sextnicthoes maguire it.
found that if you have a stressful day at work or college,
you're often bad-tempered at home This indicates that
your mesosystem is alive and well; your microsystems
of home and work are interconnected emotionally for
you.
The exosystem refers to social settings that a person
may not experience firsthand but that still influence
development. For example, changes in government
policy regarding welfare may mean that economically
disadvantaged children have fewer opportunities for
their preschool experiences. Although the influence
of the exosystem is indirect, its effects on human
development can be quite strong.
The broadest environmental context is the
macrosystem, the cultures and subcultures in which the
microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded. A
mother, her workplace, her child, and the child’s school
are part of a larger cultural setting, such as Pedi people
living in Limpopo or Coloured people living in Cape
Town. Members of these cultural groups share a common
identity, a common heritage, and common values. The
@ FIGURE 1.2 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach emphasises
macrosystem evolves over time, and each generation may
the interaction across differant systems in which people operate. develop in a unique macrosystem.
Source: Kopp, C BL Krakow, J B (Eds) (1962). The Chk? Develggan in # Sock! Context (p 645). Reading, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory emphasises the
MA Addson-Vieakry Reprinted by permaaon of Pearson Education
many levels of influence on human development. People
are affected directly by family members and friends
The microsystem consists of the people and objects and they are affected indirectly by social systems such
in an individual’ immediate environment. These are the as neighbourhoods and religious institutions. These,
people closest to a person, such as parents or siblings. in turn, are affected by the beliefs and heritage of one’s
Some people may have more than one microsystem. For culture
example, a young child might have the microsystems of
the family and of the day-care setting. A retired adult
might have the microsystems of a spouse and close Competence—environmental press theory
friends. As you can imagine, microsystems strongly Another view of the influence of environments
influence development. on human development comes from Lawton and
Microsystems themselves are connected to create Nahemow’s (1973) competence-environmental press
the mesosystem. The mesosystem provides connections theory. According to this theory, people adapt most
across microsystems because what happens in one effectively when their competence, or abilities, match the
microsystem is likely to influence others. Perhaps you've environmental press, or the demands put on them by
the environment. This theory was originally proposed to
account for the ways in which older adults function in
microsystem The people and objects in an individual's immediate their environment, but it applies throughout the life span.
environment.
For example, the match between an adult's social skills
mesosystem Provides connections across microsystems because and her work group's demands can determine whether
what happens in one microsystem is likely to influence others. she is accepted by the group. As with Bronfenbrenner’s
exosystem Social settings that a person may not experience theory, competence-environmental press theory
firsthand but that still influence development. emphasises that to understand people's functioning, it is
macrosystem The cultures and subcultures in which the essential to understand the systems in which they live.
microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded. Ecological theorists would agree with learning
theorists in telling Sonja that the environment has been
competence People’s abilities.
vital for her son's cheerful disposition and his academic
environmental press The demands put on people by the achievements. However, the ecological theorist would
environment.
insist that environment means much more than the

18 Cuaprer | THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght 2019 Congage Leeming. All Rights Reserved May net be copsnd, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some thind party content mary be suppecacd Som the cBock andice cChapter(s)
Edtomad sevew bos doomed thot aay wappromed coment dace act sxsicmally affect the overall kamung cxpenence. Congage Leaeing reserves the night wo nonowe additaveal coment af any Orne if subsequent mei setnctoes pein ot.
reinforcements, punishments, and observations that are range of research, especially on adult development and
central to learning theory. This theorist would emphasise ageing. They identify four key features of the life-span
the different levels of environmental influence on Ruan. perspective as follows.
Sonja’s ability to balance home (microsystem) and work
© Multidirectionality Development involves both growth
(mesosystem) so skillfully (which meant that she was
and decline; as people grow in one area, they may lose
usually in a good mood herself) contributed positively
in another. For example, people's vocabulary tends
to Ruan's development. In addition, Sonja’s membership
to increase throughout life, but their memory skills
in a cultural group (exosystem) that emphasised the
weaken.
value of doing well in school also contributed. Ruan was
¢ Plasticity One's capacity is not predetermined or carved
also competent enough to handle the external demands
in stone Many skills can be learned or improved with
(environmental pressure) put on him.
practice, even in late life. For example, people can
learn better ways to remember information, which
Life-span perspective, selective may help them deal with declining memory. There are
limits to the degree of potential improvement, though,
optimisation
i life-
with compensation,
i as described in later chapters.
© Historical context Each of us develops within a
Most of the theories of human development that we particular set of circumstances determined by the
have considered so far pay little attention to the adult historical time in which we are born and the culture
years of the life span (Erikson’s theory is the main in which we grow up. For example, a child going to
exception). Historically, adulthood was downplayed, a government school during the apartheid regime
owing to the belief that it was a time when abilities had would have a different experience of schooling when
reached a plateau (rather than continuing to develop) compared to a child receiving a government school
and that adulthood was followed by inevitable decline eduction post-apartheid.
in old age. However, modern perspectives emphasise the © Multiple causation Development reflects the biological,
importance of viewing human development as a lifelong psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces that
process. These perspectives view development in terms of we mentioned previously. For example, children’s
where a person has been and where he or she is heading. success in school will depend on their heredity,
their cognitive skills, their culture's emphasis on
Life-span perspective and selective achievement, and whether their parents are teenagers,
optimisation with compensation young adults, or middle aged.
We can only understand adults’ experiences by Taken together, the principles of the life-span
understanding their childhood and adolescence. Placing perspective describe and explain the successful
adults’ lives in this broader context is what the life-span adaptation of people to the changes that occur with ageing
perspective does. by proposing an interaction between three processes:
According to the life-span perspective, human selection, compensation, and optimisation (Baltes, 1997;
development is determined by multiple factors and cannot Baltes et al., 2006; Baltes & Carstensen, 1999; Baltes &
be understood within the scope of a single framework. The Heydens-Gahir, 2003). Selection processes help to choose
basic premise of the life-span perspective is that ageing is a goals, life domains, and life tasks, whereas optimisation
lifelong process of growing up and growing old, beginning and compensation concern maintaining or enhancing
with conception and ending with death. No single period chosen goals. The basic assumption of the selective
of a person's life (such as childhood, adolescence, or optimisation with compensation (SOC) model is that
middle age) can be understood without looking at its the three processes form a system of behavioural action
origins and its consequences. To understand a specific that generates and regulates development and ageing.
period, we must know what came before and what is likely
to come afterward (Riley, 1979). In addition, how one's
life is played out is affected by social, environmental, and life-span perspective View that human development is
historical change. Thus, the experiences of one generation determined by multiple factors and cannot be understood within
may not be the same as those of another. the scope of a single framework.
Paul Baltes (1939-2006) and colleagues provide selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) model View
many of the main approaches to human development that selection, optimisation, and compensation form a system of
from a life-span perspective (Baltes, Lindenberger, & behavioural action that generates and regulates development and
Staudinger, 2006). Their model has influenced a wide ageing.

12 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 19

Life-course perspective
Adults often describe their lives as a story that includes
several key life events and transitions (such as going
to school, getting a first job, getting married, having
children). Such stories show how people move through
their lives and experience unique interactions of the four
forces of development.
The life-course perspective describes the ways in which
various generations experience the biological, psychological,
and sociocultural forces of development in their respective
historical contexts. Specifically, it lets researchers examine
the effects of historical time on how people create their
&« Paul Baltes
lives (Dannefer & Miklowski, 2006; Hagestad & Dannefer,
Compensation occurs when people's skills have 2001; Hareven, 1995, 2001; Mayer, 2009) A key feature
decreased so they no longer function well in a particular of the life-course perspective is the dynamic interplay
domain. When people compensate, they search for an between the individual and society. This interplay
alternate way to accomplish the goal. For example, if an creates three major dimensions, all involving timing and
older adult can no longer drive because she has a broken underlying the life-course perspective:
leg, she might compensate by taking a taxi. Sometimes, e The individual timing of life events in relation to
compensation requires learning a new skill. For example, external historical events This dimension addresses the
an older adult experiencing short-term memory problems question: How do people time and sequence their lives
might compensate by learning to use a smartphone app for (e.g., getting a first job, having their first child, entering
lists. Thus, compensation differs from selection in that the retirement) in the context of changing historical
task or goal is maintained but achieved through other means. conditions (e.g., economic good times or recession)?
Optimisation involves minimising losses and e The synchronisation of individual transitions with
maximising gains. The main idea is to find the best collective familial ones This dimension addresses the
match possible between one's resources (biological, question: How do people balance their own lives (e.g.,
psychological, and sociocultural) and one’s desired goals. work obligations) with those of their family (e.g.,
Because people cannot achieve optimal outcomes in children’s netball games)?
everything, development becomes a dynamic process © The impact of earlier life events, as shaped by historical
of selecting the right goals and compensating when events, on subsequent ones This dimension addresses the
possible to help maximise the odds of achieving them question. How does experiencing an event earlier in life
(e.g., a male turning 18 years old) at a particular point
life-course perspective Describes the ways in which various in history (e.g., when there is a military conscription)
affect one’s subsequent life (e.g., choosing a particular
forces of development in their respective historical contexts.
career)?

20 Cuarter 1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Test yourself 1.2

Recall
1. organise knowledge to provide
testable explanations of human behaviours and
the ways in which they change over time.
2. The perspective proposes that
development is determined by the interaction
of an internal maturational plan and external
societal demands.
3. According to social cognitive theory, people
learn from reinforcements, from punishments,
and through
A At age 93, cellist Pablo Casals said
he still practised three hours a 4. Piaget's theory and Vygotsky's theory are
day because he was ‘beginning to examples of the perspective.
notice some improvement’
5. According to Bronfenbrenner, development
The emphasis in the life-course perspective on occurs in the context of the
interrelations between the individual and society with mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem.
reference to historical time has made it a dominant
view in the social sciences In particular, this approach 6. A belief that human development is characterised
is useful in helping researchers understand how the by multidirectionality and plasticity is
various aspects of people’s experiences (work, family,
fundamental to the perspective.
education) interact to create unique lives.
Overall, life-span and life-cycle theories have greatly Interpret
enhanced developmental theory by drawing attention ¢ How are the information-processing perspective
to the role of ageing in the broader context of human and Piaget's theory similar? How do they differ?
development (Gilleard & Higgs, 2016). These theories
have played a major role in conceptualising adulthood Apply
and have greatly influenced the research we consider e Using three different developmental theories,
in Chapters 10-15. Theorists proposing a life-span or explain how Wayde van Niekerk or Beyoncé
life-course perspective would tell Sonja that Ruan will achieved their success.
continue to develop throughout his adult years and Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
that this developmental journey will be influenced by end of the chapter.
biopsychosocial forces, including his own family.

12 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 21

Copyraght 2019 Congage Lowmag All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xcammod, ot duplicoted m whole of im part. Dur to clectronsc rights, scene thend party contest mery be eappeesand Sern te cook andive oC Tespter(s)
Exitored soverw bow doomed thos any eappremed content doce act sxsimolly affect the oversll koenmg cxpenence. Congage Leawremg romrves the might oo comowe additavead content af ary Oe if sebeequent ogi setnictoes ogee
Emphases in Positions on
biopsychosocial developmental
Perspective Examples Main idea framework issues
Psychodynamic Erikson’s psychosocial Personality develops Psychological, social, Nature-nurture
theory through sequence of and life-cycle forces interaction, discontinuity,
stages crucial; less emphasis on universal sequence but
biological individual differences in
rate

Learning Behaviourism (Watson, Environment controls In all theories, some In all theories, strongly
Skinner) behaviour emphasis on biological nurture, continuity, and
and psychological, major universal principles of
focus on social, little learning
recognition of life cycle
Social learning People learn through
theory (Bandura) modelling and observing
Cognitive Piaget's theory (and Thinking develops in a Main emphasis on Strongly nature,
extensions) sequence of stages biological and social forces, discontinuity, and
less on psychological, litle universal sequence of
on life cycle stages
Information-processing Thought develops by Emphasis on biological Nature-nurture
theory increases in efficiency at and psychological, less interaction, continuity,
handling information on social and life cycle individual differences in
universal structures
Vygotsky's theory Development influenced Emphasis on Nature-nurture
by culture psychological and interaction, continuity,
social forces individual differences
Ecological Bronfenbrenner’s Developing person Low emphasis on Nature-nurture
and systems theory embedded in aseries of biological, moderate on interaction, continuity,
interacting systems psychological and life context-specific
cycle, heavy on social
Competence- Adaptation is optimal Strong emphasis on Nature-nurture
environmental when ability and biological, psychological, interaction, continuity,
press (Lawton and demands arein balance andsocial,moderateon context-specific
Nahemow) life cycle
Life-span Baltes’s life-span Developmentis multiply Strongemphasisonthe Nature-nurture
perspective/ perspective and selective determined; optimisation interactions of all four interaction, continuity
soc optimisation with of goals forces; cannot consider and discontinuity,
compensation (SOC) any in isolation context-specific
Life-course Life-course theory Life-course transitions Strong emphasis Nature-nurture
perspective decreasingly tied to age; on psychological, interaction,
increased continuity over sociocultural, life cycle; continuity and
time; specific life paths less on biological discontinuity,
across domains are context-specific
interdependent

EE) Doing developmental research

Learning objectives

® Discuss how scientists measure topics of interest in studying human development.

© State what research designs are used to study human development.

© Explain how researchers integrate results from multiple studies.

© Identify the ethical procedures that researchers must follow.

e Explain how investigators communicate results from research studies.

© Describe how research affects public policy.

22 Cuartrer 1 THE stupy OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. im whole
or in part. Dur to clectronic
nights, some thend party comiest
muy be suppressed from the flock andlor oChaptes(s).
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect
the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
Lunghile and Nomsa are mothers of 10-year- friendship might decide to observe children as they start
old boys Their sons have many friends, but the their first year in high school (chosen because this is a
basis for the friendships is not obvious to the time when many children will be making new friends).
mothers. Lunghile believes ‘opposites attract’ - They could decide to record where children sit at break
children form friendships with peers who have and who talks to whom.
complementary interests and abilities Nomsa Structured observations differ from naturalistic
doubts this. Her son seems to seek out other observations in that the researcher creates a setting that
boys who are near clones of himself in their is likely to bring out the behaviour of interest Structured
interests and abilities observations are particularly useful for studying
behaviours that are difficult to observe naturally, such
Suppose Lunghile and Nomsa know that you're taking as how people respond to emergencies. An investigator
a course in human development, so they ask you to relying on natural observations to study people's
settle their argument. Lunghile believes complementary responses to emergencies wouldn't make much progress
children are more often friends, whereas Nomsa believes with naturalistic observation because emergencies
similar children are more often friends You know that don't occur at predetermined times and locations.
research could show whose ideas are supported under However, using a structured observation, an investigator
which circumstances, but how? might stage an emergency — perhaps cooperating with
Human development researchers start their search for authorities to simulate an accident — to observe people's
knowledge by asking good questions such as these Once responses.
the questions are framed, they make several important Some behaviours are difficult for researchers to
decisions as they prepare to study a topic They need observe because they occur in private, not public,
to decide how to measure the topic of interest, they settings. For example, sexual activity tends to occur in
design their study, they choose a method for studying private, where it is difficult for investigators to observe
development, and they decide whether their plan respects unobtrusively. However, researchers could ask couples
the rights of individuals participating in the research. In to come to the researchers’ laboratory, which might
practice, all of these steps occur at the same time. For be furnished to resemble a typical bedroom. The
example, the selection of a measure or method is done in researchers would then observe the couple’s activity
the context of the rights of research participants. But for by watching from another room, watching through a
simplicity, we'll describe each of these steps in sequence one-way mirror, or recording them Later in this book,
we will consider findings from research such as this that
has greatly helped us understand human behaviour, such
Measurement in human development as providing insights into how people provide consent
research for engaging in sexual activity
Structured observations are valuable in enabling
The first step in doing developmental research is deciding researchers to observe behaviour(s) that would otherwise
how to measure the topic or behaviour of interest. So be difficult to study. But there are limits. For example,
the first step toward answering Lunghile and Nomsa’s observing couples engaging in sexual activity in a mock
question would be to decide how to measure friendships bedroom has many artificial aspects to it the couples
Human development researchers use one of four
are not in their rooms, they were told in general terms
approaches: observing systematically, using tasks to what to do, and they know they’re being observed. Any
sample behaviour, asking people for self-reports, and of these factors may cause couples to behave differently
taking physiological measures from how they would in the real world Researchers
must be careful that their method does not make the
Systematic observation behaviour they are observing unnatural or unrealistic.
As the name implies, systematic observation involves
watching people and carefully recording what they do or
say Two forms of systematic observation are common. systematic observation Watching people and carefully recording
In naturalistic observation, people are observed as what they do or say.
they behave spontaneously in a real-life situation There's a
naturalistic observation Observing people as they behave
catch with this kind of observation, though. Researchers spontaneously in a real-life situation.
can't keep track of everything that someone does, so
before the study starts, they must decide what specific structured observations Method in which the researcher creates
a setting that is likely
to bring out the behaviour
of interest.
variables to record. For example, researchers studying

13 DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH 23

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feo the cfook andive cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Sampling behaviour with tasks Why? When asked about past events, for example, people
When investigators can't observe a behaviour directly, an may not remember them accurately. For example, an
alternative is to create tasks that are thought to sample older adult asked about adolescent friends may not
the behaviour of interest. One task often used to measure remember those friendships well. Sometimes people
older adults’ memory is ‘digit span’ In this task, adults answer incorrectly as a result of ‘response bias: for many
listen as a sequence of digits is presented aloud. After questions, they are more likely to respond in a socially
the last digit is presented, they try to repeat the digits in acceptable manner (for example, they may be reluctant to
order. admit they had no friends). As long as investigators remain
Another example is shown in @ FIGURE 1.3. To study aware of these potential biases, though, self-reports can be
the ability to recognise emotions, the child has been asked a valuable tool for research in human development.
to look at the photographs and to point to the face that
looks happy. A child's answers on this sort of task are useful
in determining his or her ability to recognise emotions.
This approach is popular and convenient; however, a
potential problem is that the task may not provide a realistic
sample of the behaviour of interest. For example, asking
children to judge emotions from photographs may not be
valid because it underestimates what they do in real life
Why might this be the case? We mention several reasons
towards the end of this chapter, just before “Test yourself?

Self-reports
Self-reports represent a special case of using tasks to
measure people's behaviour. Self-reports are people's
answers to questions about the topic of interest.
When questions are posed in written form, the self-
report is a questionnaire, and when questions are posed
orally, the self-report is an interview. Either way, questions
@ FIGURE 1.3 In this example of sampling behaviour with tasks the
are created that ask about different aspects of the topic of child is asked to select the face that looks happy.
interest. For example, if you believe that adults are more
often friends when they have interests in common, then
you might tell your research participants the following: Physiological measures
One less common but potentially powerful form of
Shivar and Bongani just met each other at work.
measurement is measuring people's physiological responses.
Shivar likes to read, plays the guitar, and is not
Earlier we saw that brain activity is used in neuroscience
interested in sports. Bongani likes to tweet his
research to track certain behaviours, such as memory.
friends, enjoys fixing up his car, and watches sports
@ FIGURE 1.4 shows an image that researchers
all weekend. Do you think Shivar and Bongani will
might use in such research Another measure is heart
become friends?
rate, which often slows down when people are paying
The participants would then decide, perhaps using close attention to something interesting. Consequently,
a rating scale, whether the men are likely to become researchers often measure heart rate to determine a
friends. person's degree of attention. As another example, the
Self-reports are useful because they can lead directly to hormone cortisol is often secreted in response to stress.
information on the topic of interest. They are also relatively By measuring cortisol levels in saliva, scientists can
convenient, particularly when they can be administered to determine when people are experiencing stress.
groups of participants or administered online.
However, self-reports are not always a good measure
of people's behaviour because not all answers are accurate.
If you were studying middle-aged adults caring
for their ageing parents, what would be the
self-reports People’s answers to questions about the topic of advantages of systematic observation, sampling
interest. behaviour with tasks, and self-reports?

24 Cuarprer | THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

(Copyragts
2099 Compage Leareeng. All Raghes Reserved May act be coped acommed or daphored m whol of op pert. Der to cleceenc mphts, somee theed pty contest mary be eappeceend fever tae eBook ander oC hapecr’+)
Edecead arvre tos doomed Gas any eapgromed coment dom ace meserodh aflect he ower koeemys copemenes. Compage Lowtang rare the mgt somes added omc ot ay tere of ateegueet mph arénchoes roger &
Reliability and validity
After researchers choose a method, they must show that
it is both reliable and valid. The reliability of a measure
is the extent to which it provides a consistent index of a
characteristic A measure of friendship, for example, is
reliable if it consistently estimates a person's friendship
network each time you administer it Reliability of a
measure is essential, but it isn't enough. A measure must
also be valid to be useful.
The validity ofa measure refers to whether it actually
measures what researchers think it measures. For example,
a measure of friendship is valid if it actually measures
friendship and not, for example, popularity. Validity is
often established by showing that the measure in question
is closely related to another measure that is known to be
@ FIGURE 1.4 Brain imaging techniques provide a physiological valid.
measure that helps researchers understand brain-behaviour relations

Representative sampling
As these examples suggest, physiological measures Valid measures also depend on the people who are
are usually specialised — they focus on a particular aspect tested. Researchers are usually interested in broad groups
of a person's behaviour (in these examples, memory, of people called populations Examples of populations
attention, and stress) In addition, they’re often used with are all seven-year-old South African children, or all
behaviourally oriented methods. A researcher studying IsiZulu-speaking grandparents living in the province
stress might observe several people for obvious signs of KwaZulu-Natal Virtually all studies include only a
of stress, ask parents/partners/friends to rate the target sample of people, which is a subset of the population.
person's stress, and measure cortisol in the target person's Researchers must make sure that their sample represents
saliva. If all three measures lead to the same conclusions the population of interest because an unrepresentative
about stress, then the researcher can be more confident
about those conclusions. reliability The extent to which a measure provides a consistent
As we have discussed, there are strengths and index of a characteristic.
weaknesses in each of the four approaches to measurement. validity Whether a measure actually measures what researchers
These are summarised in @ TABLE 1.4. The approach that think it measures.
a researcher takes will depend on which one best matches populations Broad groups of people that are of interest to researchers.
the research questions as well as whether it is feasible and
sample A subset of the population.
appropriate to use with particular research participants.

ABLE 1.4 Measuring behaviours of interest in human development research

Method Strength Weakness

Systematic
observation

Naturalistic Captures people's behaviour in its natural Difficult to use with behaviours that are rare or that
observation setting typically occur in private settings

Structured Can be used to study behaviours that are rare May be invalid if structured setting distorts the
observation or that typically occur in private settings behaviour

Sampling behaviour Convenient — can be used to study most May be invalid if the task does not sample
with tasks behaviours behaviour as it occurs naturally

Self-reports Convenient — can be used to study most May be invalid because people answer incorrectly
behaviours (due to either forgetting or response bias)

Physiological Provide a more direct measure of underlying Highly specific in what they measure and thus
measures behaviour cannot be applied broadly

13 DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH 25

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcanned, or duplicated. am whole or in part. Duc to clectronic nights, some therd party contest may he wppeeased thom the eBook andice cChapter(s)
Edaomad seview ton deaned that any wuppromed comin! dacs sot maimally affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Leareing rescrvex the night t remove additioeal coment af any tame if audecquent neh sednchoes moqain
sample can lead to invalid conclusions. For example, if The correlation coefficient reflects one of three possible
a study of friendship in older adults tested only people relations between intelligence and the number of friends:
who had no siblings, you would probably decide that
© People’s intelligence is unrelated to the number of
this sample 1s not representative of the population of
friends they have, reflected in a correlation of 0.
older adults and question its validity.
© People who are smart tend to have more friends than
As you read further, you'll soon discover that much
people who are not as smart. That is, more intelligence
of the research we describe was conducted with samples
is associated with having more friends. In this case, the
that consist mostly of middle-class European American
variables are positively related and the correlation is
people. Are these samples representative of all people in
between 0 and 1.
the United States? Of all people in South Africa, or in
© People who are smart tend to have fewer friends than
the world? No. To make samples more representative,
people who are not as smart. That is, more intelligence
some U.S. federal agencies now require researchers
is associated with having fewer friends. In this case, the
to include certain groups (such as ethnic minorities,
variables are negatively related and the correlation is
women, children) or to explain in detail why they
between —1 and 0.
are not. This policy has resulted in a broader view of
developmental processes. In South Africa and elsewhere In interpreting a correlation coefficient, you need to
across the world research is often replicated on local consider both the sign and size of the correlation. The sign
populations, but there are still limitations such as access indicates the direction of the relation between variables.
to geographically isolated people, lack of funding and A positive sign means that larger values of one variable
time constraints. Therefore, until we have representative are associated with larger values of the second variable. A
samples in all developmental research, we cannot know negative sign means that larger values of one variable are
whether a particular phenomenon applies only to the associated with smaller values of the second variable.
group studied or to people more generally. The size or strength of a relation is measured by how
much the correlation differs from 0, either positively or
G 1 desi f negatively A correlation of 0.9 between intelligence and
number of friends would indicate a very strong relation:
Having selected a way to measure the topic or behaviour knowing a person's intelligence, you could accurately
of interest, researchers use this measure in a research predict how many friends the person has. If the
design that produces useful, relevant results Human correlation was only 0.3 instead, then the link between
development researchers rely on two primary designs intelligence and number of friends would be weaker.
in their work: correlational studies and experimental although more intelligent people would have more
studies. friends on average, there would be many exceptions.
Similarly, a correlation of —0.9 would indicate a strong
Correlational studies negative relation between intelligence and number of
In a correlational study, investigators look at relations friends, but a correlation of —0.3 would indicate a weak
between variables as they exist naturally in the world negative relation.
Imagine a researcher who wants to test the idea that Although a correlational study can determine
smart people have more friends. To find out, the whether variables are related, it doesn't address the
researcher would measure two variables for each person question of cause and effect between the variables. For
- the number of friends the person has and the person's example, a correlation of 0.7 between intelligence and
intelligence - and then see whether the two variables are number of friends indicates that people who are smarter
related. have more friends than people who are not as smart.
The results of a correlational study are usually This correlation has three possible interpretations,
measured by calculating a correlation coefficient, which shown in @ FIGURE 1.5: (1) Being smart causes people
expresses the strength and direction of a relation between to have more friends, (2) having more friends causes
two variables. Correlations can range from —1.0 to 1.0. people to be smarter; or (3) neither variable causes the
other; instead, both intelligence and number of friends
are caused by a third variable (such as parents who are
supportive) that was not measured in the study. Any of
correlational study Investigation looking at relations between
variables as they exist naturally in the world.
these interpretations could be true, but they cannot be
distinguished in a correlational study. Investigators who
correlation coefficient An expression of the strength and want to track down causes must use a different design,
direction of a relation between two variables.
called an experimental study.

26 Cuarter 1 THe stupy OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

§—_@a
interpretations of a correlation coefficient
because there ts no direct way to assess
1 The first variable causes the cause and effect
second variable. Being smart Having more friends

u v4 ee ee |
2 The second variable causes i: = ‘
—— Having more friends Being smart

3 Neither variable is caused ‘ Ei]

by the other; both are caused ’
by a third variable that was f $ Children who are smart
not measured in the study. ~ 7
Parents who are warm =
and supportive a7 va
Children who have
more friends

Experimental studies Human development researchers usually conduct

In an experiment, investigators systematically manipulate experiments in laboratory-like settings because this allows
the factor(s) that they think causes a particular behaviour. better control over the variables that may influence the
The factor being manipulated is called the independent outcome of the research. But this means that the behaviour
variable; the behaviour being observed is called the of interest is not studied in its natural setting, which is a
dependent variable In human development, an shortcoming of laboratory experiments. For example,
experiment requires that the investigator should begin with driving in a simulator may not be the same as driving on
one or more independent variables (usually treatments, a highway Consequently, there is always the potential
interventions, experiences, or events) that are thought to problem that the results may be invalid because they are
affect the behaviour of interest. People are then assigned artificial — they are specific to the laboratory setting and not
randomly to conditions that differ in the amount of the representative of the behaviour outside of the laboratory
independent variable. Finally, an appropriate measure
(the dependent variable) is taken of all participants to see
whether the treatment or treatments had the expected
effect. Each person has an equal chance of being assigned
to each treatment condition (the definition of random
assignment), so any differences between the groups can be
attributed to the differential treatment people received in
the experiment rather than to other factors.
Suppose, for example, that an investigator believes
that older adults perform better in a driving simulator
when they are not talking on a cell phone. The photo on
this page shows how we might test this hypothesis. Older
adults come to the laboratory equipped with a driving
simulator. Some are randomly assigned to a condition
in which they drive while talking on a cell phone, but
others are assigned to a condition in which they drive 4 An experiment using a driving simulator to examine skills of older
but do not talk on a cell phone. drivers In this 'no phone’ condition, the driver is not talking on a
All participants drive under circumstances that are cell phone

held as constant as possible — except for the presence or

absence of talking on the cell phone. If on average older
experiment A systematic way of manipulating the key factor(s)
adults drive better in the ‘no phone’ condition than in that the investigator thinks causes a particular behaviour.
the ‘cell phone’ condition, then the investigator could say
independent variable The factor manipulated in an experiment.
with confidence that the cell phone has a harmful effect
on driving skill. Conclusions about cause and effect are dependent variable The behaviour being observed in an
possible because the direct manipulation occurred under experiment, used to evaluate the impact of the independent
variable.
controlled conditions.

13 DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH 27

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mary he appeased thom the eBook andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
Each research design used by developmentalists has Longitudinal studies
both strengths and weaknesses. There is no one best In a longitudinal study, the same individuals are observed
method. Consequently, no single investigation can or tested repeatedly at different points in their lives. As
definitively answer a question Researchers rarely rely the name implies, the longitudinal approach examines
on one study or even one method to reach conclusions development over time. It is the most direct way to identify
Instead, they prefer to find supporting evidence from as change. More important, it is the only way to determine
many different kinds of studies as possible. the stability of behaviour. For example, will characteristics
such as aggression, dependency, or mistrust observed in
Qualitative studies infancy or early childhood persist into adulthood? Will
Suppose you live near a children’s playground. Each day, a regular exercise programme begun in middle age have
you watch the children play various games with each benefits in later life? Does people's intelligence remain
other and on the swings and slide. You are interested in the same or change across adulthood? Such questions can
learning more about how children go about playing, so be explored only by testing people at one point in their
you decide to watch more carefully. With the parents’ development and then retesting them later.
permission, you video the children’s play each day for The ‘Spotlight on research’ feature illustrates a
several weeks. You then watch the videos and notice longitudinal study that focuses on the stability of intelligence
whether there are specific patterns that emerge across the life span. As you read, pay close attention to the
What you have done is to conduct one type of questions and how the researchers approached them. This
qualitative research, which involves gaining in-depth will provide insight into the creative process of research and
understanding of human behaviour and what governs into the potential strengths and weaknesses of the study.
it. Qualitative research typically involves intensive As powerful as it is in identifying what does — or does
observation of behaviour over extended periods of time, not — change over time, the longitudinal approach has
so it needs smaller but focused samples rather than large disadvantages that frequently offset its strengths. One is
random samples. Frequently used techniques include cost: The expense of keeping up with a large sample of
video recording and detailed interviews. Qualitative individuals can be enormous. A related problem is the
researchers categorise the data they collect from these need to keep the sample together over the course of the
techniques into patterns as the primary basis for research. Maintaining contact with people over years or
organising and reporting results. In contrast, quantitative decades can be challenging. Even among those who do not
research relies on numerical data and statistical tests as move away, some lose interest and choose not to continue;
the bases for reporting results. others may die. These ‘dropouts’ often differ significantly
Qualitative research can be conducted for its own from their peers, and this fact may also distort the study's
sake, as a preliminary step, or as a complement to outcome For example, a study may seem to show that a
quantitative research Research reports of qualitative group of older adults shows intellectual stability late in
research are usually richer and provide more details life. What may have happened, however, is that those who
about the behaviour being observed. found earlier testing most difficult dropped out of the
study and so raised the group average on the next round.
asi f ivinn dev l Even when the sample remains constant, taking the same
test many times may make people ‘test-wise, so that they
Research in human development usually concerns do better on the next test Improvement over time may
differences or changes that occur over time. In these cases be attributed to development when it actually comes
- in addition to deciding how to measure the behaviour from practice with a particular test. Changing the test
of interest and whether the study will be correlational from testing session to testing session solves the practice
or experimental — investigators must also choose one of problem but raises a new question: how to compare
three designs that allow them to examine development. responses to different tests.
longitudinal, cross-sectional, or sequential. Because of these and other problems with the
longitudinal method, human development researchers
qualitative research Method that involves gaining in-depth often use cross-sectional studies instead.
understanding of human behaviour and what governs it.
longitudinal study Research design in which the same individuals Cross-sectional studies
are observed or tested repeatedly
at different points in their lives.
In a cross-sectional study, developmental differences are
cross-sectional study Study in which developmental differences identified by testing people of different ages Development
are identified by testing people of different ages.
is recorded by noting the differences between individuals

28 Cuarter 1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Research Who were the

investigators, and what
at 79 and 90 Importantly, scores on the Moray House Test
correlated with the other cognitive measures, which provided
was the aim of the study? evidence of the Moray House Test's validity Although the
A long-standing Issue in sample showed evidence of several physical health problems,
human development ts the there was no evidence that mental ability in childhood
degree to which personal predicts individual differences in normative cognitive ageing
characteristics, such as intelligence, remain stable or or with the likelihood of dementia
change over one's life lan Deary, Alison Pattie, and John What did the investigators conclude? Deary, Pattie, and
Starr (2013) addressed this issue by examining the stability Starr concluded that individual differences in intelligence
and validity of individual differences based on the same in middle childhood as measured by the Moray House
intelligence test (the Moray House Test) given to the same Test showed reasonably high stability at age 90. In other
people at ages 11 and 90 This ts one of the few studies of words, smart 11-year-olds tend to be smart 90-year-olds
a personal characteristic over such a long period of time in and not-so-smart 11-year-olds tend to be not-so-smart
the same people 90-year-olds
How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? What supporting evidence would strengthen
The pnmary assessment of intelligence was the Moray these conclusions? The sample included only Scottish
House Test, which mainly tests verbal reasoning, as well participants, so it would be necessary to study people from
as some numenical and other items Participants were other cultures to find out whether the results generalise
also given the National Adult Reading Test, Mini-Mental across cultures In addition, the use of only one test in the
State Examination (a screening test for dementia), Raven's assessment of the participants at age 11 provides a narrow
Progressive Matrices (a measure of nonverbal reasoning), view of intelligence
and the Wechsler Logical Memory Test (a test of verbal recall
of stories)
Who were the participants in the study?The
participants were members of the 1921 Lothian
(Scotland) Birth Cohort In 1932, at roughly age 11, Wave1
almost every member of the cohort was given the n= 550; Mean age ~ 79
Moray House Test in school Between 1999 and : = oe
2001, 550 survivors were tested between ages 60 Withdrew
78 and 80. In 2011 and 2012, 106 survivors were 54 Were not well enough/no
longer eligible
tested as close to their 90th birthday as possible y 9 Lost contact
Because of the long penod that had passed since Wave 2 18 Were lost for other reasons
initial testing, many of the original participants n= 321; Mean age ~ 83
were unable to be retested due to death, mental Naser aes
or physical incapacity, or other reasons. 7 Withdrew
@ FIGURE 1.6 depicts the various reasons why 19 Were not well enough/no
longer eligible
participants were not retested. mat 5 Lost contact
What was the design of the study? The study one: ee
used a longitudinal design a ee Cree
Were there ethical concerns with the study? 6 Withdrew
All participants were provided information about the 32 Were not well enough/no
longer eligible
purpose of the study and the tests they would take , 1 Lost contact
Parents provided informed consent for their children Wave 4 9 Were lost for other reasons
and each adult participant provided informed n= 129; Mean age ~ 90
consent. Participants were screened for signs of (+11 with dementia)
mental impairment that may have interfered with
@ FIGURE 16 Number and mean age of participants and causes of attrition at
either their ability to understand the purpose of
each wave of testing in the Lothian Birth Cohort of 1921
the study and provide consent or their ability to
Note: Withdrew’ refers to participants who did not wash to continue to particpate “Nat well enough/no
understand and complete the tasks
longer eligible’ refers to participants who withdrew for health reasons, including bemg too frail to travel
What were the results? The correlation and participants who had severe visual enpairnents or dementia (except at Wave 4, when 11 people with
between raw scores on the Moray House Test at dementia were examined at home by a doctor, but not given tests of cognitive functioning) “Other reasons’
for leaving the study include, for example, fing too far away to travel to the testing site, caring for a spouse,
age 11 and age 90 was 0.67. Scores correlated 0 73 refusal by the participant's general medical practitioner, and missing an appointment
between ages 79 and 90 In other words, 11-year
Source: Deary, | J Pane, A, & Star, J M. (2013) The stabdity of mmeligence from age 11 16 age SD yaara The Lotiaan terth
olds with high scores tended to have high scores coher of 1921. Paychotagneal Seance, 24, 2361-2368. da: 10 1177/0856797613486487

1 3 DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH 29

ABLE 1.5 Designs used in human development research

Type of design Definition Strengths Weaknesses

General designs

Correlational Observe variables as they Behaviour is measured as it Cannot determine cause and effect
exist in the world and occurs naturally
determine their relations

Experimental Manipulate independent Control of variables allows Work is often laboratory-based, which
variable and determine conclusions about cause and can be artificial
effect on dependent variable effect

Developmental designs

Longitudinal One group of people is Only way to chart an individual's Expensive, participants drop out,
tested repeatedly as they development and look at the and repeated testing can distort
develop stability of behaviour overtime performance

Cross-sectional People of different ages are Convenient-solvesall problems Cannot study stability of behaviour;
tested at the same time associated with longitudinal cohort effects complicate interpretation
studies of differences between groups

Sequential Multiple groups of people Best way to address limitation Very expensive and time consuming;
are tested over time, of single longitudinal and cross- may not completely solve limitations
based on either multiple sectional designs of longitudinal and cross-sectional
longitudinal or cross- designs
sectional designs

30 Cu APTER1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

between frailty and the quality of life of older adults

living in the community They then focused on 11 To guide review panels, professional organisations
cross-sectional and two longitudinal studies that used (such as the American Psychological Association in
comparable measures. This meta-analysis indicated the US ) and government agencies (such as the South
that frail older adults had lower quality of life As a African National Health Research Ethics Council, in
result, Kojima and colleagues suggest that interventions South Africa) have codes of ethical conduct that specify
aimed at helping older adults deal with frailty may also the rights of research participants as well as procedures
improve their quality of life to protect these participants. The following essential
Meta-analysis is a particularly powerful tool guidelines are included in all of these codes:
because it allows scientists to determine whether a
© Minimise risks to research participants Use methods
finding generalises across many studies. In addition,
that have the least potential for causing harm or stress
meta-analysis can reveal the impact of different methods
for research participants During the research, monitor
on results and further the development of specific
the procedures to ensure avoidance of any unforeseen
theories of behaviour
stress or harm
Conducti hethicall © Describe the research to potential participants so that
they can determine whether they want to participate
Choosing a good research design involves more than Prospective participants must be told the purpose of
just selecting a method. Researchers must determine the project, what they will be asked to do, whether
whether the method they plan to use protects the rights there are any risks or potential harm or any benefits
of people who participate. In South Africa, most research they may receive, that they are free to discontinue
is done either as part of a university study, or through a participation at any time without penalty, and that,
professional organisation such as the Human Sciences
Research Council (HSRC). At universities the researchers
must submit their proposals to the university's ethics meta-analysis A tool that enables researchers to synthesise the
results of many studies to estimate relations between variables.
committee, which will allow the study to go ahead or not,

1 3 DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH 31

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. im whole
or in part. Dur to clectronic nights, some thend party comiest muy be suppressed from the flock andlor oChaptes(s).
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
after they have participated, the project will be This indicates the last name(s) of the person(s) who
described After the study has been explained, each did the research and the year in which the research was
participant signs a document stating that he or she published. By looking in the Reference section at the end
understands what he or she will do in the study. Special of the book, which is organised alphabetically by the first
caution must be exercised in gaining consent for the author's last name, you can find the title of the article
participation of children and adolescents, as well as and the journal in which it was published.
people who have conditions that affect intellectual All of these steps in research may seem tedious and
functioning (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease, severe head involved to you. However, for a human development
injury). In these cases, consent from a parent, a legal researcher, much of the fun of research is planning a
guardian, or another responsible person is necessary, study that no one has done before and that will provide
in addition to consent of the participant. information useful to other specialists This is one
e Avoid deception; if participants must be deceived, of the most creative and challenging parts of human
provide a thorough explanation of the true nature of development research.
the experiment as soon as possible Providing complete
information about a study in advance sometimes Anplvi Its: Social noli
biases or distorts a person's responses Consequently,
investigators may provide participants with partial Some people question whether research really matters
information about the study or even mislead them about Actually, research on human development has a strong
its true purpose As soon as it is feasible — generally, just influence on policy makers and politicians. For example,
after the experiment - any false information that was many countries around the world have laws against
given to research participants must be corrected and child abuse and laws that govern child labour practices.
the reasons for the deception must be provided. Many countries have laws setting minimum ages for
© Results should be anonymous or confidential Research certain activities, such as consuming alcohol, voting, and
results should be anonymous, which means that people's driving. Human development research played a role in
data cannot be linked to their name When anonymity establishing all of these laws and regulations.
is not possible, research results should be confidential, Other examples of how developmental research
which means that the identity of participants is known affects social policy include the elimination of mandatory
only to the investigator(s) conducting the study retirement, many educational reform laws, the indices
Conducting research ethically is an obligation that courts use to decide whether an adolescent offender
of every investigator. If you conduct a project, you should be tried as a juvenile or an adult, and whether a
should submit your procedures for review. If you are a person is mentally competent. Clearly, the research done
participant in someone else’s project, make sure you are by developmentalists influences many aspects of daily
given complete information and read it thoroughly life that are governed by laws and societal rules.
At several points in the text, we will describe
important connections between human development
research and social policy. As you will see, these
connections are broad-ranging and include areas that
When the study is complete and the data have been
you may take for granted. For example, lead-based
analysed, researchers write a report of their work that
paint and lead water pipes can no longer be used in
describes what they did and why, their results, and the
many countries in the world, mainly because research
meanings of their results. The researchers will submit
by developmentalists showed that infants and young
the report to one of several scientific journals that
children who were exposed to lead (and who sometimes
specialise in human development research. Some of
ate paint chips when they flaked off or drank water
these are Child Development, Developmental Psychology,
containing lead) suffered brain damage and learning
Psychology and Aging, and the Journals of Gerontology. If
problems. Research on human development not only
the journal editor accepts the report, it will appear in the
provides many insights into what makes people tick but
journal, where other human development researchers
also can provide ways to improve the quality of life.
can learn of the results
However, the views of scientists, ethicists, public
These reports of research are the basis for virtually all
citizens, and government sometimes interact in ways
the information we present in this book. You have already
that result in significant debate concerning research.
encountered many citations of research in the format of
This is the case with stem cell research, a hotly debated
names in parentheses, followed by a date, like this:
topic. We will consider controversial topics such as this
(Vilakazi & Jones, 2015) throughout this text.

32 Cuartrer 1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Test yourself 1.3

1. In people are observed as they Interpret

behave spontaneously in a real-life setting.
© How could a longitudinal design be used to test
2. A(n) is a group of individuals thought to Piaget’s theory?
be representative of some larger population of interest.
3. The variable is measured in an Apply
experiment to evaluate the impact of the variable e While at work, you notice that some people
that was manipulated. advance faster in their careers than other people
do. How could you determine what factors might
Se
length of time oeto ee
complete ees eee
the work, loss ofne be responsible for or related to such success?
research participants over time, and : Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.
5. Human development researchers must submit
their plans for research to a review board that
determines whether the research

1.1 Thinking about development What are the basic forces in the biopsychosocial
What fundamental issues of development have framework? How does the timing of these forces
scholars addressed throughout history? make a difference in their impact?
e Development is based on the combined impact of four
e Three main issues are prominent in the study of human
development. The nature-nurture issue involves the degree
primary forces. Biological forces include all genetic and
health-related factors that affect development. Many of
to which genetics and the environment influence human
development. Researchers view nature and nurture as
these biological forces are determined by our genetic
code.
mutually interactive influences, and development is shaped
© Psychological forces include all internal cognitive,
by both. The continuity-discontinuity issue concerns
emotional, perceptual, and personality factors that
whether the same explanations (continuity) or different
influence development. Collectively, psychological forces
explanations (discontinuity) must be used to explain changes
explain the most noticeable differences in people
in people over time. Continuity approaches emphasise
© Sociocultural forces include interpersonal, societal,
quantitative change, while discontinuity approaches
cultural, and ethnic factors that affect development.
emphasise qualitative change. In the issue of universal versus
Culture consists of the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour
context-specific development, the question is whether
associated with a group of people. Overall, sociocultural
foe ee ae a ie cca eee i forces provide the context or backdrop for development.

SUMMARY 33

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
© Life-cycle forces provide a context for understanding complexity The competence-environmental press
how people perceive their current situation and what theory suggests that there 1s a ‘best fit’ between a person's
effect it has on them abilities and the demands of the person's environment.
© The biopsychosocial framework emphasises that the four
forces are mutually interactive Development cannot What are the major tenets of life-span and life-course
be understood by examining the forces 1n 1solation theories?
Furthermore, the same event can have different effects, © According to the life-span perspective, human
depending on when it happens. development 1s characterised by four critical
How does neuroscience enhance our understanding developmental forces: multidirectionality, plasticity,
historical context, and multiple causation
of human development?
e Selective optimisation with compensation refers to the
© Neuroscience 1s the study of the brain and the nervous
developmental trends to focus one’s efforts and abilities
system, especially in terms of brain-behaviour
in successively fewer domains as one ages and to acquire
relationships Identifying patterns of brain activity helps
ways to compensate for normative losses.
demonstrate how developmental forces interact.
e The life-course perspective refers to understanding
1.2 Developmental theories human development within the context of the historical
time period in which a generation develops, which
What ts a developmental theory? creates unique sets of experiences.
© Developmental theories organise knowledge so as to
provide testable explanations of human behaviours 1.3 Doing developmental research
and the ways in which they change over time. Current
approaches to developmental theory focus on specific
How do scientists measure topics of interest in
aspects of behaviour. At present, there 1s no single unified studying human development?
theory of human development. © Research typically begins by determining how to measure
the topic of interest Systematic observation involves
How do psychodynamic theories account for
recording people's behaviour as 1t takes place, in either
development? a natural environment (naturalistic observation) or a
© Psychodynamic theories propose that behaviour 1s structured setting (structured observation) Researchers
determined by the way people deal with conflicts they sometimes create tasks to obtain samples of behaviour.
face at different ages. Erikson proposed a life-span theory In self-reports, people answer questions posed by the
of psychosocial development consisting of eight universal experimenter. Physiological measures provide a way to
stages, each characterised by a particular struggle examine body-behaviour relationships.
What is the focus of learning theories of development? © Researchers must determine that their measures are
reliable and valid, they must also obtain a sample
© Learning theory focuses on the development of observable
representative of a larger population.
behaviour Operant conditioning 1s based on the notions
of reinforcement, punishment, and environmental control What research designs are used to study human
of behaviour Social learning theory proposes that people development?
learn by observing and interpreting others’ behaviour.
In correlational studies, investigators examine relations
How do cognitive-developmental theories explain among variables as they occur naturally. This relation 1s
changes in thinking? often measured by a correlation coefficient, which can
© Cognitive-developmental theory focuses on thought vary from —1 (strong inverse relation) to 0 (no relation)
processes. Piaget proposed a four-stage universal sequence to +1 (strong positive relation) Correlational studies
based on the notion that throughout development, people cannot determine cause and effect, so researchers do
create theories to explain how the world works According experimental studies in which an independent variable
to information-processing theory, people deal with 1s manipulated and the impact of this manipulation on
information like a computer does; development consists a dependent variable 1s recorded. Experimental studies
of increased efficiency in handling information. Vygotsky allow conclusions about cause and effect, but the required
emphasised the influence of culture on development. strict control of other variables often makes the situation
artificial. The best approach 1s to use both experimental
What are the main points in the ecological and and correlational studies to provide converging evidence
systems approach? Qualitative research permits more in-depth analysis of
e Bronfenbrenner proposed that development occurs in the behaviour and 1s often used as a preliminary step for, or
context of several interconnected systems of increasing in conjunction with, quantitative research.
34 Cuarptrer 1 THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

human development (4) mesosystem (18) answers
nature-nurture issue (5) exosystem (18)
continuity-discontinuity macrosystem (18) 1 1. genetics 2. continuity 3. Biological 4. brain-behaviour
issue (6) competence (18) 2 1. Theories 2. psychosocial 3. observing others
universal and context- environmental press (18) 4. cognitive-developmental 5. microsystem 6. life-span
specific development life-span perspective (19)
issue (6) selective optimisation 3 1. naturalistic observation 2. sample 3. dependent
biological forces (6) with compensation 4. influence of repeated testing on a person's
psychological forces (7) (SOC) model (19) performance 5. preserves the nghts of research participants
sociocultural forces (7) life-course perspective (20)
life-cycle forces (7) systematic observation (23)
biopsychosocial naturalistic
framework (7) observation (23)
neuroscience (10) structured observations
theory (12) (23)
psychodynamic theories self-reports (24)
(12) reliability (25)
psychosocial theory (12) validity (25)
epigenetic principle (12) populations (25)
operant conditioning (13) sample (25)
reinforcement (13) correlational study (26)
punishment (14) correlation coefficient (26)
imitation or observa- experiment (27)
tional learning (14) independent variable (27)
self-efficacy (14) dependent variable (27)
information-processing qualitative research (28)
theory (16) longitudinal study (28)
zone of proximal cross-sectional study (28)
development (17) cohort effects (30)
ecological theory (17) sequential design (30)
microsystem (18) meta-analysis (31)
SUMMARY 35

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Raghts Reserved Muy mot be copied, xcammed, oe duplicated. im whole oe in part. Dur to clectromnc nights, some therd party costes mury he muppecescd from the cfiook andive oChapter|s).
Edtonal semew bos deemed that any euppromed cretion! docs sot mustcnally affect the overall kamnme cxpenceee. Cengage Leareung reacrvex the night to remove additonal coesiomt af any tre if subsequent neh sednctoes rogaine a.
Biological foundations:
Heredity, prenatal development,
and birth
Chapter outline

2.1 In the beginning: 23 pairs of

chromosomes 37
Mechanisms of heredity 37
Genetic disorders 41
Heredity, environment, and
development 42
Real people: Applying human
development: Ben and Matt
pick their niches 47

2.2 From conception to birth 48

Period of the zygote (weeks
1-2) 49
What do you think? Conception
in the 21st century 50
Period of the embryo (weeks
3-8) 51
Period of the foetus (weeks
9-38) 52

2.3 Influences on prenatal

development 55
General risk factors 55
Teratogens: Drugs, diseases, and
environmental hazards 57
How teratogens influence
prenatal development 59
Prenatal diagnosis and
treatment 61

2.4 Labour and delivery 64

Stages of labour 64
Approaches to childbirth 65
Adjusting to parenthood 66
Birth complications 67
Spotlight on research: Links
between maternal depression
and children’s behaviour
problems 68
Infant mortality 69

Summary 71

Key terms 73

All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scammed, or duplicated m whole oe in part. Dur to electronic nights, some thend party costent may he suppressed fern dye clink made Chapters)
reseed center chars set astenadly affect the overall kame cxpeneree. Cengage Leareung reserves the night w remove additonal comer af ary tame if submeqpael fygtvis neeirictooms nexpenne
and the focus of this chapter about the timetable that governs
you ask parents to name the
Pregnancy begins when egg and development before birth and, along
most memorable experiences
sperm cells unite and exchange the way, get answers to common
of their lives, many immediately
hereditary material. In the first section, questions about pregnancy. We talk
mention the events associated with
you'll see how this exchange takes about some of the problems that can
the birth of their children From the
place and, in the process, learn occur during development before birth
initial exciting news that a woman
about inherited factors that affect in the third section of the chapter The
Is pregnant to the birth nine months
development. The second section of last section focuses on birth and the
later, pregnancy and birth evoke awe
the chapter follows the events that newborn baby. You'll find out how an
and wonder
transform sperm and egg into a living, expectant mother can prepare for birth
The period before birth is the
breathing, human being You'll learn and what labour and delivery are like
foundation for all human development

F%] In the beginning: 23 pairs of chromosomes

Learning objectives

® Describe chromosomes and genes and explain how they carry hereditary information from one
generation to the next.

e Identify common problems involving chromosomes, and describe their consequences.

® Explain how children’s heredity is influenced by the environment in which they grow up.

Mbali and Rendani are excited at the thought with the disease die by age 20 and 50% die by age 50
of starting their own family At the same time, (Kumar et al., 2010) Sickle-cell disease is inherited,
they’re nervous because Mbali’s grandfather and because Mbali’s grandfather had the disorder, it
had sickle-cell disease and died when he runs in her family
was just 20 years old. Mbali is terrified that The disease is predominantly found in people of
her baby may inherit the disease that killed African and Hispanic descent; another South African
her grandfather. She and Rendani wish that group who are prone to a particular disease are people
someone could reassure them that their baby of Indian descent, who are more likely to suffer from
will be okay thalassemia, where the body makes an abnormal form
of haemoglobin (Winship & Beighton, 2011)
How can we reassure Mbali and Rendani? For Will Mbali’s baby inherit sickle-cell disease?
starters, we need to know more about sickle-cell To answer that question, we need to examine the
disease. Red blood cells carry oxygen and carbon mechanisms of heredity.
dioxide to and from the body When a person has
sickle-cell disease, the red blood cells are long and
curved like a sickle. These stiff, misshapen cells
cannot pass through small capillaries, so oxygen At conception, egg and sperm unite to create a new
cannot reach all parts of the body The trapped sickle organism that incorporates some characteristics
cells also block the path of white blood cells, which of each parent. Each egg and sperm cell has
are the body’s natural defence against bacteria As a 23 chromosomes, threadlike structures in the
result, many people with sickle-cell disease are often
tired, may experience acute pain for hours or days, chromosomes Threadlike structures in the nuclei of cells that
contain genetic material.
and are likely to get infections About 10% of people

‘opyraght
2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be coped, scammed, or duplicated, im whole or in part. Duc to clectrosic nghts, sore thind party content mury he mappecescd teoen the clock andice cChapter|s).
aeview bon deaned that any wppromed comicat dacs aot maximally affect the overall amung expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night to remove additional coment af any tne if submequent mgt sednctooes noqaare at.
nucleus that contain genetic material. When a sperm Each chromosome actually consists of one molecule of
penetrates an egg, their chromosomes combine to deoxyribonucleic acid - DNA for short. To understand
produce 23 pairs of chromosomes. The first 22 pairs the structure of DNA, imagine four different colours of
of chromosomes are called autosomes. The 23rd pair beads placed on two strings. The strings complement
determines the sex of the child, so these are known as each other precisely: wherever a red bead appears on
the sex chromosomes. When the 23rd pair consists of one string, a blue bead appears on the other; wherever a
an X and a Y chromosome, the result is a boy; two X green bead appears on one string, a yellow one appears
chromosomes produce a girl. on the other. DNA is organised this way, except that
the four colours of beads are four different chemical
compounds: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
The strings are made up of phosphates and sugars, and
they wrap around each other, creating the double helix
shown in @ FIGURE 2.1.

A Red blood cells like the one on the left carry oxygen throughout
the body. However, in sickle-cell disease, sickle-Shaped cells like
the one on the right cannot pass through the body's small blood
vessels

Strands of
phosphates
and sugars

Nucleotide bases
(A = Adenine,
T= Thymine,
G = Guanine,
C = Cytosine)

hn ot
iB)

autosomes First 22 pairs of chromosomes.

sex chromosomes The 23rd pair of chromosomes; these

The order in which the chemical compound ‘beads’
determine the sex of the child.
appear is a code that causes the cell to create specific
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Molecule composed of four amino acids, proteins, and enzymes - important
nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity.
biological building blocks For example, three

38 Cuarrenr2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, AND BIRTH

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learmsng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copaed, scammed, of duplicated im whole of in part. Dur to clectrosic rights, some third party mt mrury he mappeenned teen dre effhowk mndle oC ea
lidacned eettew hon downed thet any suppremed coment dace mot mustmally affect the overall kammg cxpencnee. Cengage Learning reserves the right t0 remove ald seal crevterst af aery torne if sudmeqpacest reir: neairict
consecutive thymine ‘beads’ make up the instruction for sickle-shaped cells is recessive. This is good news
to create the amino acid phenylalanine. Each group of for Mbali as long as either she or Rendani contributes
compounds that provides a specific set of biochemical the allele for normal red blood cells, their baby will not
instructions is a gene. Thus, genes are the functional develop sickle-cell disease.
units of heredity because they determine the production @ FIGURE 2.2 summarises what we've learned
of chemical substances that are, ultimately, the basis for about sickle-cell disease: A denotes the allele for
all human characteristics and abilities. normal blood cells, and a denotes the allele for sickle-
Altogether, a person’s 46 chromosomes include shaped cells. Depending on the alleles in Mbali’s egg
roughly 20 500 genes Chromosome | has the most and in the sperm that fertilises that egg, three outcomes
genes (nearly 3 000), and the Y chromosome has the are possible. The baby is only likely to develop sickle-
fewest (just over 200). Most of these genes are the cell disease if it inherits two recessive alleles for sickle-
same for all people — fewer than 1% of genes cause shaped cells But this is unlikely in Rendani’s case. He
differences between people (Human Genome Project, is positive that no one in his family has had sickle-
2003). Through biochemical instructions that are cell disease, so he almost certainly has the allele for
coded in DNA, genes regulate the development of all normal blood cells on both of the chromosomes in his
human characteristics and abilities. The complete set 11th pair
of genes makes up a person's heredity and is known as Even though Rendani’s sperm will carry the gene
the person’s genotype. Genetic instructions, together for normal red blood cells, this doesn’t guarantee
with environmental influences, produce a phenotype, that their baby will be healthy Why? Sometimes one
an individual's physical, behavioural, and psychological allele does not dominate another completely, a situation
features. known as incomplete dominance In incomplete
How do genetic instructions produce the misshapen dominance, the phenotype that results often falls
red blood cells of sickle-cell disease? Genes come in between the phenotype associated with either allele.
different forms that are known as alleles. For example, This is the case for the genes that control red blood
in the case of red blood cells, two alleles can be present cells. Individuals with one dominant and one recessive
on chromosome 11. One allele has instructions for allele have sickle-cell trait in most situations they
normal red blood cells; another allele has instructions
for sickle-shaped red blood cells The alleles in the
pair of chromosomes are sometimes the same, which is
gene Group of nucleotide bases that provides a specific set of
known as being homozygous The alleles sometimes biochemical instructions.
differ, which is known as being heterozygous. Mbali’s
genotype Person's hereditary makeup.
baby would be homozygous if it had two alleles for
normal cells or two alleles for sickle-shaped cells. The phenotype Physical, behavioural, and psychological features
baby would be heterozygous if it had one allele of each that result from the interaction between one's genes and the
environment.
type.
How does a genotype produce a phenotype? With alleles Variations of genes.
sickle-cell disease, how do genotypes lead to specific homozygous When the alleles in a pair of chromosomes are the
kinds of blood cells? The answer is simple if a person same.
is homozygous. When both alleles are the same - and heterozygous When the alleles in a pair of chromosomes differ
therefore have chemical instructions for the same from each other.
phenotype — that phenotype usually results If Mbali’s
dominant Form of an allele whose chemical instructions are
baby had an allele for normal red blood cells on both of followed.
its 11th chromosomes, then the baby would almost be
recessive Allele whose instructions are ignored in the presence of
guaranteed to have normal cells. If, instead, the baby had
a dominant allele.
two alleles for sickle-shaped cells, then it would almost
certainly suffer from the disease. incomplete dominance Situation in which one allele does not
When a person is heterozygous, the process is more dominate another completely.
complex. Often one allele is dominant, which means that sickle-cell trait Disorder in which individuals show signs of mild
its chemical instructions are followed, while those of the anemia only when they are seriously deprived of oxygen; occurs
other recessive allele are ignored. In sickle-cell disease, in individuals who have one dominant allele for normal blood
cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele.
the allele for normal cells is dominant and the allele

21 IN THE BEGINNING 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES 39

@ FIGURE 2.2 In single-gene inheritance, a heterozygous father and a

heterozygous mother can have a healthy child, a child with sickle-cell trait, or a child with
sickle-cell disease

have no problems, but when they are seriously short

of oxygen, they suffer a temporary, relatively mild ABLE 2.1 Some common phenotypes
associated with single pairs of
form of the disease. Thus, sickle-cell trait is likely to
genes
appear when the person exercises vigorously, becomes
Dominant Recessive
dehydrated, or is at high altitudes (Fidler, 2012). Mbali phenotype phenotype
and Rendani’s baby would have sickle-cell trait if it
inherits a recessive gene from Mbali and a dominant Curly hair Straight hair

gene from Rendani. Normal hair Pattern baldness (men)

The simple genetic mechanism responsible for Dark hair Blond hair

sickle-cell disease - which involves a single gene pair Thick lips Thin lips

with one dominant allele and one recessive allele — is Cheek dimples No dimples

also responsible for numerous other common traits, Normal hearing Some types of deafness
as shown in @ TABLE 2.1. In each of these instances, Normal vision Nearsightedness
individuals with the recessive phenotype have two Farsightedness Normal vision
recessive alleles, one from each parent. Individuals Normal colour vision Red-green colour
blindness
with the dominant phenotype have at least one
Type A blood Type O blood
dominant allele.
Type B blood Type O blood
Most of the traits listed in @ TABLE 2.1 are biological
Rh-positive blood Rh-negative blood
and medical phenotypes. This same genetic mechanism
can cause serious disorders, as we'll see in the next Source. McKusick, 1995.
section.

40 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

(Copyraght 3019 Cengage Lewemsag. All Rights Reserved May not be copsnd, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectromec nights, some thend party contest ery be suppeesecd torn fre cftook andice of hapter(s).
Eddttomed seview bos doomed thot aay wappromed comicnt dace act sxsicmally affect the overall kamung cxpenence. Congage Leasing rencrves the night to come additaveal content af any Gre if subsequent mete sextnichoes cepenre of.
G ic di
several months of life, development of babies with Down
syndrome seems to follow that of babies who do not have
Genetics can be an obstacle to development in two ways. the syndrome. After this, their mental and behavioural
First, some disorders are inherited. Sickle-cell disease is development lags behind that of the average child. For
one example of an inherited disorder Second, sometimes example, a child with Down syndrome might first sit up
eggs or sperm do not include the usual 23 chromosomes without help at about one year, walk at two, and talk at
but have more or fewer chromosomes instead. In the three, reaching each of these developmental milestones
next few pages, we'll see how inherited disorders and months or even years behind children without Down
abnormal numbers of chromosomes can alter a person's syndrome By childhood, most aspects of cognitive and
development. social development are seriously hindered.
Bringing up a child with Down syndrome presents
Inherited disorders special challenges During the preschool years, children
You know that sickle-cell disease is a disorder that affects with Down syndrome need special programmes to
people who inherit two recessive alleles. Another disorder prepare them for school Educational achievements of
that involves recessive alleles is phenylketonuria (PKU), a children with Down syndrome are likely to be limited,
disorder in which babies are born lacking an important liver and their average life expectancy is about 50 years
enzyme. This enzyme converts phenylalanine — an amino (Coppus, 2013) Unfortunately prenatal diagnosis
acid found in dairy products, bread, diet drinks, and fish - of Down syndrome is poor in South Africa, which
into tyrosine (another amino acid) Without this enzyme, means that early intervention opportunities are often
phenylalanine accumulates and produces poisons that missed (Willoughby et al., 2016; Urban et al., 2011).
harm the nervous system, resulting in mental disability Nevertheless, as you'll see in Chapter 6, many individuals
(Diamond et al., 1997; Mange & Mange, 1990) with Down syndrome lead full, satisfying lives.
Most inherited disorders are like sickle-cell disease What causes Down syndrome? Individuals with Down
and PKU in that they are carried by recessive alleles syndrome typically have an extra 21st chromosome that is
Few serious disorders are caused by dominant alleles usually provided by the egg (Vranekovi¢ et al., 2012). Why
Why? If the allele for the disorder is dominant, every the mother provides two 21st chromosomes is unknown.
person with at least one of these alleles would have However, the chances that a woman will bear a child with
the disorder. Individuals affected with these disorders Down syndrome increase dramatically as she gets older.
generally do not live long enough to reproduce, so For a woman in her late 20s, the risk of giving birth to
dominant alleles that produce fatal disorders soon vanish a baby with Down syndrome is about 1 in 1 000. For a
from the species. An exception is Huntington’s disease, a woman in her early 40s, the risk is about 1 in 50. Why?
fatal disease characterised by progressive degeneration of A womans eggs have been in her ovaries since her own
the nervous system. Huntington's disease is caused by a prenatal development. Eggs may deteriorate over time as
dominant allele found on chromosome 4 Individuals part of ageing or because an older woman has a longer
who inherit this disorder develop normally through history of exposure to hazards in the environment (such
childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. However, as X-rays) that may damage her eggs.
during middle age, nerve cells in the brain begin to An extra autosome (as in Down syndrome), a
deteriorate; by this time, many adults with Huntington's missing autosome, or a damaged autosome always has
have already had children, many of whom will develop far-reaching consequences for development because the
the disease themselves. autosomes contain huge amounts of genetic material. In
fact, nearly half of all fertilised eggs abort spontaneously
within two weeks - primarily because of abnormal
Abnormal chromosomes autosomes. So, most eggs that cannot develop normally
Sometimes individuals do not receive the normal are removed naturally (Moore & Persaud, 1993).
complement of 46 chromosomes. If they are born with
extra, missing, or damaged chromosomes, development
phenylketonuria (PKU) Inherited disorder in which the infant
is disturbed. The best example is Down syndrome. lacks a liver enzyme.
People with Down syndrome have almond-shaped
eyes and a fold over the eyelid. Their head, neck, and Huntington’s disease Progressive and fatal type of dementia
caused by dominant alleles.
nose are usually smaller than normal During the first

21 IN THE BEGINNING 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES 41

Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY 1 in 500 male Tall, small testicles, sterile, below-average
births intelligence, passive
XYY complement XYY 1 in 1000 male Tall, some cases apparently have below-average
births intelligence
Turner's syndrome Xx 1in 2500-5000 Short, limited development of secondary sex
female births characteristics, problems perceiving spatial relations
XXX syndrome XXX 1 in 500-1 200 Average stature but delayed motor and language
female births development

H fi . 1 dev l
Abnormal sex chromosomes can also disrupt
development @ TABLE 2.2 lists four of the more
Many people mistakenly view heredity as a set of
frequent disorders associated with atypical numbers of X
phenotypes unfolding automatically from the genotypes
and Y chromosomes. However, frequent is a relative term.
that are set at conception. Nothing could be further
although these disorders are more frequent than PKU or
Huntingtons disease, most are uncommon. Notice that no from the truth Although genotypes are fixed when the
sperm fertilises the egg, phenotypes are not. Instead,
disorders consist solely of Y chromosomes. The presence
of an X chromosome appears to be necessary for life. phenotypes depend both on genotypes and on the
Most of us receive the correct number of environment in which individuals develop.
To begin our study of heredity and environment, we
chromosomes and do not inherit life-threatening
need to look first at the methods that developmental
illnesses. For most people, heredity reveals its power in
scientists use
creating a unique individual — a person unlike any other
Now that you understand the basic mechanisms of
heredity, we can learn how heredity and environment Behavioural genetics: Mechanisms and
work together to produce behavioural and psychological methods
development.
Behavioural genetics is the branch of genetics that
deals with inheritance of behavioural and psychological
traits Behavioural genetics is complex, in part,
because behavioural and psychological phenotypes
are complex. Traits controlled by single genes are
usually ‘either-or’ phenotypes A person either has
dimpled cheeks or not, a person either has normal
colour vision or red-green colour blindness; a person's
blood either clots normally or it does not In contrast,
most important behavioural and psychological
characteristics are not of an ‘either—or’ nature, rather,
a range of different outcomes is possible. Think about
extraversion as an example. You probably know a few
extremely outgoing individuals and a few intensely shy
persons, but most of your friends and acquaintances
are somewhere in between; extroversion forms a
spectrum ranging from extreme extroversion at one
end to extreme introversion at the other.

Think about it

Introversion—extroversion is an example of
a psychological characteristic that defines
a spectrum. Think of other psychological
A Children with Down syndrome typically have upward slanting eyes characteristics like this, in which outcomes are
with a fold over the eyelid, a flattened facial profile, and a smaller
not ‘either—or' but are distributed across a range.
than average nose and mouth

42 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

14
Number of different genotypes

3 4 5 6
Number of dominant alleles for extroversion (phenotype)

@ FIGURE 2.3 Many behavioural phenotypes represent a spectrum (with many people falling at the middle of the
spectrum) This can be caused by many genes working together

21 IN THE BEGINNING 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES 43

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
If many behavioural phenotypes involve countless size ofa postage stamp - that contains thousands of
genes, how can we hope to unravel the influence of known sequences of DNA. Every match between the
heredity* Twins and adopted children provide some child’s DNA and the known sequences is recorded,
important clues to the role of heredity. In twin studies, creating a profile of the child’s genotype. Researchers
researchers compare identical and fraternal twins. then look to see if the genotype is associated with
Identical twins are called monozygotic twins because behaviour phenotypes. For example, recent research
they come from a single fertilised egg that splits in two has identified genes that might be linked to children’s
Because identical twins come from the same fertilised disability in reading and mathematics (Petrill, 2016).
egg, the same genes control their body structure, height, This kind of molecular genetics research is
and facial features, which explains why identical twins challenging, in part because detecting the tiny effects
look alike. In contrast, fraternal or dizygotic twins of individual genes requires samples of thousands
come from two separate eggs fertilised by two separate of children. But this research has the potential to
sperm Genetically, fraternal twins are just like any link individual genes to behaviour. And when used
other siblings - on average, about half their genes are with traditional methods of behavioural genetics
the same In twin studies, scientists compare identical (e.g., adoption studies), the new methods promise
and fraternal twins to measure the influence of heredity much greater understanding of how genes influence
When identical twins are more alike than fraternal behaviour and development (Plomin, 2013).
twins, this suggests the role of heredity
Adopted children are another important source of
information about heredity They are compared with
their biological parents, who provide the children’s
genes, and their adoptive parents, who provide the
children’s environment. If an adopted child’s behaviour
resembles that of his or her biological parents, this shows
the impact of heredity; if the adopted child’s behaviour
resembles his or her adoptive parents, this shows the
influence of the environment.
These and other methods are not foolproof A
potential flaw in twin studies is that parents and others
may treat monozygotic twins more similarly than they
treat dizygotic twins. This would make monozygotic
twins more similar than dizygotic twins in their
experiences as well as in their genes Each method
of study has its unique disadvantages, but if different
methods support the same conclusion about the
influence of heredity, then we can be confident of that
result. Throughout this book, you'll see many instances
where twin studies and adoption studies have pointed to
genetic influences on human development.
Behavioural geneticists are now moving beyond twin
and adoption studies to connect behaviour to molecular
genetics (Plomin, 2013; Trzaskowski et al., 2014). Today,
A Identical twins are called monozygotic twins because they came
researchers can obtain DNA by taking a sample of cheek from a single fertilised egg that split in two; consequently, they
cells from inside a child’s mouth. A solution containing have identical genes
the DNA is placed on a microarray - a ‘chip’ about the
Throughout the rest of this book, you'll encounter
many instances that show the combined influences of
monozygotic twins The result of a single fertilised egg splitting to
heredity and environment on human development
form two new individuals; also called identical twins.
In the next few pages, however, we want to mention
dizygotic twins The result of two separate eggs fertilised by two some general principles of heredity - environment
sperm; also called fraternal twins.
interactions

44 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcanned, or duplicated. am whole or in part. Duc to clectronic nights, some therd party contest may he wppeeased thom the eBook andice cChapter(s)
Edaomad seview ton deaned that any wuppromed comin! dacs sot maimally affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Leareing rescrvex the night t remove additioeal coment af any tame if audecquent neh sednchoes moqain
Paths from genes to behaviour a stressful childhood, they begin to menstruate at a
How do genes work together — for example, to make younger age (Sung et al., 2016). The exact pathway
some children brighter than others and some more of influence is unknown, although it probably
outgoing than others? That is, how does the information involves the hormones that are triggered by stress
in strands of DNA influence a person's behavioural and and those that initiate ovulation. Whatever the
psychological development? In the next few pages, we'll cause, this 1s a clear case in which the environment
discover some general properties of the paths linking advances the genes that regulate the developmental
clock (Ellis, 2004).
genes to behaviour.
We've used a rare disease (PKU) and a once-in-
1. Heredity and environment interact dynamically a-lifetime event (onset of menstruation) to show
throughout development. A traditional but simple- intimate connections between nature and nurture
minded view of heredity and environment is that in human development. These examples may make
heredity provides the clay of life and experience it seem as if such connections are rare, but nothing
does the sculpting. In fact, genes and environments could be further from the truth. At a biological level,
constantly interact to produce phenotypes genes always operate in a cellular environment.
throughout a person's development (LaFreniere & Genetic instructions interact constantly with the
MacDonald, 2013). We often think there is a direct nature of the immediate cellular environment,
link between a genotype and a phenotype — given which can be influenced by a host of much broader
a certain genotype, a specific phenotype occurs, environmental factors (such as, hormones triggered
necessarily and automatically. But in fact, the path by a child’s experiences). This continuous interplay
from genotype to phenotype is more complicated between genes and multiple levels of the environment
and less direct than this. A more accurate (from cells to culture) that drives development is
description would be that a genotype leads to a known as epigenesis.
phenotype but only if the environment ‘cooperates’ Returning to the analogy of sculpting clay, an
in the usual manner. epigenetic view of moulding would be that new
A good example of this genotype-phenotype and different forms of genetic clay are constantly
link is seen in the disease phenylketonuria (PKU being added to the sculpture, leading to resculpting
for short), PKU is a homozygous recessive trait by the environment, which causes more clay to be
in which phenylalanine accumulates in the child’s added, and the cycle continues. Hereditary clay
body, damaging the nervous system and leading and environmental sculpting are continuously
to stunted mental development. Phenylalanine interweaving and influencing each other.
is abundant in many foods that most children Research in molecular genetics has begun to
eat regularly - meat, chicken, eggs, cheese — so reveal ways in which experiences get ‘under the skin’
that the environment usually provides the input Sometimes experiences change the expression of
(phenylalanine) necessary for the phenotype DNA - the genetic code is preserved but some genes
(PKU) to emerge. However, in the middle of the are ‘turned off’. This process is known as methylation
20th century, the biochemical basis for PKU was because the chemical silencer is a methyl molecule
discovered, and now newborns can be tested for (van IJzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, &
the disorder. Infants who have the genotype for the Ebstein, 2011) To illustrate, adversity early in life
disease are immediately placed on a diet that limits has been linked to increased methylation of a gene
phenylalanine, and the disease does not appear; that helps regulate the body’s response to stress
their nervous system develops normally. In more (Boyce & Kobor, 2015; Conradt, 2017). In other
general terms, a genotype is expressed differently words, an experience (early adversity) led to changes
(no disease) when it is exposed to a different in heredity (a gene linked to stress regulation was
environment (one lacking phenylalanine). ‘turned off’).
The effect can work in the other direction, too, Because of the epigenetic principle, you need
with the environment triggering genetic expression. to be cautious when you read statements such
That is, people's experiences can help to determine as “X per cent of a trait 1s due to heredity’. In fact,
how and when genes are activated. For instance, behavioural geneticists often use correlations from
when infant girls do not have a strong emotional twin and adoption studies to calculate a heritability
attachment with their mothers and also experience coefficient, which estimates the extent to which

21 IN THE BEGINNING 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES 45

(Coperagit
2099 Congage Learmung. All Raptes Reserved May mot be copied, xcammed, or duplicated m whol of in part. Dur to clectreenc nights, some therd party contest mury he eappeessed feoen tre cfhook andiive eChapter|+)
Dharwad seeww hae doomed that any suppromed comncmt dacs mot muzicmadly affect the overall kame cupenence. Cengage Learing reserves the npbt to remove addrteeal crentert! at ary tare rf satmequent neteh sedincteees regen @
differences between people reflect heredity. For people can we understand the many ways in which
example, intelligence has a heritability coefficient genes and environments propel children along their
of about 0 5, which means that about 50% of the developmental journeys (Tucker-Drob et al., 2013)
differences in intelligence between people are due to Genes can influence the kind of environment to which
heredity (Bouchard, 2004) a person is exposed. In other words, ‘nature’ can help
Why be cautious? One reason is that many to determine the kind of ‘nurturing’ that a child
people mistakenly interpret heritability coefficients receives (Scarr, 1992, Scarr & McCartney, 1983)
to mean that 50% of an individual’ intelligence is A person's genotype can lead others to respond in
due to heredity. This is incorrect because heritability a specific way For example, imagine someone who
coefficients apply to groups of people, not to a single is bright and outgoing, partly because of her genes.
person As a child, she may receive plenty of attention and
A second reason for caution is that heritability encouragement from teachers. In contrast, someone
coefficients apply only to a specific group of people who is not as bright and is more withdrawn (again,
living in a specific environment. They cannot be due in part to heredity) may be easily overlooked by
applied to other groups of people living in the same teachers. In addition, as children grow and become
environment or to the same people living elsewhere more independent, they actively seek environments
For example, a child’s height is certainly influenced that fit their genetic makeup. Children who are
by heredity, but the value of a heritability coefficient bright may actively seek peers, adults, and activities
depends on the environment. When children grow in that strengthen their intellectual development.
an environment that has ample nutrition — allowing Similarly, people who are outgoing may seek the
all children to grow to their full genetic potential company of other people, particularly extroverts
- heritability coefficients are large. But when some like themselves. This process of deliberately seeking
children receive inadequate nutrition, this aspect of environments that fit one’s heredity is called niche-
their environment will limit their height and, in the picking. Niche-picking is first seen in childhood
process, reduce the heritability coefficient. and becomes more common as children grow
Similarly, the heritability coefficient for cognitive older and can control their environments. Through
skill is larger for parents who are well educated niche-picking, the environment amplifies genetic
than for parents who aren't (Tucker-Drob, Briley, differences as, for example, bright children seek
& Harden, 2013). Why? Well-educated parents intellectually stimulating environments that make
more often provide the academically stimulating them even smarter and extroverted children seek
environment that promotes a child’s cognitive socially stimulating environments that make them
development. Consequently, cognitive skill in this even more outgoing (Tucker-Drob et al., 2013) The
group usually reflects heredity. In contrast, less “Real people’ feature shows niche-picking in action.
educated parents often provide a smaller amount of . Environmental influences typically make children
the needed stimulation. So, cognitive skill reflects a within a family different One of the fruits of
mixture of genetic and environmental influences. behavioural genetic research is greater understanding
This brings us back to the principle that began of the manner in which environments influence
this section: ‘Heredity and environment interact people (Harden, 2014). Traditionally, scientists
dynamically throughout development’. Both genes considered some environments beneficial and
and environments are powerful influences on others detrimental for people. This view has been
development, but we can understand one only especially strong in regard to family environments
by also considering the other. This is why it is Some parenting practices are thought to be more
essential to expand research beyond the middle- effective than others, and parents who use these
class, European American participants who have effective practices are believed to have children who
dominated the samples of scientists studying human are, on average, better off than children of parents
development. Only by studying diverse groups of who don't use these practices This view leads to a
simple prediction: children within a family should
heritability coefficient A measure (derived from a correlation be similar because they all receive the same type of
coefficient) of the extent to which a trait or characteristic is effective (or ineffective) parenting. However, dozens
inherited.
of behavioural genetic studies show that, in reality,
niche-picking Process of deliberately seeking environments that siblings are not very much alike in their cognitive and
are compatible with one's genetic makeup. social development (Plomin & Spinath, 2004)

CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

_—:.
ret

A Children who are outgoing often like to be with other people and & Children’s experiences within a family typically make them
deliberately seek them out; this ts an example of niche-picking different from one another, not more alike

Does this mean that family environment is not that families create multiple unique environments, one
important? No. These findings point to the importance for each person in the family.
of nonshared environmental influences, the forces Much of what we have said about genes, environment,
within a family that make children different from one and development is summarised in @e FIGURE 2.4
another Although the family environment is important, (Lytton, 2000). Parents are the source of children’s genes
it usually affects each child in a unique way, making and, at least for young children, the main source of
siblings different. Each child is likely to have different children’s experiences. Children’s genes also influence
experiences in daily family life For example, parents the experiences they have and the impact of those
may be more affectionate with one child than another, experiences on them. However, to capture the idea of
they may use more physical punishment with one child nonshared environmental influences, we would need
than another, or they may have higher expectations a separate diagram for each child, reflecting the fact
for school achievement by one child than another. All that parents provide unique genes and a unique family
these contrasting parental influences tend to make environment for each of their offspring.
siblings different, not alike (Liang & Eley, 2005). Family
environments are important, but — as we describe their nonshared environmental influences Forces within a family that
influence throughout this book - you should remember make siblings different from one another.

21 IN THE BEGINNING 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES 47

@ FIGURE 2.4 Parents influence their children by providing genes

and experiences; children’s genes and their environments work together
to shape development.

Test yourself 2.1

Recall Apply
1. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are called ¢ Mbali and Rendani, the couple concerned that
their baby could have sickle-cell disease, are
already planning their baby’s life course. Mbali,
2. sreflects the combined
who has always loved to sing, is confident that her
activity of a number of distinct genes.
baby will be a fantastic musician and imagines a
3. Individuals with have an routine of music lessons, rehearsals, and concerts.
extra 21st chromosome, usually inherited from Rendani, a pilot, is just as confident that his child
the mother. will share his love of flying; he is already planning
When a fertilised egg has defective autosomes, trips the two of them can take together. What
the usual result is that advice might you give to Mbali and Rendani
about factors they are ignoring?
5. Nonshared environmental influences tend to
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
make siblings end of the chapter.
Interpret
e Explain how niche-picking shows the interaction
between heredity and environment.

F) From conception to birth

Learning objectives

® Describe what happens to a fertilised egg in the first two weeks after conception.

® Identify when body structures and internal organs emerge in prenatal development.

® State when body systems begin to function well enough to support life.

Lekeshia has just learned that she is pregnant ‘what happens when’ during pregnancy.
with her first child. Like many other parents- Lekeshia is eager to visit her gynaecologist to
to-be, she and her husband are ecstatic. But learn more about the timetable of events during
they also realise how little they know about pregnancy

48 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

prenatal development The many changes that turn a fertilised

¢gg into a newborn human.
A In this photo, the tail of the sperm can be seen clearly but the zygote Fertilised egg, created when a sperm cell penetrates an egg.
sperm has burrowed so deeply that the head is barely visible
implantation Step in which the zygote burrows into the uterine
wall and establishes connections with the woman's blood vessels.

*Perhaps you've heard that pregnancy lasts 40 weeks and wonder germ disc Small cluster of cells near the centre of the zygote that
why we say that prenatal development lasts 38 weeks. The reason eventually develop into the baby.
is that the 40 weeks of pregnancy are measured from the start of
placenta Structure through which nutrients and wastes are
a woman's last menstrual period, which typically is about 2 weeks
exchanged between the mother and the developing child.
before conception.

22 FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH 49

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcanned, ce duplicated. 1m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some therd party contest mury he wuppeesscd thom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
WHAT DO YOU ThINK? Designer embryos? Today, parents
can ask that the genes of a fertilised
egg be analysed before rt is implanted
MCU AR HCl in a woman's uterus This procedure,
known as preimplantation genetic
screening (PGS), is typically used with
couples known to be at nsk of genetic
disorders (e.g., sickle-cell anemia) But
About 40 years ago, Louise Brown New reproductive techniques
PGS can also be used to determine a
captured the world’s attention as offer hope for people who have long
child-to-be's gender or, for that matter,
the first test-tube baby — she was wanted a child but have been unable hair colour It could mean that if parents
conceived in a petn dish instead of to concerve, and studies of the first
aren't pleased with the test results,
in her mother’s body. Today, assisted generation of children conceived via
they can have the embryo discarded
reproductive technology is no longer these techniques indicates that their Some claim that prospective parents
experimental, according to the latest social and emotional development !s
have a right to be fully informed about
report by the African Network and normal (Golombok, 2013) But there
the properties of the embryo that will
Registry for Assisted Reproductive are difficulties For women under 35,
be implanted in the woman's uterus
Technology, it is used approximately 5 about 40% of attempts at in vitro
Others argue that this amounts to
000 times annually with South African fertilisation succeed For older women, eugenics, which is the effort to
women, producing more than 1 600 success !s less likely What's more,
improve the human species by allowing
pregnancies (Deyer, 2014) Many new when a woman becomes pregnant,
only certain people to mate and pass
techniques are available to people who she ts more likely to have twins or along their genes
cannot conceive a child through sexual triplets because multiple eggs are
in South Africa, these issues are
intercourse The best-known technique, transferred to increase the odds that
guided by ethical laws and parents
in vitro fertilisation, involves mixing at least one fertilised egg will implant or health practitioners may not
sperm and egg in a petri dish and then in the mother’s uterus (Ramalingam
discnminate against a male or female
placing several fertilised eggs in the et al., 2016) She ts also at greater foetus based on gender alone (Health
mother’s uterus, with the hope that risk of giving birth to a baby with low
Professions Council of South Afnca,
they become implanted in the uterine birth weight (Luke et al., 2016) or
2008)
wall. Other methods include injecting birth defects Finally, the procedure is Available to all? The majority
many sperm directly into the fallopian expensive — the average cost in South
of women who use assisted
tubes or a single sperm directly into Africa of a single cycle of treatment is
reproductive technology are in their
an egg (Ramalingam, Durgadevit, & between R35 000 and R65 000 — and 30s But what about 40- to 50-year-
Mahmood, 2016) often is not covered by medical aids
old women? Some argue that it is
The sperm and egg usually come These problems emphasise that
unfair for a child to have parents who
from the prospective parents, but although technology has increased
may not live until the child reaches
sometimes they are provided by donors the alternatives for infertile couples,
adulthood Others point out that
Typically, the fertilised eggs are placed pregnancy on demand ts not yet
people are living longer and that
in the uterus of the prospective mother, an everyday reality. At the same
middle-aged (or older) adults make
but sometimes they are placed in the time, the new technologies have
better parents (We discuss this issue
uterus of a surrogate mother who carries led to much controversy because of in more depth in Chapter 13.)
the baby to term This means that a baby complex ethical issues associated
What do you think? Should
could have as many as five ‘parents’ with their use One concerns the
prospective parents be allowed to ‘pick
the man and woman who provided the prospective parents’ right to select and choose’ their embryos? Should
sperm and egg; the surrogate mother particular egg and sperm cells,
new reproductive technologies be
who cared the baby, and the mother another involves who should be able
available to all, regardless of age?
and father who rear the baby. . to use this technology

in vitro fertilisation Process by which sperm and an egg are

mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a
woman's uterus.
which nutrients and wastes are exchanged between the
preimplantation genetic screening (PGS) A procedure used
to test the heredity of an egg fertilised with assisted reproductive
mother and the developing organism.
technology, typically to determine the presence of genetic disorders. Implantation and differentiation of cells mark the
end of the period of the zygote. Sheltered in the uterus,
eugenics Effort to improve the human species by letting only
people whose characteristics are valued by a society mate and pass
the zygote is well prepared for the remaining 36 weeks of
along their genes. the journey to birth.

50 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS. HEREDITY, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, AND BIRTH

@ £9 cell divides for

the first time @® 4 days: A hollow ball
of about
100 cells
@ 24-30 hours after
fertilisation
male (sperm)
and female (egg)
chromosome
material unite

@ Fertilisation usually
takes place in the upper
third of the tube, within
24 hours after ovulation

@) Ovulation: An egg cell from

the ovary enters the
fallopian
tube at 9-16 days
of the menstrual cycle

@ FIGURE 2.5 The period of the zygote spans 14 days, beginning with fertilisation of the egg in the fallopian tube and ending with
implantation of the fertilised egg in the wall of the uterus

Period of the embryo (weeks 3-8)

After the zygote is completely embedded in the uterine
wall, it is called an embryo. This new period typically
begins the third week after conception and lasts until
the end of the eighth week. During the period of the
embryo, body structures and internal organs develop.
At the beginning of this period, three layers form in the
embryo. The outer layer, or ectoderm, becomes hair, the
outer layer of skin, and the nervous system. The middle
layer, or mesoderm, forms muscles, bones, and the
circulatory system. The inner layer, or endoderm, forms
the digestive system and the lungs. 4 By the end of the period of the zygote, the fertilised egg has
A dramatic way to see these changes is to compare been implanted in the wall of the uterus and has begun to make
connections with the mother’s blood vessels.
a three-week-old embryo with an eight-week-old
embryo. The three-week-old embryo is about two
millimetres long and looks more like a salamander
than a human being, see photo (a) later in this section.
But growth and specialisation proceed so rapidly that
the eight-week-old embryo shown in photo (b) looks embryo Term given to the zygote once it is completely embedded
in the uterine wall.
distinctively human with eyes, arms, and legs The
brain and the nervous system are developing rapidly, ectoderm Outer layer of the embryo, which becomes the hair,
and the heart has been beating for nearly a month. outer layer of skin, and nervous system.
Most of the organs found in a mature human are in mesoderm Middle layer of the embryo, which becomes the
place in some form. (The sex organs are a notable muscles, bones, and circulatory system.
exception.) Yet because it is only about two centimetres endoderm Inner layer of the embryo, which becomes the lungs
long and weighs a few grams, the embryo is too small and digestive system.
for the mother to feel its presence

22 FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH 51

Copyright 2019 Cengage Leaezing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party contest mory be wappeeased thom the cock andice cChapters)
Exdttomal seview ton deaned that any wppromed comint docs sot makrally affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Learting rencrven the night to remove additioeal coment at any time if autmequent neh rednctoes mga it
The embryo'’s environment is shown in @ FIGURE
2.6. The embryo rests in a sac called the amnion, which is
filled with amniotic fluid that cushions the embryo and
maintains a constant temperature. The embryo is linked
to the mother via two structures, the placenta and the
umbilical cord. The umbilical cord houses blood vessels
that join the embryo to the placenta. In the placenta,
the blood vessels from the umbilical cord run close to
the mother’s blood vessels, allowing nutrients, oxygen,
vitamins, and waste products to be exchanged between
mother and embryo.
Growth in the period of the embryo follows two
important principles. First, the head develops before the
& (a) At five weeks after conception, the fertilised egg is about two rest of the body. Such growth, from the head to the base of
millimetres long and resembles a salamander the spine, illustrates the cephalocaudal principle. Second,
arms and legs develop before hands and feet. Growth of
parts near the centre of the body before those that are more
distant illustrates the proximodistal principle. Growth
after birth also follows these principles.

Period of the foetus (weeks 9-38) _

The final and longest phase of prenatal development, the
period of the foetus, begins at the ninth week and ends at
birth. During this period, the baby-to-be becomes much
larger and its bodily systems begin to work. The increase
in size is remarkable. At the beginning of this period, the
foetus weighs less than 30 grams. At about 4 months,
the foetus weighs roughly 100 grams, which is large
enough for the mother to feel its movements. In the last
5 months of pregnancy, the foetus gains an additional
A (b) At eight weeks after conception near the end of the period
3 to 3.5 kilograms before birth. e FIGURE 2.7, which
of the embryo, the fertilised egg ts obviously recognisable as a depicts the foetus at approximately one-eighth of its
baby-to-be actual size, shows these incredible increases in size.

@ FIGURE 2.6 The foetus is wrapped

int he amniotic sac and connected to the
mother by the umbilical cord

52 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

@ FIGURE 27 The baby-to-be becomes much larger during the period of the foetus, and its bodily systems start to work.

During the foetal period, the finishing touches are e During the fifth and sixth months after conception,
placed on the many systems essential to human life, such eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp hair emerge. The skin
as respiration, digestion, and vision. Some highlights of thickens and is covered with a thick greasy substance, or
this period include the following: vernix, that protects the foetus during its long bath in
amniotic fluid.
e At four weeks after conception, a flat set of cells curls
Perceptual systems begin to work during the period of
to form a tube. One end of the tube swells to form
the foetus. The foetus responds to touch at 14 weeks
the brain; the rest forms the spinal cord. By the start
after conception and responds to light at 26 weeks
of the foetal period, the brain has distinct structures
after conception Most impressive, however, is the
and has begun to regulate body functions. During
foetus’s sensitivity to sound. The foetus responds to
the period of the foetus, all regions of the brain grow -
sound at 29 weeks after conception and by 34 weeks
particularly the cerebral cortex, the wrinkled surface
of the brain that regulates many important human
behaviours.
amnion Inner sac in which the developing child rests.
e Near the end of the embryonic period, male
embryos develop testes and female embryos develop amniotic fluid Fluid that surrounds the foetus.
ovaries In the third month, the testes in a male umbilical cord Structure containing veins and arteries that
foetus secrete a hormone that causes a set of cells connects the developing child to the placenta.
to become a penis and scrotum In a female foetus, cephalocaudal principle A principle of physical growth that
this hormone is absent, so the same cells become a states that structures nearest the head develop first.
vagina and labia proximodistal principle Principle of physical growth that
e By about four months after conception, the foetus states that structures nearest the centre of the body develop
moves: it stretches, yawns, swallows, and moves first.
its limbs Initially, these movements are global period of the foetus Longest period of prenatal development,
and uncoordinated But over the last few months extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception.
of pregnancy, they become more differentiated
cerebral cortex Wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many
and fluid. However, foetuses differ in their level of functions that are distinctly human.
activity: some seem to be moving constantly but
others are much less active (DiPietro, Costigan, & vernix Substance that protects the foetus’s skin during
development.
Voegtline, 2015).

22 FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH 53

e The foetus can learn and remember. When a foetus Think about it
is exposed repeatedly to distinct sounds (such as its
mother’s voice) or distinct tastes (such as its mother Healthcare professionals often divide pregnancy
eats garlic), the foetus recognises those stimuli after into three trimesters of three months each. How
birth (Hepper, 2015) For example, after women do these three trimesters correspond to the
drank carrot juice frequently during the last month periods of the zygote, embryo, and foetus?

age of viability Age at which a foetus can survive outside the

womb because most of its bodily systems function adequately;
typically at seven months after conception.

Test yourself 2.2

Recall Interpret
1. The period of the zygote ends e Compare the events of prenatal development that
precede the age of viability with those that follow
it.
2. Body structures and internal organs
are created during the period of the Apply
e In the last few months before birth, the foetus
3. is called the age of has some basic perceptual and motor skills; a
viability because this is when most body systems foetus can hear, see, taste, and move. What are the
function well enough to support life. advantages of having these skills in place months
before they're needed?
4. Behaviours that emerge in the foetal period
include movement, perception of touch, light, Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
and sound, and end of the chapter.

54 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

© Describe how prenatal development is influenced by a pregnant woman's age, her nutrition, and the stress
she experiences while pregnant.

® Explain how diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards sometimes affect prenatal development.

Busi was two months pregnant at her first (found in beef, chicken, beans, spinach, and tofu) is
prenatal checkup As her appointment drew necessary to make additional hemoglobin, which carries
near, she began making a list of questions to oxygen to the body’s cells, and calcium (found in milk,
ask her gynaecologist. ‘| use my cell phone a yogurt, almonds, broccoli, and cheese) is required to
lot. Ils radiation from the phone harmful to my develop strong teeth and bones as well as a healthy heart,
baby?’ ‘When my husband and | get home from muscles, and nerves.
work, we have a glass of wine to help us unwind A diet that lacks these nutrients can harm the
from the stress of the day. Is moderate drinking developing child. For example, if mothers do not consume
like that okay?’ ‘I’m 38 | know older women are adequate amounts of folic acid, their babies are at risk of
more likely to give birth to babies with mental spina bifida, a disorder in which the embryo’ neural tube
disabilities Will | be able to find out if my baby does not close properly during the first month of pregnancy.
has a mental disability?’ When the neural tube does not close properly, the result
is permanent damage to the spinal cord and the nervous
Each of Busi’s questions concerns the possibility of harm system, so many children with spina bifida use crutches,
befalling her baby-to-be. She worries about the safety of braces, or wheelchairs (National Institute of Neurological
her cell phone, about her nightly glass of wine, and about Disorders and Stroke, 2013) To ensure that pregnant
her age. Busi’s concerns are well founded. Many factors women receive adequate amounts of folic acid and other
influence the course of prenatal development, and they nutrients, healthcare providers often recommend a
are the focus of this section. If you can answer all of vitamin/mineral supplement (Kohn, 2015).
Busi’s questions, then skip this section and go directly to
the next one Otherwise, read on to learn about problems Stress
that sometimes arise in pregnancy Does a pregnant woman's mood affect the zygote, embryo,
or foetus in her uterus? Is a woman who is happy during
pregnancy more likely to give birth to a happy baby?
As the name implies, general risk factors can have Is an agitated office worker more likely to give birth to
widespread effects on prenatal development. Scientists an irritable baby? These questions address the impact on
have identified three general risk factors: nutrition, prenatal development of chronic stress, which refers to a
stress, and a mother’s age person’ physical and psychological responses to threatening
or challenging situations. Women who report greater
Nutrition anxiety during pregnancy more often give birth early
or have babies who weigh less than average (Staneva
The mother is the developing child’s sole source of
et al., 2015; Tegethoff et al., 2010). What's more, when
nutrition, so a balanced diet that includes foods from
pregnant women are anxious, their children are less able
each of the five major food groups is vital. Most pregnant
women need to increase their intake of calories by about
spina bifida Disorder in which the embryo’ neural tube does not
10% to 20% to meet the needs of prenatal development.
In addition, pregnant women need to be sure to consume close properly.
key nutrients: folic acid (found in green leafy vegetables) stress Physical and psychological responses to threatening or
is essential for the spinal cord to develop properly, iron

23 INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 55

QI
=

A When pregnant women experience chronic stress, they're more

likely to give birth early or have smaller babies This may be
because women who are stressed are more likely to smoke or
drink and less likely to rest, exercise, and eat properly

Mother's age
Traditionally, the 20s were thought to be the prime
4 For teenage mothers and their babies, life is often a struggle
childbearing years Teenage women as well as women because the mothers are unable to cornplete their education and
who were 30 and older were considered less fit for often live in poverty

56 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghés, some thind party costest mory he suppressed trom the cfiock andlor oC hapter(s)
Edbtomad sewew bos doomed thot any wuppromed content docs sot mustcmally affect the overall kam, expenerce. Cengage Leareung reserves the night to remnowe additonal comient af any tame if subsequent mgt sedtnctooes nga ot
Are older women better suited for pregnancy? That is Teratogenic drugs and their
an important question because many women are waiting —_ oneoqences
longer than ever to have their first child. Completing Drug Potential consequences
an education and beginning a career often delay
Alcohol Foetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive deficits,
childbearing. Traditionally, older women were thought heart damage, stunted growth
to have more difficult pregnancies and more complicated
Aspirin Deficits in intelligence, attention, and motor
labour and deliveries. Today, we know that older women skills
have more difficulty getting pregnant and are less likely Caffeine Lower birth weight, decreased muscle tone
to have successful pregnancies. Women in their 20s are Cocaine Stunted growth, irritability in newborns
twice as fertile as women in their 30s (Dunson, Colombo, and heroin
& Baird, 2002), and past 35 years of age, the risks of Marijuana Lower birth weight, less motor control
miscarriage and stillbirth increase rapidly. For example, Nicotine Stunted growth, possible cognitive
among 40- to 45-year-olds, pregnancies are much more impairments
likely to result in miscarriage or in babies with low birth
weight (Khalil et al., 2013) What's more, women in their
Cigarette smoking is typical of the potential harm
40s are more likely to give birth to babies with Down
from teratogenic drugs (Cornelius et al., 1995, Espy
syndrome. However, as mothers, older women are quite
et al., 2011). The nicotine in cigarette smoke constricts
effective For example, they are just as able to provide the
blood vessels and thus reduces the oxygen and nutrients
sort of sensitive, responsive caregiving that promotes a
that can reach the foetus through the placenta So,
child’s development (Bornstein et al., 2006).
pregnant women who smoke are more likely to miscarry
In general then, prenatal development is most likely
(abort the foetus spontaneously) and to bear children
to proceed normally when women are between 20
who are smaller than average at birth (D'Onofrio et
and 35 years of age, are healthy and eat well, get good
al., 2014) Most of these harmful effects depend on the
healthcare, and lead lives that are free of chronic stress.
degree of exposure — heavy smoking is more harmful
But even in these optimal cases, prenatal development
than moderate smoking - and on the foetal genotype:
can be disrupted, as we'll see in the next section.
some children inherit genes that are more effective in
defending, in utero, against the toxins in cigarette smoke
Teratogens: Drugs, diseases, and (Price et al., 2010).
environmental
hazards Even second-hand smoke is harmful. When pregnant
women don't smoke but their environment is filled with
In the late 1950s, many pregnant women in Germany took
tobacco smoke, their babies tend to be smaller at birth,
thalidomide, a drug that helped them sleep. Soon, however,
to be born early, and to be at risk of birth defects such as
came reports that many of these women were giving birth
cleft palate or spina bifida (Hoyt et al., 2016; Meeker &
to babies with deformed arms, legs, hands, or fingers.
Benedict, 2013). These harmful effects are reduced when
Thalidomide is a powerful teratogen, an agent that causes
smoking is banned in public places and workplaces
abnormal prenatal development Ultimately, more than
(Bakolis et al., 2016)
7 000 babies worldwide were harmed before thalidomide
Alcohol also carries serious risk. Pregnant women
was withdrawn from the market (Kolberg, 1999)
who regularly consume alcoholic beverages may give birth
Prompted by the thalidomide disaster, scientists
to babies with foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).
began to study teratogens extensively Today, we know
The most extreme form, foetal alcohol syndrome
a great deal about many teratogens that affect prenatal
(FAS), is most likely in pregnant women who are heavy
development Most teratogens fall into one of three
drinkers — for example, they drink 15 or more bottles of
categories: drugs, diseases, or environmental hazards
beer over a weekend (May et al., 2013). Children with
FAS usually grow more slowly than normal and have
Drugs heart problems and misshapen faces. Like the child in
Thalidomide illustrates the harm that drugs can cause the photo, youngsters with FAS often have a small head,
during prenatal development. @ TABLE 2.3 lists several
other drugs that are known teratogens. Most of the drugs in
teratogen An agent that causes abnormal prenatal development.
the list are substances you may use routinely - Roaccutane
(used to treat acne), alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, and nicotine. foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) Disorder affecting
However, when consumed by pregnant women, they babies whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while
they were pregnant.
present special dangers (Behnke & Eyler, 1993)

23 INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 57

consumption is probably not the same for all women Chlamydia Premature birth, low birth weight, eye
inflammation
Based on their health and heredity, some women may be
Chicken pox Spontaneous abortion, developmental
able to consume more alcohol safely than others. delays, mental disability
These factors make it impossible to offer guaranteed Cytomegalovirus Deafness, blindness, abnormally small
statements about safe levels of alcohol or any of the other head, mental disabilities
drugs listed in e TABLE 2.3. For this reason, the best Genital herpes Encephalitis, enlarged spleen,
policy is for women to avoid all drugs during pregnancy improper blood clotting
Rubella (German Mental disabilities; damage to eyes,
measles) ears, and heart
Syphilis Damage to the central nervous system,
teeth, and bones
Toxoplasmosis Damage to the eyes and brain;
learning disabilities

Some of these diseases pass from the mother through

the placenta to attack the embryo or foetus directly. They
include cytomegalovirus (a type of herpes), rubella, and
syphilis. Other diseases attack during birth. The virus
is present in the lining of the birth canal, and babies
are infected as they pass through the canal. AIDS and
genital herpes are two such diseases.

Think about it

A pregnant woman reluctant to give up her

morning cup of coffee and nightly glass of wine
says, ‘I drink so little coffee and wine that it
couldn't possibly hurt my baby’. What do you
think?

The only way to guarantee that these diseases will

not harm prenatal development is for a woman not to
contract them before or during her pregnancy. Medicines
that may help to treat a woman after she becomes ill do
not prevent the disease from damaging the foetus.

A When pregnant women drink large amounts of alcohol, their Environmental hazards
children often have foetal alcoho! syndrome; these children tend
to have a small head and a thin upper lip as well as delayed mental Asa by-product of life in an industrialised world, people
development. are often exposed to toxins in food they eat, fluids

58 CHAPTER2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, AND BIRTH

Copyraght 201) Cengage Lawmag All Rights Reserved May act be copand, scammed, or duplicoted m whole of im part. Dur to clectronsc rights, scene thend party contest mery be sappercsand Sern tee cook andibe oC Teapter(s)
Exdtored scvarw bos docmed thas aay wappremed
comet dare act sxsxmolly affect the overall keomng ctpenence. Congage Leaemeg reurves the ngbt 99 ccmarve addstaseal comect at ary Gene if sobeequent mefe setnctooes nga ¢
they drink, and air they breathe. Chemicals associated You may be wondering about one common feature
with industrial waste are the most common form of of modern environments that doesn’t appear in
environmental teratogens. The quantity involved is @ TABLE 2.5. cell phones. Is the use of a cell phone by a
usually minute. However, as with drugs, amounts that pregnant woman hazardous to the health of her foetus?
go unnoticed in an adult can cause serious damage to Although the radiofrequency radiation that cell phones
the foetus. generate has sometimes been linked to health risks in
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) illustrate adults (such as cancer), the findings for pregnant women
the danger of environmental teratogens. These are inconsistent. Some studies reported greater risk for
were used in electrical transformers and paints in behavioural problems in children whose mothers used
America until the U.S. government banned them cell phones frequently during pregnancy (Divan et al.,
in the 1970s. However, PCBs (like many industrial 2012), but other studies find no harm associated with
by-products) seeped into the waterways, where they using cell phones during pregnancy (Baste et al., 2015).
contaminated fish and wildlife The amount of PCBs Of course, one way in which cell phones represent a huge
in a typical contaminated fish does not affect adults, risk for pregnant women is talking while driving, which
but when pregnant women ate large numbers of increases the odds of being in an accident by more than
PCB-contaminated fish, their children’s cognitive skills 50% (Asbridge, Brubacher, & Chan, 2013). So while we
and reading achievement were impaired (Jacobson wait for research to provide more information, the best
& Jacobson, 1996; Winneke, 2011) The manufacture advice for a pregnant woman is to keep a cell phone at a
of PCBs was banned in the 1970s, and South Africa distance when it's not being used and never use it while
signed the Stockholm Convention on Persistent driving.
Organic Pollutants in 2004, which also banned the Environmental teratogens are treacherous because
use of PCBs. Regulations on the phasing out of such people are unaware of their presence in the environment.
use came into effect in 2014 and the aim is to stop all For example, the women studied by Jacobson, Jacobson,
use of PCBs by 2023 (Govender, 2014). and Humphrey (1990) did not realise they were eating
Several environmental hazards that are known fish contaminated with PCBs. The invisibility of some
teratogens are listed in @ TABLE 2.5. In developed environmental teratogens makes it more difficult for a
nations, the most common teratogen is polluted air pregnant woman to protect herself from them Pregnant
Exposure to highly polluted air is associated with women need to be particularly careful of the foods
greater risk for premature births and lower birth they eat and the air they breathe They should clean
weight (Currie, 2013). For example, in a clever natural all foods thoroughly to rid them of insecticides and
experiment (Currie & Walker, 2011), researchers should avoid convenience foods, which often contain
studied pregnant women living near highway toll chemical additives. And they should stay away from air
plazas. When devices are installed that allow drivers to that’s been contaminated by household products such
pay tolls electronically without stopping, air pollution as cleansers, paint strippers, and fertilisers. Women
drops substantially (because cars neither wait to pay in jobs that require contact with potential teratogens
nor accelerate back to highway speed). Collecting tolls (such as housecleaners, hairdressers) should switch to
electronically produced a 10% drop in prematurity and less potent chemicals For example, they should use
low birth weight among pregnant women living near bicarbonate of soda instead of more chemically laden
the toll plazas cleansers They also should wear protective gloves,
aprons, and masks to reduce their contact with potential
teratogens Finally, because environmental teratogens
continue to increase, pregnant women should check
with a healthcare provider to learn if they should avoid
Environmental teratogens and other materials.
their consequences
Hazard Potential consequences
How teratogens influence prenatal
Air Low birth weight, premature birth, lower test
pollution scores development
Lead Mental disabilities
Scientists have identified five important general principles
Mercury Stunted growth, mental disabilities, cerebral
about how teratogens usually work by assembling all
palsy
the evidence on the harm caused by drugs, diseases,
PCBs Impaired memory and verbal skills
and environmental hazards (Hogge, 1990; Jacobson &
X-rays Stunted growth, leukaemia, mental disabilities
Jacobson, 2000; Vorhees & Mollnow, 1987).

23 INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 59

>| Ge Age of embryo

(in weeks)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16
e Indicates common site of action of teratogen

Ear Palate
= Ear

External genitalia J

Palsaisianl Gases Ea RIO USN UNOEREINIOS Ola |

@ FIGURE 2.8 The effects of a teratogen on an unborn child depend on the stage of prenatal development.
Based on Before
Vie Are Bom, 4thed by KL Moo andT VN. Persaud p 130.

60 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

Coprraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppressed trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edttomal sewew bon deaned that any wuppromed cretion! docs sot muatcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learsing reserves the night $0 remove additeoeal coetent at any tame if subsequent rghit seatnctioes neqene it.
4. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose. Just as This pattern explains why it’s often challenging
a single drop of oil won't pollute a lake, small doses for human development researchers to determine
of teratogens may not harm the foetus. In research the harm associated with individual teratogens
on PCBs, for example, cognitive skills were affected Cocaine is a perfect example You may have read
only among children who had the greatest prenatal stories in newspapers and magazines about ‘crack
exposure to these by-products. In general, the babies’ and their developmental problems. Children
greater the exposure, the greater the risk for damage exposed to cocaine during prenatal development
(Adams, 1999) An implication of this principle is that suffer from a range of problems in physical growth,
researchers should be able to determine safe levels cognitive development, behavioural regulation, and
for a teratogen In reality, this is extremely difficult psychopathology (e g., Buckingham-Howes et al.,
because sensitivity to teratogens is not the same for all 2013, Schuetze, Molnar, & Eiden, 2012). However,
people (and it’s not practical to establish safe amounts many of the problems associated with cocaine reflect,
for each person). So, the safest rule is zero exposure to in part, the impact of smoking and drinking during
teratogens. pregnancy and the inadequate parenting these children
5. Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth receive (Lambert & Bauer, 2012). Similarly, harmful
but may appear later in life. In the case of malformed effects attributed to smoking during pregnancy may
limbs, the effects of a teratogen are obvious also come from the fact that pregnant women who
immediately. Sometimes, however, the damage from a smoke are more likely to be less educated and to have a
teratogen becomes evident only as the child develops. history of psychological problems, including antisocial
For example, when women ate PCB-contaminated behaviour (D’Onofrio et al., 2013)
fish, their babies were normal at birth Their below- Of course, findings such as these don’t mean that
average cognitive skills were not evident until several pregnant women should feel free to light up (or for
months later. that matter, to shoot up) Instead, they highlight the
difficulties involved in determining the harm associated
An even more dramatic example of the delayed
with a single risk factor (e.g., smoking) when it usually
impact of a teratogen involves the drug diethylstilbestrol
occurs alongside many other risk factors (e.g., inadequate
(DES). Between 1947 and 1971, many pregnant women
parenting, continued exposure to smoke after birth)
took DES, a synthetic version of the female hormone
From what we've said so far in this section, you
estrogen, to prevent miscarriages. Their babies were
may think that the developing child has little chance of
apparently normal at birth. As adults, however,
escaping harm. But most babies are born in good health.
daughters of women who took DES are more likely to
Of course, a good policy for pregnant women is to avoid
have breast cancer or a rare cancer of the vagina. And
diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards that are
they sometimes have abnormalities in their reproductive
known teratogens. This, together with thorough prenatal
tract that make it difficult to become pregnant Sons
medical care and adequate nutrition, is the best recipe
of women who took DES are at risk of testicular
for normal prenatal development.
abnormalities and of testicular cancer (National Cancer
Institute, 2006). In this case, the impact of the teratogen P tdi «
is not evident until decades after birth.
‘I really don't care whether | have a boy or girl, just as
The real world of prenatal risk long as it’s healthy’ Millions of parents worldwide have
We have discussed risk factors individually as if felt this way, but until recently, all they could do was
each factor were the only potential threat to prenatal hope for the best. However, advances in technology
development. In reality, infants are sometimes exposed give parents a much better idea of whether their baby is
to multiple general risks and multiple teratogens. developing normally.
Pregnant women who drink alcohol often smoke and
drink coffee (Baron et al., 2013). Pregnant women Genetic counselling
who are under stress often drink alcohol and may self- Often the first step in deciding whether a couple's baby
medicate with aspirin or other over-the-counter drugs. is likely to be at risk is genetic counselling. A counsellor
Many of these same women live in poverty, which means asks about family medical history and constructs a
that they may have inadequate nutrition and receive family tree for each parent to assess the chances that their
minimal medical care during pregnancy When all child will inherit a disorder If the family tree suggests
the risks are combined, prenatal development is rarely that a parent is likely to be a carrier of the disorder,
optimal (Yumoto, Jacobson, & Jacobson, 2008). blood tests can determine the parent’s genotype.

23 INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 61

@ FIGURE 2.9 In amniocentesis, a sarnple of foetal cells is extracted

A A standard part of prenatal care is ultrasound, in which sound
from the fluid in the amniotic sac.
waves are used to generate an image of the foetus that can be
used to determine its position in the uterus.

A procedure that can be used much earlier in

pregnancy is chorionic villus sampling (CVS) in which
ultrasound Prenatal diagnostic technique that uses sound waves
to generate an image of the foetus.
a sample of tissue is obtained from part of the placenta.
@ FIGURE 2.10 shows that a small tube - generally
amniocentesis Prenatal diagnostic technique that uses a syringe
inserted through the vagina and into the uterus but
to withdraw a sample of amniotic fluid through the mother’s
abdomen.
sometimes through the abdomen - is used to collect a
small plug of cells from the placenta. This procedure
chorionic villus sampling (CVS) Prenatal diagnostic technique can be used within 9 to 12 weeks after conception, much
that involves taking a sample of tissue from the placenta.
earlier than amniocentesis.

62 CHAPTER2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, AND BIRTH

Copyraghs 00) Comgage Lowemag All Righes Reserved Muay act be copand, ommed of duplored m whole of im part. Dur to clectrormc mghts, scene tend party coeacet gery be eappeesend fern fae cock andive chapter's
Editored aeverw bos doomed thet any mapped coment doce act susimodly affect the overall kommg experience. Congage Leasing rencrves the might to comeee additaveal comient af ay Gene if sebeequent right sevrictioes ongeie
physical and mental development, but the disorder can be

A
treated by injecting the necessary hormones directly into
the amniotic cavity, leading to normal growth

Imagine that you are a 42-year-old female, and

pregnant. Would you want to have amniocentesis
or chorionic villus sampling to determine the
genotype of the foetus? Why or why not?

Another way to correct prenatal problems is foetal

surgery (Warner, Altimier, & Crombleholme, 2007). For
instance, spina bifida can be corrected with foetal surgery
in the seventh or eighth month of pregnancy. Surgeons
cut through the mother's abdominal wall to expose the
foetus and then cut through the foetal abdominal wall;
@ FIGURE 2 10 In chorionic villus sampling, foetal cells are extracted the spinal cord is repaired, and the foetus is returned
from the placenta. to the uterus. However, the procedure is far from fool
proof, and the best techniques and the ideal times to use
With the samples obtained from either technique, them are still unknown (Deprest et al., 2016)
roughly 200 different genetic disorders, including Yet another approach is genetic engineering. A new
Down syndrome, can be detected. These procedures are technique called CRISPR allows scientists to edit hereditary
virtually free of errors but miscarriages are slightly (1% material. genes can be removed, turned off, or replaced.
or 2%) more likely after amniocentesis or chorionic villus Think about sickle-cell disease as an example Recall that
sampling (Wilson, 2000) However, a new test is available when a baby inherits the recessive allele for sickle-cell
to help women assess the value of these procedures. The disease from both parents, the child has misshaped red
placenta releases genetic material that circulates in a blood cells that can’t pass through capillaries. In principle,
pregnant woman's blood stream This genetic material CRISPR could edit the genome, replacing the recessive
reflects the foetal genotype. In non-invasive prenatal alleles from the 11th pair of chromosomes with dominant
testing (NIPT), this genetic material is analysed in a genes. CRISPR is still experimental. The first clinical trial
routine sample of blood from a pregnant woman. Genetic is underway to determine whether CRISPR can be used to
disorders such as hemophilia and cystic fibrosis can be edit cancer-causing genes. Many scientific, technical, and
detected. Any findings suggesting genetic disorders ethical answers need to be addressed before gene-editing
can be confirmed via amniocentesis or CVS (American becomes a routine part of prenatal care (Reardon, 2016).
College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2015). Nevertheless, CRISPR offers hope for prospective parents
who fear that their offspring may suffer fatal or debilitating
Foetal medicine diseases (Hayden, 2016).
Answers to Busi’s questions. Now you can return to
Ultrasound, amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and
Busi’s questions in the section-opening story and answer
noninvasive prenatal testing have made it much easier to
them. If you're not certain, here are the sub-sections in
determine whether prenatal development is progressing
this unit where the answers appear:
normally. But what happens when it is not? Traditionally,
a woman's options have been limited. she could continue e About her cell phone - “Environmental hazards’
the pregnancy or end it. Today, the list of options is e About her nightly glass of wine - ‘Drugs’
expanding. A new field called foetal therapy ts concerned e About giving birth to a baby with mental disabilities -
with treating prenatal problems before birth Many tools ‘Prenatal diagnosis’
are now available to solve problems that are detected
during pregnancy (Rodeck & Whittle, 2009). One non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) A prenatal diagnostic
technique that analyses genetic material released from the
approach is to treat disorders medically by administering placenta that circulates in a pregnant woman's blood stream.
drugs or hormones to the foetus. For example, in foetal
hypothyroidism, the foetal thyroid gland does not foetal therapy Field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal
problems before birth,
produce enough hormones This can lead to stunted

Ee INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 63

Coppraght
2019 Cengage Lawening All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated im whole or in part. Dur to clectroesc nghes, some thend pany costes mary he suppresmed treen dee efrok andive eChapter(s)
Eadaomad aeewew hon decd thet any suppressed coment dirs met maternally affect the overall kaming expencnee. Cengage Learning reacrvex the might w remove additaonal costo at sary tine if sadmeapacnsl ropivis weatrictions neqeine it
Test yourself 2.3

Recall Interpret
1. General risk factors in pregnancy include a e Explain how the impact of a teratogen changes
woman's nutrition, and her age. over the course of prenatal development.
2. are some of the most dangerous Apply
teratogens because a pregnant woman is often
unaware of their presence. e What would you say to a 45-year-old woman
who is eager to become pregnant but is unsure
3. During the period of the zygote, exposure to a about the risks associated with pregnancy at this
teratogen generally results in : age?

4. Three techniques used to determine whether a Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
foetus has a hereditary disorder are amniocentesis, end of the chapter.
chorionic villus sampling, and

PZ) Labour and delivery

RENEE EERE EERE REET E ETHERS EEE EEE E ORE EE TEETH SESE EE EEE EERO OEE EE EEE EE TREE E EE PREM NRE R REET EEE EERE EEE ROO O ORE EET EE TESTE EEE EE EERE OEE EEE EHTEE TEEPE EEE EEE EOD 7

Learning objectives

© Identify the different phases of labour and delivery.

e Describe some ‘natural’ ways of coping with the pain of childbirth, and evaluate whether childbirth at home
is safe.

® Discuss the adjustments that parents face after a baby’s birth.

* Describe some complications that can occur during birth.

e Explain the factors that contribute to infant mortality in developed and least developed countries.

Nicolene is six months pregnant; soon she and the way, we'll look at classes like those Nicolene will take
her partner will begin childbirth classes at a and the exercises she'll learn.
local community centre She is relieved that the
classes are finally starting because this means Stages
of labour
that her pregnancy is nearly over But all the talk
she has heard about ‘breathing exercises’ and Labour is an appropriate name for childbirth, which is
‘coaching’ sounds mysterious to her. Nicolene the most intense, prolonged physical effort that humans
wonders what's involved and how the classes experience. Labour is usually divided into the three
will help her during labour and delivery. stages shown in @ FIGURE 2.11.
e In stage 1, which may last from 12 to 24 hours for a
As women such as Nicolene near the end of pregnancy, first birth, the uterus starts to contract. The first
they find that sleeping and breathing become more contractions are weak and irregular Gradually, they
difficult, that they get tired more rapidly, and that become stronger and more rhythmic, enlarging the
their legs and feet may swell. Women look forward to cervix (the opening from the uterus to the vagina) to
birth, both to relieve their discomfort and, of course, to approximately 10 centimeters.
meet their baby In this section, you'll see the different e In stage 2, the baby passes through the cervix and
steps involved in birth, review different approaches to enters the vagina. The mother helps push the baby
childbirth, and look at problems that can arise. Along along by contracting muscles in her abdomen. Soon the
top of the baby’s head appears, an event known as
crowning Appearance of the top of the baby’s head during labour.
crowning. Within about an hour, the baby is delivered.

64 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

e In stage 3, which lasts only minutes, the mother pushes A second common element is that natural methods
a few more times to expel the placenta (also called, of dealing with pain are emphasised over medical
appropriately, the afterbirth). procedures, which involve possible side effects and
complications. For example, the most common procedure
The times given for each of the stages are only
in South Africa is epidural analgesia, in which drugs
approximations, and the actual times vary greatly among
are injected into the space below the spinal cord. These
women. For most women, labour with their second and
reduce the pain of childbirth but sometimes cause women
subsequent children is more rapid; stage 1 may last 4 to 6
to experience headaches or decreased blood pressure
hours, and stage 2 may be as brief as 20 minutes.
(American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists,
2011b). One key to reducing birth pain without drugs is
A hildbirtt
relaxation. Pain often feels greater when a person is tense,
so pregnant women learn to relax during labour by deep
When some of the authors of this book were born in breathing or by visualising a reassuring, pleasant scene
the 1950s, women in labour were admitted to a hospital or experience. Whenever they begin to experience pain
and administered a general anaesthetic. Fathers waited during labour, they use these methods to relax.
anxiously in a nearby room for news of the baby These
were standard hospital procedures, and many babies in
urban areas in South Africa were born this way
But childbirth has changed In the middle of the
20th century, two European physicians - Grantly Dick-
Read (1959) and Fernand Lamaze (1958) — criticised the
traditional view in which labour and delivery had come
to involve elaborate medical procedures that were often
unnecessary and often left women afraid of giving birth.
This fear led them to be tense, which increased the pain
they experienced during labour. These physicians argued
for a more ‘natural’ or prepared approach to childbirth,
viewing labour and delivery as life events to be celebrated
rather than medical procedures to be endured.
Today, many varieties of prepared childbirth
are available to pregnant women. However, most
share some fundamental beliefs. One is that birth is
more likely to be problem-free and rewarding when
mothers and fathers understand what's happening
during pregnancy, labour, and delivery. Consequently,
prepared childbirth means going to classes to learn
4 During childbirth preparation classes, pregnant women leam
basic facts about pregnancy and childbirth (like the exercises that help them relax and reduce the pain associated
material presented in this chapter). with childbirth

2.4 LABOUR AND DELIVERY 65

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening All Rights Reserved May net be copand, scammed,
or duplicated. m whole
of in part. Dur to clectromec nghes, some thand party costcat amy be sappeeand fem te fiock ance of Teapeer(s)
Fcbtomed revnew hem deaned thet any wuppremed coment dacs set exatcrally affect the overall kamung ctpenence. Congage Leartung rewrves the ngbt w couse abdatweal comma
af any Gree Hf submecpamt
righ Runs tioks moyen
A third common element of prepared childbirth is produce milk, and her uterus gradually becomes smaller,
the involvement of a supportive adult, who may be the returning to its normal size in five or six weeks. And
father-to-be, a relative, a close friend, or a trained birth levels of female hormones (e.g., estrogen) drop.
assistant (known as a doula) These people provide Parents must also adjust psychologically They
emotional support, act as advocates (communicating a reorganise old routines, particularly for first-born
woman's wishes to healthcare staff), and help a woman children, to fit the young baby’s sleep-wake cycle In the
use techniques for managing pain. When pregnant process, fathers sometimes feel left out when mothers
women are supported in this manner, their labour tends give most of their attention to the baby.
to be shorter, they use less medication, and they report Becoming a parent can be a huge adjustment, so
greater satisfaction with childbirth (Hodnett. et al., 2012) it's not surprising that roughly half of all new mothers
Another element of the trend to natural childbirth find that their initial excitement gives way to irritation,
is the idea that birth does not need to take place in a resentment, and crying spells — this is sometimes called
hospital. While a lot of mothers in urban areas prefer to the baby blues These feelings usually last a week or
give birth in a hospital, approximately 60% of women two and probably reflect both the stress of caring for
in Africa still deliver their babies without the help of a new baby and the physiological changes that take
skilled professionals (Pearson et al., 2007). For people place as a woman's body returns to a nonpregnant state
accustomed to hospital delivery, home delivery can seem (Brockington, 1996).
like a risky proposition and some medical professionals For 10% to 15% of new mothers, however, irritability
remain sceptical (Declercq, 2012) However, many continues for months and is often accompanied
women are more relaxed during labour at home, and they by feelings of low self-worth, disturbed sleep, poor
enjoy the greater control they have over labour and birth appetite, and apathy — a condition known as postpartum
in a home delivery. That said, women should consider depression. Postpartum depression does not strike
birth at home only if they are healthy, if their pregnancy randomly. Biology contributes: change in hormonal
has been problem-free, if labour and delivery are expected levels following birth, place some women at risk of
to be problem-free, if a trained healthcare professional is postpartum depression (O'Hara & McCabe, 2013).
present to assist, and if comprehensive medical care is Experience also contributes women are more likely to
readily available should the need arise (Wax, Pinette, & experience postpartum depression when they are single,
Cartin, 2010). Unfortunately these considerations are not were depressed before pregnancy, are coping with other
always an option in rural South Africa. life stresses (e.g., dealing with the death of a loved one
or moving to a new residence), did not plan to become
pregnant, or lack other adults (such as the father) to
support their adjustment to motherhood (Edwards et al.,
2012; O'Hara, 2009)
Women who are lethargic and emotionless do not
mother their babies warmly and enthusiastically. They
don't touch and cuddle their new babies much or talk
to them. And depressed moms are less effective in the
common but essential tasks of feeding and sleep routines
(Field, 2010) When postpartum depression persists
over years, children’s development is affected (Goodman
et al., 2011). In the ‘Spotlight on research’ feature, for
example, you'll see how maternal depression can lead
children to have behavioural problems.
Findings like those in the ‘Spotlight on research’ feature
A In many countries around the world, a midwife delivers the baby. show that postpartum depression should not be taken
lightly Ifa mother’s depression doesn't lift after a few weeks,
Adiusti she should seek help. Home visits by trained healthcare
professionals can be valuable (O'Hara & McCabe, 2013).
For parents, the time immediately after a trouble-free During these visits, the visitors show mom better ways
birth is full of excitement, pride, and joy — the much- to cope with the many changes that accompany her new
anticipated baby is finally here! But it is also a time of baby. They also provide emotional support by being a
adjustments for parents A woman experiences many caring, sensitive listener, and they can refer the mother to
physical changes after birth Her breasts begin to other community resources if needed. Finally, one simple

66 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party contest mory he wuppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
way to reduce the risk of postpartum depression is worth healthcare professional will try to confirm that the foetus
mentioning — breast-feeding. Moms who breast-feed are less is in distress, perhaps by measuring foetal heart rate with
likely to become depressed, perhaps because breast-feeding a stethoscope on the mother’s abdomen.
releases hormones that act as antidepressants (Gagliardi, When a foetus is in distress or when the foetus is
2005). However, some mothers cannot breast-feed, and in in an irregular position or is too large to pass through
these cases Kangaroo care is a viable alternative. Kangaroo the birth canal, a doctor may decide to remove it from
care, where a baby is held in skin-to-skin contact with a the mother’s uterus surgically (American College of
parent for as long as possible each day, has been found to Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2011a) In a caesarean
play an important role in decreasing the risk of postpartum section (or C-section), an incision is made in the
depression (Badr & Zauszniewski, 2017). abdomen to remove the baby from the uterus A C-section
is riskier than a vaginal delivery for mothers because
Birt licati of increased bleeding and greater danger of infection.
A C-section poses little risk for babies, although they are
Women who are healthy when they become pregnant often lethargic briefly from the anaesthesia the mother
usually have a normal pregnancy, labour, and delivery receives before the operation And mother-infant
When women are not healthy or don't receive adequate interactions are much the same for babies delivered
prenatal care, problems can surface during labour and vaginally or by planned or unplanned C-sections (Durik,
delivery (Of course, even healthy women can have Hyde, & Clark, 2000).
problems, but not as often.) The more common birth Birth complications are hazardous not just for a
complications are listed in e TABLE 2.6. newborn’ health, they have long-term effects, too.
When babies experience many birth complications,
they are at risk of becoming aggressive or violent and
Common birth complications
of developing schizophrenia (de Haan et al., 2006; Fazel
Complication Features
et al , 2012). This is particularly true for newborns
Cephalopelvic The infant's head is larger than the with birth complications who later experience family
disproportion pelvis, making it impossible for the adversity, such as living in poverty (Arseneault et al.,
baby to pass through the birth canal.
2002) These outcomes emphasise the importance of
Irregular position In shoulder presentation, the baby
is lying crosswise in the uterus and excellent healthcare for the mother through pregnancy
the shoulder appears first; in breech and labour and the need for a supportive environment
presentation, the buttocks appear first. throughout childhood.
Preeclampsia A pregnant woman has high blood
pressure, protein in her urine, and
swelling in her extremities (due to fluid
retention).
Prolapsed The umbilical cord precedes the A friend of yours has just given birth six weeks
umbilical cord baby through the birth canal and is prematurely. The baby is average size for a baby
squeezed shut, cutting off oxygen to
born prematurely and seems to be doing well,
the baby.
but your friend is concerned nonetheless. What
would you say to reassure your friend?
Some of these complications, such as a prolapsed
umbilical cord, are dangerous because they disrupt the
Problems also arise when babies are born too early
flow of blood through the umbilical cord. If this flow of or too small. Normally, a baby spends about 38 weeks
blood is disrupted, then infants do not receive adequate developing before being born Babies born before the
oxygen, a condition known as hypoxia. Hypoxia
36th week are called preterm or premature. In the first
sometimes occurs during labour and delivery because year or so, premature infants often lag behind full-term
the umbilical cord is pinched or squeezed shut, cutting infants in many aspects of development. However, by two
off the flow of blood. Hypoxia is serious because it can
lead to mental disabilities or death (Hogan et al., 2006)
hypoxia A birth complication in which umbilical blood flow is
To guard against hypoxia, foetal heart rate is disrupted and the infant does not receive adequate oxygen.
monitored during labour by ultrasound or with a
caesarean section (C-section) Surgical removal of an infant from
tiny electrode that is passed through the vagina and the uterus through an incision made in the mother’s abdomen.
attached to the scalp of the foetus. An abrupt change in
heart rate can be a sign that the foetus is not receiving preterm or premature Babies born before the 36th week after
conception.
enough oxygen. If the heart rate does change suddenly, a

24 LABOUR AND DELIVERY 67

and children’s problem behaviours The study was longitudinal

because children and parents were tested multiple times (and
are still being tested as the study is ongoing)
>

Were there ethical concerns with the study? No The

measures were ones commonly used with parents and children

—_

— they posed no known nsks The investigators obtained

-
oc

permission from the parents and therr children to participate

What were the results? Using the mothers’ replies to
the depression questionnaire, Barker and his colleagues
distinguished moms who had been depressed when their
child was 1% years old from moms who were not depressed
Then they compared rates of behavioural problems in children
of the two groups of moms, those results are shown in
@ FIGURE 2.12 For each of the five disorders, seven- and
eight-yearolds were more likely to have behavioural problems
if their mom had been depressed Overall, they were 2.56
times more likely to have problems Next, Barker and his @ FIGURE 2 12 When mothers are depressed, their children are
colleagues confirmed that, as expected, risk rates were at risk of ADHD, disobedient and antisocial behaviour, anxiety, and
greater for depressed moms For example, depressed moms depression.

68 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party comtest mory he wappeeascd thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
or three years of age, such differences have vanished, and a 30-year longitudinal study by Werner (1989, 1995)
most premature infants develop normally (Greenberg & covering all children born on the Hawaiian island of
Crnic, 1988) Kauai in 1955. When low birth weight children grew
Prospects are usually not as bright for babies who up in stable homes — defined as having two mentally
are ‘small for date. These infants are most often born to healthy parents throughout childhood - they were
women who smoke or drink alcohol frequently during indistinguishable from children born without birth
pregnancy or who do not eat enough nutritious food complications. However, when low birth weight children
(Chomitz, Cheung, & Lieberman, 1995) Newborns experienced an unstable family environment — defined
who weigh 2 500 grams or less are said to have low birth as including divorce, parental alcoholism, or parental
weight, newborns weighing less than 1 500 grams are said mental illness - they lagged behind their peers in
to have very low birth weight, and those weighing less intellectual and social development.
than 1 000 grams are said to have extremely low birth
weight.
Babies with very or extremely low birth weight do
not fare well Many do not survive, and those who live
often lag behind in the development of intellectual and
motor skills (Kavsek & Bornstein, 2010) Newborns who
weigh more than 1 500 grams have better prospects if
they receive appropriate care. These babies are placed in
special sealed beds where temperature and air quality are
regulated carefully These beds isolate infants, depriving
them of environmental stimulation. Consequently, they
may receive auditory stimulation, such as a recording
of soothing music or their mother’s voice, or visual
stimulation from a mobile placed over the bed. Infants
also receive tactile stimulation — they are ‘massaged’
4 Small-fordate batnes often survive, but their cognitive and motor
several times daily These forms of stimulation foster development usually is delayed
physical and cognitive development in small-for-date
babies (Field, Diego, & Hernandez-Reif, 2010).
This special care should continue when infants leave
So, when both biological and sociocultural forces
the hospital to go home This means that intervention
are harmful - low birth weight plus inadequate medical
programmes for small-for-date babies generally include care or family stress — the prognosis for babies is grim
training programmes designed for parents of infants and The message to parents of low birth weight newborns
young children In these programmes, parents learn to is clear: do not despair because excellent caregiving can
compensate for all but the most severe birth problems
respond appropriately to their child’s behaviours For
(Werner, 1994; Werner & Smith, 1992).
example, they may be taught the signs that a baby is in
distress, overstimulated, or ready to interact Parents can
also learn how to use games and activities to promote Infant mortality
their child’s development In addition, children can be If you were the proud parent of a newborn and a citizen
enrolled in high-quality child care centres where the
of Afghanistan, the chances are one in six that your baby
curriculum is coordinated with parent training. This would die before his or her first birthday - worldwide,
sensitive care promotes development in low birth weight Afghanistan has the highest infant mortality rate,
babies, for example, sometimes they catch up to full-
defined as the percentage of infants who die before their
term infants in terms of cognitive development (Hill,
Brooks-Gunn, & Waldfogel, 2003)
Long-term positive outcomes for these infants depend low birth weight Newborns who weigh less than 2 500 grams.
critically on providing a supportive and stimulating home very low birth weight Newborns who weigh less than 1 500
environment Unfortunately, not all at-risk babies have grams.
these optimal experiences. Many experience stress or
extremely low birth weight Newborns who weigh less than 1 000
disorder in their family lives. In these cases, development grams.
is usually affected (Poehlmann et al., 2011).
The importance of a supportive environment for infant mortality The number of infants out of 1 000 births who
die before their first birthday.
low birth weight babies is emphasised by the results of

24 LABOUR AND DELIVERY 69

25 ow) Test yourself 2.4

20
Recall
é 15
1. In the third stage of labour, the
= 10
is delivered.
2. Prepared childbirth includes communicating

aa BEEeSeeeeeel basic facts of labour and delivery, minimising

the use of medication to relieve pain, and

SELES
= Lee & A Se “ey fp ie
Rs ¥ Ss 3. Home delivery is safe when a pregnant woman
is healthy, has had a problem-free pregnancy,
Developed nations and expects to have a problem-free delivery and
140 when
4. When the supply of oxygen to the foetus is
disrupted because the umbilical cord is squeezed
shut, results.

Interpret
e Explain why some at-risk newborns develop
normally but others do not.

Apply
© Lindiwe is pregnant with her first child and would
like to give birth at home. Her husband is against
the idea, claiming that it’s much too risky. What
advice would you give them?
@ FIGURE 2 13 The infant mortality rate in developing countries is Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
much greater than in developed countries. end of the chapter.
Sourew: Data trom Conural imeligance Agancy 2013

70 CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

How ts children’s heredity influenced by the 2.3 Influences on prenatal development

environment in which they grow up? How is prenatal development influenced by a
© Behavioural and psychological phenotypes that reflect pregnant woman's age, her nutrition, and the stress
an underlying spectrum (such as intelligence) often she experiences while pregnant?
involve polygenic inheritance In polygenic inheritance,
e The woman's age can affect prenatal development
the phenotype reflects the combined activity of many
Teenagers often have problem pregnancies, mainly
distinct genes. Traditionally, polygenic inheritance has
because they rarely receive adequate prenatal care
been examined by studying twins and adopted children
After age 35, pregnant women are more likely to have
and, more recently, by identifying DNA markers.
a miscarriage or to give birth to a child with mental
© The impact of heredity on a child’s development depends
disabilities. Prenatal development can also be harmed if a
on the environment in which the genetic instructions are
pregnant mother has inadequate nutrition or experiences
carned out, and these heredity-environment interactions
considerable stress.
occur throughout a child’s life A child’s genotype can

SUMMARY 71

Copyright
2019 Cengage Leaeming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Due to clectronic nights, some thind party comtest mary he wppeeased teem the cock andice cChapter|s).
Exttomad semew boo deaned that any wuppromed content docs sot sustcrially affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to memnowe additeoeal crevicnt af any Gane if subsequent nett sextnctioes neqenre it.
How do diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards at first and gradually become stronger, cause the cervix
sometimes affect prenatal development? to enlarge. In stage 2, the baby moves through the birth
e Teratogens are agents that can cause abnormal prenatal canal. In stage 3, the placenta is delivered.
development. Many drugs that adults take are teratogens.
What are ‘natural’ ways of coping with the pain of
For most drugs, scientists have not established amounts
that can be consumed safely childbirth? Is childbirth at home safe?
© Several diseases are teratogens. Only by avoiding these © Natural or prepared childbirth 1s based on the assumption
diseases entirely can a pregnant woman escape their that parents should understand what takes place during
harmful consequences. pregnancy and birth. In prepared childbirth, women
e Environmental teratogens are particularly dangerous learn to cope with pain through relaxation, imagery, and
because a pregnant woman may not know that these the help of a supportive coach.
substances are present in the environment. e Most South African babies are born in hospitals, but
home delivery can be safe when the mother is healthy,
What general principles affect the ways that prenatal when pregnancy and birth are trouble-free, and when a
development can be harmed? healthcare professional 1s present to deliver the baby.
e The impact of teratogens depends on the genotype of the
organism, the period of prenatal development when the
What adjustments do parents face after a baby’s birth?
organism 1s exposed to the teratogen, and the amount © Following the birth of a child, a woman's body undergoes
of exposure Sometimes the effect of a teratogen 1s not several changes: her breasts fill with milk, her uterus
evident until later in life becomes smaller, and hormone levels drop. Both parents
also adjust psychologically, and sometimes fathers feel
How can prenatal development be monitored? Can left out After giving birth, some women experience
abnormal prenatal development be corrected? postpartum depression. they are irritable, have poor
appetite and disturbed sleep, and are apathetic.
© Many techniques are used to track the progress of
prenatal development A common component of What are some complications that can occur during
prenatal care is ultrasound, which uses sound waves to
birth?
generate a picture of the foetus. This picture can be used
to determine the position of the foetus, its sex, and gross © During labour and delivery, the flow of blood to the
physical deformities, if any foetus can be disrupted because the umbilical cord 1s
© When genetic disorders are suspected, amniocentesis, squeezed shut. This causes hypoxia, a lack of oxygen
chorionic villus sampling, and noninvasive prenatal to the foetus. Some babies are born prematurely, and
testing are used to determine the genotype of the others are ‘small for date? Premature babies develop more
foetus. slowly at first but catch up by two or three years of age.
Small-for-date babies often do not fare well, particularly
© Foetal therapy is a new field in which problems of
prenatal development are corrected medically via surgery when they weigh less than 1 500 grams at birth and their
or genetic engineering. environment is stressful.

2.4 Labour and delivery What contributes to infant mortality in developed and
least developed countries?
What are the different phases of labour and delivery? ¢ Infant mortality is relatively high in many countries around
© Labour consists of three stages. In stage 1, the muscles the world, primarily because of inadequate care before birth
of the uterus contract. The contractions, which are weak and disease and inadequate nutrition after birth.

72 Cuaprer 2 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS HEREDITY, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

(Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learsing. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, xcammed, ce duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur so clectreenc mph, some therd party comicat muy he sappecescd torn tac cltook andive of haptce|+).
Edtonad seview ton doomed that ary euppromed comcm! dacs sot mumcmally affect the overall kamnmy cepenceee. Congage Learning reucrves the night w remove addmosal comicen af any tome of suteequeet ngh scanctons noqeaw &
Key terms Test yourself: Recall
chromosomes (37) placenta (49) answers
autosomes (38) embryo (51)
sex chromosomes (38) ectoderm (51) 2.1 1. autosomes 2. Polygenic inheritance
deoxyribonucleic acid mesoderm (51) 3. Down syndrome 4. the fertilised egg 1s aborted
spontaneously 5. different from each other
(DNA) (38) endoderm (51)
gene (39) amnion (52) 2.2 1. at two weeks after conception (when the
genotype (39) amniotic fluid (52) zygote 1s completely implanted in the wall of the
phenotype (39) umbilical cord (52) uterus) 2.embryo 3. Between 22 and 28 weeks
alleles (39) cephalocaudal principle 4. learning and remembering
homozygous (39) (52)
heterozygous (39) proximodistal principle 2.3 1. prolonged stress 2. Environmental hazards
dominant (39) (52) 3. spontaneous abortion of the fertilised egg
recessive (39) period of the foetus (52) 4. non-invasive prenatal testing
incomplete dominance cerebral cortex (53)
2.4 1. placenta 2. the presence of a supportive adult
(39) vernix (53)
3. trained healthcare professionals are present to
sickle-cell trait (39) age of viability (54)
deliver the baby 4. Hypoxia
phenylketonuria (PKU) spina bifida (55)
(41) stress (55)
Huntington’s disease (41) teratogen (57)
behavioural genetics (43) foetal alcohol spectrum
polygenic inheritance disorder (FASD) (57)
(43) ultrasound (62)
monozygotic twins (43) amniocentesis (62)
dizygotic twins (43) chorionic villus sampling
heritability coefficient (CVS) (62)
(46) non-invasive prenatal
niche-picking (46) testing (NIPT) (63)
nonshared environmental foetal therapy (63)
influences (47) crowning (64)
prenatal development hypoxia (67)
(49) caesarean section
zygote (49) (C-section) (67)
in vitro fertilisation (50) preterm (premature) (67)
preimplantation genetic low birth weight (69)
screening (PGS) (50) very low birth weight (69)
eugenics (50) extremely low birth
implantation (49) weight (69)
germ disc (49) infant mortality (69)

SUMMARY 73

3.1 The newborn 75

The newborn’s reflexes 75
Assessing the newborn 76
The newborn's states 77
Temperament 81

3.2 Physical development 83

Growth of the body 8&3
The emerging nervous
system 87

3.3 Moving and grasping: Early

motor skills 92
Locomotion 93
Fine motor skills 96
Spotlight on research. Benefits of
training babies to grasp 98

3.4 Coming to know the world:

Perception 99
Smell, taste, and touch 100
Hearing 101
Seeing 101
Integrating sensory
information 106

3.5 Becoming self-aware 108

Origins of self-concept 108
Theory of mind 109
Real people: Applying
human development:
‘Seeing is believing ’ for
three-year-olds 109

Summary 112

Key terms 114

All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcammed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectronic nghts, some thind party coment mary he suppressed teoen the cftook andlor oChapter(s)
coment docs aot materially affect the overall amg expenence. Cengage Learning rescrvex the night to remove additional comment af ary time if submequent right sextnictoes neqaure it
walking, chaos-creating toddler No In the fourth section, we'll examine
about what you were like
changes at any other point in the life changes in infants’ sensory abilities
two years ago Whatever you were
span come close to the drama and that allow them to understand their
doing, you probably look, act, think,
excitement of these early years. world
and feel in much the same way
In this chapter, our tour of these As children begin to explore their
today as you did then Two years in
two years begins with the newborn world and learn more about tt, they
an adult's life usually doesn’t result
and then moves to physical growth also learn more about themselves.
in profound changes, but two years
— changes in the body and the brain They learn to recognise themselves
makes a big difference early in life
The third section of the chapter and begin to understand more about
The changes that occur in the first
examines motor skills You'll discover their thoughts and others’ thoughts.
few years after birth are incredible
how babies learn to walk and how We'll explore these changes in the
In less than two years, an infant
they learn to use their hands to last section of the chapter
is transformed from a seemingly
hold and then to manipulate objects.
helpless newborn into a talking,

EX] The newborn

Learning objectives

© Explain how reflexes help newborns interact with the world.

© Name the behavioural states that are common among newborns.

e Identify the different features of temperament and examine whether they change as
children grow.

Thabo and Mpume, proud but exhausted What can newborns like Thando do? We'll answer
parents, are astonished at how their lives that question in this section, and as we do, you'll learn
revolve around 10-day-old Thando’s eating when Mpume and Thabo can expect to get a full
and sleeping. Mpume feels as if she is night's sleep again.
feeding Thando around the clock. When
Thando naps, Mpume thinks of many things
she should be doing but usually naps herself
because she is so tired. Thabo wonders Most newborns are well prepared to begin interacting
when Thando will start sleeping through the with their world. A newborn has a rich set of
night so that he and Mpume can get a good reflexes, unlearned responses that are triggered by a
night’s sleep specific form of stimulation. @ TABLE 3.1 shows the
variety of reflexes commonly found in newborn
The newborn baby who thrills parents like Mpume babies
and Thabo is actually rather plain. Newborns arrive Some reflexes are designed to help newborns to
covered with blood and vernix, a white-coloured get the nutrients they need to grow The rooting and
‘wax’ that protected the skin during the many sucking reflexes ensure that the newborn is prepared
months of prenatal development In addition, the to begin a new diet of life-sustaining milk. Other
baby’s head is temporarily distorted from its journey
through the birth canal, and the newborn has a beer
reflexes Unlearned responses triggered by specific stimulation.
belly and is bow-legged.

Rooting When a baby’s cheek is stroked, it 3-4 weeks (replaced Helps a baby find the nipple. When it is weak
turns its head toward the stroking with voluntary head or absent, the baby might have difficulty in
and opens its mouth turning) feeding.
Stepping A baby whois held upright by an 2-3 months Precursor to voluntary walking.
adult and is then moved forward
begins to step rhythmically
Palmar A baby grasps an object placedin 3-4 months The reflex is thought to help the baby cling
the palm of its hand to the mother. If it is not integrated, it affects
grasping and manipulating objects.
Sucking A baby sucks when an object is 4 months (replaced Permits feeding.
placed in its mouth with voluntary sucking)
Moro A baby throws its arms out and 6 months This reflex aids in protecting the infant. Absence
then inward (as if embracing) in of the Moro reflex is an indication of disturbance
response to loud noise or when its of the central nervous system or disorder of the
head falls motor system.
Babinski A baby’s toes fan out when the 8-12 months Perhaps a remnant of evolution and assists the
sole of the foot is stroked from infant to crawl and is integrated when the child
heel to toe learns to walk. Absence of the Babinsky reflex
can indicate damage to the corticospinal tract.
Blink A baby's eyes close inresponseto Permanent Protects the eyes and ensures that no damage
bright light or loud noise occurs.

reflexes seem designed to protect the newborn from Reflexes are also important because they can be a
danger in the environment. The eye blink, for example, useful way to determine whether the newborn's nervous
helps newborns avoid unpleasant stimulation. system is working properly. For example, infants with
Other reflexes are the foundation for larger, voluntary damage to the sciatic nerve, which is found in the spinal
patterns of motor activity. For example, the stepping cord, do not show the withdrawal reflex. Infants who
reflex motions look like precursors to walking, so it’s not have problems with the lower part of the spine do not
surprising that babies who practise the stepping reflex show the Babinski reflex. If these or other reflexes are
often learn to walk earlier than those who don't practise weak or missing altogether, a thorough physical and
(Zelazo, 1993) behavioural assessment is necessary. Similarly, many
of these reflexes normally vanish during infancy; if
they linger, this, too, indicates the need for a thorough
physical examination.

Assessing the newborn

Imagine that a mother has just asked you if her newborn
baby is healthy How would you decide? You would
probably check to see whether the baby seems to be
breathing and if the baby’s heart seems to be beating.
In fact, breathing and heartbeat are two vital signs
included in the Apgar score, which provides a quick
assessment of the newborn's status by focusing on the
body systems needed to sustain life. The other vital signs
are muscle tone, presence of reflexes such as coughing,
and skin tone. Each of the five vital signs receives a score
A This newborn baby (Ben Kail at 20 seconds old) is covered with
vernix and is bow4egged; his head is distorted from the journey of 0, 1, or 2, where 2 is the optimal score. For example,
down the birth canal a newborn whose muscles are completely limp receives

76 CuarprTer 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

alert inactivity State in which a baby is calm with eyes open

and attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the
environment.

waking activity State in which a baby's eyes are open but seem
unfocused while the arms or legs move in bursts of uncoordinated
A Newborns exhibit the Moro reflex, opening their arms and then motion.
bringing them inward in response to loud noise or when their
crying State in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied
head falls
by agitated but uncoordinated movement.
sleeping State in which a baby alternates between being still and
The newhorn’s states breathing regularly to moving gently and breathing irregularly;
the eyes are closed throughout.
Newborns spend most of each day alternating between
four different states (St. James-Roberts & Plewis, 1996; basic cry Cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more
intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired.
Wolff, 1987):
mad cry More intense version of a basic cry.
e Alert inactivity - The baby is calm with eyes open and
attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting pain cry Cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a
the environment. long pause
and gasping.

3.1 THE NEWBORN 77

Think about it

When Mary's four-month-old son cries, she

rushes to him immediately and does everything
A Co-sleeping, in which infants and young children sleep with their
possible to console him. Is this a good idea?
parents, is common in many countnes around the world

78 CHAPTER3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Leareeng. All Ragtes Reserved May mot be copecd, ccammed. oe duphcated m whole of on part. Dur to clectrresc mptes, some therd party contest muy be suppeceecd orn yc clock andive of hapecs|+
Edeonad seiiew tos decmned that any uppromed crencmt dacs sot rascratly affect the overall karnmg cupenceee. Cengage Leartung reucrves the npbt wo remove addmeoeal comicmt af ary tamne of sateequees mph scenchoes noqene &
In many parts of the world, children sleep with their steady and newborns lie quietly without the twitching
parents throughout infancy and the preschool years associated with REM sleep. Newborns spend about
Such parent-child ‘co-sleeping’ is commonly found equal amounts of time in REM and non-REM sleep.
in cultures where people define themselves less as REM sleep becomes less frequent as infants grow:
independent individuals and more as part of a group. By the first birthday, REM sleep drops to about 33%,
For parents in cultures that value such interdependence not far from the adult average of 20% (Lushington
- including Egypt, Italy, Japan, Korea and certain et al., 2013).
cultures in South Africa - co-sleeping is an important The function of REM sleep is still debated Older
step in forging parent-child bonds, just as sleeping alone children and adults dream during REM sleep, and brain
is an important step toward independence in cultures waves during REM sleep resemble those of an alert,
that value self-reliance (Nelson, Schiefenhoevel, & awake person. So, many scientists believe that REM sleep
Haimerl, 2000; Tan, 2009; Worthman & Brown, 2007) provides stimulation for the brain that promotes growth
In South Africa, co-sleeping is also linked to cultural in the nervous system (Halpern et al., 1995; Roffwarg,
traditions as well as economic necessity. A study in Muzio, & Dement, 1966).
Cape Town reported that 94% of black babies sleep with By the toddler and preschool years, sleep routines are
their mothers as opposed to 4% of white babies (Kibel, well established. Most 2-year-olds spend about 13 hours
Molteno, & De Decker, 2005) sleeping, compared to just under 11 hours for 6-year-
How does co-sleeping work? Infants may sleep in olds. By age 4, most youngsters give up their afternoon
a cot placed next to their parents’ bed or in a basket nap and sleep longer at night to compensate. This can
that is in their parents’ bed. When they outgrow this be a challenging time for parents and caregivers who use
arrangement, they may sleep in the bed with their naptime as an opportunity to complete some work or to
mother, or a toddler bed in the same room Depending relax.
on the culture, the father may sleep in the same bed, in Following an active day, most preschool children
another bed in the same room, in another room, or in drift off to sleep easily. However, children have
another house altogether an occasional night when bedtime is a struggle.
Many black mothers in South Africa co-sleep with Furthermore, for approximately 20% to 30% of
their babies, which enables demand feeding. However, preschool children, bedtime struggles occur nightly
this practice of co-sleeping is gaining widespread (Lozoff, Wolf, & Davis, 1985). More often than not,
acceptance in other cultures of South Africa (and the these bedtime problems show that there is no regular
world), as well. This has at least one positive outcome bedtime routine The key to a pleasant bedtime is to
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is lowest in establish a nighttime routine that helps children to
countries where babies co-sleep with their parents ‘wind down’ from busy daytime activities. This routine
(Kibel, Molteno, & De Decker, 2005). should start at about the same time every night (‘It’s
You might think that co-sleeping makes children time to get ready for bed’) and end at about the same
more dependent on their parents, but research provides time (when the parent leaves the child and the child
no evidence of this (Barajas et al., 2011; Okami, Weisner, tries to fall asleep). This nighttime routine may be
& Olmstead, 2002). In addition, co-sleeping has the anywhere from 15 to 45 minutes long, depending on
benefit of avoiding the lengthy and elaborate rituals the child. Also, as children get older, parents can expect
often required to get youngsters to sleep alone. With co- them to perform more of these tasks independently. A
sleeping, children and parents simply go to bed together two-year-old will need help all along the way, but a five-
with few struggles. A small South African study has also year-old can do many of these tasks alone. But parents
shown that separating the newborn from the mother must remember to follow the routine consistently. This
causes a dramatic increase in heart rate, as well as a way, children know that each step is getting them closer
negative impact on quiet sleep duration (Morgan, Horn to bedtime and falling asleep.
& Bergman, 2011)
Roughly half of newborns’ sleep is irregular or
rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, a time when the
body is quite active. During REM sleep, newborns
move their arms and legs; they may frown, and their irregular or rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep Irregular sleep in
which an infant's eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the
eyes may move beneath their eyelids Brain waves body is quite active.
register fast activity, the heart beats more rapidly,
and breathing is more rapid. Jn regular or non-REM regular or non-REM sleep Sleep in which heart rate, breathing,
and brain activity are steady.
sleep, breathing, heart rate, and brain activity are

3.1 THE NEWBORN 79

many blankets and sleepwear that is too heavy (Carroll

& Loughlin, 1994)
In summary, the keys to safe sleeping include
keeping babies away from smoke, putting them on a firm
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) When a healthy baby dies
mattress on their backs to sleep, and not overdressing
suddenly for no apparent reason.
them or wrapping them too tightly in blankets.

80 CHAPTER 3 POOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD’ PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyright 2019 Cengage Leaeming. All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mary be wppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Exdttomal seview ton deaned that any wppromed comint docs sot makrally affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Learting rencrven the night to remove additioeal coment at any time if autmequent neh rednctoes mga it
Temperament In other words, babies who can control their attention
and inhibit responses tend to be happy and active but
So far, we've talked as if all babies are alike. But if you've not angry or fearful.
seen a number of babies together, you know this isn't
true. Perhaps you've seen some babies who were quiet
most of the time, as well as others who cried often
Hereditary and environmental contributions
and impatiently? Maybe you've known infants who
to temperament
responded warmly to strangers next to others who Temperament reflects both heredity and experience
seemed shy? These characteristics of infants indicate (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005). The influence of
a consistent style or pattern to an infant's behaviour, heredity is shown in twin studies. Identical twins are
and collectively they define an infants temperament. more alike in most aspects of temperament than fraternal
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess (Thomas & twins are (Goldsmith, Pollak, & Davidson, 2008). If, for
Chess, 1977, Thomas, Chess, & Birch, 1968) pioneered example, one identical twin is temperamentally active,
the study of temperament with the New York then the other usually is, too. However, the impact of
Longitudinal Study, in which they followed the lives heredity also depends on the temperamental dimension
of 141 individuals from infancy through adulthood. and the child’s age. For example, negative affect is more
Thomas and Chess interviewed parents about their influenced by heredity than are the other dimensions, and
babies and asked individuals who did not know the temperament in childhood is more influenced by heredity
children to observe them at home From these interviews than temperament in infancy is (Wachs & Bates, 2001).
and observations, Thomas and Chess suggested that
infants’ behaviour varied along nine temperamental
dimensions. One dimension was activity, which referred
to an infant's typical level of motor activity. A second
was persistence, which referred to the amount of time an
infant devoted to an activity, particularly when obstacles
were present.
The New York Longitudinal Study started research
on infant temperament, but today we know that Thomas
and Chess overestimated the number of temperamental
dimensions. Instead of nine dimensions, scientists now
propose between two and six dimensions. For example,
Mary K Rothbart (2007) has devised an influential
theory of temperament that includes three different
dimensions:
e Surgency/extroversion (‘easy children’) refers to the
extent to which a child is generally happy, active, and
vocal and regularly seeks interesting stimulation.
© Negative affect (‘difficult children’) refers to the extent
to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and
not easily soothed.
e Effortful control (‘children who are slow to warm
up’) refers to the extent to which a child can focus
attention, is not readily distracted, and can inhibit A Twin studies show the impact of heredity on temperament: If one
responses. identical twin ts active, the other one usually is, too.

These dimensions of temperament emerge in infancy,

continue into childhood, and are related to dimensions The environment also contributes to children’s
of personality that are found in adolescence and temperament. Positive emotionality —- infants who
adulthood (Gartstein, Knyazev, & Slobodskaya, 2005). laugh often, seem to be generally happy, and express
However, the dimensions are not independent. Infants
who are high on effortful control tend to be high on temperament Consistent style or pattern of behaviour.
surgency/extroversion and low on negative affect

3.1 THE NEWBORN 81

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learmung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copacd, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest muy he wappeesscd from the cfbook andive of hapter|s).
Exttonal seview bon deaned thot any wappromed coment dacs sot matcrially affect the overall keammng expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night to remove additeoeal content af arty Gime if sudmequent night scetnctioes noqaar it
pleasure often - seems to reflect environmental tend, as five-month-olds, to cry when they are placed
influences (Goldsmith et al., 1997). In addition, in stressful situations (Stifter & Fox, 1990) In addition,
infants are less emotional when parents are responsive when inhibited toddlers are adults, they respond more
(Gudmundson & Leerkes, 2012, Leerkes, Blankson, strongly to unfamiliar stimuli (Schwartz et al., 2003).
& O’Brien, 2009). On the other hand, infants become Thus, evidence suggests that temperament is at least
increasingly fearful when their mothers are depressed somewhat stable throughout infancy and the toddler
(Gartstein et al, 2010) And some temperamental years (Lemery et al., 1999). Of course, the links are not
characteristics are more common in some cultures perfect. Jabu, an emotional one-year-old, is more likely to
than in others Asian babies tend to be less emotional be emotional as a 12-year-old than Jaco, an unemotional
than European or American babies. For instance, Asian one-year-old. However, it’s not a ‘sure thing’ that Jabu
babies cry less often and less intensely than European or will still be emotional as a 12-year-old. Instead, think
American babies, but Russian infants are more fearful of temperament as a predisposition. Some infants are
and emotionally negative (Gartstein, Slobodskaya, & naturally predisposed to be sociable, emotional, or
Kinsht, 2003, Kagan et al., 1994). active; others can act in these ways, too, but only if the
British scientist, Sir Francis Galton, was one of the behaviours are nurtured by parents and others.
earliest people to study temperament amongst different Although temperament is only moderately stable
races and cultures. He found that Native American during infancy and toddlerhood, it can still shape
people tended to be reserved, Chinese people tended development in important ways. For example, an infant's
to be complacent and African people tended to talk temperament may determine the experiences that parents
impulsively. He also found that babies that were adopted provide. Parents may read more to quiet babies but play
by other races maintained their racial type (Rushton, more physical games with their active babies These
1999). Today, scientists are wary of making generalised different experiences, driven by the infants’ temperament,
statements about temperament and race, as this can lead contribute to each infant's development despite the fact
to racial stereotyping and harmful profiling. that the infants’ temperament may change over the years.
Of course, in trying to determine the contributions of Thus, although infants have many features in common,
heredity and environment to temperament, the most likely temperament characteristics remind us that each baby also
explanation is that both contribute (Henderson & Wachs, seems to have a unique personality from the very start.
2007) In fact, one view is that temperament may make
some children particularly susceptible to environmental Think about it
influences - either beneficial or harmful (Belsky,
Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007). For How would a learning theorist explain why
example, in one study (Kochanska, Aksan, & Joy, 2007), children have different temperaments?
emotionally fearful children were more likely to cheat in a
game when their parents’ discipline emphasised asserting
power (e.g., ‘Do this now and don't argue!’) However,
these children were least likely to cheat when parents were
nurturing and supportive. In other words, temperamentally
fearful preschoolers can become dishonest or honest,
depending on their parents’ disciplinary style.
There's no question that heredity and experience
cause babies’ temperaments to differ, but how stable is
temperament? We'll find out in the next section.

Stability of temperament
Do calm, easygoing babies grow up to be calm, easygoing
children, adolescents, and adults? Are difficult, irritable
infants destined to grow up to be grumpy, whiny
children? In fact, temperament is moderately stable
throughout infancy, childhood, and adolescence
A Children’s temperament influences the way that adults treat them,
(Janson & Mathiesen, 2008; Wachs & Bates, 2001) For for example, parents engage in more vigorous play when their
example, newborns who cry under moderate stress children are temperamentally active.

82 CHAPTER3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Recall 6. Research on the stability of temperament in

infants and young children typically finds that
1. Some reflexes help infants get necessary
nutrients, other reflexes protect infants from
danger, and still other reflexes
Interpret
2. The is based on five vital
Describe the Apgar as a measure of a newborn
functions and provides a quick indication of a
baby’s well-being.
newborn's physical health.
3. A baby lying calmly with his or her eyes open Apply
and focused is in a state of Based on what you know about the stability of
4. Newborns spend more time asleep than awake, temperament, what would you say to a parent who's
and about half this time asleep is spent in worried that her 15-month-old seems shy and
,a time thought to promote inhibited?
growth in the central nervous system. Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
5. The campaign to reduce SIDS emphasises that end of the chapter.
infants should

Ed Physical development
Learning objectives

e Discuss how height and weight change from birth to two years of age.

® Identify the nutrients young children need, and discuss how nutrients are best provided.

® List the consequences of malnutrition, and state how it can be treated.

e Understand what nerve cells are, and how they are organised in the brain.

While crossing the street, four-year-old Rajen basic features of physical growth, see how the brain
was struck by a passing car. He was in a develops, and discover how the accident affected
coma for a week but then gradually became Rajen’s development.
more alert. Now he seems to be aware of his
surroundings. Needless to say, Rajen’s mother
is grateful that he survived the accident, but she
Growthofthe
body
wonders what the future holds for her son. Growth is more rapid in infancy than during any other
period after birth. Typically, infants double their birth
For both parents and children, physical growth is a weight by three months of age and triple it by their first
topic of great interest and a source of pride Parents birthday. This rate of growth is so rapid that if continued
marvel at how quickly babies add kilograms and throughout childhood, a typical 10-year-old boy would
centimetres, and two-year-olds proudly proclaim, ‘I be nearly as long as a jumbo jet and weigh almost as
bigger now!’ In this section, we examine some of the much (McCall, 1979).

32 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 83

106.68
21.77
i

101.60 © 101.60 ee
me * 19.95
eB rk

:
i

91.44 19.05
18.14 86.36 18.14
17.23 81.28 5 17.23
76.20 — 16.32 76.20 16.32

71.12 © | 15.42 71.12 Jas

cor | 14.51
66.04 aan
00° {fy 13.60 — 60.96 ie
5 H 1270 F 5 1270 3
é ee =) ane 11.79
50.80 10.88 f 50.80 § 10.88
45.72 F 9.97 45.72 9.97
40.64 — 9.07 40.64 9.07
35.56 | | 8.16 35.56 8.16
30.48 © / 7.25 30.48 7.25
25.0 | f 6.35 ae 6.35
202 Sa | 5.44 oe 5.44
: 453
15.24
3.62
15.24 f me
3.62
10.16 7 oe 10.16 aS
5.08 E; 1.81
5.08 1.81
0 0
B 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 B 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
Age (months) Age (months)

@ FIGURE 3.2 Boys and girls grow taller and heavier from birth to three years of age, but the range of normal heights and weights
is wide.

84 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

(Copyraght 3019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectroenc nights, some therd party contest muy he suppecesed form dae citook anciice of haptes|s).
Edttomal seview bos deemed that any suppromed cresicat docs sot mustcrally affect the overall kare cupenence. Cengage Learning rescrwex the mpbt to remove addiioeal comiont af any tne if adecquent nghe seenctoes noqea a.
kilogram of weight (compared with about 60 kilojoules
per half kilogram for an adult).
In Chapter 2, we explained how polygenic Breast-feeding is the best way to ensure that babies
inheritance is often involved when phenotypes get the nourishment they need. Human milk contains
form a continuum. Height is an example of a the proper amounts of carbohydrates, fats, protein,
phenotype. Propose a simple polygenic mode! to vitamins, and minerals for babies. Breast-feeding also has
explain how height might be inherited. several other advantages compared with bottle-feeding
(Dewey, 2001). First, breast-fed babies are ill less often
because breast milk contains the mother’s antibodies.
So far we have emphasised the quantitative aspects of Second, breast-fed babies are less prone to diarrhea and
growth, such as height. This ignores an important fact: constipation. Third, breast-fed babies typically make the
infants are not simply scaled-down versions of adults. transition to solid foods more easily, apparently because
@ FIGURE 3.3 shows that compared with adolescents they are accustomed to changes in the taste of breast milk
and adults, infants and young children look top-heavy that reflect a mother’s diet. Fourth, breast milk cannot be
because their heads and trunks are disproportionately contaminated, which is a significant problem in developing
large. As growth of the hips, legs, and feet catches up countries when formula is used to bottle-feed babies.
later in childhood, their bodies take on more adult Experts recommend that children be breast-fed until
proportions. This pattern of growth, in which the head they are two years old and that they be introduced to
and trunk develop first, follows the cephalocaudal solid food at six months (UNICEF, 2010). In fact, in many
principle introduced in Chapter 2 developing countries, mothers follow these guidelines,
Growth of this sort requires energy. Let’s see how breast-feeding their children up to two years of age (Arabi
food and drink provide the fuel to grow. et al., 2012). But in the United States and other developed
nations, roughly half of mothers stop breast-feeding by six
“You are what you eat’: Nutrition and growth months, in part because it is inconvenient when they return
In a typical 2-month-old, about 40% of the body's energy to full-time work (U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 2012).
is devoted to growth. Most of the remaining energy is used The many benefits of breast-feeding do not mean
for basic bodily functions such as digestion and respiration. that bottle-feeding is harmful. Formula, when prepared
A much smaller portion is consumed in physical activity. in sanitary conditions, provides generally the same
Because growth requires so much high energy, nutrients as human milk. But infants are more prone to
young babies must consume an enormous number of develop allergies from formula, and formula does not
calories relative to their body weight. In a 2-month-old, protect infants from disease. Even so, bottle-feeding
about 40% of the body’s energy is devoted to growth has advantages too. A mother who cannot easily breast-
Because growth requires so much high energy, young feed can still enjoy the intimacy of feeding her baby, and
babies must consume about 200 kilojoules per half other family members can participate in feeding. In fact,

ue ‘aan

@ FIGURE 3.3 The head and trunk develop before

a top-heavy appearance.
Newbom 18 months

Age
7 years 13 years

the hips, legs, and feet, which gives young children

3-2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 85

Copyraght 2009 Cengage Lowrseng All Rights Reserwod May act be copand, xcommed. of dupicoted m wholk or im part. Dur to clecrorsc mghes, scene Gand party comacat mary be eappeceend Seen tar cBiook andive of mapern’s)
Echtorad sevacw bos doomed tut any eappremed comicat dors set sesxroily affect the overall omemg cupemence. Congage Lowseng rerves ec mgt © ome ey Come of et ae
long-term longitudinal studies typically find that for increasingly independent preschoolers Because
breast- and bottle-fed babies are similar in physical and toddlers don't know what is and isn't safe to eat, eating
psychological development (Jansen, de Weerth, & Riksen- only familiar foods protects them from potential harm
Walraven, 2008), so women can choose either method (Aldridge, Dovey, & Halford, 2009).
and know that their babies’ dietary needs will be met. Parents should not be overly concerned about this
In some conditions, bottle-feeding is potentially fussy period. Although some children eat less than
disastrous. For example, women in developing countries before (in terms of kilojoules per kilogram), almost all
may not have access to sanitary conditions Often the fussy eaters get enough food for growth. Nevertheless,
only water available to prepare formula is contaminated; several methods can be used to encourage youngsters to
the result is that infants have chronic diarrhea, leading eat more healthily:
to dehydration and sometimes death. Or in an effort to
save expensive formula, parents may ignore instructions e Reward children when they eat healthy foods; in one
study (Cooke et al., 2011), when four- to six-year-
and use less formula than indicated when making milk.
The resulting ‘weak’ milk leads to malnutrition For olds received a sticker after they tasted a vegetable,
these reasons, the World Health Organization strongly consumption increased six-fold and persisted for three
advocates breast-feeding as the primary source of months after rewards were dropped.
nutrition for infants and toddlers in developing nations. e Show young children photos of same-age, same-sex
By two years, growth slows, so children need less to peers who look happy when eating the target food.
eat. This is also a time when many children become picky Children are more likely to imitate such models
(Frazier et al., 2012)
eaters, and toddlers and preschool children may find
that foods they once ate willingly are now ‘yucky’ As a e Teach children about nutrition, emphasising that
toddler, a child may love green beans. When the same different body functions require a diverse diet
child reaches two, she could decide that green beans are that includes a variety of nutrients In one study
awful and adamantly refuse to eat them. Although such (Gripshover & Markman, 2013), preschooler children
fussiness can be annoying, it may actually be adaptive who were taught these concepts from story books ate
twice as many vegetables.
e At meals, offer children new foods one at a time and in
small amounts. Encourage but don't force children to eat
new foods. When children reject a new food, continue to
offer it over several meals so that it will become familiar
(American Academy of Pediatrics, 2008).

Collectively, these methods can help children receive the

nutrition they need to grow

Malnutrition
An adequate diet is only a dream to many of the world’s
children. Worldwide, about one in four children under age
five is malnourished, as indicated by being small for their
age (UNICEF-WHO-The World Bank, 2012) Half the
deaths of children under five are due to malnutrition.
In South Africa, the prevalence of malnutrition varies
across provinces and areas and is mainly due to socio-
economic factors.
Malnourishment is especially damaging during
infancy because growth is rapid during these years.
By the school-age years, children with a history of
infant malnutrition often have difficulty maintaining
A Toddlers and preschool children often become picky eaters This attention in school - they are easily distracted.
can be annoying but should not concern parents.
Malnutrition during rapid periods of growth
apparently damages the brain, affecting a child’s
malnourished Being small for one’s age because of inadequate abilities to pay attention and learn (Morgane et al ,
nutrition. 1993, Nyaradi et al., 2013)

86 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD’ PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyright 3019 Cengage Lesemng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectrommc nights, some thend party costest mary be suppressed form the cftook and/or oC hapter|s)
Edtonal view tos deaned that azy wippromed coment docs act muuirally affect the overall kamung expenence. Cengage Leartung rencrvex the ngbt remove additioeal coment at any tame if sutmequent neh wcdnchoes nyeine it.
Malnutrition would seem to have a simple cure - an is by addressing both the biological and sociocultural
adequate diet. But the solution is more complex than forces (Super, Herrera, & Mora, 1990).
you might expect. Malnourished children are often
passive and inactive. This behaviour is useful because it The emerging nervous system
conserves the child's limited energy Unfortunately, when
children are usually unresponsive and passive, parents The physical changes we see as infants grow are
often come to believe that their actions have little impact impressive. Even more awe-inspiring are the changes we
on the children. That is, when children do not respond cannot see — those involving the brain and the nervous
to parents’ efforts to stimulate their development, system. An infant's feelings of hunger or pain, the infant's
parents become discouraged from providing additional smiles or laughs, and his or her efforts to sit upright or to
stimulation in the future. Over time, parents tend to hold a toy, all show the functioning of the brain and the
provide fewer experiences that promote their children’s rest of the emerging nervous system.
development. The result is a cycle in which malnourished How does the brain accomplish these many tasks?
children are neglected by parents who believe they To begin to answer this question, we need to look at
can do little to contribute to their children’s growth. the organisation of the brain The basic unit in the
Thus, a biological influence (lethargy that comes from brain and the rest of the nervous system is the neuron,
insufficient nourishment) causes a profound change in a cell that specialises in receiving and transmitting
the experiences (parental teaching) that shape a child's information. Neurons have the basic elements shown
development (Worobey, 2005). in @ FIGURE 3.4. The cell body, in the centre of the
To break the vicious cycle, these children need more cell, contains the basic biological machinery that keeps
than an improved diet. Parents must be taught how to the neuron alive The receiving end of the neuron, the
promote their children’s development and must be dendrite, looks like a tree with its many branches. This
encouraged to do so. Programmes that combine dietary structure allows one neuron to receive input from
supplements with parent training may help to treat thousands of other neurons (Morgan & Gibson, 1991).
malnutrition (Nahar et al., 2012) Children in these The tube-like structure that emerges from the other
programmes often catch up with their peers in physical side of the cell body, the axon, transmits information to
and intellectual growth, showing that the best way to other neurons. At the end of the axon are small knobs
reduce the effect of malnutrition on psychological forces called terminal buttons, which release chemicals called
neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters are the
messengers that carry information to nearby neurons.
With 50 to 100 billion neurons such as these, you
have the beginnings ofa human brain. An adult's brain
weighs a little less than 1 5 kg and easily fits in your
hands. The wrinkled surface of the brain is the cerebral
cortex, which is made up of 10 billion neurons. The
cortex regulates many of the functions that we think

neuron Basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that
specialises in receiving and transmitting information.
cell body Centre of the neuron that keeps the neuron alive.
dendrite End of the neuron that receives information; it looks like
a tree with many branches.
axon Tube-like structure that emerges from the cell body and
transmits information to other neurons.

terminal buttons Small knobs at the end of the axon that release
neurotransmitters.

neurotransmitters Chemicals released by the terminal buttons

that allow neurons to communicate with each other.
cerebral cortex Wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many
A Many children around the world are malnourished, such as this
functions that are distinctly human.
child in a Somali refugee camp.

32 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 87

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, xcanned, oc duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to clectronic nights, some therd party comtest may he wuppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(+)
Edacmal seview ton deemed that any wppromed coment doc aot maimalh affect the overall kame ctpencree. Cengage Learting rexcrven the nipbt w remove addmeoeal coencat af any tame if sudecquent nghp wenchoes moqeie a
Terminal buttons

Direction
of information flow

@ FIGURE 3.4 Anerve cell includes dendrites that receive information; a cell body that has life-
sustaining machinery; and for sending information, an axon that ends in terminal buttons

of as distinctly human. The cortex consists of left and by specific regions in the cortex (@ FIGURE 3.5) For
right halves, called hemispheres, linked by a thick example, your personality and your ability to make and
bundle of neurons called the corpus callosum. The carry out plans are largely centred in an area in the front
characteristics you value the most - your engaging of the cortex called (appropriately enough) the frontal
personality, your ‘way with words, or your excellent cortex. For most people, the ability to produce and
ability for ‘reading’ others’ emotions — are all controlled understand language is mainly housed in neurons in
the left hemisphere of the cortex. When you recognise
that others are happy or sad, neurons in your right
hemispheres
Right and left halves of the cortex.
hemisphere are usually at work.
corpus callosum Thick bundle of neurons that connects the two Now that we know how the mature brain is organised,
hemispheres. let's look at how it grows and begins to function.
frontal cortex Brain region that regulates personality and goal-

Occipital cortex
(vision)

@ FIGURE 3.5 The brain on the left, viewed from above, shows the left and right hemispheres
The brain on the right, viewed from the side, shows the major regions of the cortex and their primary
functions
Courtesy af Dr Dana Copeland

88 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD’ PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Lesrming. All Rights ieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, oe duplicated. m whole ce in part. Due to electronic nghts, some thind party costest mary be suppressed teem the cfiock andioe oChapter(s)
Edtomal sewew boo deaned that any wuppremed coment docs sot muatcmally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learning reserves the night to nemnowe additeoeal coesient at any tame if subsequent mgtts seatnctioes neqene it.
Emerging brain structures circuits: synapses that are active are preserved, but
The brain weighs only 0.35 kg at birth, which is roughly those that aren't active are eliminated (Webb, Monk,
25% of the weight of an adult brain. But the brain & Nelson, 2001). Pruning is completed first for brain
grows rapidly during infancy and the preschool years regions associated with sensory and motor functions.
However, brain weight doesn’t tell us much about the Regions associated with basic language and spatial skills
fascinating sequence of changes that take place to are completed next, followed by regions associated with
create a working brain. Instead, we need to look back at attention and planning (Casey et al., 2005).
prenatal development.
The beginnings of the brain can be traced to the Growth of a specialised brain
period of the zygote. At roughly three weeks after The mature brain is specialised, with different
conception, a group of cells form a flat structure known psychological functions localised in particular regions.
as the neural plate. At four weeks, the neural plate This means that developmental researchers have had
folds to form a tube that ultimately becomes the brain a strong interest in determining the origins and time
and spinal cord. When the ends of the tube fuse shut, course of the brain's specialisation. For many years,
neurons are produced in one small region of the neural the only clues to specialisation came from children
tube. Production of neurons begins about 10 weeks after who had suffered brain injury. The logic linked the
conception, and by 28 weeks, the developing brain has location of the injury to the resulting impairment: if a
virtually all the neurons it will ever have. During these region of the brain regulates a particular function (e.g.,
weeks, neurons form at the incredible rate of more than understanding speech), then damage to that region
3 000 per second. Surprisingly, many of these newly should impair the function.
formed neurons are short-lived: they are programmed Fortunately, relatively few children suffer brain
to die, creating space for nearby neurons to form injury. But this meant that scientists needed other
connections (Stiles, 2008). methods to study brain development. One of them,
From the neuron-manufacturing site in the neural electroencephalography, involves measuring the brain's
tube, neurons migrate to their final positions in the electrical activity from electrodes placed on the scalp,
brain The brain is built in stages, beginning with the as shown in the photo in this section. If a region of the
innermost layers. Neurons in the deepest layer are brain regulates a function, then the region should show
positioned first, followed by neurons in the second layer, distinctive patterns of electrical activity while a child
and so on This layering process continues until all six is using that function A newer technique, functional
layers of the mature brain are in place, which occurs magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), uses magnetic
about seven months after conception (Rakic, 1995). fields to track the flow of blood in the brain. With this
In the fourth month of prenatal development, axons method, shown in the photo, the research participant's
begin to acquire myelin - the fatty wrap that speeds brain is literally wrapped in an incredibly powerful
neural transmission. This process continues through magnet that can track blood flow in the brain as
infancy into childhood and adolescence (Paus, 2010). participants perform different cognitive tasks (Casey et
Neurons that carry sensory information are the first to al., 2005). The logic behind this method is that active
acquire myelin, and neurons in the cortex are among the brain regions need more oxygen, which increases blood
last. You can see the effect of more myelin in improved flow to those regions.
coordination and reaction times. The older the infant
and (later) the child, the more rapid and coordinated his
or her reactions will be. neural plate Flat group of cells present in prenatal development
In the months after birth, the brain grows rapidly. that becomes the brain and spinal cord.
Axons and dendrites grow longer, and like a maturing myelin Fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them
tree, dendrites quickly grow new limbs. As the number to transmit information more rapidly.
of dendrites increases, so does the number of synapses, synaptic pruning Gradual reduction in the number of synapses,
reaching a peak at about the first birthday. Soon after, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescence.
synapses begin to disappear gradually, a phenomenon
electroencephalography
The study of brain waves recorded from
known as synaptic pruning. Thus, beginning in electrodes
that are placed on the scalp.
infancy and continuing into early adolescence, the
brain goes through its own version of ‘downsizing, or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Method of
studying brain activity by using magnetic fields to track blood
removing unnecessary connections between neurons
flow in the brain.
This pruning depends on the activity of the neural

3.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 89

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lewening. All Rights Imerved May met be copand, canned, or duplicated m whole or in part. Dur to clectromc rights, some third party content mury be wappeenand trem dw eflenek anche oCTraptcr(s)
Echtomad review hoe checrmed thet any wappremnd comment cham aot mastemadly affect
the overall kamug cxpencnce. Congage Learning reserves the npbt $0 nersrve abditaseal creviertt af arty tarne 11 sedeeuparnl reghim weMinic tions meyaune
At birth 1 month 3 months 5 months 24 months

& From birth to two years, neurons grow and create many new synapses with other neurons.

None of these methods is perfect and each has show that a newborn infant’s left hemisphere
disadvantages. For example, fMRI 1s not used often generates more electrical activity in response to
because it's expensive and participants must lie still speech than the right hemisphere does (Molfese
for several minutes at a time. However, the combined & Burger-Judisch, 1991). So, by birth, the cortex
outcome of research using these different approaches of the left hemisphere is already specialised for
has identified some general principles that describe the language processing. As we'll see in Chapter 4, this
brain's specialisation as children develop. specialisation allows language to develop rapidly
during infancy. Finally, studies of children with
prenatal brain damage show that by infancy, the
right hemisphere is specialised for understanding
certain kinds of spatial relations (Stiles et al., 2005).
. Specialisation takes two specific forms. First, with
development, the brain regions active during
processing become more focused and less spread
out. A comparison may help in understanding this:
think about a thunderstorm that covers a huge region
versus one with the same power in a much smaller
region (Durston et al., 2006). Second, the kinds of
stimuli that trigger brain activity shift from being
general to being specific (Johnson, Grossman, &
Cohen Kadosh, 2009). If a brain processes facelike
stimuli, it shows both trends: it becomes focused in
A Electrodes placed on an infant's scalp can detect electrical activity a particular area (the fusiform gyrus) and becomes
that is used to create an electroancephalogram, a pattern of the narrowly tuned to faces (Cohen Kadosh et al., 2013;
brain's response to stimulation
Scherf et al., 2007).
. Different brain systems specialise at different rates.
. Specialisation is evident early in development. Think of a new housing development involving
You might expect the brain to be completely construction of many homes, each with several
unspecialised. In fact, many regions are already storeys. In each house, the first floor is completed
specialised very early in infancy. For example, early before higher floors, but some houses are finished
specialisation of the frontal cortex is shown by the before others are even started. In the same way,
finding that if this region 1s damaged in infancy, it brain regions involving basic sensory and perceptual
results in impaired decision making and abnormal processes specialise earlier than the regions necessary
emotional responses (Anderson et al., 2001). for higher-order processes (Fox, Levitt, & Nelson,
Similarly, studies using electroencephalography 2010). Similarly, some brain systems that are sensitive

Carrer 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght
2009 Congage Lesreung. All Rights Reserved May set be copend, «commed, of dupicted m whole of im part. Dur to clectrormc
mghes, somes hand party cosacet auzy be eappemend Sern te cfiook anciue of hapecrs)
Echtomad nevnew how decrmnd thot sey wappremed comamt dacs set sesaradly affect the overall komung ctpenence. Congage Lewaung nowrves the ngtt © acme ahinaveal coment of any Gres if efmegpemt mghe Antone pe &
to reward (especially to rewards from peers) may reach
maturity in adolescence but the systems responsible
for self-control aren't fully specialised until adulthood
(Casey & Caudle, 2013, Galvan, 2013)
4. Successful specialisation requires stimulation from
the environment. To return to the analogy of the
brain as a house, the newborn's brain is perhaps
best conceived as a partially finished, partially
furnished house. a general organisational framework
is present, with preliminary neural pathways
designed to perform certain functions. The left
hemisphere has some language pathways, and the
frontal cortex has some emotion-related pathways.
However, completing the typical organisation 4 In fMRI a magnet is used to track the flow of blood to
of the mature brain requires input from the different regions of the brain as children and adults perform
cognitive tasks.
environment (Greenough & Black, 1992) In this
case, environmental input influences experience-
expectant growth - over the course of evolution, 5 The immature brain's lack of specialisation gives a
human infants have typically been exposed to some benefit: greater plasticity. Just as the structures in
forms of stimulation that are used to adjust brain a housing development follow a plan that specifies
wiring, strengthening some circuits and eliminating the location of each house and its design, brain
others For example, under normal conditions,
development usually follows a predictable course
healthy human infants experience moving visual that reflects epigenetic interactions between
patterns (e.g., faces) and varied sounds (e.g., voices).
the genetic code and required environmental
Just as a newly planted seed depends on water in its input Sometimes, however, the normal course is
environment for growth, a developing brain depends disrupted. A person may experience events harmful
on environmental stimulation to improve its circuits to the brain (e.g., injured in an accident) or may be
for vision, hearing, and other systems (Black, 2003)
deprived of some essential ingredients of successful
Of course, experiences later in life also shape the ‘brain building’ (e.g., necessary experiences).
brain (and we'll see this in several chapters later in
this book). Experience-dependent growth suggests
changes in the brain that are not linked to specific Think about it
points in development and that vary across individuals
and across cultures. Experience-dependent growth What's an example of experience-expectant
is illustrated by how a preschool child learns of growth for South African three-year-olds? What's
a classmate’s name, how a primary school child a common type of experience-dependent growth
discovers a shortcut home from school, and how at this age?
an adolescent masters the functions of a new cell
phone. In each case, brain circuits are modified in Research that examines the consequences of these
response to an individual's experiences. With today’s atypical experiences shows that the brain has some
technology, we can’t see these daily changes in the flexibility: it is plastic. Remember Rajen, the child
brain. But when they build up over many years - in the story whose brain was damaged when he was
such as when individuals acquire expertise in a skill
~ brain changes can be detected. For example, skilled
cello players have extensive brain regions devoted
to controlling the fingers of the left hand as they are experience-expectant growth Process by which the wiring of
the brain is organised by experiences that are common to most
positioned on the strings of the instrument (Elbert
humans.
et al., 1995) And years of driving a taxi produces
changes in the hippocampus, a region of the brain experience-dependent growth Process by which an individual's
unique experiences over a lifetime affect brain structures and
implicated in navigation and way-finding (Maguire,
organisation.
Woollett, & Spiers, 2006).

3.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 91

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcanned, of duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some thend party costest muy he suppressed trom the cfiock andice oChapter(s)
Edbtorad sewew bos decmed that any suppremed comtent docs sot rastcmally affect the overall kammg cxpenerce. Cengage Leareung reserves the night 0 nemowe additional coment af any tame if subsequent mgt sednctooes noqene ot
struck by a car? His language skills were impaired of function is not uncommon - particularly for young
after the accident. This was not surprising because the children — and shows that the brain is plastic. In other
left hemisphere of Rajen’s brain had absorbed most of words, young children often recover more skills after
the force of the collision But within several months, brain injury than older children and adults, apparently
Rajen had completely recovered his language skills because functions are more easily reassigned in the
Apparently other neurons take over language-related young brain (Kolb & Teskey, 2012, Demir, Levine, &
processing from the damaged neurons. This recovery Goldin-Meadow, 2010)

Test yourself 3.2

Recall 7. A good example of brain plasticity is that

although children with brain damage often have
1. Compared to older children and adults, an impaired cognitive processes, :
infant's head and trunk are
2. Because of the high demands of growth, infants Interpret
need kilojoules per kilogram
Compare growth of the brain before birth with
than do adults.
growth of the brain after birth.
3. The most effective treatment for malnutrition is
improved diet and Apply
4. The is the part of the neuron that How does malnutrition illustrate the influence
contains the basic machinery to keep the cell alive. on development of life-cycle forces in the
biopsychosocial framework?
5. The frontal cortex is the seat of personality and
regulates : Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.
6. Human speech typically takes the greatest
electrical activity from the ofan
infant's brain.

3.3 Moving and grasping: Early motor skills

Learning objectives

e Discuss how infants learn to coordinate the use of their hands.

Arina is 14 months old and a world-class crawling. Deep down, he worries that perhaps
crawler. Using hands and knees, she can go he was negligent in not providing more exercise
just about anywhere she wants. Arina does not for Arina when she was younger.
walk and seems uninterested in learning how.
Arina’s dad wonders whether he should be Do you remember what it was like to learn to type, to drive
doing something to help Arina progress beyond a car with a gear stick, to play a musical instrument, or to
play a sport? Each of these activities involves motor skills.
coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs Success
motor skills Coordinated movements of the muscles and limbs.
demands that each movement be done in a precise way,

92 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Foetal posture
0 months Chin up Chest up Reach and miss Sit with support Sit on lap;
1 month 2 month 3 month grasp object

&
5 month

Sit on high chair; Stand with help Stand holding Creep

8 months furniture 10 months
9 months

Pull to stand Climb stair steps Stand alone Walk alone

by furniture 13 months 14 months 15 months

A
12 months

@ FIGURE 3.6 Locomotor skills improve rapidly in the 15 months after birth, and progress can be measured by many developmental
milestones.
Based on Shirley, 1931, and Bayley, 1969

33 MOVING AND GRASPING EARLY MOTOR SKILLS 93

(Copyraght 3019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectroenc nights, some therd party contest muy he suppecesed form dae citook anciice of haptes|s).
Edttomal seview bos deemed that any suppromed cresicat docs sot mustcrally affect the overall kare cupenence. Cengage Learning rescrwex the mpbt to remove addiioeal comiont af any tne if adecquent nghe seenctoes noqea a.
and the age by which most infants have achieved them and adjust their posture accordingly. Infants do the same
By about 5 months of age, most babies have rolled thing, which shows that they use vision to maintain
from back to front and can sit upright with support. By upright posture (Bertenthal & Clifton, 1998).
7 months, infants can sit alone, and by 10 months, they Balance is not, however, something that infants
can creep. A typical 14-month-old is able to stand alone master just once. Instead, infants must relearn balancing
briefly and walk with assistance. This early, unsteady form for sitting, crawling, walking, and other postures.
of walking is called toddling (hence the term toddler). Of Why? The body rotates around different points in each
course, not all children walk at the same age. Some walk posture (e.g., the wrists for crawling versus the ankles
before their first birthday Others - like Arina, the world- for walking), and different muscle groups are used to
class crawler in the story — take their first steps as late as generate compensating motions when infants begin to
18 or 19 months of age. By 24 months, most children can lose their balance. So, it’s not surprising that infants who
climb steps, walk backwards, and kick a ball. easily maintain their balance when they are sitting still
Researchers once thought these developmental topple over time after time when crawling. And after
milestones reflected maturation (e.g., McGraw, 1935). they walk, infants must adjust their posture further
Walking, for example, emerged naturally when the when they carry objects because these affect balance
necessary muscles and neural circuits matured. However, (Garciaguirre, Adolph, & Shrout, 2007) Infants must
today locomotion — and, in fact, all of motor development adjust their balance system as they take on each new
- is viewed from a new perspective. According to posture, just as basketball players adjust their muscle
dynamic systems theory, motor development involves movements when they move from dunking to shooting a
many distinct skills that are organised and reorganised three-pointer (Adolph, 2000, 2002)
over time to meet the demands of specific tasks. For
example, walking includes maintaining balance,
moving limbs, perceiving the environment, and having
a reason to move. We can only understand walking by
understanding each of these skills and how they are
combined to allow movement in a specific situation
(Thelen & Smith, 1998).

Posture and balance

The ability to maintain an upright posture is fundamental
to walking But upright posture is virtually impossible
for newborns and young infants because of the shape of
their body Cephalocaudal growth means that an infant
is top-heavy. So, as soon as a young infant starts to lose
her balance, she tumbles over. Only with growth of the
legs and muscles can infants maintain an upright posture
(Thelen, Ulrich, & Jensen, 1989).
After infants can stand upright, they must
continuously adjust their posture to avoid falling down
(Metcalfe et al., 2005). A few months after birth, infants
begin to use visual cues and an inner-ear mechanism
to adjust their posture. To show the use of visual cues
for balance, researchers had babies sit in a room with
A Infants are capable of stepping — moving the legs alternately — long
striped walls that moved. When adults sit in a room like before they can walk alone
this, they perceive themselves (not the walls) as moving

toddling Early, unsteady form of walking done by infants.

Stepping
Another essential element of walking is moving the legs
toddler Young children who have just learned to walk.
alternately, repeatedly transferring the weight of the
dynamic systems theory Theory that views motor development as body from one foot to the other. Children don't step
involving many distinct skills that are organised and reorganised spontaneously until approximately 10 months because
over time to meet specific needs.
they must be able to stand in order to step.

94 CHAPTER3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mary he appeased thom the eBook andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
Can younger children step if they are held upright? Mastering individual skills and coordinating them
Thelen and Ulrich (1991) devised a clever procedure well does not happen overnight. Novice walkers take
to answer this question Infants were placed on a nearly 1 500 steps per hour, covering about a third of
treadmill and held upright by an adult When the a kilometre, and falling more than 30 times Infants
belt on the treadmill started to move, infants could obviously get much natural practice (along with
respond in one of several ways. They might simply let feedback from falls) as they master walking (Adolph
both legs be dragged backwards by the belt Or they et al., 2012)
might let their legs be dragged briefly, then move These findings from laboratory research are not
them forward together in a hopping motion Many the only evidence that practice promotes motor
six- and seven-month-olds demonstrated the mature development. Cross-cultural research points to the same
pattern of alternating steps on each leg. Even more conclusion. In Europe and North America, most infants
amazing is that - when the treadmill was equipped typically walk alone near their first birthday. But infants
with separate belts for each leg that moved at different in other cultures often begin to walk (and reach the
speeds — babies adjusted, stepping more rapidly on the other milestones listed earlier) at an earlier age because
faster belt. child-care practices allow children to practise their
Apparently, the alternate stepping motion that is emerging motor skills. For example, in some traditional
essential for walking is evident long before infants walk African cultures, infants sit and walk at younger ages.
alone Walking unassisted is not possible, though, until Why? Infants are commonly carried by their parents
the infant has mastered other component skills piggyback style, which helps develop muscles in the
infants’ trunk and legs.
Environmental cues Some cultures even go a step further. They believe
Many infants learn to walk in the relative security of flat, that practice is essential for motor skills to develop
uncluttered floors at home. But they soon discover that normally, so they (or siblings) provide daily training
the environment offers a variety of surfaces, some more sessions. For example, the Kipsigis of Kenya help
conducive to walking than others. Infants use cues in children learn to sit by having them sit while propped up
(Super, 1981)
the environment to judge whether a surface is suitable
You may be surprised that some cultures do just the
for walking. For example, they are more likely to cross a
bridge when it's wide and has a rigid handrail than when opposite - they have practices that discourage motor
it is narrow and has a wobbly handrail (Berger, Adolph,
development For example, in Chinese cities, parents
& Lobo, 2005, Kretch & Adolph, 2013b). And when
often allow their children to crawl only on a bed
they are walking down stairs, if a step is too large to surrounded by pillows, in part because they don't want
descend safely, novice walkers often continue (and fall),
their children crawling on a dirty floor (Campos et al.,
2000) In this case, infants reach motor milestones a few
but older experienced walkers either stop or slide down
on their backs. Only experienced walkers recognise the months later than the ages listed in the chart.
cues that signal steps that are safe for walking (Kretch We have discussed how many mothers in South
& Adolph, 2013a) Results like these show that infants
Africa carry their babies, either on their backs or in a
use perceptual cues to decide whether a surface is safe baby carrier. These babies receive a number of benefits
for walking. from this practice: the infant is soothed by being
with his or her mother or caregiver, and the infant
is exposed to a lot of visual stimulation. In addition,
Coordinating skills this practice helps infants’ motor development. A
Dynamic systems theory emphasises that learning to study that tested behaviour such as motor head
walk demands coordinating many individual skills. Each control, eye-hand coordination, sitting, standing, and
component skill must first be mastered alone and then walking found that the African children reached these
integrated with the other skills (Werner, 1948) That is, milestones earlier than the Euro-American children
mastery of intricate motions requires both differentiation (Timyan, 1988)
(mastery of component skills) and integration -
combining the motions in proper sequence into a coherent,
working whole In the case of walking, children only differentiation Distinguishing and mastering individual motions.
master the component skills to be coordinated and so
allow independent, unsupported walking at about 12 to integration Linking individual motions into a coherent,
coordinated whole.
15 months of age

33 MOVING AND GRASPING EARLY MOTOR SKILLS 95

Thus, cultural practices can accelerate or delay the

early stages of motor development, depending on the A Locomotor skills develop rapidly in preschool children, making it
nature of practice that infants and toddlers receive possible for them to play vigorously.

(Adolph & Robinson, 2013). In the long run, however, the

age of mastering various motor milestones is not critical
for children’s development. All healthy children learn to
walk, and whether this happens a few months before or
after the ‘typical’ ages shown earlier has no bearing on How does learning to hop on one foot
children’s later development (Lung & Shu, 2011) demonstrate differentiation and integration of
motor skills?
Beyond walking
You can imagine how the world expands for infants cj kill
and toddlers as they learn to move independently. The
first tentative steps soon are followed by others that A major accomplishment of infancy is skilled use of the
are more skilled. With more experience, infants take hands (Bertenthal & Clifton, 1998). Newborns have little
longer, straighter steps. Like adults, they begin to swing apparent control of their hands, but one-year-olds are
their arms, rotating the left arm forward as the right leg extraordinarily talented.
moves, then repeating with the right arm and left leg
(Ledebt, 2000; Ledebt, van Wieringen, & Savelsbergh,
2004). Reaching and grasping
Children’s growing skill is evident in their running At about four months, infants can successfully reach for
and hopping. Most two-year-olds have a hurried walk objects (Bertenthal & Clifton, 1998). These early reaches
instead of a true run. They move their legs stiffly (rather often look clumsy — and for good reason. When infants
than bending them at the knees) and are not airborne as reach, they don't move their arm and hand directly and
is the case when running. By five or six years, children smoothly to the desired object (as older children and
run easily, quickly changing directions or speed. adults do). Instead, the infant's hand moves like a ship
Infants use their new walking skills to get distant under the direction of an unskilled navigator. It moves
objects - a favorite toy that’s in a different room of the a short distance, slows down, then moves again in a
house - and carry them to share with other people slightly different direction - a process that’s repeated
(Karasik, Tamis-Lemonda, & Adolph, 2011). In the next until the hand finally contacts the object (McCarty
section, we'll see how infants’ fine-motor skills allow & Ashmead, 1999). As infants grow, their reaches
them to grasp objects. have fewer movements, although they still are not as

96 Cuarprter3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyraptt 2069 Congage Lowseng All Raghts Reserwod Miry act be copand. xcommed of dupicred m whol of om part Der to clecrorsc myphes. somes Gand party cosacat ery be eappeceend Seen tr cBiock andive cf eapernts)
Ecttorad srvarw bes doomed tut sey eappremed comics dors set sesxmodly affect he ower komumg ctpemence. Congage Lowtang scarves Ge mgbt w somove adéeuoeal coment of any Gans of eheegemt rye aeons ge
continuous and smooth as reaches by older children and These gradual changes in fine motor coordination
adults (Berthier, 1996) are well illustrated by the ways children feed themselves.
Reaching requires that an infant move the hand Beginning at about six months of age, many infants
to the location of a desired object Grasping poses a experiment with ‘finger foods’ such as sliced bananas
different challenge: Now the infant must coordinate and green beans. Infants can easily pick up such foods,
movements of individual fingers to grab an object but getting them into their mouths is another story. The
Grasping also becomes more efficient during infancy. hand grasping the food may be raised to the cheek, then
Most four-month-olds just use their fingers to hold moved to the edge of the lips, and finally shoved into
objects, wrapping the object tightly with their fingers the mouth. Mission accomplished, but only after many
alone Not until seven or eight months do most infants detours along the way! However, infants’ eye-hand
use their thumbs to hold objects (Siddiqui, 1995). At coordination improves rapidly, and foods varying in size,
about this same age, infants begin to position their hands shape, and texture are soon placed directly in the mouth.
to make it easier to grasp an object. If trying to grasp a At about the first birthday, many parents allow their
long thin rod, for example, infants place their fingers children to try eating with a spoon. Youngsters first play
at right angles to the rod, which is the best position for with the spoon, dipping it in and out of a dish filled with
grasping (Wentworth, Benson, & Haith, 2000). And food or sucking on an empty spoon. Soon they learn to fill
they reach more slowly for smaller objects that require the spoon with food and place it in their mouth, but the
a more precise grip (Berthier & Carrico, 2010) As we'll motions are awkward. For example, most one-year-olds
see in the ‘Spotlight on research’ feature, having infants fill a spoon by first placing it directly over a dish. Then
practice movements can have long-lasting consequences. they lower the spoon until its bowl is full. In contrast,
two-year-olds typically scoop food from a dish by rotating
their wrist, which is the same motion that adults use
As preschoolers, children become more dexterous
and are able to make many precise and delicate
movements with their hands and fingers. Greater fine
motor skill means that preschool children begin to care
for themselves. They no longer have to rely primarily on
parents to feed and clothe them. Instead, they become
increasingly skilled at feeding and dressing themselves.
A two- or three-year-old, for example, can put on simple
clothing and use zips but not buttons By three or four
years, children can fasten buttons and take off their
clothes when going to the bathroom Most five-year-
olds can dress and undress themselves — except for tying
A A typical four-month-old grasps an object with fingers alone shoes, which children typically master at about age six.
All these actions illustrate the principles of
differentiation and integration that were introduced
Infants’ growing control of each hand is accompanied in our discussion of locomotion. Complex acts involve
by greater coordination of the two hands. Although many simple movements Each must be performed
four-month-olds use both hands, their motions are not correctly and in the proper sequence Development
coordinated. Rather, each hand seems to have a mind of involves first mastering the separate elements and then
its own. Infants may hold a toy motionless in one hand assembling them into a smoothly functioning whole.
while shaking a rattle in the other. At roughly five to
six months of age, infants can coordinate the motions
of their hands so that each hand performs different Handedness
actions that serve a common goal. So a child might, When young babies reach for objects, they don't seem to
for example, hold a toy animal in one hand and pet it prefer one hand over the other; they use their left and
with the other (Karniol, 1989). These skills continue to right hands interchangeably. They may shake a rattle
improve after the child’s first birthday: one-year-olds with their left hand and moments later pick up blocks
reach for most objects with one hand. By two years, they with their right. By the first birthday, most youngsters
reach with one or two hands, as appropriate, depending are emergent right-handers. They use their left hand
on the size of the object (van Hof, van der Kamp, & to steady the toy while the right hand manipulates the
Savelsbergh, 2002). object This early preference for one hand becomes

33 MOVING AND GRASPING EARLY MOTOR SKILLS 97

What was the design of the study?This study was

$86

expenmental The independent variable was the nature of the

training expenence (sticky gloves, regular gloves, no training)
The dependent vanable was the percentage of time that
grasping
Percentage

the babies tried to grasp the novel toys The study included
a longitudinal component (babies in the glove conditions
who were tested as 3-month-olds and again as 15-month-
olds) as well as cross-sectional component (babies who
received no training and were tested as 3-month-olds or as
15-month-olds) 3 months 15 months
Were there ethical concerns with the study? No. There Age
was no obvious harm associated with wearing the gloves or @ Sticky gloves Regular gloves
playing with toys No gloves
What were the results? The researchers calculated the
percentage of time that babies reached for the toys As you @ FIGURE 37 When babies were trained to reach using ‘sticky’
can see in @ FIGURE 3.7, at 3 and 15 months, babies who gloves, they were more likely to reach for objects, both immediately
wore the sticky gloves were more likely than babies in the after training and one year later

98 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Test yourself 3.3

Recall
1. According to , motor
development involves many distinct skills
that are organised and reorganised over time,
depending on task demands.
2. Skills important in learning to walk include
maintaining upright posture and balance,
stepping, and
3. Max uses both hands simultaneously, but not
in a coordinated manner; each hand seems
to be ‘doing its own thing: Max is probably
months old.
4. Before the ageof___ SS, children show
« By age five, fine-motor skills are developed to the point that most no signs of handedness; they use their left and
youngsters can dress themselves right hands interchangeably.

Interpret
What determines whether children become left-
or right-handed? Some scientists believe that a gene Compare and contrast the milestones of locomotor
biases children toward right-handedness (Corballis, development in the first year with the fine motor
Badzakova-Trajkov, & Haberling, 2012). Consistent with milestones.
this idea, identical twins are more likely than fraternal
twins to have the same handedness - both are right-
Apply
handed or both are left-handed (Medland et al., 2009). Describe how the mastery of a fine motor
But experience also contributes to handedness. Many skill — such as learning to use a spoon or a
cultures have traditionally viewed left-handedness as crayon - illustrates the integration of biological,
evil and have punished children for using their left hand psychological, and sociocultural forces in the
to eat or write. Not surprisingly, left-handed children biopsychosocial framework.
are rare in these cultures. Similarly, in many developed Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
nations, primary school teachers used to urge left- end of the chapter.
handed children to write with their right hands. As this

3.4 Coming to know the world: Perception

Learning objectives

® Determine whether infants are able to smell, taste, and experience pain.

® Discuss whether infants can hear, and how they use sound to locate objects.

® Explain how well infants can see, and whether they can see colour and depth.

e Discuss how infants coordinate information between different sensory modalities, such as between vision
and hearing.

3 4 COMING TO KNOW THE WORLD PERCEPTION 99

To answer Nandipha’s questions, we need to define what

it means for an infant to experience or sense the world.
Humans have several kinds of sense organs, each of
which is receptive to a different kind of physical energy.
For example, the retina at the back of the eye is sensitive
to some types of electromagnetic energy, and sight is the
result. The eardrum detects changes in air pressure, and
hearing is the result. Cells at the top of the nasal passage
detect the passage of airborne molecules, and smell
is the result. In each case, the sense organ translates
the physical stimulus into nerve impulses that are sent
to the brain. The process by which the brain receives,
selects, modifies, and organises these impulses is known as
perception. This is the first step in the complex process
of accumulating information that eventually results in
‘knowing’
Nandipha’s questions are really about her newborn
daughter's perceptual skills. By the end of this section,
you'll be able to answer her questions because we're
A Infants and toddlers do not like bitter and sour tastes!
going to look at how infants use different senses to
experience the world.

Smell, taste, and touch Newborns are sensitive to touch. As we saw

earlier in this chapter, many areas of the newborn's
Newborns have a strong sense of smell. Infants respond body respond reflexively when touched Touching an
positively to pleasant smells and negatively to unpleasant infant's cheek, mouth, hand, or foot produces reflexive
smells (Mennella & Beauchamp, 1997) They have a movements, showing that infants perceive touch.
relaxed and contented facial expression when they What's more, babies’ behaviour in response to apparent
smell honey or chocolate, but they frown or turn away pain-provoking stimuli suggests that they experience
when they smell rotten eggs or ammonia. Young babies pain (Warnock & Sandrin, 2004). Look, for example,
can also recognise familiar scents. Newborns look in at the baby in the photo (opposite) who is receiving
the direction of a pad that is saturated with their own an inoculation. She’s opened her mouth to cry, and
amniotic fluid (Schaal, Marlier, & Soussignan, 1998). although we can't hear her, the sound of her cry is
They also turn toward a pad saturated with the scent of probably the unique pattern associated with pain. The
their mother’s breast or her perfume (Porter & Winberg, pain cry begins suddenly, is high-pitched, and is not
1999). easily soothed. This baby is agitated; her heart rate has
jumped, and she’s trying to move her hands, arms, and
perception Processes by which the brain receives, selects, legs (Craig et al., 1993; Goubet, Clifton, & Shah, 2001).
modifies, and organises incoming nerve impulses that are the All together, these signs strongly suggest that babies
result of physical stimulation.
experience pain.

100 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Seeing
If you've ever watched infants, you probably noticed that
they spend much of their waking time looking around.
Sometimes they seem to be scanning their environment,
and sometimes they seem to be focusing on nearby
objects What do they see? Perhaps their visual world
4 An infant's response to an inoculation — a distinctive facial
expression coupled with a distinctive cry — clearly Suggests that is a sea of confusing grey blobs. Or maybe they see the
the baby feels pain world essentially as adults do. Actually, neither of these
descriptions is entirely accurate, but the second is closer
Perceptual skills are extraordinarily useful to to the truth.
newborns and young babies. Smell and touch help them The various elements of the visual system - the
recognise their mothers. Smell and taste make it much eye, the optic nerve, and the brain - are relatively
easier for them to learn to eat. Early development of well developed at birth. Newborns respond to light
smell, taste, and touch prepares newborns and young and can track moving objects with their eyes. How
babies to learn about the world. well do infants see? The clarity of vision, called visual
acuity, is defined as the smallest pattern that can be
distinguished dependably. You've undoubtedly had
Hearing your acuity measured, probably by being asked to read
We saw in Chapter 2 that the foetus can hear at seven rows of progressively smaller letters or numbers from
or eight months after conception As you would expect a chart. To assess newborns’ acuity, we use the same
from these results, newborns typically respond to approach, adjusted somewhat because we can't use
sounds in their surroundings Ifa parent is quiet and words to explain to infants what we‘ like them to do.
then coughs, an infant may startle, blink his eyes, and Most infants will look at patterned stimuli instead of
move his arms or legs. These responses may seem plain, patternless stimuli. For example, if we were to
natural, but they indicate that infants are sensitive to show the two stimuli in e FIGURE 3.8 to infants, most
sound. babies would look longer at the striped pattern than at
Overall, adults can hear better than infants can the grey pattern. As we make the lines narrower (along
(Saffran, Werker, & Werner, 2006). Adults can hear some with the spaces between them), there comes a point at
very quiet sounds that infants can’t. More interestingly, which the black and white stripes become so fine that
infants best hear sounds that have pitches in the range of they simply blend together and appear grey — just like
human speech. neither very high-pitched nor very low- the other pattern.
pitched Infants can differentiate speech sounds, such To estimate an infant's acuity, we pair the grey
as vowels from consonant sounds, and by four or five square with squares in which the widths of the stripes
months, they can recognise their own names (Jusczyk, differ, like the ones in @e FIGURE 3.9. When infants
1995; Mandel, Jusezyk, & Pisoni, 1995) look at the two stimuli equally, this indicates that
Infants also can distinguish different musical they are no longer able to distinguish the stripes of
sounds. They can distinguish different melodies and the patterned stimulus By measuring the width of
prefer melodies that are pleasant-sounding over those
that are unpleasant-sounding or dissonant (Trainor
visual acuity Smallest pattern that one can distinguish reliably.
& Heinmiller, 1998). And infants are sensitive to the

3-4 COMING TO KNOW THE WORLD’ PERCEPTION 101

@ FIGURE 3.9 Visual acuity can be measured by determining the thinnest stripes that the infant
prefers to view.

the stripes and their distance from an infant's eye, we In @ FIGURE 3.10, light that we see as red has a
can estimate acuity, with detection of thinner stripes relatively long wavelength, whereas violet (at the
indicating better acuity. Measurements of this sort other end of the colour spectrum) has a much shorter
indicate that newborns and one-month-olds see at 60 wavelength Concentrated in the back of the eye along
cm what normal adults would see at 60-120 m. But by the retina are specialised neurons called cones Some
the first birthday, an infant's acuity is essentially the cones are particularly sensitive to short-wavelength
same as that of an adult with normal vision (Kellman & light (blues and violets). Others are sensitive to
Arterberry, 2006). medium-wavelength light (greens and yellows), and
still others are sensitive to long-wavelength light
Colour (reds and oranges). These different kinds of cones
Infants not only begin to see the world with greater are linked by complex circuits of neurons, and this
acuity during the first year but also begin to see circuitry is responsible for our ability to see the world
it in colour! How do we perceive colour? The in colours.
wavelength of light is the basis of colour perception. These circuits gradually begin to function in the first
few months after birth. Newborns and young babies
can perceive few colours, but by three months, the three
cones Specialised neurons in the back of the eye that sense colour. kinds of cones and their associated circuits are working

102 CHAPTER 3 POOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

@ FIGURE 3.10 The visible portion of light ranges from a wavelength of about 400 nanometers
(which looks violet) to nearly 700 nanometers (which looks red).

and infants are able to see the full range of colours with an attractive toy. Clearly, infants can perceive depth
(Kellman & Arterberry, 2006). In fact, by three to four by the time they are old enough to crawl.
months, infants’ colour perception seems similar to that What about younger babies who cannot yet crawl?
of adults (Adams & Courage, 1995; Franklin, Pilling, When babies as young as six weeks are placed on the
& Davies, 2005). In particular, infants, like adults, tend visual cliff, their hearts beat more slowly when they are
to see categories of colour. They see the spectrum as a placed on the deep side of the cliff. Heart rate often slows
group of reds, a group of yellows, a group of greens, and down when people notice something interesting, so this
the like (Dannemiller, 1998, Ozturk et al., 2013). would suggest that six-week-olds notice that the deep
side is different. At seven months, infants’ heart rates
Depth accelerate, which is a sign of fear. Thus, although young
People see objects as having three dimensions: height, babies can detect a difference between the shallow and
width, and depth. The retina of the eye is flat, so height deep sides of the visual cliff, only older crawling babies
and width can be represented directly on its two- are afraid of the deep side (Campos et al., 1978)
dimensional surface. But the third dimension, depth,
cannot be represented directly on this flat surface, so
how do we perceive depth? We use perceptual processing
to infer depth.
Depth perception tells us whether objects are near
or far, which was the basis for some classic research
by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk (1960) on the
origins of depth perception. In their work, babies were
placed on a glass-covered platform, a device known as the
visual cliff. On one side of the platform, a checkerboard
pattern appeared directly under the glass; on the other
side, the pattern appeared several feet below the glass.
The result was that the first side looked shallow but the
other looked deep, like a cliff.
Mothers stood on each side of the visual cliff and tried
to coax their infants across the deep side or the shallow 4 Despite thew mother’s coaxing, infants avoid the “deep side’ of the
side. Most babies willingly crawled to their mothers visual cliff, indicating that they perceive depth.

when they stood on the shallow side In contrast, almost

every baby refused to cross the deep side, even when visual cliff Glass-covered platform that appears to have a ‘shallow’
the mothers called them by name and tried to lure them and a ‘deep’ side; used to study infants’ depth perception.

3-4 COMING TO KNOW 1 HWE WORLD’ PERCEPTION 103

Cognyraght 2019 Cengage Leasing All Rights Reserved May met be copied, scanned, of dupliowted.
in whole
ce in pant. Due se eectrome rights, some thd party content mury be aappecened free the cBook andiee
Edaced avewew hon doomed thot 355 supfte comcm dacs wed
act matnedly affect the overall kammy eapenceee (Congage Leasing reserves the right to remove chapters)
midittions! crmicat at any tame Hf stdmequemt neh acanictioes equine i
How do infants infer depth on the visual cliff or By seven months, infants use several cues for depth
anywhere else? They use several kinds of cues. Among that depend on the arrangement of objects in the
the first are kinetic cues, in which motion is used to environment. These are sometimes called pictorial cues
estimate depth. Visual expansion refers to the fact because they're the same cues that artists use to convey
that as an object moves closer, it fills an ever-greater depth in drawings and paintings. Here are two examples
proportion of the retina. Visual expansion is why we of pictorial cues that seven-month-olds use to infer
flinch when someone unexpectedly tosses a cold depth:
drink can toward us, and it’s what allows a goalkeeper
e Linear perspective: Parallel lines come together at
to estimate when a soccer ball will arrive in the net
a single point in the distance. Thus, we use the space
Another cue, motion parallax, refers to the fact that
between the lines as a cue to distance and consequently
nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster
decide that the tracks close together are farther away
than those at a distance. Motion parallax is in action
than the tracks far apart.
when you look out the side window in a moving car
Trees next to the road move rapidly across the visual
field, but mountains in the distance move more slowly
Babies use these cues in the first weeks after birth For
example, a one-month-old baby will blink ifa moving
object looks as if it’s going to hit him in the face (Nanez
& Yonas, 1994).
Another cue becomes important at about four
months. Retinal disparity is based on the fact that the
left and right eyes often see slightly different versions of
the same scene. You can demonstrate retinal disparity
by touching your nose with your finger. If you close
one eye and look at your finger with the other eye, each
eye has a very different view of your finger. But if you
hold your finger at arm’s length from your nose and
repeat the demonstration, each eye has similar views of
your fingers. Thus, greater disparity in retinal images
A Linear perspective is one cue to depth We interpret the railroad
signifies that an object is close. By four to six months of tracks that are close together as being more distant than the
age, infants use retinal disparity as a depth cue, correctly tracks that are far apart.
inferring that objects are nearby when disparity is great
(Kellman & Arterberry, 2006). e Texture gradient: The texture of objects changes
from coarse and distinct for nearby objects to finer
and less distinct for distant objects We judge that
kinetic cues Cues to depth perception in which motion is used to distinct flowers are close and that blurred ones are
estimate depth. distant.
visual expansion Kinetic cue to depth perception that is based on
the fact that an object fills an ever-greater proportion of the retina
as it moves closer.

motion parallax Kinetic cue to depth perception based on the

fact that nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster
than do distant objects.
retinal disparity Way of inferring depth based on differences in
the retinal images in the left and right eyes.
pictorial cues Cues to depth perception that are used to convey
depth in drawings and paintings.
linear perspective A cue to depth perception based on the fact
that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance.
texture gradient Perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that
the texture of objects changes from coarse and distinct for nearby
A Texture gradient is used to infer depth. We interpret the distinct
objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects.
flowers as being closer than the flowers with the coarse texture

104 CHAPTER3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Lesemag. All Rights Reverved May net be copscd, scammed, or duplicated, m whole
of im part. Dur to clectrorsc nights, soeve thend party contest mery be suppeesacd for the cftook andice cChapter(s
Exttomad severw bos dooned thot aay wappremed comet dors act sxstcmally affect the overall kamng cxpenence. Congage Leaeemg reserves the ngbt to comove additaeal coment
af ary Orneif subsequent mghm sextnctoes ongene ot.
Infants use visual cues to judge depth, but they also use Young infants, too, are surprised by demonstrations
sound. Infants correctly judge quieter objects to be more such as this. If they see a display such as the moving
distant than louder objects Given such an assortment pencils, they will then look briefly at a whole pencil,
of cues, it is not surprising that infants gauge depth so apparently because they expected it In contrast, if
accurately after seeing the moving pencil they're shown the two
pencil stubs, they look much longer - as if they are
Perceiving objects trying to figure out what happened (Amso & Johnson,
Perceptual processes enable us to interpret patterns of lines, 2006, Eizenman & Bertenthal, 1998). Babies use
textures, and colours as objects. That is, our perception common motion to identify objects, and given the
actually creates an object from sensory stimulation. This right conditions, newborns do, too (Valenza & Bulf,
is particularly challenging because we often see only 2011).
parts of objects — nearby objects often obscure parts of Motion is one clue to object unity, but infants use
more distant objects. However, we recognise these objects others, including colour, texture, and aligned edges.
despite this complexity in our visual environment. As you can see in @ FIGURE 3.12, infants more often
Perception of objects is limited in newborns, but
it develops rapidly in the first few months after birth
(Johnson, 2001). By four months, infants use a number
of cues to determine which elements go together to
form objects. One important cue is motion: elements
that move together are usually part of the same object
(Kellman & Arterberry, 2006) For example, on the
left of e FIGURE 3.11, a pencil appears to be moving
back and forth behind a coloured square If the square
was removed, you would be surprised to see a pair of
pencil stubs, as shown on the right side of the diagram
The common movement of the pencil’s eraser and point
leads us to believe that they're part of the same pencil.

—_-s,>=>
af
y-

May
<a

— —

@ FIGURE 3 11 After infants have seen the pencil ends moving

behind the square, they are Surprised to see two pencils when the
Aligned
Square ts removed; this shows that babies use common motion as a
edges
way to determine what makes up an object.

Psychologists often refer to ‘perceptual-motor skills’,

which implies that the two are closely related.
Based on what you've learned in this chapter, how
might motor skills influence perception? How could
@ FIGURE 3 12 In addition to common motion, infants use common
perception influence motor skills?
colour common texture, and aligned edges as clues to object unity.

3-4 COMING TO KNOW THE WORLD:' PERCEPTION 105

Coprraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppressed trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edttomal sewew bon deaned that any wuppromed cretion! docs sot muatcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learsing reserves the night $0 remove additeoeal coetent at any tame if subsequent rghit seatnctioes neqene it.
group features together (i.e., believe they're part of Think about it
the same object) when they’re the same colour, they
have the same texture, and their edges are aligned When six-month-old Brandon watches his mother
(Johnson, 2001). type on a keyboard, how does he know that her
fingers and the keyboard are not simply one big
Perceiving faces unusual object?
Babies depend on other people to care for them, so
it’s not surprising that young babies are attuned to I . inf .
human faces. For example, newborns prefer (1) faces
with standard features over faces in which features So far, we have discussed infants’ sensory systems
are scrambled (Easterbrook et al., 1999), (2) upright separately In reality, most infant experiences are better
faces over inverted faces (Mondloch et al., 1999), and described as ‘multimedia events’ For example, a nursing
(3) attractive faces over unattractive faces (Slater et mother provides visual and taste cues to her baby A
al., 2000) Findings such as these lead some scientists rattle stimulates vision, hearing, and touch. In fact, much
to claim that babies are innately attracted to moving stimulation is not specific to one sense, but involves
stimuli that are face-like (e.g., consisting of three multiple senses. Temporal information, such as duration
high-contrast blobs close together). In other words, or tempo, can be seen or heard For example, you can
newborns’ face perception may be reflexive based on detect the rhythm of a person clapping by seeing the
primitive circuits in the brain. At about two or three hands meet or by hearing the sound of hands striking.
months of age, different circuits in the brain’s cortex Similarly, the texture of a surface - whether it’s rough or
begin to control infants’ looking at faces, allowing smooth - can be detected by sight or by feel.
infants to learn about faces and to distinguish different Infants readily perceive many of these relations. For
faces (Morton & Johnson, 1991). example, infants can recognise visually an object that
Through the first few months after birth, infants they have only touched previously (Sann & Streri, 2007).
have a very general model for a face — one that includes Similarly, they can detect relations between information
human and nonhuman faces (Pascalis, De Haan, & presented visually and auditorily. Babies look longer when
Nelson, 2002). However, over the first year, infants an object's motion matches its sound (it makes higher-
fine-tune their model of a face so that it reflects faces pitched sounds while rising but lower-pitched sounds while
that are familiar in their environments For example, falling) than when it doesn't (Walker et al., 2010). And they
three-month-olds prefer to look at faces from their own can link the temporal properties of visual and auditory
race, but they can recognise faces from other races (and stimulation, such as duration and rhythm (Lewkowicz,
other species). In contrast, six-month-olds often fail to 2000) Finally, they link their own body movement to their
recognise faces of individuals from other unfamiliar perceptions of musical rhythm, giving new meaning to the
races (Anzures et al., 2013). phrase ‘feel the beat, baby" (Gerry, Faux, & Trainor, 2010).
Apparently, older infants’ greater familiarity with faces
of their own race leads to a more precise configuration of
faces, one that includes faces of familiar racial and ethnic
groups. This interpretation is supported by the finding
that individuals born in Asia but adopted as infants by
European parents recognise European faces better than
Asian faces (Sangrigoli et al., 2005) What's more, if older
infants receive extensive experience with faces of other
races, they can learn to recognise them (Anzures et al.,
2012).
These changes in face-recognition skill show the
role of experience in fine-tuning infants’ perception,
a theme that will emerge again in the early phases of
language learning (Chapter 4) And these improved face-
recognition skills are adaptive, because they provide the
basis for social relationships that infants form during the 4 A mother who breast-feeds provides her baby with a multimedia
rest of the first year, which we'll examine in Chapter 5 event: the baby sees, smells, hears, feels, and tastes her!

106 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Test yourself 3.4

Recall 8. Infants readily integrate information from

different senses, and their sensory systems seem
1. Infants respond negatively to substances that
to be particularly attuned to
taste sour or

2. Infants respond to with a high- Interpret

pitched cry that is hard to soothe.
Compare the impact of nature and nurture on the
3. Infants’ hearing is best for sounds that have the development of infants’ sensory and perceptual
pitch of , skills.
4. Atage an infant's acuity is like Apply
that of an adult with normal vision.
Perceptual skills are quite refined at birth and
5. are specialised neurons in the mature rapidly. What evolutionary purposes are
retina that are sensitive to colour. served by this rapid development?
6. refers to the fact that images Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
of an object in the left and right eyes differ for end of the chapter.
nearby objects.
7. When elements consistently move together,
infants decide that they are

3-4 COMING TO KNOW THE WORLD’ PERCEPTION 107

® Establish when children begin to realise that they exist.

® Describe toddlers’ and preschoolers’ self-concepts.

® Discuss when preschool children begin to acquire a theory of mind.

When Charne brushes her teeth, she puts her By age two, virtually all children do this (Bullock &
20-month-old son, Chris, in an infant seat facing Liitkenhaus, 1990; Lewis & Brooks-Gunn, 1979). When
the bathroom mirror. She’s been doing this these older children notice the red mark in the mirror,
for months, and Chris enjoys looking at the they understand that the funny-looking nose in the
images in the mirror. Lately, he seems to pay mirror is their own!
special attention to his own reflection Charne
thinks that sometimes Chris deliberately frowns
or laughs just to see what he looks like. Is this
possible, Charne wonders, or is her imagination
simply running wild?

As infants’ physical, motor, and perceptual skills develop,

they learn more and more about the world around them
As part of this learning, infants and toddlers begin to
realise that they exist independently of other people
and objects in the environment, and that their existence
continues over time. In this last section, you'll see how
children become self-aware and learn what Chris knows
about himself.
4 Babies only start to recognise themselves at 15 to 18 months of
age. This is an important step in becoming self-aware
Origins
of self-concept
When do children begin to understand that they exist?
Measuring the onset of this awareness is not easy We don’t need to rely solely on the mirror task to
Obviously, we can’t simply ask a three-year-old, ‘So tell know that self-awareness emerges between 18 and 24
me, when did you first realise you existed and weren't months. During this same period, toddlers look more
just part of the furniture?’ Investigators need a less at photographs of themselves than at photos of other
direct approach, and a mirror offers one route. Babies children. They also refer to themselves by name or with
sometimes touch the face in the mirror or wave at it, but a personal pronoun, such as | or me, and sometimes
none of their behaviours indicate that they recognise they know their age and gender These changes, which
themselves in the mirror. Instead, babies act as if the face often occur together, suggest that self-awareness 1s well
in the mirror is simply a very interesting stimulus. established in most children by age two (Lewis, 2011;
How would we know that infants recognise Moore, 2007).
themselves in a mirror? One clever approach is to have Soon toddlers and young children begin to
mothers place a red mark on their infant's nose. They recognise continuity in the self over time; the ‘I’ in the
do this surreptitiously, while wiping the baby’s face, so present is linked to the ‘T in the past (Nelson, 2001).
that the baby does not realise it’s there. Then the infant Awareness of a self that is extended in time is promoted
is returned to the mirror. Many one-year-olds touch the by conversations with parents about the past and the
red mark on the mirror, showing that they notice the future. Through such conversations, a three-year-old
mark on the face in the mirror. By 15 months, however, celebrating a birthday understands that she’s an older
an important change occurs. Babies see the red mark in version of the same person who had a birthday a year
the mirror, then reach up and touch their own noses. previously.

108 CHuaprTer3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

(Copyragts
2099 Comgage Leareeng. All Rashes Roserved May act be coped acommed or daphcted m whol or om pert. Der soclecteenc mpbes, somee theed pty contest mary be eappeceend fever tee cfook andibe of hapecr’+)
Edecead arvre tos doomed Gas any eapgromed coment dom ace meserodh aflect he ower koeemys copemenes. Compage Lowtang rare the mgt somes added omc ot ay tere of ateegueet mph arénchoes roger &
Children’s growing awareness of a self-extended in the adult reach directly because that was the best way to
time is also revealed by their understanding of ownership achieve the goal of getting the ball. They were surprised
(Fasig, 2000) When a toddler sees his favourite toy and when the actor relied on the familiar but no longer
says ‘mine’, this implies awareness of continuity of the necessary method of reaching (Brandone & Wellman,
self over time: ‘In the past, | played with that. And when 2009)
toddlers say “Mine, they often are not being aggressive or From this early understanding of intentionality,
selfish; instead, ‘mine’ is a way of indicating ownership young children’s naive psychology expands rapidly.
in the process of defining themselves They are not Between two and five years of age, children develop a
trying to deny the toy to another child, but simply saying theory of mind, a naive understanding of the relations
that playing with this toy is part of who they are (Levine, between mind and behaviour One of the leading
1983). researchers on theory of mind, Henry Wellman (2002,
Once children fully understand that they exist, they 2011, 2012), believes that children’s theory of mind
begin to wonder who they are They want to define moves through several phases during the preschool
themselves. Throughout the preschool years, possessions years. In the earliest phase, preschoolers understand that
continue to be one of the ways in which children define people can have different desires: one child might want
themselves. Preschoolers are also likely to mention raisins for a snack while another child wants biscuits.
physical characteristics (‘I have brown eyes’), their In the next phase, children know that people can
preferences (‘I like porridge’), and their competencies (‘I have different beliefs: in trying to find a missing shoe,
can count to 50°) What these features have in common one child might believe that the shoe is in the kitchen
is a focus on a child's characteristics that are observable while another child believes that it’s in the bathroom.
and concrete (Harter, 2006). In the third phase, children understand that different
As children enter school, their self-concepts become experiences can lead to different states of knowledge:
even more elaborate (Harter, 1994), changes that we'll a child who has seen a toy hidden in a drawer knows
explore in Chapter 9. what's in the now-closed drawer, but a child who did not
see the toy being hidden does not.
The next phase represents a fundamental shift in
Theory
of mind children’s theory of mind. children understand that
As youngsters gain more insights into themselves as behaviour is based on a person's beliefs about events
thinking beings, they begin to realise that people have and situations, even when those beliefs are wrong.
thoughts, beliefs, and intentions. They also understand Children’s understanding of the influence of these false
that thoughts, beliefs, and intentions often cause beliefs is revealed in tasks such as the one shown in
people to behave as they do. Amazingly, even infants @ FIGURE 3.13. Anne knows that the ball has been
understand that people’s behaviour is often intentional moved to the box, but Simangele believes that the ball is
— designed to achieve a goal Imagine a father who still in the basket. Only at about four years of age do most
says ‘Where are the biscuits?’ in front of his one- children correctly say that Simangele will look for the ball
year-old daughter and then begins opening kitchen in the basket (acting on her false belief); four-year-olds
cabinets, moving objects to look behind them Finding understand that Simangele’s behaviour is based on her
the box of biscuits, he says, “Here they are!’ An infant beliefs even though her belief is wrong.
who understands intentionality would realise how her In the final phase, children understand that people
father’s actions (searching, moving objects) were related may feel one emotion but show another. For example, a
to the goal of finding the biscuits. child who is disappointed by a birthday present smiles
Many clever experiments have revealed that one-year- anyway because she doesn’t want her parents to know
olds do indeed have this understanding of intentionality. how she really feels.
For example, in one study, infants observed an adult Thus, children’s theory of mind becomes more
reaching over a barrier for a ball, but failing because the sophisticated over the preschool years. This general pattern
ball was just out of reach. Then the barrier was removed, is found for children around the world, with one twist:
and infants saw an adult using the same ‘over the barrier’ The five-phase sequence we described here is common in
reaching motion or reaching directly for the ball, in both
cases, the adult grasped the ball. By 10 months, infants
were surprised to see the adult relying on the ‘over the theory of mind Ideas about connections between thoughts,
beliefs, intentions, and behaviour that create an intuitive
barrier’ reach when it was no longer needed. In other
understanding of the link between mind and behaviour.
words, with the barrier removed, infants expected to see

35 BECOMING SELF AWARE 109

Think about it

Imagine you believe that a theory of mind

develops faster when preschoolers spend
Simangele goes
out for much time with other children. What sort of
a walk. correlational study would you devise to test this
hypothesis? How could you do an experimental

le study to test the same hypothesis?

You can see preschool children’s growing

from the basket and understanding of false belief in the ‘Real people’
puts it into the box.
feature.

ww
Now Simangele comes back.
The early stages of children’s theory of mind seem
clear But just how this happens is a matter of debate
One view emphasises the contribution of language,
She wants to play with which develops rapidly during the same years that
her ball. Where will theory of mind emerges (as we'll see in Chapter 4).
she look for her bal?
Some scientists believe that children’s language skills
contribute to growth of theory of mind, perhaps
— reflecting the benefit of an expanding vocabulary
that includes verbs describing mental states, such as
@ FIGURE 3 13 Ina false-belief task, most three-yearolds say that think, know, and believe (Pascual et al., 2008) Or the
Simangele will look for the ball in the box, showing that they do not
understand how people can act on their beliefs (where the ball is) even benefits may reflect children’s mastery of grammatical
when those beliefs are wrong forms that can be used to describe a setting where a

Applying human lunch, Londi, a two-yearold, ” ‘Oh stop it It's just a mask’ Shirley
development saw tomato sauce on the floor broke in again, saying, ‘You know
and squealed, ‘blood, blood!’ it's just a mask. But she thinks it's a
Martie, a three-year-old, said monster’ In both cases, only Shirley
in a disgusted tone, ‘It's not understood that Londi's behaviour was
‘Seeing is blood — it’s tomato sauce’ based on her beliefs (that the tomato
believing ...’ for Then Shirley, a four-year sauce ts blood and that the monster
three-year-olds old, interjected, ‘Yes, but is real) even though her beliefs were
Preschoolers gradually Londi thought it was blood’ false
recognise that people's A similar incident took place
behaviour is sometimes a few weeks later on the
guided by mistaken beliefs day after Halloween This
The following episode at a time Martie put on a monster
day-care centre showed this mask and scared Londi When
growing understanding After Londi began to cry, Martie said,

110 CHAPTER 3) ‘TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Think about it

Imagine you believe that a theory of mind

le study to test the same hypothesis?

You can see preschool children’s growing

from the basket and understanding of false belief in the ‘Real people’
puts it into the box.
feature.

110 CHAPTER 3) ‘TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

conclude that the absence of a theory of mind -

Theory of mind in children with autism sometimes called ‘mindblindness’ (Baron-Cohen,
Autism is the most serious of a family of disorders 2005) — is the defining characteristic of ASD (Tager-
known as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Flusberg, 2007). Other scientists aren't convinced of
Individuals with ASD acquire language later than this. Although no one doubts that autistic children
usual, and their speech often echoes what others find false-belief tasks puzzling, some scientists say
say to them. Also, they sometimes become intensely that mindblindness is a by-product of other deficits
interested in objects (for example, making the same and not the cause of the symptoms associated with
actions with a toy over and over) In addition, they ASD. One alternative idea suggests that ASD reflects
often seem uninterested in other people, and when problems in inhibiting irrelevant actions and in
they do interact, those exchanges are often awkward, shifting smoothly between actions (Pellicano, 2013).
as if individuals with ASD aren't following the rules Another idea emphasises a focused processing style
that govern social interactions. Symptoms usually that is common in ASD. For example, children
emerge early in life, typically by 18 to 24 months of with ASD find hidden objects faster than typically
age. There is very little research on autism in Africa, developing children do (Chen et al., 2012). But this
and the prevalence of children with ASD in South emphasis on perceptual details usually comes at the
Africa is largely unknown, but the increasing numbers expense of maintaining a coherent overall picture.
of diagnoses matches those found in developed So, in social interactions, children with ASD may
countries (Mabaiwa, 2008; Springer et al., 2013). In focus on one aspect of another person's behaviour
America, approximately 1 out of every 200 to 300 (e.g., gestures) but ignore other verbal and nonverbal
children are diagnosed with ASD; about 80% of them cues (e.g., speech, facial expressions, body language)
are boys (Landa et al., 2013; Mash & Wolfe, 2010). that collectively promote fluid interactions. Research
ASD has a genetic component, and many studies to evaluate these claims is still ongoing, and the
point to atypical brain functioning, perhaps due to answers will likely indicate that multiple factors
abnormal levels of neurotransmitters (Robertson, contribute to ASD,
Ratai, & Kanwisher, 2016). ASD can't be cured However, therapy can be used
Children with ASD grasp false belief very slowly, to improve language and social skills in children
and this performance leads some researchers to with autism. In addition, medications can be used

35 BrCOMING SELF AWARE 111

Copyragts 009 Comgage Lewreeng All Raghes Reserved Mir met be comand. scammed. oe dupiacrat m whol oc ut part Der so clecromc myhes, somes Gund mary canara wary bw eagpreraed freee fre eBook andite tapers)
Edtomad srvarw bes docmad as any aappremnd commit dam met teatemadiy affect the overall Acammmg cupemence. Congage Leasang aracrves the mght 1 acmarye midetannal comment Mf ay Carne if ratmeqgaemt rents nevtrectooms oxigen
to reduce some of the symptoms, such as repetitive in supportive, responsive environments and receive
behaviour (Leekam, Prior, & Uljarevic, 2011). When appropriate treatments, they can lead satisfying and
ASD is diagnosed early and autistic children grow up productive lives.

Test yourself 3.5

Recall Interpret
1. Apparently children are first self-aware at age Compare and contrast different explanations of the
two because this is when they first recognise growth of theory of mind during the preschool years.
themselves in a mirror and in photographs and
when they first use Apply
2. During the preschool years, children’s self- Self-concept emerges over the same months that
concepts emphasise physical toddlers show rapid gains in locomotor skills. How
might changes in locomotor skill contribute to a
characteristics, preferences, and competencies.
toddler's emerging sense of self?
3. Unlike four-year-olds, most three-year-olds
don’t understand that other people's behaviour is Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
sometimes based on :
end of the chapter.

3.1 The newborn time asleep in REM sleep, an active form of sleep that
may stimulate growth in the nervous system.
How do reflexes help newborns interact with the ® Some healthy babies die from sudden infant death
world? syndrome (SIDS) Factors that contribute to SIDS are
© Babies are born with a number of different reflexes. Some prematurity, low birth weight, and smoking. Also, babies
help them adjust to life outside the uterus, some help are vulnerable to SIDS when they sleep on their stomach
protect them from danger, and some serve as the basis and when they are overheated.
for later voluntary motor behaviour.
What are the different features of temperament? Do
How do we determine whether a baby ts healthy and they change as children grow?
adjusting to life outside the uterus? e Temperament refers to a consistent style or pattern to
© The Apgar scale measures five vital signs to determine a an infant's behaviour Modern theories list two to six
newborn baby’s physical well-being. dimensions of temperament, including, for example,
extroversion and negative affect. Temperament is influenced
What behavioural states are common among by both heredity and environment and 1s a reasonably stable
newborns? characteristic of infants and young children.
© Newborns spend their day 1n one of four states alert
inactivity, waking activity, crying, and sleeping A 3.2 Physical development
newborn's crying includes a basic cry, a mad cry, and a How do height and weight change from birth to two
pain cry The best way to calm a crying baby 1s to put the
years of age?
baby on the shoulder and rock him or her
© Physical growth 1s particularly rapid during infancy, but
© Newborns spend approximately two-thirds of every day
babies of the same age differ considerably in their height
asleep and go through a complete sleep-wake cycle once
and weight Size at maturity 1s largely determined by
every four hours. By three or four months, babies sleep
heredity.
through the night. Newborns spend about half of their

112 CHAPTER3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD’ PHYSICAL, PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrming. All Rights ieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, oe duplicated. m whole ce in part. Due to electronic nghts, some thind party costest mary be suppressed teem the cfiock andioe oChapter(s)
Edtonal view tos deaned that azy wippromed coment docs act muuirally affect the overall kamung expenence. Cengage Leartung rencrvex the ngbt remove additioeal coment at any tame if sutmequent neh wcdnchoes nyeine it.
© Growth follows the cephalocaudal principle, in which the How do infants learn to coordinate the use of their
head and trunk develop before the legs Consequently, hands?
infants and young children have disproportionately large e Infants first use one hand at a time, then both hands
heads and trunks. independently; then both hands in common actions.
Finally, at about five months of age, they use both hands
What nutrients do young children need? How are
in different actions with a common purpose.
nutrients best provided? © Most people are right-handed, a preference that emerges
e Infants must consume a large number of kilojoules after the first birthday and becomes well-established
relative to their body weight, primarily because of the during the preschool years. Handedness 1s determined by
energy required for growth. Both breast-feeding and heredity but can also be influenced by cultural values.
bottle-feeding provide babies with adequate nutrition.
e Malnutrition is a worldwide problem that is particularly 3.4 Coming to know the world: Perception
harmful during infancy, when growth 1s so rapid
Treating malnutrition adequately requires improving Are infants able to smell, taste, and experience pain?
children’s diets and training their parents to provide e Newborns are able to smell, and some can recognise
stimulating environments. their mother’s odour They also taste, preferring sweet
substances and responding negatively to bitter and sour
What are nerve cells, and how are they organised in tastes.
the brain? ¢ Infants respond to touch. They probably experience pain
e A nerve cell, called a neuron, includes a cell body, a because their responses to painful stimuli are similar to
dendrite, and an axon. The mature brain consists of those of older children.
billions of neurons organised into nearly identical
How well can infants hear?
left and right hemispheres connected by the corpus
callosum. The cerebral cortex regulates most of the © Babies can hear More important, they can distinguish
functions we think of as distinctively human The different sounds.
frontal cortex 1s associated with personality and goal-
How well can infants see? Can they see colour and
directed behaviour; the left hemisphere of the cortex 1s
associated with language, and the right hemisphere of depth?
the cortex 1s associated with nonverbal processes such e A newborn’ visual acuity is relatively poor, but one-year-
as perceiving emotions. olds can see as well as an adult with normal vision.
© Colour vision develops as different sets of cones begin to
How does the brain develop? When does it begin to function, a process that seems to be complete by three
function? or four months of age Infants perceive depth based on
e Brain specialisation 1s evident in infancy Further kinetic cues, retinal disparity, and pictorial cues. They
specialisation involves more focused brain areas and also use motion to recognise objects.
narrowing of stimuli that trigger brain activity. Different ¢ Infants are attracted to faces, and experience leads infants
systems specialise at different rates. Specialisation to form a face template based on faces they see often.
depends on stimulation from the environment. The
How do infants process and combine information
relative lack of specialisation in the immature brain
makes it better able to recover from injury. from different sensory modalities, such as between
vision and hearing?
3.3 Moving and grasping: Early motor skills ¢ Infants coordinate information from different senses
They can recognise by sight an object they felt previously
What component skills are involved in learning to
Infants are often particularly attentive to information
walk? At what age do infants master them? presented redundantly to multiple senses.
© Infants acquire a series of locomotor skills during their
first year, culminating in walking a few months after 3.5 Becoming self-aware
the first birthday Like most motor skills, learning to
walk involves differentiation of individual skills, such as When do children begin to realise that they exist?
maintaining balance and using the legs alternately, and e At about 15 months, infants begin to recognise
then integrating those skills into a coherent whole. themselves in the mirror, which is one of the first signs

SUMMARY 113

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

reflexes (75) functional magnetic answers
alert inactivity (77) resonance imaging ;
waking activity (77) (fMRI) (89) 3.1 1. serve as the basis for later motor behaviours
crying (77) experience-expectant 2. Apgar score 3. alert inactivity 4. REM sleep
sleeping (77) growth (91) 5. ae . their backs 6. temperament is moderately
basic cry (77) experience-dependent stable in these years
mad cry (77) growth (91) 3.2 1. disproportionately large 2. more 3. parent
pain cry (77) motor skills (92) training 4. cell body 5. planning 6. left hemisphere
irregular or rapid-eye- locomote (93) 7. they often regain their earlier skills over time
movement (REM) fine motor skills (93)
sleep (79) toddling (94) 3.3. 1. dynamic systems theory 2. using perceptual
regular (non-REM) sleep toddlers (94) information 3.4 4. One year
Nid . ee ee 3.4 1. bitter 2. pain 3. human speech 4. one year
Se
syndrome (SIDS) (80)
(94)
differentiation (95)
5. Bere
Cones 6. Retinal
a ee
di ee
7. part of th
temperament (81) integration (95) object 8. information presented redundantly to

malnourished (87) perception (100) multiple senses

neuron (87) visual acuity (101) 3.5 1. personal pronouns such as J and me 2. possessions
cell body (87) cones (102) 3. false beliefs
dendrite (87) visual cliff (103)
axon (87) kinetic cues (104)
terminal buttons (87) visual expansion (104)
neurotransmitters (87) motion parallax (104)
cerebral cortex (87) retinal disparity (104)
hemispheres (88) pictorial cues (104)
corpus callosum (88) linear perspective (104)
frontal cortex (88) texture gradient (104)
neural plate (89) intersensory redundancy
myelin (89) (107)
synaptic pruning (89) theory of mind (109)
electroencephalography
(89)

114 CHAPTER 3 TOOLS FOR EXPLORING THE WORLD PHYSICAL PERCEPTUAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

4.1 The onset of thinking:

Piaget’s account 117
Basic principles of cognitive
development 117
Real people: Applying human
development: Learning about
butterflies: Accommodation
and assimilation in action 119
Sensorimotor thinking 120
Preoperational thinking 121
Evaluating Piaget's theory 123
Extending Piaget's account:
Children’s naive theories 125
Spotlight on research. Have
a heart! Preschoolers’
essentialist thinking 128

4.2 Information processing

during infancy and early
childhood 129
General principles of information
processing 129
Attention 130
Learning 130
Memory 131
Learning number skills 133

4.3 Mind and culture: Vygotsky's

theory 135
The zone of proximal
development 136
Scaffolding 136
Private speech 137

4.4 Language 138

The road to speech 138
The grand insight: Words as
symbols 142
What's what? Fast mapping of
words 142
Speaking in sentences
Grammatical development 146
Communicating with others 148
=
Summary 151

. Key terms 153

All Rights Reserved. May met be coped, scammed,

or duplicated. m whole
or in part. Dur to cliectromic nghts, some thind party comtest mory be appressed toe the cock andice oChapter(s)
coment dacs set sustcrally affect the overall komme cxpenence. Congage Learesng reserves the ngbt to comovwe additonal coetent af any Gene if subsequent mgt sednictoes nogesse i.
These questions provide the including memory skills. The other
AVINEI@ movie inthe 1980s,
focus of this chapter We begin with account is Lev Vygotsky's theory,
Look Who's Talking, was based on
what has long been considered which emphasises the cultural origins
a baby talking to his mother tn vitro,
the definitive account of cognitive of cognitive development and explains
starting with the fastest little sperm.
development, Jean Piaget's theory, why children sometimes talk to
Much of the humour, of course, is
as well as a later variant, the core themselves as they play or work.
based on the idea that babies are
knowledge approach. The next two Throughout development,
capable of sophisticated thinking
sections of the chapter concern children express their thoughts in
and just can't express it. But what
alternative accounts of cognitive oral and written language In the last
thoughts are actually in the mind of
development. One account is the section of this chapter, you'll see
an infant who ts not yet speaking?
information-processing perspective. It how children master the sounds,
How does cognition develop during
follows children’s emerging cognitive words, and grammar of their home
infancy and early childhood? What
skills in many specific domains, language.
makes these changes possible?

EX] The onset of thinking: Piaget's account

Learning objectives

© Discuss how, according to Piaget, schemes, assimilation, and accommodation provide the foundation
for cognitive development throughout the life span.

® Describe how thinking becomes more advanced as infants progress through the sensorimotor stage.

e Identify the distinguishing characteristics of thinking during the preoperational stage.

© Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Piaget's theory.

® Explore how contemporary researchers have extended Piaget's theory.

Three-year-old Noluthandu loves talking to qualitatively different stages. In this section, we'll begin
her grandmother (‘Gogo’) on her dad’s cell by describing some of the general features of Piaget's
phone. Sometimes these conversations don’t theory, then examine Piaget’s account of thinking
succeed because Gogo asks questions and during the first two stages (those spanning infancy
Noluthandu replies by nodding her head ‘yes’ and the preschool years), and finally consider some of
or ‘no’. Noluthandu’s dad has explained that the strengths and weaknesses of the theory
Gogo (and others on the phone) can’t see her
nodding - that she needs to say ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Basic principles of cognitive
But Noluthandu invariably returns to head-
nodding. Her dad can’t understand why such development
a bright and talkative child doesn’t realise that Piaget believed that children are naturally curious.
nodding is meaningless over the phone They constantly want to make sense of their
experience In the process, they construct their
Why does Noluthandu insist on nodding her head understanding of the world. For Piaget, children at all
when she’s talking on the phone? This behaviour ages are like scientists in creating theories about how
is quite typical according to the famous Swiss the world works Of course, children’s theories are
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) In Piaget's often incomplete but they are valuable in making the
theory, children’s thinking progresses through four world seem more predictable to children.

117

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. am whole or in part. Dur to electronic nights, some therd party contest may he wuppeeased thom the clock andice cChapter(s).
jomad sewew bos decmed that any wuppromecd cresiont dacs aot mauztnially affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareung reserves the night to remove additional cresient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoms noqese ot
According to Piaget, children understand the world infant learns that some objects can only be lifted with
with schemes, psychological structures that organise their two hands and that some can't be lifted at all. Changing
experiences. Schemes are mental categories of related the scheme so that it works for new objects (for example,
events, objects, and knowledge. During infancy, most using two hands to grasp heavy objects) illustrates
schemes are based on actions. Infants group objects accommodation.
together, based on the actions they can perform on Assimilation and accommodation are easier to
them. For example, infants suck and grasp, and they use understand when you remember Piaget's belief that
these actions to create categories of objects that can be infants, children, and adolescents create theories to
sucked and objects that can be grasped. try to understand events and objects around them An
Schemes are just as important after infancy, but they infant whose theory is that objects can be lifted with one
are now based primarily on functional or conceptual hand, finds the theory confirmed when she tries to pick
relationships, not action For example, preschoolers up small objects, but she’s in for a surprise when she tries
learn that forks, knives, and spoons form a functional to pick up a heavy book. The unexpected result forces
category of ‘things I use to eat’ And they learn that the infant, like a good scientist, to revise her theory to
dogs, cats, and goldfish form a conceptual category of include this new finding.
‘pets. The ‘Real people’ feature shows how accommodation
Like preschoolers, older children and adolescents and assimilation allow young children to understand
have schemes based on functional and conceptual their worlds.
schemes. But they also have schemes that are based
on increasingly abstract properties. For example, an Equilibration and stages of cognitive
adolescent might put fascism, racism, and sexism in a development
category of ‘ideologies | despise’ Assimilation and accommodation are usually in balance,
So, schemes of related objects, events, and ideas
or equilibrium. Children find that they can readily
are present throughout development But as children assimilate many experiences into their schemes but that
develop, their rules for creating schemes shift from they sometimes need to accommodate their schemes
physical activity to functional, conceptual, and, later, to adjust to new experiences. This balance between
abstract properties of objects, events, and ideas. assimilation and accommodation was illustrated
by our infant with a theory about lifting objects.
Assimilation and accommodation However, periodically this balance is upset, producing
Schemes change constantly, adapting to children’s a state of disequilibrium That is, children discover
experiences. In fact, intellectual adaptation involves that their schemes are not adequate because they are
two processes working together: assimilation and spending too much time accommodating and much
accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new less time assimilating. When disequilibrium occurs,
experiences are readily incorporated into existing schemes children reorganise their schemes to return to a state of
Imagine a baby who has the familiar grasping scheme equilibrium, a process that Piaget called equilibration.
The baby soon discovers that the grasping scheme also To restore the balance, current but outmoded ways
works well on wooden blocks, toy cars, and other small of thinking are replaced with a qualitatively different,
objects Extending the existing grasping scheme to new more advanced set of schemes.
objects illustrates assimilation. Accommodation occurs One way to understand equilibration is to return to
when schemes are modified based on experience Soon the the metaphor of the child as a scientist. As we discussed
in Chapter 1, good scientific theories readily explain
some phenomena but usually must be revised to explain
others Children’s theories allow them to understand
schemes According to Piaget, mental structures that organise
information and regulate behaviour.
many experiences by predicting, for example, what will
happen (‘It’s morning, so it’s time for breakfast’) or who
assimilation According to Piaget, taking in information that is will do what (“Dad’s gone to work, so Mom will take
compatible with what one already knows.
me to school’), but the theories must be modified when
accommodation According to Piaget, changing existing predictions are not correct (‘Dad thinks I’m old enough
knowledge based on new knowledge. to walk to school, so he won't take me’)
equilibration According to Piaget, the process by which children Sometimes scientists find that their theories contain
reorganise their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium when critical flaws that can’t be fixed simply by revising
disequilibrium occurs. Instead, they must create a new theory that draws on

118 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

According to Piaget, these revolutionary changes

in thought occur three times over the life span, at
approximately 2, 7, and 11 years of age. This divides
cognitive development into the following four stages:

Period of
development Age range

Sensorimotor period Infancy (0-2 years)

Preoperational period Preschool and early primary
school years (2-7 years)
Concrete operational Middle and late primary
period school years (7-11 years)
Formal operational Adolescence and adulthood
period (11 years and up)

The ages listed are only approximate Some

youngsters move through the periods more rapidly
than other children do. However, the only route to
formal operations - the most sophisticated type of
4 Grasping is a natural reflex, and babies soon learn to pick up objects thought — is through the first three periods, in sequence.
with one hand, including using two hands when necessary Sensorimotor thinking always gives rise to preoperational
thinking, a child cannot ‘skip’ preoperational thinking
the older theory but differs fundamentally. For example, and move directly from the sensorimotor to the concrete
when the astronomer Copernicus realised that the earth- operational period.
centred theory of the solar system was fundamentally In the next few pages of this chapter, we consider
wrong, he built a new theory on the assumption that the Piaget's account of sensorimotor and preoperational
sun is the centre of the solar system. In a similar way, thinking, the periods from birth to approximately 7
children reach states in which their current theories years of age In Chapter 6, we will return to Piaget's
seem to be wrong much of the time, so they abandon theory to examine his account of concrete and
these theories in favour of more advanced ways of formal operational thinking in older children and
thinking about their physical and social worlds. adolescents.

41 THE ONSET OF THINKING PIAGET § ACCOUNT 119

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
— hinki Piaget made the astonishing claim that infants lacked this
understanding for much of the first year. He proposed that
Piaget (1951, 1952, 1954) believed that the first two years
an infant's understanding of objects could be summarised
of life form a distinct phase in human development. The as ‘out of sight, out of mind: For infants, objects exist when
sensorimotor period, from birth to roughly two years of age, in sight and no longer exist when out of sight.
is the first of Piaget’s four periods of cognitive development. Piaget showed that four- to eight-month-old infants
In the 24 months of this stage, infants’ thinking progresses will grasp for an interesting object that is placed in
remarkably along three important fronts. front of them. However, if the object is then hidden by
a barrier or covered with a cloth, the infant will neither
Adapting to and exploring the environment reach nor search. Instead, the infant seems to lose all
Newborn babies respond reflexively to many stimuli, but interest in the object, as if the now hidden object no
between one and four months, reflexes are first modified longer exists. To change the familiar phrase, they seem
by experience. An infant may unintentionally touch to believe that ‘out of sight is out of existence’
his lips with his thumb, which initiates sucking and the Beginning at about eight months, infants search for an
pleasing sensations associated with sucking Later, the object that an experimenter has covered with a cloth. In
infant tries to re-create these sensations by guiding his fact, many 8- to 12-month-olds enjoy playing this game:
thumb to his mouth. Sucking no longer occurs only an adult covers the object, and the infant sweeps away the
reflexively when a mother places a nipple at the infant's cover, laughing and smiling while they do it! But despite
mouth. Instead, the infant can initiate sucking. this accomplishment, their understanding of object
At about eight months, infants reach a critical moment. permanence remains incomplete, according to Piaget.
the start of deliberate, intentional behaviour For the first If 8- to 10-month-olds see an object hidden under one
time, the ‘means’ and ‘end’ of activities are distinct. For container several times and then see it hidden under a
example, if a father places his hand in front of a toy, an second container, they usually reach for the toy under the
infant will move his father’s hand to be able to play with first container. Piaget claimed that this behaviour shows
the toy The ‘moving the hand’ scheme is the means to fragmentary understanding of objects because infants do
achieve the goal of ‘grasping the toy’ Using one action as not distinguish the object from the actions they use to
a means to achieve another end is the first indication of locate it, such as reaching for a particular container
purposeful, goal-directed behaviour during infancy Piaget argued that it is only at approximately 18
Beginning at about 12 months, infants become active months that infants have full understanding of object
experimenters. An infant may deliberately shake a number permanence. However, in a few pages, we'll see that
of different objects, trying to discover which objects produce infants know more about objects than Piaget claimed.
sounds. Or an infant may decide to drop different objects
Using symbols
to see what happens. An infant will discover that stuffed
animals land quietly, whereas bigger toys often make a more By 18 months, most infants have begun to talk and gesture,
satisfying ‘clunk’ sound when they hit the ground. These showing their emerging capacity to use symbols Words
actions represent a significant extension of intentional and gestures are symbols that stand for something else.
behaviour, now babies repeat actions with different objects When a baby waves, it’s a symbol that’s just as effective
solely for the purpose of seeing what will happen. as saying ‘good-bye’ to bid farewell. Children also begin
to engage in pretend play, another use of symbols. At 20
months, children may move their hand back and forth in
Understanding objects front of their mouth, pretending to brush their teeth.
The world is filled with animate objects such as dogs, Once infants can use symbols, they can anticipate the
spiders, and cattle, as well as inanimate objects such as consequences of actions mentally instead of having to
food, socks, and this book. But they all share a fundamental perform them. Imagine that an infant and a parent build
property — they exist independently of our actions and a tower of blocks next to an open door. As he leaves
thoughts toward them. Piaget’ term for this understanding the room, a 12- to 18-month-old might close the door,
that objects exist independently is object permanence. And knocking over the tower because he cannot foresee this
outcome of closing the door. But an 18- to 24-month-old
can anticipate the consequence of closing the door and
sensorimotor period First of Piaget's four stages of cognitive
development, which lasts from birth to approximately two years.
move the tower beforehand.
In just two years, the infant progresses from
object permanence Understanding, acquired in infancy, that responding reflexively to actively exploring the world,
objects exist independently of oneself.
understanding objects, and using symbols. These

120 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

A Toddlers frequently gesture, a sign of their growing competence at

using symbols.

achievements are remarkable and set the stage for

preoperational thinking, which we'll examine next.
@ FIGURE 4.1 Egocentrism When asked to select the photograph
p ‘onal thinki that Shows the mountains as the adult
children often select the photograph that shows how the mountains
sees them, preschool

look to them
Once young children have crossed into preoperational
thinking, the magical power of symbols is available In the story that opened this section, three-year-old
to them. Of course, mastering this power is a lifelong Noluthandu nods her head during phone conversations
process; the preschool child's efforts are tentative and with her grandmother. This, too, reflects preoperational
sometimes incorrect. Piaget identified a number of egocentrism. Noluthandu assumes that because she is
characteristic shortcomings in preschoolers’ symbolic aware that her head is moving up and down (or side to
skills. Let's look at three. side), her grandmother must be aware of it, too. Because of
this egocentrism, preoperational youngsters often attribute
Egocentrism their own thoughts and feelings to others. They may even
Preoperational children typically believe that others see credit inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties,
the world - literally and figuratively — exactly as they a phenomenon known as animism (Piaget, 1929). A
do Egocentrism is difficulty in seeing the world from
egocentrism Difficulty in seeing the world from another's point
another’ point of view. When youngsters stubbornly cling
of view; typical of children in the preoperational period.
to their own way, they are not simply being obstinate.
Preoperational children do not comprehend that other animism Phenomenon of crediting inanimate objects with life
and lifelike properties such as feelings.
people differ in their ideas, convictions, and emotions.

41 THE ONSET OF THINKING PIAGET S ACCOUNT 121

Copyraght 2009 Cengage Lesrerng. All Rights Reserved May set be coped, commed, of dupicoted m whole of im part. Dur to clectrommc mghes, somse thand party costcet aexy be eappeeeend ern te clock andiee of hapeerls
Ecdhtomed neview bee doomed thet sey wappremed coment dors act sestemally affect the oversil komung cxpenence. Congage Learsang romrves the night 2 come adftaseal coment at any Orne if sefeequant meh anchoes apeEN 6
preschool child may think that the sun is unhappy on but ignore other, equally relevant aspects Centration
a cloudy day or that a car hurts when it’s in an accident. is Piaget's term for this narrowly focused thought that
Caught up in their egocentrism, preoperational youngsters characterises preoperational youngsters
believe that inanimate objects have feelings just as they do. Piaget demonstrated centration in his experiments
involving conservation. In these experiments,
Centration Piaget wanted to determine when children realise
A second characteristic of preoperational thinking is that that important characteristics of objects (or sets of
children often concentrate on one aspect of a problem objects) stay the same despite changes in their physical
appearance. Some tasks that Piaget used to study
centration According to Piaget, narrowly focused type of thought conservation are shown in @ FIGURE 4.2. Each begins
characteristic of preoperational children. with identical objects (or sets of objects) Then one

Type of
conservation Starting configuration Transformation Final configuration

— EE =
Pour water from one = SW
glass into a shorter, “Sues
quantity wider glass.

tae <a
iy ier ie eee eid Now is there the same amount of water
waterin each glass? in each glass, or does one glass have more?

cram §
row of coins, push 868686
98088
together
the bottom

Are there the same number

rm SEESSENow are there the same number
of coins in each row? of coins in each row, or does
one row have more?

Move one stick to the

Length left and the otherto
the right.
Are these sticks the same length? Now are the sticks the same length, or is
one longer?

Roll one ball so that it

Mass
ead CoD
Now does each piece have the same
amount of clay, or does one have more?

Spread out the squares

Area
in one field.

Does each cow have the same Now does each cow have the same
amountof grass to eat? amount to eat, or does one cow have more?

@ FIGURE 4.2 Children in the preoperational stage of development typically have difficulty solving conservation problems, in which
important features of an object (or objects) stay the same despite changes in physical appearance

122 CuaprTer 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyraght2019 Cengage Learsing. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copsed, scammed, or duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosmc nights, some thend party comtest muy he suppressed thorn dre cftook ancice oC hapter|s).
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed cretion! dacs mot mastcnally affect the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal coevient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctioms roqene at.
of the objects (or sets) is transformed, and children older brother or sister put on a scary costume only
are asked if the objects are the same in terms of some to burst into frightened tears when their sibling puts
important feature. on scary makeup. The scary made-up face is reality,
A typical conservation problem involves not just something that looks frightening but really
conservation of liquid quantity Children are shown isn't
identical beakers filled with the same amount of juice. Confusion between appearance and reality is
After children agree that the two beakers have the not limited to costumes and masks. It is a general
same amount of juice, the juice is poured from one characteristic of preoperational thinking. Consider
beaker into a taller, thinner beaker The juice looks the following cases where appearances and reality
different in the tall, thin beaker - it rises higher - but conflict:
of course the amount is unchanged Nevertheless,
e A boy is angry because a friend is being mean but
preoperational children claim that the tall, thin beaker
smiles because he's afraid the friend will leave if he
has more juice than the original beaker (And if the
reveals his anger.
juice is poured into a wider beaker, they believe it has
e A glass of milk looks brown when seen through
less juice )
sunglasses.
What is happening here? According to Piaget,
e A piece of hard rubber looks like food (for example, a
preoperational children centre on the level of the juice
piece of pizza).
in the beaker. If the juice is higher after it is poured,
preoperational children believe that there must be
more juice now than before Because preoperational
thinking is centred, these youngsters ignore the fact
that the change in the level of the juice is always Children with low birth weight, who also grow
accompanied by a change in the diameter of the up in an unstable family environment, often have
beaker delayed development. According to Piaget, what
form might the delay take?

Older children and adults know that the boy looks

happy, the milk looks brown, and the object looks like
food but that the boy is really angry, the milk is really
white, and the object is really rubber In contrast,
preoperational children confuse appearance and reality,
thinking the boy is happy, the milk is brown, and the
piece of rubber is edible.
The defining characteristics of preoperational
thought are summarised in @ TABLE 4.1.

Evaluating
Piaget's tl
A In conservation problems, preschool childran typically do not Because Piaget’s theory is so comprehensive, it
believe that the quantity of a liquid remains the same when it is
poured into a taller, more slender beaker
has stimulated much research Much of this work
supports Piaget's view that children actively try to
understand the world around them and to organise
their knowledge and that cognitive development
Appearance as reality includes major qualitative changes (Brainerd, 1996;
A final feature of preoperational thinking is that Flavell, 1996) One important contribution of Piaget’s
preschool children believe that an object's appearance theory is that many teachers and parents have found
tells what the object is really like. For instance, many it a rich source of ideas about ways to foster children’s
three-year-olds have watched with fascination as an development.

41 THE ONSET OF THINKING PIAGET § ACCOUNT 123

Egocentrism Child believes that all people see the world as he A child gestures during a cell phone
or she does conversation, not realising that the listener
cannot see the gestures

Centration Child focuses on one aspect of a problem or In conservation of liquid quantity, child pays
situation but ignores other relevant aspects attention to the height of the liquid in the
beaker but ignores the diameter of the beaker

Appearance as reality Child assumes that an object really is what it Child believes that a person smiling at
appears to be another person is really happy even though
the other person is being mean

Guidelines for fostering cognitive development

Piaget's theory has several straightforward implications
for conditions that promote cognitive growth:
© Cognitive growth occurs as children construct their
own understanding of the world. This means that
the teacher's role is to create environments where
children can discover how the world works. A teacher
shouldn't simply try to tell children how addition and
subtraction are complementary, but should provide
children with materials that allow them to discover the
complementarity themselves.
e Children profit from experience only when they
can interpret the experience with their current
cognitive structures Consequently, the best teaching
experiences are slightly ahead of the children’s
current level of thinking. As youngsters begin
to master basic addition, don’t jump directly to
subtraction, but go to slightly more difficult addition
problems
© Cognitive growth can be particularly rapid when a According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, children
children discover inconsistencies and errors in their need to learn by doing

own thinking. Therefore, teachers should encourage

children to look at the consistency of their thinking, Piaget's theory underestimates cognitive competence in
but then let children take the lead in sorting out infants and young children and overestimates cognitive
the inconsistencies. If a child is making mistakes in competence in adolescents. In Piaget's theory, cognitive
borrowing on subtraction problems, a teacher shouldn't
development is steady in early childhood but not
correct the error directly, but should encourage the child particularly rapid In contrast, a main theme of
to look at a large number of these errors to discover modern child development science is that infants and
what he or she is doing wrong.
toddlers are extraordinarily competent. By using more
sensitive tasks than Piaget’s, modern investigators
Criticisms of Piaget's theory have shown that infants and toddlers are vastly more
Although Piaget's contributions to child development capable than expected based on Piaget's theory For
are legendary, some elements of his theory have held example, in a few pages, we'll see that infants have a
up better than others (Miller, 2011, Newcombe, 2013; much greater understanding of objects than Piaget
Siegler & Alibali, 2005) believed. However, Piaget overestimated cognitive

124 CuaPpTer 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE © OGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party comtest mory he wappeeascd thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
skill in adolescents, who often fail to reason according it remains the most complete account of cognitive
to formal operational principles and revert to less development. However, in recent years, researchers have
sophisticated reasoning. attempted to round out our understanding of cognitive
e Piaget's theory is vague concerning processes and development using other theoretical perspectives, such
mechanisms of change Many of the key components of as the information-processing approach examined later
the theory, such as accommodation and assimilation, in this chapter
are too vague to test scientifically Consequently,
scientists abandoned them in favour of other cognitive Extending
processes that could be evaluated more readily and ee handPiaget's account: Children’s
thus could provide more convincing accounts of
children’s thinking. Piaget believed that children, like scientists, formulate
© Piaget's stage model does not account for variability in theories about how the world works. Children’s theories
children’s performance. In Piaget’s view, each stage of are usually called ‘naive theories’ because, unlike real
intellectual development has unique characteristics scientific theories, they are not created by specialists and
that leave their mark on everything a child does are rarely evaluated by real experiments. Nevertheless,
For example, preoperational thinking is defined by naive theories are valuable because they allow children
egocentrism and centration. Consequently, children’s (and adults) to understand new experiences and predict
performance on different tasks should be consistent. future events.
On the conservation and the three-mountains tasks, In Piaget's view, children formulate a grand,
for instance, according to Piaget, four-year-olds comprehensive theory that attempts to explain an
should always respond in a preoperational way. They enormous variety of phenomena - including reasoning
should say that the water is not the same after pouring about objects, people, and morals, for example - within
and that another person sees the mountains the same a common framework. More recent views retain the
way they do In fact, children’s thinking is not this idea of children as theorists but propose that children,
consistent. A child’s thinking may be sophisticated like real scientists, develop specialised theories about
in some domains but naive in others (Siegler, 1981). much narrower areas For example, according to the core
This inconsistency does not support Piaget's view knowledge hypothesis, infants are born with rudimentary
that children’s thinking should always reflect the knowledge of the world; this knowledge is elaborated based
distinctive imprint of their current stage of cognitive on children’s experiences (Newcombe, 2013, Spelke &
development. In addition, development seems to have Kinzler, 2007). Some of the theories young children first
a cultural component A 2017 study at the University develop concern physics, psychology, and biology. That
of Bloemfontein (Visser et al., 2017) found that South is, infants and toddlers rapidly develop theories that
African children scored very differently to children in organise their knowledge about properties of objects,
America on tests of visual perception, suggesting that people, and living things (Wellman & Gelman, 1998)
children from different cultures develop at different We examined children’s developing theory of mind in
rates, probably due to social economic status and Chapter 3; in the next few pages, we'll look at children’s
environmental conditions (Harris, 2017) naive theories of physics and biology.
© Piaget's theory undervalues the influence of the
sociocultural environment on cognitive development Naive physics
Returning to the metaphor of the child as scientist, As adults, we know a lot about objects and their
Piaget describes the child as a lone scientist, constantly properties. For example, we know that if we place a coffee
trying to figure out how theory coordinates with data. cup on a table, it will remain there unless another person
In reality, a child’s effort to understand her world is far moves it; it will not move by itself or disappear And we
more social than Piaget described. A child’s growing don't release a coffee cup in mid air because we know
understanding of the world is profoundly influenced that an unsupported object will fall. Child development
by interactions with family members, peers, and researchers have been interested in young children’s
teachers, and it takes place against the backdrop of understanding of objects for a long time, partly because
cultural values. Piaget did not ignore these social and Piaget claimed that understanding of objects develops
cultural forces entirely, but they are not prominent in
his theory.
These criticisms do not mean that Piaget's theory is core knowledge hypothesis Infants are born with rudimentary
knowledgeof the world, which is elaborated
based on experiences.
invalid or should be abandoned. As noted previously,

41 THE ONSET OF THINKING PIAGET § ACCOUNT 125

1 The silver screen is lying 2. The silver screen has begun 3. The silver screen
is now
flat on the table and the red to rotate, but the red box is vertical, blocking the red box.
box is fully visible. largely visible.

SS 2, ~“S
_—anrc
at
a
en / ) Sy

4. The silver screen continues

to rotate, blocking 5. The silver screen is completely flat,
the red box, which has started to drop through apparently having ‘rotated through’ the red
the trap door. box which is actually now under the table.

6. The silver screen is rotating back toward the 7 The silver screen is again flat and the
infant but still blocks the red box. box fully visible to the infant.

BS >
@ FIGURE 4.3 Object permanence in 3%- and 4%4-month-old infants. Infants are surprised to see the silver screen rotate flat,
which suggests that they understand the ‘permanence’ of the red box (Baillargeon, R., 1987).

126 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Naive biology children believe that lions exist so that people can see
The distinction between living and nonliving things is them in a zoo (Kelemen, 2003). And they believe that
fundamental to adults’ naive theories. Adults know that a child’s pet ran away to teach the child to be more
living things, for example, are made of cells, inherit responsible (Banerjee & Bloom, 2015). Teleological
thinking resembles animism (described earlier) and
properties from parents, and move spontaneously
Adults’ theories of living things begin in infancy, may reflect a child’s tendency to extend to animals the
when youngsters first distinguish animate objects (for knowledge that objects such as tools are made for a
example, people, insects, other animals) from inanimate
specific purpose (Kelemen & DiYanni, 2005).
objects (for example, rocks, plants, furniture, tools) Young children’s theories of living things are also
Motion is critical in infants’ understanding of the rooted in essentialism: children believe that many living
difference between animate and inanimate objects. That things have an essence that can't be seen but gives a living
is, by about nine months, infants have determined that thing its identity Specifically, essentialism assumes
animate objects are self-propelled, sometimes move that certain natural categories (for example, tortoises,
in irregular paths, and act to achieve goals (Opfer & girls) have sharp boundaries that can’t be changed, that
members of these categories share many features, and
Gelman, 2011)
that these shared features are caused by an underlying
essence present in all category members (Gelman,
2003) For example, essentialism says that birds form
a category that is clearly distinguishable from other
categories (in other words, there are no animals that
are part bird and part squirrel), they share many
features (for example, they fly, sing, and lay eggs), and
they have an underlying essence — ‘birdness’ - that is
responsible for the shared features. Young children’s
essentialism explains why four-year-olds believe that a
baby kangaroo adopted by goats will still hop and have
a pouch and why they believe that a watermelon seed
planted in a sunflower field will produce watermelons
(Solomon & Zaitchik, 2012)
One way to see children’s essentialism in action is
A Toddlers distinguish animate objects, such as goats, from
through ‘transplant studies’ in which children are told
inanimate objects, such as furniture and tools.
about internal parts transplanted from one person
During the preschool years, children’s naive theories to another and children are asked whether the organ
of biology expand to include many specific properties recipient takes on the properties of the organ donor.
associated with living things, particularly when they One of these studies is the subject of the ‘Spotlight on
have daily contact with animals (Geerdts, van de Walle, research’ feature.
& LoBue, 2015) Many four-year-olds’ theories of biology Of course, although preschoolers’ naive theories of
include the ideas that only animals can grow, become ill, biology are complex, their theories have some flaws.
and heal when damaged (Legare, Wellman, & Gelman, The most striking is that although preschoolers know
2009; Margett & Witherington, 2011). And their that plants grow and heal, they don't consider plants
understanding is so sophisticated that children aren't to be living things, apparently because they see goal-
fooled by lifelike robots: four-year-olds know that robots directed motion as a key property of living things
are machines that (a) do not eat or grow and (b) are (Opfer & Siegler, 2004). Nevertheless, children’s naive
made by people and can break (Jipson & Gelman, 2007). theories of biology, when joined with their naive
Nevertheless, preschoolers believe that robots represent theory of physics, provide powerful tools for making
a special kind of machine because youngsters attribute sense of their world and for understanding new
humanlike traits to robots, such as being friendly (Kahn, experiences.
Gary, & Shen, 2013)
A fundamental part of young children’s theory of living teleological explanations Children’s belief that living things,
including their parts and their actions, exist for a purpose.
things is a commitment to teleological explanations:
children believe that livings things, including their parts essentialism Children’s belief that all living things have an essence
and their actions, exist for a purpose. For example, young that can't be seen but gives a living thing its identity.

41 THE ONSET OF THINKING PIAGET S ACCOUNT 127

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghés, some thind party costest mory he suppressed trom the cfiock andlor oC hapter(s)
Edbtomad sewew bos doomed thot any wuppromed content docs sot mustcmally affect the overall kam, expenerce. Cengage Leareung reserves the night to remnowe additonal comient af any tame if subsequent mgt sedtnctooes nga ot
Have a heart! Preschoolers’ essentialist thinking
Spotlight on
Who were the investigators, and what was the aim of the
study? Imagine that your heart ts failing and that you need
shown in the right bars,
are nearly identical to
Research
a transplant to live The only heart available ts Adolf Hitler's the full analyses Children
Would you take it? Many adults would not because they do not believe that they
fear that organ recipients might take on the properties of would become not smart
the organ donor, even though there is no evidence that or monkey-like if they were to
transplanting a heart would transfer properties of the donor receive $1, but they think it would be possible if they were to
This shows essentialism the heart is seen as part of the receive a heart
essence of ‘human-ness’ so a transplant transfers other What did the investigators conclude?The findings
properties to the recipient. Would preschool children show illustrate a key element of essentialism ‘children appeal to an
this sort of essentialism? Meredith Meyer and her colleagues, internal essence when making predictions about outward
Susan Gelman, Steven Roberts, and Sarah-Jane Leslie, features’ (p 15) In other words, children seem to view the
conducted a study in the US to find out (2016) heart as an internal essence that could cause a recipient of
How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? that heart to take on properties of the donor, such as being
Meyer and colleagues created scenarios in which children nice, smart, or like a monkey.
were descnbed as being nice, mean, smart, or not smart What converging evidence would strengthen these
They also included scenanos that described pigs and monkeys conclusions? Meyer and her colleagues examined transfer
acting naturally Children participating in the study were asked of a single internal organ It would be useful to extend the
to imagine that they had received $1 from the child or animal work to other internal organs such as the stomach or the
in the scenario or that they had received a heart from the child lungs And researchers, by asking children about transplants
or animal in the scenario Then they were asked if they had involving hair or skin (biological but not internal) or a
received $1 or a heart, whether they would become like the pacemaker {internal but not biological), could describe more
child or animal in the scenario (in other words, become nice, precisely what preschool! children consider to be essences
mean, smart, not smart, pig-like, monkey-like)}
Who were the children in the study? The researchers
tested preschool children and primary school children For
simplicity, we describe only the findings for the four and
Children believe
five-yearolds
What was the design of the study?This study was
they might take
expenmental Meyers and colleagues manipulated the kind of on features of
transfer — heart versus money — and examined its impact on heart donors.
children’s judgements that they would take on characteristics 1.2
of the donor The study was cross-sectional, but we're only es Ay
considering the findings from the younger children ee ;
ES
<<]
Were there ethical concerns with the study? No. The
tasks posed no danger to the children 2 g 0.8
What were the results? The results are shown in
@ FIGURE 4.4. A score of 0 corresponds to ‘no transfer’ — in
E $ 06
other words, children judged that they would not take on the Se
characteristics of the donor Scores greater than 0 indicate = 0
‘a 2 04
ever greater judgements that children would take on the
features of the donor The left bars of Figure 4.4 show that ss
overall preschoolers believed they would be unaffected by 32 02
5 3
receiving $1 but would be affected by recering a heart
One potential problem ts that nice people are = a
sometimes referred to as ‘warm hearted’ and mean
All features Not including mean,
people are sometimes described as ‘cold hearted’, so not mean
children’s responses might not reflect essentialist thinking m@S$i Heart
Consequently, to provide a more stringent test of children's
essentialist beliefs, the researchers repeated the analyses
but excluding nice and mean (in other words, including only @ FIGURE 4.4 Preschool children believe that they might take on the
smart, not smart, pig-like, and monkey-like) The results, features of a heart donor, a finding that reveals essentialist thinking

128 CHAPTER 4 ‘THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Recall 7. One criticism of Piaget's theory is that it

underestimates cognitive competence in
1. The term refers to
modification of schemes based on experience.
2. According to Piaget, 8. Most four-year-olds know that living things
are psychological structures that organise move, become ill, and heal
experience. when injured.
3. Piaget believed that infants’ understanding
Interpret
of objects could be summarised as
e Piaget championed the view that children
participate actively in their own development. How
4. By 18 months, most infants talk and gesture,
do the sensorimotor child’s contributions differ
which shows that they have the capacity
from the formal-operational child’s contributions?

5. Preschoolers are often Apply

meaning that they are unable to take another © Based on what you know about Piaget's theory, what
person's viewpoint. would his position have been on the continuity-
6. Preoperational children sometimes attribute discontinuity issue discussed in Chapter 1?
thoughts and feelings to inanimate objects; this is Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
called end of the chapter.

EY) Information processing during infancy and early childhood

Learning objectives

© Explain the basis of the information-processing approach.

® Evaluate how well young children pay attention.

® Identify the kinds of learning that take place during infancy.

e Assess whether infants and preschool children remember.

® Describe what infants and preschoolers know about numbers.

When Annetjie, a bubbly three-year-old, is Today, many developmentalists borrow from computer
asked how old she'll be on her next birthday, science to formulate their ideas about human thinking
she proudly says, ‘Four!’ while holding up five and how it develops (Plunkett, 1996). As you recall from
fingers. Asked to count four objects, whether Chapter 1, this approach is called information processing.
they're sweets, toys, or socks, Annetjie usually In this section, we'll see what information processing has
says, ‘1, 2,6, 7...SEVEN!’ Annetjie’s older revealed about young children’s thinking and, along the
brothers find this very funny, but her mother way, see what to make of Annetjie’s counting.
thinks that, despite the mistakes, Annetijie’s
behaviour shows that she knows a great deal ; | evlieidiciee ii id amenai
about numbers and counting But what exactly
does Annetjie understand? That question has In the information-processing view, human thinking is
her mother stumped! based on both mental hardware and mental software

2 INFORMATION PROCESSING DURING INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD 129

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmang. All Rights Reserved May mot be copaed, scammed, or duplicated. m whole
oc in part. Dur to clectroemc
nghts, some therd party comtest mory he wappeeesed for the cfiook ancice oC hapter|s)
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed cresiont dacs sot muztcnally affect
the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night to remove additional coesient
af any tame if subsequent neh sextnctoes noqene ot
Mental hardware refers to mental and neural structures However, responding constantly to insignificant stimuli is
that are built in and allow the mind to operate Mental wasteful, so habituation keeps infants from devoting too
software refers to mental ‘programs’ that are the basis much energy to insignificant events (Rovee-Collier, 1987).
for performing particular tasks. Information-processing Preschool children gradually learn how to focus
psychologists claim that as children develop, their their attention, but when compared with older children
mental software becomes more complex, more powerful, and adults, they are often not very attentive (Hatania
and more efficient. & Smith, 2010). In the meantime, teachers and parents
In the next few pages, we'll look at the development can help young children pay attention better. For
of information-processing skills in infants, toddlers, and example, the American program, Tools of the Mind, is
preschoolers, beginning with attention. a curriculum for preschool and kindergarten children
that uses pretend play to improve attentional processes
Attention (Diamond & Lee, 2011) Pretend play may seem like
a surprising way to improve attention, but staying ‘in
Lihle was only three days old and was often startled by character’ while pretending teaches children to inhibit
the sounds of taxis in the traffic outside her family’s inappropriate ‘out-of-character’ behaviour. And it
house. Lihle’s parents worried that she might not get encourages thinking flexibly as children respond to
enough sleep. Yet within a few days, taxis’ hooting their playmates’ improvisation Teachers also contribute
sounds no longer disturbed Lihle; she slept blissfully. by providing visual reminders of the need to pay
Why was a noise that had been so troubling no attention, such as showing a drawing of an ear to remind
longer a problem? The key is attention, a process that children to listen Tools of the Mind improves attention,
determines which sensory information receives additional particularly in children who are at risk of problems in
cognitive processing school (Blair, 2016).
Lihle’s response is normal not only for infants but Parents can also help promote their children’s
also for children and adolescents When presented with attentional skills. In one study (Neville et al., 2013),
a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, an orienting response parents and their preschool children attended an after-
usually occurs a person startles, fixes the eyes on the school programme that included activities designed to
stimulus, and shows changes in heart rate and brain-wave improve children’s attention For example, in one task,
activity These responses occurring together show that children were taught how to colour carefully while being
the infant has noticed the stimulus. Remember, too, distracted by nearby peers playing with balloons. Parents
that Lihle soon ignored the sounds of traffic When a were taught ways to support their children’s attention,
stimulus is presented repeatedly, people recognise it as for example, by monitoring how they spoke to their
familiar and the orienting response gradually disappears. children. After children participated in this programme,
Habituation is the diminished response to a stimulus as it their attention improved.
becomes familiar.
The orienting response and habituation are both useful
to infants. Orienting makes the infant aware of potentially
Learning
important or dangerous events in the environment From birth, babies rapidly learn about the people and
the objects in their environment. This learning reflects
several processes:
mental hardware Mental and neural structures that are built in
and allow the mind to operate. e You may recall experiments in which dogs learned to
mental software Mental ‘programs’ that are the basis for salivate when they heard a bell. This learning represents
performing particular tasks. classical conditioning, in which a neutral stimulus
attention Processes that determine which information will be
(a bell) elicits a response (salivation) that was originally
processed further by an individual. produced by another stimulus (food). Similarly, when
infants repeatedly hear a tone just before sugar water
orienting response An individual views a strong or unfamiliar
is placed in their mouth with a dropper, they learn to
stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain-wave activity occur.
suck when they hear the tone (Lipsitt, 1990) Classical
habituation Act of becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is conditioning gives infants a sense of order in their
presented repeatedly.
environment, they learn that a stimulus is a signal for
classical conditioning A form of learning that involves pairing a what will happen next. For example, a toddler may
neutral stimulus and a response originally produced by another smile when she hears the taxi hooting because she
stimulus.
knows that dad is coming home to play with her.

130 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Memory
Young babies remember events for days and even weeks
4 Infants (and older children) pay attention to loud stimuli at first but at a time, an ability that was revealed by experiments
then ignore them if they aren't interesting or dangerous. in which a ribbon from a mobile is attached to a two-
or three-month-old’s leg (Rovee-Collier, 1997, 1999)
Within minutes, the baby learns to kick to make the
© Operant conditioning focuses on the relation between
mobile move. When the ribbon is attached several days
the consequences of behaviour and the likelihood that
or a couple of weeks later, babies would still kick to make
the behaviour will recur. When a child’s behaviour
the mobile move However, after several weeks passed,
leads to pleasant consequences, the child will probably
most babies forgot that kicking moved the mobile But
behave similarly in the future. When the child’s
when babies were reminded - a researcher moved the
behaviour leads to unpleasant consequences, the child
mobile without attaching the ribbon to the baby’s foot -
will probably not repeat the behaviour. When a baby
the next day most kicked to move the mobile. Thus, this
smiles, an adult may hug the baby in return. This
work shows that three important features of memory
pleasing consequence makes the baby more likely to
exist by two and three months of age’ (1) an event from
smile in the future. When a baby grabs an expensive
the past is remembered, (2) over time, the event can no
tablet, an adult may become angry and shout at the
longer be recalled, and (3) a cue can help to retrieve a
baby. These unpleasant consequences make the baby
memory that seems to have been forgotten
less likely to grab the device in the future.
From these humble origins, memory improves
rapidly in older infants and toddlers Youngsters
require less exposure to information to remember it
and they can remember it longer (Lukowski & Bauer,
2014). When toddlers are shown novel actions with
toys and later asked to imitate what they saw, toddlers
require fewer exposures to the actions to remember
them and remember them longer, as compared to
infants. As children master language and are asked to
describe past events aloud, older preschoolers provide
more elaborate descriptions and often highlight the
unique features of events (for example, a birthday party
with a Star Wars theme).

operant conditioning Form of learning that emphasises the

A Toddlers who have fun playing in the water will welcome the
consequences of reward and punishment.
sound of the bathtub being filled.

42 INFORMATION PROCESSING DURING INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD 131

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party contest mary he suppressed thom the cock andice cChapter|s).
Edtorad seview boo deaned thot any wappromed coment docs sot susicmally affect
the overall kame expenence. Congage Leareung reserves the night to cemmove additeoeal coesient at any Gre if subsequent neh sextnicthoes maguire it.
those questions, you searched memory, just as you would
to answer questions such as ‘How many provinces are
there in South Africa?’ and “Who was South Africa’s first
democratic president?’ However, answers to questions
about provinces and presidents are based on general
knowledge that you have not experienced personally.
In contrast, answers to questions about your Grade 4
teacher and your high school uniform are based on
knowledge unique to your own life. Autobiographical
memory refers to people's memory of the significant events
——
and experiences of their own lives and defining themselves
* “tsh in time and relation to others. Autobiographical memory
ge? is important because it helps people construct a personal
pa ri Yn - <,
life history. In addition, autobiographical memory allows
people to relate their experiences to others, creating
socially shared memories. We can see this in the role that
culture plays in autobiographical memory. Collectivist
cultures, like many African cultures, have collective
goals and ‘shared identities’ (Basu-Zharku, 2011). People
in many cultures in South Africa share memories of
grandparents telling the ‘stories of their lives’ and ‘how it
was in their day. Most members of the older generations
will have a memory of where they were on the day
Nelson Mandela was released from prison, or on the day
of the first democratic election.
Autobiographical memory originates early. Infants
i? ;
Rud
Te and toddlers have the basic memory skills that enable
y & ; them to remember past events, but they forget so
or
eea *
< RAG
“a
~
Gs 2 rapidly that many experiences are not represented in
long-term memory. However, preschoolers’ memories
A Several days after infants learn that kicking moves a mobile, they
kick when they see the mobile, showing that they remember the are more robust, supporting autobiographical memory
connection between kicking and the mobile’s movements. (Bauer, 2015). A child’s sense of self is layered on top
of these memory skills (Howe, 2014) Toddlers come
These improvements in memory can be traced, in to understand that they exist independently in space
part, to growth in the brain regions that support memory and time This understanding provides coherence and
(Lukowski & Bower, 2014; Olson & Newcombe, 2014)
The hippocampus, a brain structure that plays a key
role in storing information in memory, develops rapidly
during the first year although some regions are not
mature until about two years. The prefrontal cortex,
a structure responsible for retrieving these stored
memories, develops more slowly, into the preschool and
primary school years. Thus, development of memory
during the first two years reflects growth in these two
different brain regions.

Autobiographical memory
Do you remember the name of your teacher from Grade 4
or the colours of your high school uniform? In answering

autobiographical memory Memories of the significant events

and experiences of one’s own life.
A Talking to children about events promotes autobiographical memory

132 CHAPTER4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyraght 200 Congage Lawmag. All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xcammed, ot duplicated, m whole of im part. Dur to clectronsc rights, scene thand party coment gery be eappeecsand Sern
tee cook andive Chapters
Exdtored scvarw bos docmed thas aay wappremed comet dare act sxsxmolly affect the overall keomng ctpenence. Congage Leaemeg reurves the ngbt 99 ccmarve addstaseal comect at ary Gene if sobeequent mefe setnctooes nga ¢
continuity to children’s experience. Children realise Although preschoolers are easily misled, they can
that the self who went to the park a few days ago is the provide reliable testimony if interviewers follow several
same self who is now at a birthday party and is the same guidelines taken from research on children’s memory.
self who will read a book with Gogo before bedtime. Specifically, interviewers should.
Young children’s improved language skills also
e Interview children as soon as possible after the event
contribute to autobiographical memory. These skills
in question.
allow children to converse with parents about past and
e Encourage children to tell the truth, to feel free to say
future events (Fivush, 2014). Parents may talk about
‘I don’t know’ to questions, and to correct interviewers
what the child did today at day care or remind the child
when they say something that’s incorrect.
about what she will be doing this weekend. Children’s
e Avoid nonverbal cues such as gestures or facial
autobiographical memories are richer when parents talk
expressions because these may lead children to believe
about past events in detail and, specifically, when they
they should respond in a certain way Also, avoid
encourage children to expand their description of past
selectively reinforcing responses that are consistent
events by asking open-ended questions such as “Where
with allegations.
did Mommy go last night?’ (Fivush, 2014)
© Start by asking children to describe the event in their
own words (“Tell me what happened after school’),
Preschoolers as eyewitnesses follow up with open-ended questions (‘Can you
tell me more about what happened while you were
Research on children’s autobiographical memory has
walking home?’), and avoid yes/no and multiple-
played a central role in cases of suspected child abuse
choice questions (because they lead to fewer details as
When abuse is suspected, the victim is usually the sole
well as more mistakes and inconsistencies).
witness To prosecute the alleged abuser, the child's
e Allow children to understand and feel comfortable in
testimony is needed. But can preschoolers accurately
the interview format by beginning with a neutral event
recall these events? Sometimes One obstacle to
(for example, a birthday party or holiday celebration)
accurate testimony is that young children are often
before moving to the event of interest.
interviewed repeatedly, a practice that can cause them
e Ask questions that consider other explanations of
to confuse what actually happened with what others
the event (in other words, explanations that don't
suggest may have happened. When the questioner is an
involve abuse).
adult in a position of authority, children often believe
that what is suggested by the adult actually happened Following guidelines such as these can promote the
(Candel et al., 2009; Ceci & Bruck, 1998). They will tell conditions under which children are likely to recall past
a convincing tale about ‘what really happened’ simply events more accurately and thereby be better witnesses
because adults have led them to believe things must (Brown & Lamb, 2015; Cleveland, Quas, & Lyon, 2016;
have happened that way. Young children’s storytelling Poole & Bruck, 2012).
can be so convincing that professionals often cannot
distinguish true and false reports (Gordon, Baker-
Ward, & Ornstein, 2001)
Preschool children are particularly suggestible. Why? Powerful learning and memory skills allow infants and
One idea is that preschool children are more suggestible preschoolers to learn much about their worlds This
because they don’t remember the sources of information rapid growth is well illustrated by research on children’s
that they remember (Poole & Lindsay, 1995, Roberts, understanding of the concept of number. Basic number
Evans & Duncanson, 2016). For example, they may know skills originate in infancy, long before babies learn
that a cousin dressed as a ghost for Halloween, but they the names of numbers. Many babies experience daily
can't remember whether they actually saw the cousin in variation in quantity. They play with two blocks and
her costume or learned about the costume from a parent. see that another baby has three, they watch as a father
When confused in this manner, preschoolers frequently sorts laundry and finds two black socks but only one
assume they must have experienced something blue sock; and they eat 6 grapes for lunch while an older
personally. Consequently, when preschool children brother eats 15
are asked leading questions (for example, “When the From these experiences, babies apparently come to
man touched you, did it hurt®’), children store this appreciate that quantity or amount is one of the ways in
information but later have trouble distinguishing what which objects in the world can differ In fact, infants may
they actually experienced from what interviewers imply represent number using two distinct systems (Mussolin
that they experienced (Ghetti, 2008). et al., 2016) One system is used for sets of one to four

2 INFORMATION PROCESSING DURING INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD 133

aoe
1. Object placed on stage 2. Screen comes up 3. Second object added 4. Hand leaves empty

Then either: possible outcome or: impossible outcome

5. Screen drops... revealing 2 objects 5. Screen drops... revealing
1 object

@ FIGURE 4.5 Infants are surprised when they see objects added or removed but the original
number of objects is still present when the screen is removed This pattern suggests some basic
understanding of addition and subtraction

objects and is very precise; it allows babies to distinguish versus 60 teddy bears) that 3-year-olds cannot (Halberda
one object from two and two objects from three (Opfer & Feigenson, 2008) And number representations in the
& Siegler, 2012) ANS have been linked to a specific region in the brain's
This system also allows babies to perform simple parietal lobe (Emerson & Cantlon, 2015).
addition and subtraction In experiments using the
method shown in @ FIGURE 4.5, infants view a stage Learning to count
with one mouse A screen hides the mouse and then a By two years of age, most youngsters know some
hand appears with a second mouse, which is placed number words and have begun to count. However, this
behind the screen When the screen is removed and counting is usually full of mistakes. They might count ‘1,
reveals one mouse, five-month-olds look longer than 2, 6, 7 — skipping 3, 4, and 5. Gelman and Meck (1986)
when two mice appear. Apparently, five-month-olds charted preschoolers’ understanding of counting. They
expect that one mouse plus another mouse should equal simply placed several objects in front of a child and
two mice, and they look longer when this expectancy asked, ‘How many?’ By analysing children’s answers to
is violated (Wynn, 1992) Likewise, when the stage first many of these questions, Gelman and Meck discovered
has two mice and one of them is removed, infants are that by age three, most children have mastered three
surprised when the screen is removed and two mice are basic principles of counting — at least for counting up to
still on the stage. five objects.
The other system - known as the approximate
number system (ANS) - estimates quantities and is © One-to-one principle: There must be one and only one
used to distinguish larger sets. This system allows babies number name for each object that is counted. A child
to distinguish 8 objects from 16 objects but it does not who counts three objects as “1, 2, a understands this
allow them to distinguish 8 objects from 12 objects, principle because the number of names matches the
because the ANS isn’t precise enough (Opfer & Siegler, number of objects to be counted, even though the
2012). Representations of number in the ANS become third name is a letter
sharper with development and this allows 6-year-olds ¢ Stable-order principle Number names must be
to discriminate larger sets (for example, 50 teddy bears counted in the same order. A child who counts in
the same sequence - for example, consistently
counting four objects as ‘1, 2, 4, 5° — understands
this principle.
one-to-one principle Counting principle that states that there
must be one and only one number name for each object counted. © Cardinality principle The last number name differs
from the previous ones in a counting sequence by
stable-order principle Counting principle that states that number
denoting the number of objects Typically, three-year-
names must always be counted in the same order.
olds reveal their understanding of this principle by
cardinality principle Counting principle that states that the last repeating the last number name, often with emphasis.
number name denotes the number of objects being counted.
‘1,2,4,8 ..EIGHT!Y

134 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

4. When a child who is counting a set of objects

repeats the last number, usually with emphasis,
this indicates the child understands the
principle of counting.

Interpret
e Do the developmental mechanisms in the
information-processing perspective emphasise
nature, nurture, or both? How?
A By age five, children have mastered the three counting principles
and can apply them to large sets of objects
Apply
e Describe how research on children’s eyewitness
So far, we have not considered the impact of social testimony illustrates connections among
context on children’s thinking In the next section, we'll emotional, cognitive, and social development.
examine a theory developed by Vygotsky, who believed Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
that cognitive development has its roots in social end of the chapter.
interactions

CE) Mind and culture: Vygotsky's theory

Learning objectives

® Describe the zone of proximal development, and explain how it helps to explain how children accomplish
more when they collaborate with others.

® Explain why scaffolding is a particularly effective way of teaching youngsters new concepts and skills.

® Identify when and why children talk to themselves as they solve problems.

Vuyelwa, a four-year-old, enjoys solving jigsaw red crayon? Stay inside the lines Colour the
puzzles, colouring, and building towers with blocks blue’. These remarks were not directed
blocks. While busy with these activities, she at anyone else — Vuyelwa was alone. Why
often talks to herself. For example, once as she did she say these things? What purpose did
was colouring a picture, she said, ‘Where's the they serve?

43 MIND AND CULTURE VYGOTSKY S THEORY 135

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party contest mory he wuppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
Human development is often referred to as a journey The
development
zone of proximal =
that takes people along many different paths. For Piaget
and for information-processing psychologists, children Four-year-old Themba and his father often solve
make the journey alone. Other people (and culture puzzles together. Although Themba does most of the
in general) influence the direction that children take, work, his father encourages him, sometimes finding
but fundamentally the child is a solitary adventurer- a piece that he needs or showing Themba how to put
explorer, boldly forging ahead. Lev Vygotsky (1896- parts together When Themba tries to assemble the
1934), a Russian psychologist, proposed a very different same puzzles by himself, he rarely can complete them.
account: development is an apprenticeship in which The difference between what Themba can do with
children advance when they collaborate with others who assistance and what he does alone defines his zone of
are more skilled. According to Vygotsky (1978), children proximal development. That is, the zone is the area
rarely make much progress on the developmental path between the level of performance a child can achieve
when they walk alone; they progress when they walk when working independently and a higher level of
hand in hand with an expert. performance that is possible when the child works
For Vygotsky and other sociocultural theorists, the under the guidance or direction of more skilled adults
or peers (Daniels, 2011; Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992).
social nature of cognitive development is captured in the
concept of intersubjectivity, which refers to mutual, For example, many primary school children have
shared understanding among participants in an activity. difficulty solving arithmetic story problems because
For example, when parents and children play board they don’t know where to begin. By structuring the
games together, they share an understanding of the task for them — ‘first decide what you're supposed to
goals of their activity and of their roles in playing the figure out; then decide what information you're told in
games. This shared understanding allows parents and the problem’ - teachers can help children accomplish
children to work together in complementary fashion what they cannot do by themselves. So, just as training
on the puzzles. Such interactions are characteristic wheels help children learn to ride a bike by allowing
of guided participation, in which cognitive growth them to concentrate on certain aspects of bicycling,
develops from children’s involvement in structured collaborators help children perform more effectively
activities with others who are more skilled than they by providing structure, hints, and reminders.
Through guided participation, children learn from The idea of a zone of proximal development follows
others how to connect new experiences and new skills naturally from Vygotsky's basic premise: cognition
with what they already know (Rogoff, 2003). Guided develops first in a social setting and only gradually comes
participation is shown when a child learns a new video under the child’s independent control. What factors aid
game from a peer or an adolescent learns a new karate this shift? This leads us to the second of Vygotsky's key
move from a partner. contributions.
Vygotsky died when he was only 37 years old, so
he did not develop his theory fully. However, his ideas Scaffolding
are influential, largely because they fill some gaps in Have you had the good fortune to work with a master
the Piagetian and information-processing accounts. teacher, one who knew exactly when to say something
In the next few pages, we'll look at three of Vygotsky's to help you over an obstacle but otherwise let you
most important contributions - the zone of proximal work uninterrupted? Scaffolding is a style in which
development, scaffolding, and private speech — and learn teachers evaluate the amount of assistance they offer to
more about why Vuyelwa talks to herself. match the learner's needs. Early in learning a new task,
children know little, so teachers give a lot of direct
instruction about how to do all the different elements
intersubjectivity Mutual, shared understanding among
participants in an activity. of a task. As the children catch on, teachers need to
provide less direct instruction, they are more likely to
guided participation Children’s involvement in structured
give reminders.
activities with others who are more skilled, typically producing
cognitive growth. Worldwide, parents scaffold their children’s
learning, but not always using the same methods.
zone of proximal development Difference between what children
can do with assistance and what they can do alone.
In cultures that value children’s independence (for
example, many countries in Europe), parents allow
scaffolding A style in which teachers evaluate the amount of children to play at a distance (to encourage their
assistance they offer to match the learner's needs.
independence) and so parents rely on language to

136 CHAPTER4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Private speech
Remember Vuyelwa, the four-year-old in the introductory
story who talked to herself as she coloured? Her
behaviour demonstrates private speech: comments that
are not intended for others but are designed to help children
regulate their own behaviour Thus, Vuyelwa's remarks are
simply an effort to help her colour the picture.

Think about it

Vygotsky emphasised cognitive development

& Young children can often accomplish far more with some adult
as collaboration. How could such collaboration
guidance than they can accomplish alone. Vygotsky referred to this be included in Piaget's theory? In information
difference as the zone of proximal development. processing?

scaffold their children In contrast, in cultures that Vygotsky viewed private speech as an intermediate step
value children’s interdependence with other people toward self-regulation of cognitive skills (Fernyhough,
(for example, many countries in South America and 2010). At first, children’s behaviour is regulated by speech
Africa), parents keep children close physically and rely from other people that is directed toward them When
on gesture and touch to scaffold (Kuhl & Keller, 2008, youngsters first try to control their own behaviour and
Luo & Tamis-LeMonda, 2016) thoughts without others present, they instruct themselves
The defining characteristic of scaffolding — giving by speaking aloud. Private speech seems to be children’s
help but not more than is needed - clearly promotes way of guiding themselves, of making sure they do all the
learning (Cole, 2006) Youngsters do not learn readily required steps in solving a problem Finally, as children
when they are constantly told what to do or when they gain ever greater skill, private speech becomes inner
are simply left to struggle through a problem unaided. speech, which was Vygotsky's term for thought.
However, when teachers collaborate with children, If private speech functions in this way, then children
allowing them to take on more and more of a task as they should use private speech more often on difficult tasks
master its different elements, they learn more effectively than on easy tasks because children are most likely
(Murphy & Messer, 2000) Scaffolding is an important to need extra guidance on harder tasks. Also, children
technique for transferring skills from others to the child,
both in formal settings such as schools and in informal
settings such as the home and playground (Bernier, private speech A child’s comments that are not intended for
others but are designed to help regulate the child’s own behaviour.
Carlson, & Whipple, 2010)

4.3 MIND AND CULTURE VYGOTSKY $ THEORY 137

Copyright 2019 Congage Lesrmag. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole oe in part. Due to electronic nghts, some thind party costest mory be suppressed trom the cftock andice oC hapter(s)
Edttomad sewew bon deaned that any eappremed content dacs sot sustemadly affect the overall lean, expenence. Congage Learning reserwee the night to nemmowe additeoeal coesicrst af any torne if subsequent mei seetnctooes nexqenr at.
should be more likely to use private speech after a Thus, Vygotsky’s work has characterised cognitive
mistake than after a correct response. These predictions development not as a solitary undertaking, but as a
are supported by research (Berk, 2003), findings that collaboration between expert and novice His work
suggest the power of language in helping children learn reminds us of the importance of language, which we'll
to control their own behaviour and thinking. examine in detail in the last section of this chapter.

Test yourself 4.3

Recall Interpret
1. The is the difference e How would scaffolding appropriate for infants
between the level of performance that youngsters differ from the scaffolding appropriate for
can achieve with assistance and the level they can preschool children?
achieve alone.
Apply
2. The term refers to a style
in which teachers adjust their assistance to match © Review Piaget's description of the conditions that
a child's needs. promote cognitive development. How would
a similar list derived from Vygotsky's theory
3. According to Vygotsky, is compare?
an intermediate step between speech from others Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
and inner speech. end of the chapter.

[%] Language
Learning objectives

© Determine when infants first hear and make speech sounds.

e Describe when children start to talk and how they learn word meanings.

® Explain how young children learn grammar.

© Evaluate how well youngsters communicate.

Lindiwe is just a few weeks away from her first The first spoken words represent the climax of a
birthday. For the past month, she has seemed year's worth of language growth To tell the story of
to understand much of her mother’s speech language acquisition properly and explain Lindiwe's
lf her mom asks, ‘Where's Garfield?’ (the seemingly strange behaviour, we begin with the months
family cat), Lindiwe scans the room and points preceding the first words.
toward Garfield Yet Lindiwe’s own speech is
still nonsense She ‘talks’ constantly, but her
mom can’t understand a word of it If Lindiwe
The road
to speech
apparently understands others’ speech, why When a baby is upset, a concerned mother tries
can’t she speak herself? to console him. The baby is unable to talk, so he
conveys his unhappiness by crying. The mother uses
Soon after the first birthday, most children say their first both verbal and nonverbal measures to cheer her
word, which is followed in the next months by hundreds baby In this situation, do babies understand any of
more. This marks the beginning of a child’s ability the speech directed at them? And how do infants
to communicate orally with others. Through speech, progress from crying to more effective methods of
youngsters convey their ideas, beliefs, and feelings to oral communication, such as speech? Let's start by
family, friends, and others. answering the first question.

138 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
Perceiving speech human face, just as they develop a more refined notion
Even newborn infants hear remarkably well; the of the sounds (and signs) that are important in their
left hemisphere of a newborn's brain is particularly home language (Pascalis et al., 2014).
sensitive to language; and babies prefer to listen to Identifying words. Of course, identifying language
speech over comparably complex nonspeech sounds sounds is just the first step in perceiving speech. One
(Vouloumanos et al., 2010). Critically, babies can of the biggest challenges for infants is identifying
distinguish consonant sounds, such as the sound of words. Imagine, for example, an infant overhearing this
t in toe and tap, as well as vowel sounds, such as the conversation between a parent and an older sibling:
sound of e in get and bed (Cristia et al., 2016; Galle &
Sibling: Johan got a new bike.
McMurray, 2014).
Parent: Was his old bike broken?
The impact of language exposure. Not all Sibling: No. Hed saved his money to buy a new
languages use the same set of language sounds, phonemes, mountain bike.
so a distinction that is important in one language may
be ignored in another. For example, Japanese does not An infant listening to this conversation hears bike
distinguish the consonant sound of r in rip from the three times. Can the infant learn from this experience?
sound of /| in lip, and Japanese adults trying to learn Yes. When seven- to eight-month-olds hear a word
English have great difficulty distinguishing these sounds. repeatedly in different sentences, they later pay more
At about 6 to 8 months, Japanese and American infants attention to this word than to words they haven't
can distinguish these sounds equally well. However, heard previously (Houston & Jusczyk, 2003; Saffran,
by 10 to 12 months, perception of r and / improves for Aslin, & Newport, 1996). By six months, infants pay
American infants —- presumably because they hear these more attention to content words (for example, nouns,
sounds frequently - but declines for Japanese babies verbs) than to function words (for example, articles,
(Werker & Hensch, 2015). prepositions), and they look at the correct parent when
they hear ‘mommy’ or ‘daddy’ (Shi & Werker, 2001;
Tincoff & Jusezyk, 1999).
In normal conversation, there are no silent gaps
between words, so how do infants pick out words?
Stress is one important clue. The English language
contains many one-syllable words that are stressed
and many two-syllable words that have a stressed
syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (for
example, dough’-nut, tooth’-paste, bas’-ket). Infants pay
more attention to stressed syllables than unstressed
syllables, which is a good strategy for identifying
the beginnings of words (Bortfeld & Morgan, 2010;
Thiessen & Saffran, 2003). And infants learn words
faster when stressed words appear at the beginnings
and ends of sentences, probably because the brief
pause between sentences makes it easier to identify
A A baby’s first form of communication - crying — is soon joined by first and last words (Seidl & Johnson, 2006).
other language-based ways of communicating Another way to identify words in speech is statistical.
Infants notice syllables that go together frequently
So, young babies can distinguish a range of sounds. (Jusezyk, 2002). For example, in many studies, eight-
However, as babies are more exposed to a particular month-olds heard the following sounds, which consisted
language, they only notice the linguistic distinctions of four three-syllable artificial words, said over and over
that are meaningful in that language. In other words, in random order:
specialising in one language apparently comes at the
cost of making it more difficult to hear sounds in other pabiku daropi..
languages. And this pattern of greater specialisation
in speech perception resembles the profile for face We've underlined the words and inserted gaps
perception described earlier. With greater exposure to between them so that you can see them more easily,
human faces, babies develop a more refined notion of a but in the studies, there were no breaks — just a steady

4.4 LANGUAGE 139

Copyrapht 2079 Cengage Larmeng All Raphe: Reserved Mizy sot be copand scammed of daphcret m whol of on pert Dur so clecomnc mybes. somes dead parry comacat mary be eappeceend foes tar chock andite oC mapacs+)
Edecrad arvice bus doomed tue a2) eappromod comma: dam act semerodh aflect he overall koeemy copemeace Conrage Lowtany tree O26 mete b comers added ome ot any tone of atespeme rege wencmon: mye 2
flow of syllables for three minutes Later, infants cultures that have been studied, although the specific
listened to these words less than to new words that features often vary with the language (Saint-Georges
were novel combinations of the same syllables. They et al., 2013)
had detected pa bi ku, go la tu, da ro pi, and ti bu do Babies benefit from infant-directed speech, for
as familiar patterns and hence listened to them less two reasons. First, the higher pitch, the variability in
than to new ‘words’ such as tu da ro even though the pitch and the exaggerated facial expressions of infant-
latter were made up from syllables they'd already heard directed speech grab a baby’s attention. In short, babies
(Aslin, 2017). pay more attention to the speech they're hearing when
Yet another way that infants identify words is it's expressed in infant-directed speech. Second, infant-
through their emerging knowledge of how sounds are directed speech has features that help babies to learn
used in their home language. For example, s followed language The slow pace and variable pitch of infant-
by t and s followed by d are quite common at the end directed speech seems to help babies to break up the
of one word and the beginning of the next: bus takes, speech stream into segments. In addition, infant-directed
kiss took; this dog, pass directly. However, s and t occur speech is beneficial in providing excellent examples
often within a word (stop, list, pest, stink) but s and d of language sounds, examples that help babies to learn
do not. Consequently, when d follows an s, it probably different language sounds (Golinkoff et al., 2015).
starts a new word. In fact, nine-month-olds follow rules
such as this one. when they hear new words embedded
in continuous speech, they're more likely to identify the
new word when the final sound in the preceding word
occurs infrequently with the first sound of the novel
word (Mattys & Jusczyk, 2001)
Another strategy that infants use is to rely on
familiar function words, such as the articles a and
the, to break up the speech stream. These words are
common in adults’ speech. By six months, most infants
recognise these words and use them to determine
the onset ofa new word (Shi, 2014). For example, for
infants familiar with a, the sequence aballabataglove
becomes a ball a bat a glove. The new words are
isolated by the familiar ones.
So, infants use many powerful tools to identify
words in speech. Of course, they don't yet understand
the meanings of these words At this point, they simply
recognise a word as a distinct configuration of sounds.
Still, these early perceptual skills are important because
infants who are more skilled at identifying words 4 When mothers and other adults talk to young children, they
within the speech stream know more words as toddlers often use infant-directed speech in which they speak slowly with
exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness.
(Newman, Rowe, & Ratner, 2016).
Parents (and other adults) often help infants master
language sounds by talking in a distinctive style Steps to speech
In infant-directed speech, adults speak slowly with As any new parent can testify, newborns and young
exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness.’ If you listen babies make many sounds - they cry, burp, and sneeze.
to a mother talking to her baby, you will notice that she Language-based sounds don't appear immediately. At
speaks slowly, in a higher and more variable pitch, and 2 months, infants begin to produce vowel-like sounds such
with exaggerated facial expressions, and her sentences as 0000000 and ‘ahhhhhh’, a phenomenon known as
are brief Infant-directed speech is common in most cooing. Sometimes infants become quite excited as they
coo, perhaps reflecting the joy of simply playing with
sounds.
infant-directed speech Speech that adults use with infants that
is slow and has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume; it helps
children master language. ‘Infant-directed speech was once known as motherese because this
form of speaking was first noted in mothers, but we know now that
cooing Early vowel-like sounds that babies produce.
most caregivers talk this way to infants.

140 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyright
2019 Congage Learning All Rights Reserved
May not be copied, scammed,
ce duplicated im whole
ce in part. Dur so clectromnc mphes, some thend party comicat muy he suppecescd torn the cfiook andive oChaptcs|s)
Edeomal seiew toe deemed that any euppromed crencmt docs sot muxicmadly affect the overall kare cupenence. Congape Learing reacrwes the mpbt to remove addmosal comicet af any tome af satecquent neh scenctoss moqenn &
After cooing comes babbling, speech-like sound that in the case of deaf infants with deaf parents, the signs
has no meaning. A typical six-month-old might say that others use). Hearing dog, an infant may first say
‘dal’ or “bah; utterances that sound like a single syllable ‘dod’ and then ‘gog’ before finally saying ‘dog’ correctly
consisting of a consonant and a vowel. Over the next In the same way that beginning typists gradually link
few months, babbling becomes more elaborate as babies movements of their fingers with particular keys, through
apparently experiment with more complex speech babbling, infants learn to use their lips, tongue, and teeth
sounds. Older infants sometimes repeat a sound, as in to produce specific sounds, gradually making sounds
“‘bahbahbah, and begin to combine different sounds, that approximate real words (Poulson et al., 1991)
such as ‘dahmahbah’ (Hoff, 2014) Several South African languages, such as isiXhosa
Babbling is not just mindless playing with sounds - and isiZulu, include click sounds, made with the tongue
it is a precursor to real speech. We know this, in against the teeth, palate or side of the mouth. Gxilishe
part, from video recordings of people’s mouths while (2008) notes that isiXhosa-speaking children acquire
speaking When an adult speaks, the mouth opens these clicks between the ages of one and six, with an
somewhat wider on the right side than on the left side, accelerated learning process at about 1% to 2 years.
reflecting the left hemisphere’s control of language and Gxilishe (2008) also notes that all isiXhosa phonemes
muscle movements on the body’s right side (Graves & have emerged by 1% years. This is in line with other
Landis, 1990) Infants do the same when they babble language studies, showing that language acquisition
but not when making other nonbabbling sounds, which follows the same patterns in all languages.
suggests that babbling is fundamentally linguistic These developments in production of sound,
(Holowka & Petitto, 2002) together with the one-year-old’s advanced ability to
Other evidence for the linguistic nature of babbling perceive speech sounds, set the stage for the infant's first
comes from studies of developmental change in true words.
babbling At roughly 8 to 11 months, infants’ babbling
sounds more like real speech because infants stress
some syllables and vary the pitch of their speech (Snow,
2006). In English declarative sentences, for example, Compare and contrast the steps in learning to
pitch first rises and then falls toward the end of the make speech sounds with Piaget's account of the
sentence However, in questions the pitch is level and sensorimotor period.
then rises toward the end of the question. Older
babies’ babbling reflects these patterns. Babies who are
brought up by English-speaking parents have both the First words and many more
declarative and question patterns of intonation in their Remember Lindiwe, the one-year-old in the introduction,
babbling. Babies exposed to a language with different who looks at the family cat when she hears its name
patterns of intonation, such as Japanese and French, This phenomenon is common in 10- to 14-month-olds.
reflect their language's intonation in their babbling They appear to understand what others say despite the
(Levitt & Utman, 1992). fact that they have yet to speak. In response to “Where
is the book?’ children will find the book. They grasp
the question even though their own speech is limited to
advanced babbling (Fenson et al., 1994, Hoff-Ginsberg,
1997) Evidently, children have linked speech sounds
Do you speak any South African language other
and particular objects even though they cannot yet
than English? How do the intonations in isiZulu
manufacture the sounds themselves As fluent adult
or Tshivenda, for example, compare to the
speakers, we forget that speech is a motor skill requiring
intonations in English? How would this affect an
perfect timing and tremendous coordination.
infant's babbling?
A few months later, most youngsters utter their
first words. In many languages, those words are similar
The appearance of intonation in babbling indicates (Nelson, 1973; Tardif et al., 2008) and include terms for
a strong link between perception and production mother and father, greetings (hi, bye-bye), and foods
of speech Infants’ babbling is influenced by the and toys (juice, ball). By age two, most youngsters have
characteristics of the speech that they hear (Goldstein
& Schwade, 2008) Beginning in the middle of the first
year, infants try to reproduce the sounds of language babbling Speech-like sounds that consist of vowel-consonant
combinations; common at about six months.
that others use in trying to communicate with them (or

44 LANGUAGE 141

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanmed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party costest mary he suppecssed tom the cflook andlce eChapter(s).
Ecttomal seview ho deaned thot ary wippromed coment dacs aot miaicnally affect the overall amg etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the night to remove additional coment af amy brne if udmequent nef wednctoes moyenne at.
a vocabulary ofa few hundred words, and by age six, What's what? Fast mapping of words _
a typical child’s vocabulary includes more than 10 000
words (Bloom, 2000). Worldwide, nouns are common
After children know that a word can symbolise an object
in children’s early vocabularies, perhaps because they or action, their vocabularies grow, but slowly at first. A
refer to objects that infants can perceive easily. Verbs typical 15-month-old, for example, may learn about 10
are less common than nouns, but this difference is words each month. However, between 18 and 24 months,
smaller (and sometimes disappears) in languages such many children experience a naming explosion during
as Korean and Chinese, possibly because verbs are more which they learn new words - particularly names of
prominent in these languages or because East Asian objects - much more rapidly than before. Children now
learn 25 to 30 new words each month (Samuelson &
cultures emphasise actions more than objects (Waxman
McMurray, 2017).
et al., 2013).
This rapid rate of word learning is astonishing when we
realise that most words have many possible but incorrect
referents. To illustrate, imagine what's going through the
To make the transition from babbling to real speech, mind of a child whose mother points to a flower and says,
infants need to learn that speech is more than just ‘Flower. This is a flower. See the flower’ This all seems
entertaining sound. They need to know that particular crystal clear to you and incredibly straightforward. But
sounds form words that can refer to objects, actions, what might the child learn from this episode? Perhaps
and properties. Put another way, infants must recognise the correct referent for ‘flower’ But a youngster could
that words are symbols - entities that stand for other conclude that ‘flower’ refers to a petal, to the colour of the
entities. By the first birthday, children’s experiences flower, or to the mother’s actions in pointing at the flower.
cause them to form concepts such as ‘round, bouncy Surprisingly, though, most youngsters learn the proper
things’ and ‘furry things that bark. With the insight meanings of simple words in just a few presentations.
that speech sounds can denote these concepts, infants Children’s ability to connect new words to referents so
begin to identify a word that goes with each concept rapidly that they cannot be considering all possible meanings
(Reich, 1986). for the new word is termed fast mapping. How can young
If this argument is correct, then we should find that children learn new words so rapidly? Many distinct factors
children use symbols in other areas, not just in language contribute (Hollich, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2000).
They do. Gestures are symbols, and infants begin to
gesture shortly before their first birthday (Goodwyn &
Acredolo, 1993). Young children may open and close
their hands to request an object or wave ‘bye-bye’ when
leaving. Infants’ vocabularies of gestures and spoken
words expand at about the same rate, consistent with the
idea that words and gestures reflect the infant's emerging
understanding of symbols (Caselli et al., 2012).
What's more, gestures sometimes prepare the way
for language. Before knowing an object’s name, infants
often point to it or pick it up for a listener, as if saying,
‘I want this!’ or “What's this?’ In one study, youngsters
first referred to nearly 50% of objects by gesture and,
about three months later, by word (Iverson & Goldin-
Meadow, 2005). Given this connection between early
gestures and first spoken words, it’s not surprising
that toddlers who are more advanced in their use of
gesture tend to have more complex spoken language as
preschoolers (Kuhn et al., 2014, Rowe, Raudenbush, &
Goldin-Meadow, 2012).

fast mapping A child’s connections between words and referents

A One of the challenges for theories of language learning is to
that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible
explain how children figure out that the parent's words refer to the
meanings of the word.
object, not to its colour or texture.

142 CHAPTER4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyragts
00) Congages Lowmag All Raghes Roverved May act be copand, commed of duplcred m wholk
of im part. Dur to clectrormc
mghes, soese hand party coescet gery be eappeesend fern fe eBook andive chapter! +)
Edsorad severw bos doomed thos any eappremed
comimnt dacs act suskmolly affect the overll kommg expenence. Congage Learemg rencrves the might 22 comes additonal coment af ary Orne of sebsequent mgiee setnictoes anger
Joint attention. Parents encourage word learning by being shown a flower follows these rules to decide that
carefully watching what interests their children. When flower refers to the entire object, not its parts or the
toddlers touch or look at an object, parents often label action of pointing to it.
it for them. When a youngster points to a banana, a
Sentence cues. Children hear many unfamiliar
parent may say, ‘Banana. That's a banana: Such labelling
words embedded in sentences containing words they
in the context of joint attention promotes word learning,
already know. The other words and the overall sentence
particularly when infants and toddlers participate actively,
structure can be helpful clues to a word's meaning (Yuan
directing their parents’ attention (Beuker et al., 2013)
& Fisher, 2009). For example, when a parent describes
Of course, to take advantage of this help, infants
an event using familiar words but an unfamiliar verb,
must be able to tell when parents are labelling instead of
children often infer that the verb refers to the action
just conversing. In fact, when adults label an unfamiliar
performed by the subject of the sentence (Arunachalam
object, 18- to 20-month-olds assume that the label is the
et al., 2013) When youngsters hear “The man is juggling
object’s name only when adults show signs that they are
the bats, they will infer that juggling refers to the man’s
referring to the object (Liebal et al., 2009; Nurmsoo &
actions because they already know the actor (man) and
Bloom, 2008) Young children also consider an adult's
the object of the action (bats). Similarly, toddlers know
credibility as a source preschoolers are less likely to
that a and the often precede nouns and that he, she,
learn words from adults who seem uncertain, have
and they precede verbs. Thus, they will conclude that ‘a
given incorrect names for words in the past, or speak
boz’ refers to an object but ‘she boz’ refers to an action
with a foreign accent (Corriveau, Kinzler, & Harris,
(Cauvet et al., 2014).
2013, Jaswal & Konrad, 2016). Thus, beginning in the
toddler years, parents and children work together to Cognitive factors. The naming explosion coincides
create conditions that foster word learning parents label with a time of rapid cognitive growth, and children’s
objects, and youngsters rely on adults’ behaviour to increased cognitive skill helps them learn new words.
interpret the words they hear. As children’s thinking becomes more sophisticated and,
in particular, as they start to have goals and intentions,
Constraints on word names. Joint attention
language becomes a means to express those goals and
simplifies word learning for children, but the problem
to achieve them. So, intention provides children with
still remains: how does a toddler know that banana
an important motive to learn language — to help achieve
refers to the object that she’s touching as opposed to
their goals (Bloom & Tinker, 2001)
her activity (touching) or to the object's colour? Young
In addition, young children’s improving attentional
children follow several simple rules that constrain their
and perceptual skills also promote word learning. Infants
inferences about a word's meaning. One simple rule is
and young children learn that objects that have the same
that if an unfamiliar word is heard in the presence of
shape have the same name, and they learn that paying
objects that already have names and objects that dont,
attention to shape is an easy way to learn names (Smith,
the word refers to one of the objects that doesn't have a
2000, 2009). And their improving memory skills forge
name. Suppose a shelf includes a book, an apple, and a stronger links between objects and newly discovered
camera, and that a child knows the names of the first two.
names (Samuelson & McMurray, 2016).
If an adult says, “Look at the camera, preschoolers will
infer that ‘camera’ refers to the third, unnamed object Developmental change in word learning. Some
(Au & Glasman, 1990) of the word-learning tools described in the past few pages
Another simple but useful rule is that a name refers to are particularly important at different ages (Hirsh-Pasek
a whole object, not its parts or its relation to other objects, & Golinkoff, 2008). Before 18 months, infants learn
and refers not just to this particular object, but to all objects words relatively slowly — often just one new word each
of the same type (Hollich, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, day. At this age, children rely heavily on simple attentional
2007). For example, when a grandparent points to a stuffed processes (for example, shape) to learn new words. But by
animal on a shelf and says ‘dinosaur, children conclude 24 months, most children are learning many new words
that dinosaur refers to the entire dinosaur, not just its ears daily. This faster learning reflects children’s greater use of
or nose, not to the fact that the dinosaur is on a shelf, and language cues (for example, constraints on names) and a
not to this specific dinosaur, but to all dinosaurlike objects. speaker's social cues. At any age, infants and toddlers rely
Rules such as these make it possible for children on a mixture of word-learning tools, but with age, they
like Lindiwe to learn words rapidly because they gradually move away from attentional cues to language
reduce the number of possible referents The child and social cues.

4.4 LANGUAGE 143

underextension and overextension disappear gradually Liezl and Thuli are both 16-month-olds. Liezl's
as youngsters refine meanings for words after increased vocabulary includes about 14 words, but Thuli’s
exposure to language. has about 150 words, more than 10 times as
many as Liezl's. What factors contribute to this
Individual differences in word learning difference?
The naming explosion typically occurs at about
18 months, but like many developmental milestones,
Bilingualism. South Africa has 11 official languages
the timing of this event varies widely for individual
and millions of South African children grow up in
children. Some youngsters have a naming explosion as
early as 14 months, but for others, it may be as late as bilingual households. Many are exposed to more than
two languages at home. When children are exposed
22 months (Goldfield & Reznick, 1990). Another way
simultaneously to two (or more) languages from birth,
to make this point is to look at variation in the size of
children’s vocabulary at a specific age. At 18 months, for they pass through the same milestones in each language
as monolingual children, but somewhat more slowly.
example, an average child knows about 75 words, but
For example, in each language, their vocabulary is
a child in the 90th percentile would know nearly 250
words and a child in the 10th percentile fewer than 25 often slightly smaller and their grammar somewhat less
words (Fenson et al., 1994). complex. But their total vocabulary (i.¢., words known in
both languages and words known in either language but
This range in vocabulary size for typical 18-month-
not both) is greater than that of monolingual children
olds is huge - from 25 to 250 words. What can account
(Hoff et al., 2012).
for this difference? Two factors contribute. One is
These patterns depend critically on the circumstances
phonological memory, the ability to remember speech
in which children experience multiple languages.
sounds briefly. This is often measured by saying a
nonsense word to children - ‘ballop’ or ‘glistering’ - and Children’s language skills progress more rapidly in the
asking them to repeat it immediately. Children who language they hear the most (Hoff et al., 2012). Ifa
child hears English from mom and at day care but hears
Sesotho only from dad, the child’s skills in English will
probably surpass her skills in Sesotho. And children’s
underextension When children define words more narrowly
than adults do. language develops more rapidly when their language
exposure comes from a first-language speaker (Place &
overextension When children define words more broadly than
Hoff, 2011). Language acquisition in bilingual children
adults do,
can also be affected by the relative prestige of the two
phonological memory Ability to remember speech sounds languages as well as the cultures associated with the two
briefly; an important skill in acquiring vocabulary. languages (Hoff, 2014).

144 Cuaprer4 ‘THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lenening All Rights Reserved: May not be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some thend pany costent muy he suppeensed tern dye eflioek andl eCTuapter(+)
Fadtomed eevhew how decd thet any wappremed content dacs set musterially affect the overall keaming expenence. Cengage Learaung rencevex the mgbt to nemowe additional coset af aay tirne if sudmeeparl righvis weatrictboms neupeine it
Being bilingual also has some important language a larger vocabulary when parents’ speech includes
and cognitive advantages. One study found that more words and more varied words (Newman et al.,
children who spoke more than one language 2016). Parents can promote word learning by naming
outperformed children who only spoke one language objects that are the focus of a child's attention, such
on certain cognitive tasks. The bilingual children as the products in a shop or objects seen on a walk
were found to be more cognitively flexible (Coetzee- (Dunham, Dunham, & Curwin, 1993). Reading books
Van Rooy, 2010). Bilingual children better understand with children also helps, particularly when parents
that words are simply arbitrary symbols. Bilingual describe pictures carefully, ask children questions while
youngsters, for instance, are more likely than reading, talk about the meanings of words that appear,
monolingual children to understand that as long as all or reread stories (Reese & Cox, 1999, Wasik, Hindman,
English speakers agreed, dog could refer to cats and cat & Snell, 2016).
could refer to dogs (Bialystok, 1988; Campbell & Sais,
1995). And they are more skilled at switching back and
forth between tasks and often are better able to inhibit
inappropriate responses (Barac & Bialystok, 2012,
Bialystok, 2010). This might reflect their experience of
switching between languages and inhibiting relevant
words from the ‘other’ language (for example, when
shown a photo of a dog and asked “What's this?’ in
English, preschoolers bilingual in isiZulu and English
must respond ‘dog’ while suppressing ‘inja’).
Word learning styles. As vocabularies grow, some
youngsters adopt a distinctive style of learning language
(Bates, Bretherton, & Snyder, 1988, Nelson, 1973) Some
children have a referential style; their vocabularies
mainly consist of words that name objects, persons, or
actions. For example, Busi, a referential child, has 41 4 Parents are more effective than videos in teaching new words to
name words in her 50-word vocabulary, but only two their children.
words for social interaction or questions Other children
have an expressive style; their vocabularies include some Of course, video is an essential part of the lives of
names but also many social phrases that are used like a young children Does it help them to learn new words?
single word, such as ‘go away’, ‘what do you want?’ and ‘I Sometimes. On the one hand, watching Takalani
want it’. Paul, an expressive child, has a more balanced Sesame regularly promotes word learning (Wright et al.,
vocabulary, with 14 words for social interactions and 2001) as do programmes that tell a story (for example,
questions and 24 name words. Thomas the Train) and those that ask questions of the
Referential and expressive styles represent end viewer (for example, Jake and the Neverland Pirates and
points on a continuum, most children are somewhere Dora the Explorer). On the other hand, most cartoons
in between. For children with referential emphasis, have no benefit for language learning (Linebarger &
language is mainly an intellectual tool. a means of Vaala, 2010). And videos claiming to promote word
learning and talking about objects (Masur, 1995). learning in infants (for example, Baby Einstein, Brainy
In contrast, for children with expressive emphasis, Baby) typically are not effective, often because 12- to
language is more of a social tool: a way of enhancing 18-month-olds have difficulty relating what they see
interactions with others. Of course, both of these in the video to their own experiences (DeLoache et al.,
functions — intellectual and social - are important 2010; Linebarger & Vaala, 2010).
functions of language, which explains why most
children blend the referential and expressive styles of
learning language. referential style Language-learning style of children whose
vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, persons,
or actions.
Encouraging language growth expressive style Language-learning style of children whose
For children to expand their vocabularies, they need vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like
one word.
to hear others speak. Not surprisingly, children have

4.4 LANGUAGE 145

Copyraght
2009 Cengage Lowmag. All Rights Reserved May act be copand, scammed, or duplicated m whole of im part Dur to clectromic rights, scene thend party content aery be msppeesend Scen the cfiock andive oC Teapter!s)
Exitored soverw bow doomed thos any eappremed content doce act sxsimolly affect the oversll koenmg cxpenence. Congage Leawremg romrves the might oo comowe additavead content af ary Oe if sebeequent ogi setnictoes ogee
Of course, today video is available on demand via Children’s two- and three-word sentences often fall
touchscreen tablets and smartphones. Many infants and short of adults’ standards of grammar. Youngsters will
toddlers have daily access to these devices, whether in say ‘He eating’ rather than ‘He is eating’ or ‘two cat’ rather
a car on the way to day care, playing with them at home, than ‘two cats. This sort of speech is called telegraphic
or sitting in a shopping trolley at a supermarket (Barr & speech because, like telegrams of days gone by, children’s
Linebarger, 2017). Because this technology is relatively speech includes only words directly relevant to meaning and
new, scientists are still studying its impact on young nothing more. Before SMS texts and tweets, people sent
children’s word learning. However, the emerging evidence urgent messages by telegraph, and the cost was based on
suggests that apps for new technology are most likely to be the number of words. Consequently, telegrams were brief
effective when they require children to actively engage with and to the point, containing only important nouns, verbs,
meaningful content and when they use apps with parents adjectives, and adverbs — much like children’s two-word
who can support children’s learning (Zosh et al., 2017). speech. The missing elements, grammatical morphemes,
The research we've described in this section points are words or endings of words (such as -ing, -ed, and -s)
to a simple but powerful conclusion: children are most that make a sentence grammatical. During the preschool
likely to learn new words when they participate in years, children gradually acquire the grammatical
activities that force them to understand the meanings of morphemes, first mastering those that express simple
new words and use those new words. relations, such as -ing, which is used to denote that the
action expressed by the verb is ongoing. More complex
forms, such as appropriate use of the various forms of the
Speaking in sentences: Grammatical verb to be, are mastered later (Peters, 1995).
development Another form of ‘telegraphic’ language can be seen
Within months of saying the first words, children in ‘textese’, a type of language used mainly by children
begin to form simple two-word sentences. In their two- when they send SMS texts. In this form of writing, words
word speech, children follow rules to express different are abbreviated and even left out, so that the sentences
meanings. For example, the sentences truck go and Daddy are not grammatical, but contain only the most relevant
eat both follow the rule ‘agent + action. In contrast, my information. However, using this form of writing does
truck follows the rule ‘possessor + possession. Regardless not suggest that the children have not mastered the
of the language they learn, children’s two-word sentences required grammar, but that they are choosing not to
follow a common set of rules that are useful to describe use it in this form of communicating In fact, a 2016
study (van Dijk et al.) showed that omitting more letters
people and objects, their actions, and their properties
(Tager-Flusberg, 1993)
and words was a predictor of a better performance in a
grammar task. The study also found that using textese
did not affect the children’s executive functioning, either
From two words to complex sentences positively or negatively.
Children rapidly move beyond two-word sentences, first Children’s use of grammatical morphemes is based
by linking two-word statements together: “Louise kick’ on their growing knowledge of grammatical rules, not
and ‘Kick ball’ become “Louise kick ball’ Even longer simply memory for individual words This was first
sentences soon follow; sentences with 10 or more words demonstrated in a landmark study by Berko (1958) in
are common in 3-year-olds’ speech For example, a which preschoolers were shown pictures of nonsense
1%4-year-old might say ‘Give juice’ or “Bye-bye Mama. As objects like the one in @ FIGURE 4.6. The experimenter
a 2%-year-old, she might progress to “When I finish my labelled it, saying, “This is a wug’ Then youngsters
ice cream, I'll have a bath, okay?’ and ‘Don’t turn off the were shown pictures of two of the objects, and the
light- I can't see better" experimenter said, “These are two’ Most children
spontaneously said, ‘wugs’ Both the singular and plural
forms of this word were novel for these youngsters, so
telegraphic speech Speech used by young children that contains
they could have generated the correct plural form only
only the words necessary to convey a message. by applying the familiar rule of adding -s.
Children growing up in homes where English is
grammatical morphemes Words or endings of words that make a
sentence grammatical.
spoken face the problem that this language is irregular,
with many exceptions to the rules. Sometimes children
overregularisation Grammatical usage that results from applying
apply rules to words that are exceptions to the rule, errors
rules to words that are exceptions to the rule.
called overregularisations. With plurals, for example,

146 CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
- are learned through imitation and reinforcement
(Moerk, 2000; Whitehurst & Vasta, 1975) But critics
were quick to point out flaws in this explanation. One
problem is that most of children’s sentences are novel, an
outcome difficult to explain in terms of simple imitation
of adults’ speech. For example, when young children
create questions by inserting a wh word at the beginning
of a sentence (“What she doing?’), who are they imitating?
This is a wug. It is also troublesome that even when children imitate
adult sentences, they do not imitate adult grammar. In
simply trying to repeat ‘I am drawing a picture, young
children say ‘I draw picture’
The linguistic answer. Many scientists believe
that children are born with mechanisms that simplify
the task of learning grammar (Slobin, 1985). According
to this view, children are born with neural circuits in
Now there is another one. the brain that allow them to infer the grammar of the
There are two of them. language that they hear That is, grammar itself is not
There are two : built into the child’s nervous system, but processes
that guide the learning of grammar are. Many findings
Berko, 1958. indirectly support this view.
1. If children are born with a ‘grammar-learning
@ FIGURE 4.6 When shown the two birds, young children usually processor, then specific regions of the brain should be
refer to them as two ‘wugs', Spontaneously adding an -s to ‘wug’ to
involved in learning grammar. As we discussed earlier,
make it plural
the left hemisphere of the brain plays a critical role in
understanding language and language-specific areas in
youngsters may incorrectly add -s instead of using an the left hemisphere are evident in infancy (Dehaene-
irregular plural — two ‘mans’ instead of two ‘men. With Lambertz & Spelke, 2015)
the past tense, children may add -ed instead of using 2. If learning grammar depends on specialised neural
an irregular past tense: “1 goed home’ instead of ‘I went mechanisms that are unique to humans, then efforts
home (Marcus et al., 1992; Mervis & Johnson, 1991). to teach grammar to nonhuman animals should
These examples give some insight into the fail. This prediction has been tested by trying to
complexities of mastering the grammatical rules of one's teach grammar to chimpanzees, the species closest
language. Children not only must learn an extensive set to humans on the evolutionary ladder The result:
of specific rules they also must absorb — on a case-by-case chimps master a handful of grammatical rules
basis - all the exceptions. Despite the enormity of this governing two-word speech, but only with massive
task, most children have mastered the basics of their effort that is completely unlike the preschool child's
home language by the time they enter school. How do learning of grammar (Hoff, 2014)
they do it? Biological, psychological, and sociocultural 3. The period from birth through adolescence is a
forces all contribute. critical period for acquiring language generally and
mastering grammar particularly If children do not
How do children acquire grammar? acquire language in this period, they never truly master
Most youngsters can neither read nor do arithmetic language later (DeKeyser, Alfi-Shabtay, & Ravid, 2010).
when they enter kindergarten, but virtually all have Although these findings are consistent with the
mastered the fundamentals of grammar of their home idea that children have innate grammar-learning
language. How do they do it® Theorists have proposed mechanisms, they do not prove the existence of such
several different answers to this question. mechanisms. Consequently, scientists have looked for
The behaviourist answer. B. E Skinner (1957) and
other explanations.
other learning theorists once claimed that all aspects of The cognitive answer. Some theorists believe that
language — sounds, words, grammar, and communication children learn grammar through powerful cognitive

44 LANGUAGE 147

The social-interaction answer. This approach is

eclectic, drawing on each of the views we've considered.
From the behaviourist approach, that an environment
filled with language is essential, from the linguistic
approach, that language learning is distinct, and
from the cognitive view, that children have powerful
cognitive skills they can use to master language The
unique contribution of this perspective is emphasising
that much language learning takes place in the context
of interactions between children and adults, with both
4 Arguments can often be traced to people's failure to follow the
parties eager for better communication (Bloom & Tinker, fundamental conversational rules of taking turns, speaking clearly,
2001). Children have an ever-expanding repertoire of and listening carefully.
ideas and intentions that they want to convey to others,
and caring adults want to understand their children, Taking turns
so both parties work to improve language skills as a Many parents begin to encourage turn-taking long
means toward better communication. Thus, improved before infants have said their first words (Field &
communication provides an incentive for children to Widmayer, 1982):
master language and for adults to help them.
None of these accounts provides a comprehensive PARENT’ Can you see the bird?
explanation of how grammar is mastered. But many INFANT: (cooing) Ooooh.
scientists believe the final explanation will include PARENT It is a big bird.
contributions from the linguistic, cognitive, and social- INFANT: Ooooh.
interaction accounts That is, children’s learning of
PARENT You're right. It’s a hadeda.
grammar will be explained in terms of some mechanisms
specific to learning grammar, children actively seeking Soon after one-year-olds begin to speak,
to identify regularities in their environment, and parents encourage their youngsters to participate
linguistically rich interactions taking place between in conversational turn-taking. To help their
children and adults (MacWhinney, 1998). children along, parents often carry both sides of the

148 CHAPTER4 ‘THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesrmung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copacd, ecammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest my he wappeesecd thom the cfiook andice cf hapter(s).
Edttomad sewew bon deaned that any eappremed content dacs sot sustemadly affect the overall lean, expenence. Congage Learning reserwee the night to nemmowe additeoeal coesicrst af any torne if subsequent mei seetnctooes nexqenr at.
conversation to show how the roles of speaker and primitive by adult standards, but it works for babies!
listener are alternated (Hoff, 2014): And mothers typically translate their baby’s pointing
into words so that the gesture prepares the way for
PARENT: (initiating conversation) What's Indira eating?
learning words (Goldin-Meadow, Mylander, & Franklin,
PARENT: (illustrating reply for child) She's eating a biscuit. 2007).
Help of this sort is needed less often by age two, when After the first birthday, children begin to use speech
spontaneous turn-taking 1s common in conversations to communicate and often initiate conversations with
between youngsters and adults (Barton & Tomasello, adults (Bloom et al., 1996). Toddlers’ first conversations
1991) By three years of age, children have progressed are about themselves, but their conversational scope
to the point that they can anticipate when speakers are expands rapidly to include objects in the environment
about to finish their turn (Keitel & Daum, 2015). Ifa (for example, toys, food). Later, conversations begin
listener fails to reply promptly, the child often repeats to include more abstract notions, such as hypothetical
his or her remarks to get a response and keep the objects and past or future events (Foster, 1986).
conversation moving (Garvey & Berninger, 1981). Of course, young children are not always skilled
conversational partners. At times, their communications
are confusing, leaving a listener to wonder ‘What was
that all about?’ Every message - whether an informal
conversation or a formal lecture - should have a clear
meaning. But saying something clearly is often difficult
because clarity can only be judged by considering the
listener's age, experience, and knowledge of the topic,
along with the context of the conversation. For example,
think about the simple request, ‘Please hand me the
Phillips screwdriver. This message may be clear to older
listeners who are familiar with variants of screwdrivers,
but it is vague to younger listeners, to whom all
screwdrivers are alike. Of course, if the toolbox is filled
with Phillips screwdrivers of assorted sizes, the message
is ambiguous even to a knowledgeable listener.
Consistently constructing clear messages is a fine
art, and we would not expect young children to have
mastered it. However, by the preschool years youngsters
A |n early parent-child ‘conversations’ parents usually carry both sides attempt to fine-tune messages, adjusting them to match
of the conversation, alternating as speaker and listener the listener and the context. For example, preschool
children give more elaborate messages to listeners who
Speaking effectively lack access to critical information than to listeners who
When do children first try to initiate communications have this information (Nadig & Sedivy, 2002; O'Neill,
with others? In fact, what appear to be the first deliberate 1996). A child describing where to find a toy will give
attempts to communicate typically emerge at 10 months more detailed directions to a listener whose eyes were
(Golinkoff, 1993). Infants at this age may touch or point covered when the toy was hidden. And if a listener
to an object while simultaneously looking at another wants to complete a task without help, five-year-olds
person. They continue this behaviour until the person sometimes provide helpful information but conceal
acknowledges them. It’s as if the child is saying, “This is a their intent to help so that the listener thinks she has
nice toy! I want you to see it, too: completed the task without assistance (Grosse, Scott-
Beginning at 10 months, an infant may point, Phillips, & Tomasello, 2013).
touch, or make noises to get an adult to do something.
An infant in a playpen who wants a toy that is out of Listening well
reach may make noises while pointing to the toy. The To listen well, a person must continuously decide
noises capture an adult's attention, and the pointing whether a speaker's remarks make sense. If they do,
indicates what the baby wants (Tomasello, Carpenter, then a listener needs to reply appropriately, typically by
& Liszkowski, 2007). The communication may be extending the conversation with another remark that's

44 LANGuace 149

GTI Major milestones of language development

Age Milestones

Birth to 1 year Babies hear language sounds from birth. They begin to coo between two and four months,
then begin to babble at about six months.
About the first birthday Babies begin to talk and to gesture, showing they have begun to use symbols.
1-3 years Vocabulary expands rapidly (due to fast mapping), particularly at about 18 months. Two-word
sentences emerge in telegraphic speech at about 18 months, and more complex sentences are
evident by 3 years. Turn-taking is evident in communication by two years.
3-5 years Vocabulary continues to expand; grammatical morphemes are added; and children begin to
adjust their speech to listeners, but as listeners, they often ignore problems in messages they
receive.

Test yourself 4.4

Recall 6. When talking to listeners who lack critical

information, preschoolers
1. Infants’ mastery of language sounds is promoted by
in which adults speak slowly
Interpret
and exaggerate changes in pitch and loudness.
© How do the various explanations of grammatical
2. Older infants’ babbling often includes
development differ in their view of the child’s role
a pattern of rising and falling
in mastering grammar?
pitch that distinguishes statements from questions.
3. Youngsters with a(n) style Apply
have early vocabularies dominated by words e According to Piaget’s theory, preschoolers are
that are names and use language primarily as an egocentric. How should this egocentrism influence
intellectual tool. their ability to communicate? Are the findings we
4. In a young child’s meaning have described on children’s communication skills
of a word is broader than an adult's meaning. consistent with Piaget's view?

5. Answers to the question “How do children Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
acquire grammar?’ include linguistic, cognitive, end of the chapter.
and influences.

150 CHuaprer4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

(Copyragte
2009 Compape Lesaeng. All Raghes Reserved May act be coped acommed, or dapat m whok of in pert. Der soclectemnc raphes, somne theed paty comtcat mery be eappecened feoen tee Book andie Chapters)
Edecead avare tos doomed Gus any eapgromed coment docs act memerodh aflect he overall koeemy crpemencs. Congage Loxtang scare the mgt somes addéeesd comico at ay tere of ateegueet rg arénctces sogeer &
4.1 The onset of thinking: Piaget's account How have contemporary researchers extended
Piaget's theory?
According to Piaget, how do schemes, assimilation,
e In contrast to Piaget’s idea that children create a
and accommodation provide the foundation for
comprehensive theory that integrates all their knowledge,
cognitive development throughout the life span? the modern view 1s that children are specialists who
e In Piaget’s view, children construct their own generate naive theories in particular domains, including
understanding of the world by creating schemes, physics and biology. Infants understand many properties
categories of related events, objects, and knowledge of objects, they know how objects move, what happens
Infants’ schemes are based on actions, but older children’s when objects collide, and that objects fall when not
and adolescents’ schemes are based on functional, supported.
conceptual, and abstract properties. e Infants understand the difference between animate
e Schemes change constantly In assimilation, experiences and inanimate objects As preschoolers, children know
are readily incorporated into existing schemes. In that, unlike inanimate objects, animate objects move
accommodation, experiences cause schemes to be themselves, grow, become ill, and repair through healing.
modified. Children’s thinking of living things includes teleological
e When accommodation becomes much more explanations (living things exist for a purpose) and
common than assimilation, this signals that schemes essentialism (living things have unseen properties that
are inadequate, so children reorganise them This give them their identities)
reorganisation produces four different phases of mental
development from infancy through adulthood. 4.2 Information processing during infancy
and early childhood
How does thinking become more advanced as infants
What is the basis of the information-processing
progress through the sensorimotor stage?
approach?
© The first two years of life constitute Piaget's sensorimotor
period. Over these two years, infants begin to adapt to
© According to the information-processing view, cognitive
development involves changes in mental hardware and in
and explore their environment, understand objects, and
mental software
learn to use symbols.
How well do young children pay attention?
What are the distinguishing characteristics of
e Infants use habituation to filter unimportant stimuli
thinking during the preoperational stage?
Compared with older children, preschoolers are less
e From two to seven years of age, children are in Piaget's able to pay attention to task-relevant information Their
preoperational period. Although now capable of using attention can be improved by, for example, encouraging
symbols, their thinking 1s limited by egocentrism — the their pretend play
inability to see the world from another's point of view.
Preoperational children are also centred in their thinking What kinds of learning take place during infancy?
and sometimes confuse appearance with reality. e Infants are capable of many forms of learning, including
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
What are the strengths and weaknesses of imitation.
Piaget's theory?
© One important contribution of Piaget's theory 1s the Do infants and preschool children remember?
view that children actively try to understand their world. e Infants can remember and can be reminded of events
Another contribution 1s specifying conditions that they seem to have forgotten Memory improves
promote cognitive development. during infancy, reflecting growth of the brain
© However, the theory has been criticised because it Autobiographical memory emerges in the preschool
underestimates infants’ and preschoolers’ competence, years, reflecting children’s growing language skills and
1s vague regarding processes of change, does not account their sense of self.
for variability in performance, and undervalues the © Preschoolers sometimes testify in cases of child abuse
influence of the sociocultural environment. When questioned repeatedly, they often have difficulty

SUMMARY 151

4.3 Mind and culture: Vygotsky's theory rapidly.

© Most children learn the meanings of words much too rapidly
What is the zone of proximal development? How does for them to consider all plausible meanings systematically.
it help explain how children accomplish more when Instead, children use certain rules to determine the probable
they collaborate with others? meanings of new words. The rules do not always yield the
correct meaning. An underextension 1s a child’s meaning
© Vygotsky believed that cognition develops first in a
that 1s narrower than an adult's meaning; an overextension
social setting and only gradually comes under the child's
1s a child's meaning that 1s broader.
independent control. The difference between what
© Individual children differ in vocabulary size, differences
children can do with assistance and what they can do
that are due to phonological memory and the quality of
alone constitutes the zone of proximal development.
the child’s language environment. Bilingual children learn
Why is scaffolding a particularly effective way of language readily and better understand the arbitrary
nature of words. Some youngsters use a referential word-
teaching youngsters new concepts and skills?
learning style that emphasises words as names and that
© Control of cognitive skills is most readily transferred to the views language as an intellectual tool. Other children use
child through scaffolding, a teaching style in which teachers an expressive style that emphasises phrases and views
let children take on more and more of a task as they
language as a social tool.
master its different components. Scaffolding 1s common © Children’s vocabulary is strmulated by experience. Parents
worldwide, but the specific techniques for scaffolding
can foster the growth of vocabulary by speaking with
children’s learning vary from one culture to the next. children and reading to them. Video helps preschoolers
When and why do children talk to themselves as they learn new words but 1s ineffective with infants.
solve problems? How do young children learn grammar?
¢ Children often talk to themselves, particularly when the © Soon after children begin to speak, they create two-word
task is difficult or when they have made a mistake. Such sentences that are derived from their own experiences.
private speech helps children regulate their behaviour, Moving from two-word to more complex sentences
and it represents an intermediate step in the transfer of involves adding grammatical morphemes. Children first
control of thinking from others to the self. master grammatical morphemes that express simple
relations and later those that denote complex relations.
4.4 Language
Mastery of grammatical morphemes involves learning
When do infants first hear and make speech sounds? not only rules but also exceptions to the rules.
© Infants can hear language sounds soon after birth. They © Behaviourists proposed that children acquire grammar
can even hear language sounds that are not used in their through imitation, but that explanation is incorrect.
home language, but this ability diminishes as infants near Today's explanations come from three perspectives: The
the first birthday. linguistic perspective emphasises inborn mechanisms
@ Infant-directed speech is adults’ speech to infants that is that allow children to infer the grammatical rules of their
slower and has greater variation in pitch and loudness. home language, the cognitive perspective emphasises
Infants prefer infant-directed speech, perhaps because it cognitive processes that allow children to find recurring
gives them additional language clues. patterns in the speech they hear, and the social-interaction
© Newborns’ communication is limited to crying, but perspective emphasises social interactions with adults in
babies coo at about 3 months of age. Babbling soon which both parties want improved communication.

152 CHuaprter 4 THE EMERGENCE OF THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

schemes (118) stable-order principle answers
assimilation (118) (134)
accommodation (118) cardinality principle 4.1 1.accommodation 2. schemes 3. ‘out of sight, out of
equilibration (118) (134) mind’ 4. to use symbols 5. egocentric 6. animism
sensorimotor period intersubjectivity (136) 7. infants and young children 8. grow

(120) guided participation 42 1.pretend 2. let her vew a moving mobile

object permanence (120) (136) 3. monitoring the sources of their memories
egocentrism (121) zone of proximal 4. cardinality
animism (121) development (136)
centration (122) scaffolding (136) 4.3 1. zone of proximal development 2. scaffolding
core knowledge private speech (137) 3. private speech
hypothesis (125) , intent aieected speoc 4.4 1.1nfant-directed speech 2. intonation 3. referential
teleological explanations (140) 3 .
: 4. overextension 5. social-interaction 6. provide
27) cooiag (140) more elaborate messages
essentialism (127) babbling (141) 8
mental hardware (130) fast mapping (142)
mental software (130) underextension (144)
attention (130) overextension (144)
orienting response (130) phonological memory
habituation (130) (144)
classical conditioning referential style (145)
(130) expressive style (145)
operant conditioning telegraphic speech (146)
(131) grammatical morphemes
autobiographical (146)
memory (132) overregularisation (146)
one-to-one principle
(134)

SUMMARY 153

51 Beginnings: Trust and

attachment 155
Erikson’s stages of early
psychosocial development 155
The growth of attachment 156
What determines quality of
attachment? 160
Attachment, work, and alternative
caregiving 161
Real people: Applying human
development: Thandi, Xolani,
and Njabulo 162

5.2 Emerging emotions 163

The function of emotions 163
Experiencing and expressing
emotions 163
Recognising and using others’
emotions 166
Regulating emotions 167

5.3 Interacting with others 168

The joys of play 168
Helping others 172

Gender roles and gender

identity 175
Images of men and women: Facts
and fantasy 176
Spotlight on research Reasoning
about gender-related
properties 177
Gender typing 179
Evolving gender roles 182

Summary 184

Key terms 185

All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xamned, or duploredt m whole ot im part. Dur to clectrorsc raghes, scene thend party comscat qrery be mappeesand fcrn tae cock andive chapter!»
promed comsast dace act sxsimolly affect the overs kommg cxpenence. Congage Leasing roacrves the mght oo ccramve aiditazeal coment at ary trme if sobeequent mgfe aedrictooes angen
separation that comes when parents children play and how they help
enjoy one another's
work full-time Interactions with others in distress
company. Social relationships of
parents and others are often full of As children’s interactions with
all sorts — friends, lovers, spouses,
emotions — happiness, satisfaction, others become more wide-ranging,
parents and children, coworkers,
anger, and guilt, to name just a they begin to learn about the
and teammates — make our lives
few. In the second section, you'll social roles they are expected to
both interesting and satisfying.
see how children express different play Among the first social roles
In this chapter, we examine the
emotions and how they recognise children learn are those associated
origins of these social relationships
other people's emotions with gender — how society expects
We begin with the first social
In the third section, you'll learn boys and girls to behave We'll
relationship — between an infant
how children’s social horizons explore children’s awareness of
and a parent. You will see how this
expand beyond parents to include gender roles in the last section of
relationship emerges over the first
peers Then you'll discover how the chapter
year and how tt is affected by the

E%] Beginnings: Trust and attachment

Bea a eases deed eee eee w meee sess seen een en nnn nesses sess es ennennaasssssssssssnnon

Learning objectives

e Describe Erikson’s first three stages of psychosocial development.

® Discuss how infants become emotionally attached to mother, father, and other significant people in
their lives.

® Identify the different kinds of attachment relationships, how they arise, and their consequences.

e Assess whether attachment is jeopardised when parents of infants and young children are employed
outside the home.

Musa’s son Sibusiso is a happy, affectionate emotional relationship. Along the way, you'll see how this
18-month-old. Musa so enjoys spending relationship is affected by the separation that sometimes
time with him that she is avoiding an comes when a parent like Musa works full-time.
important decision. She wants to return
to her job as a teller at the local bank, and Erikson’'s stages of early psychosocial
she is lucky enough that her husband’s job
pays well enough that she does not have to
development
work, if they are careful with money Musa Some of our keenest insights into psychosocial
knows a woman in the neighbourhood who development come from a theory proposed by Erik Erikson
has cared for some of her friends’ children, (1982). We first encountered Erikson’s theory in Chapter 1.
and they all think she is a fantastic day care He describes development as a series of eight stages,
mother But Musa still has a nagging feeling each with a unique crisis for psychosocial growth. When
that going back to work isn’t a ‘motherly’ a crisis is resolved successfully, an area of psychosocial
thing to do — that being away during the day strength is established. When the crisis is not resolved,
may hamper Sibusiso’s development. that aspect of psychosocial development is stunted, often
limiting the individual's ability to resolve future crises.
The socioemotional relationship that develops In Erikson’s theory, infancy and the preschool years
between an infant and a parent (usually, but not are represented by three stages, shown in @ TABLE 5.1.
necessarily, the mother) is special. This is a baby’s Let’s take a closer look at each stage.
first relationship, and scientists and parents believe
that it should be satisfying and trouble-free to set Basic trust versus mistrust
the stage for later relationships. In this section, we'll Erikson argues that trust in oneself and others is the
look at the steps involved in creating the baby’s first foundation of human development. Newborns leave

155

Sopyraght
2019 Cengage Learsing. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, scammed, oe duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectroeec nights, some therd party comtest mary he suppecesed thorn the ciiook and/or ol hapter|s).
seview tos decmed that any suppromed cresicat dacs sot sasimally affect the overall eam cxpencnee. Cengage Leareing reacrves the mph t eemove addmioal comics af any tne if mdecquent ngbe sedncthoss moqene a
EEC TISEE sErikson’s first three stages
Age Crisis Strength
Infancy Basic trust vs mistrust Hope
1-3 years Autonomy vs shame and doubt Will
3-5 years Initiative vs guilt Purpose

the warmth and security of the uterus for an unfamiliar This initiative is moderated by guilt as children realise
world. When parents respond to their infant’s needs that their initiative may place them in conflict with
consistently, the infant comes to trust and feel secure in others; they cannot pursue their ambitions with abandon.
the world. Of course, the world is not always pleasant Purpose is achieved with a balance between individual
and it is sometimes dangerous. Parents may not always initiative and a willingness to cooperate with others.
reach a falling baby in time, or they may accidentally Erikson’s theory is valuable in tying together
feed an infant food that is too hot. Erikson sees value psychosocial developments across the entire life span.
in these experiences because infants learn mistrust We will return to the remaining stages in later chapters.
With a proper balance of trust and mistrust, infants can For now, let's concentrate on the first of Erikson’s crises
acquire hope, an openness to new experience tempered by — the establishment of trust in the world - and see how
wariness that discomfort or danger may arise. infants form an emotional bond with their parents.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt The

attachment
growth of EE
Between one and three years of age, children gradually In explaining the essential ingredients of these early
learn that they can control their own actions With social relationships, most modern accounts take an
this understanding, children strive for autonomy, evolutionary perspective. According to evolutionary
for independence from others. However, autonomy psychology, many human behaviours represent successful
is counteracted by doubt that the child can handle adaptation to the environment. That is, over human
demanding situations and by shame that may result from history, some behaviours have made it more likely that
failure. A blend of autonomy, shame, and doubt gives rise people will pass on their genes to following generations.
to will, the knowledge that within limits, youngsters can For example, we take it for granted that most people
act on their world intentionally. enjoy being with other people. But evolutionary
psychologists argue that our ‘social nature’ is a product
Initiative versus guilt of evolution For early humans, being part of a group
Most three- and four-year-olds take some responsibility offered protection from predators and made it easier
for themselves (for example, by dressing themselves) to locate food. So, early humans who were social were
Youngsters also begin to identify with adults and their more likely than their asocial peers to live long enough
parents. They begin to understand the opportunities that to reproduce, passing on their social orientation to their
are available in their culture Play begins to have purpose offspring (Kurzban, Burton-Chellew, & West, 2015).
as children explore adult roles such as mother, father, Over many, many generations, ‘being social’ had such
teacher, athlete, or writer. Youngsters start to explore a survival advantage that nearly all people are socially
the environment on their own, ask numerous questions oriented (although in various amounts, as we know from
about the world, and imagine possibilities for themselves the research on temperament discussed in Chapter 3).
Applied to child development, evolutionary
psychology highlights the adaptive value of children’s
hope According to Erikson, openness to new experience tempered behaviour at different points in development (Bjorklund
by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance. & Jordan, 2013). For example, think about the time and
will According to Erikson, a young child’s understanding that energy parents invest in child rearing. Without such
he or she can act on the world intentionally; this occurs when effort, infants and young children would die before
autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance. they were sexually mature, which means that a parent's
purpose According to Erikson, balance between individual genes could not be passed along to grandchildren
initiative and the willingness to cooperate with others. (Geary, 2002). Here, too, parenting just seems ‘natural,
evolutionary psychology Theoretical view that many human but it really represents an adaptation to the problem of
behaviours represent successful adaptations to the environment. guaranteeing that one’s helpless offspring can survive
until they're sexually mature.

156 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

51 BEGINNINGS TRUST AND ATTACHMENT 157

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening. All Rights Reserved May net be copied, scammed, or duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to electronic nights, somse thind party content mey be sappeesacd Gorn the efliock ance oC Teapeerls
Edttomed review hee deorned thet sey wapprewed content dors set exstemally affect the overall komm, expenence. Congage Leareung remerves the night wo nomowe additweal content af any Gree if seleequent mgm wanictiess mq
behaviour, attachment usually develops between infant e Avoidant attachment. The baby is not upset when the
and caregiver by eight or nine months of age. However, mother leaves and, when she returns, may ignore her
attachment takes different forms, and environmental by looking or turning away. Infants with an avoidant
factors help determine the quality of attachment attachment look as if they're saying, “You left me again.
between infants and caregivers. Mary Ainsworth (1978, 1 always have to take care of myself!’
1993) pioneered the study of attachment relationships e Resistant attachment. The baby is upset when the
using a procedure known as the Strange Situation. mother leaves, and the baby remains upset or even
You can see in @ TABLE 5.2 that the Strange Situation angry when she returns and is difficult to console.
involves a series of brief episodes. The mother and These babies seem to be telling the mother, “Why do
infant enter an unfamiliar room filled with interesting you do this? I need you desperately, and yet you just
toys. The mother leaves briefly, then mother and baby leave me without warning. I get so angry when you're
are reunited. Meanwhile, the experimenter observes the like this:
baby and records his or her response to both separation ¢ Disorganised (disoriented) attachment. The baby
and reunion. seems confused when the mother leaves and when she
Based on how the infant reacts to separation from returns, seems not to understand what’s happening.
- and reunion with - the mother, Ainsworth and other The baby often behaves in contradictory ways, such as
researchers have discovered four primary types of nearing the mother when she returns but not looking
attachment relationships (Ainsworth, 1993; Thompson, at her, as if wondering, “What's happening? | want you
2006). One is a secure attachment, and three are different to be here, but you left and now you're back. I don't get
types of insecure attachment (avoidant, resistant, and what's going on!’
disorganised)
The kind of care that parents are able to provide their
e Secure attachment. The baby may or may not cry children affect the attachment style that will develop
when the mother leaves, but when she returns, the baby between the infant and the caregiver. Unfortunately,
wants to be with her, and if the baby is crying, he or she adverse conditions such as poverty and maternal
stops Babies in this group seem to be saying, ‘I missed depression after childbirth negatively affect the capacity
you terribly; I’m delighted to see you; but now that of parents to provide the kind of care that will lead to
everything is okay, I'll get back to what I was doing’ secure attachment (Cooper et al, 2009). This is of great
concern for developing countries, where such adverse
conditions are more frequent. Tomlinson, Cooper and
secure attachment Relationship in which infants have come to
Murray (2005) studied the attachment style of mothers
trust and depend on their mothers.
and infants in a peri-urban settlement outside of Cape
avoidant attachment Relationship in which infants turn away Town, and found that approximately 4% of infants
from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief
separation.
showed avoidant attachment, 8.2% showed resistant
attachment, and almost 26% showed disorganised
resistant attachment Relationship in which, after a brief attachment. Approximately 62% of infants were securely
separation, infants want to be held but are difficult to console.
attached. These results are similar to a study by Minde,
disorganised (disoriented) attachment Relationship in which Minde and Vogel (2006), performed in a South African
infants don't seem to understand what's happening when they are township, where it was found that only 58% of infants
separated and later reunited with their mothers.
were securely attached.

iv.) eee Sequence of events in the Strange Situation

1. An observer shows the experimental room to the mother and infant, then leaves the room.
2. The infant is allowed to explore the playroom for three minutes; the mother watches but does not participate.
3. Astranger enters the room and remains silent for one minute, talks to the baby for a minute, and then approaches the
baby. The mother leaves unobtrusively.
. The stranger does not play with the baby, but attempts to comfort the baby if necessary.
Dini is

. After three minutes, the mother returns, greets the baby, and consoles the baby.
. When the baby has returned to play, the mother leaves again, this time saying ‘bye-bye’ as she leaves.
The stranger attempts to calm and play with the baby.
DOIN

. After three minutes, the mother returns and the stranger leaves.

158 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scammed, ce duplicated im whole or in part. Dur so clectroenc nphes, some thend party comicat muy he suppecescd torn the cfiook andive oChaptcs|s)
Edeomal seiew toe deemed that any euppromed crencmt docs sot muxicmadly affect the overall kare cupenence. Congape Learing reacrwes the mpbt to remove addmosal comicet af any tome af satecquent neh scenctoss moqenn &
the most common outcome is for infants to have secure
attachment relationships with mothers and fathers
(Bretherton, 2010) However, because mothers spend
more time in caregiving, they often become more skilful
at parenting than fathers (Lamb, 2012) Fathers spend
more time playing with their babies than taking care
of them and they prefer physical play, whereas mothers
spend more time reading and talking to babies, showing
them toys, and playing games such as peeka-boo. These
differences between mothers’ and fathers’ behaviours
have become smaller as men and women have come to
share responsibilities for child care and breadwinning
(Lamb & Lewis, 2010).

A Fathers and mothers differ in how they play with children Fathers
are more likely to engage in vigorous physical play. A When infants have an attachment relationship with the mother,
they use her as a secure base from which to explore the
environment
Quality of attachment during infancy predicts parent-
child relations during childhood, adolescence, and young
adulthood. Infants with secure attachment relationships Consequences of attachment
tend to report, as adolescents and young adults, that they Erikson and other theorists (e.g., Waters & Cummings,
depend on their parents for care and support. In contrast, 2000) believe that infant-parent attachment, the
infants with insecure attachment relationships often first social relationship, lays the foundation for all
report, as adolescents and young adults, being angry with of the infant's later social relationships. In this view,
their parents or deny being close to them (Bretherton, infants who experience the trust and compassion of
2010). However, consistency is far from perfect. Stressful a secure attachment should develop into preschool
life events — the death of a parent, divorce, a life- children who interact confidently and successfully
threatening illness, poverty — help to determine stability with their peers. In contrast, infants who do not
and change in attachment. Stressful life events are experience a successful, satisfying first relationship
associated with insecure attachments during adolescence should be more likely to experience problems in their
and young adulthood. Consequently, when infants with social interactions as preschoolers In fact, meta-
insecure attachments experience stressful life events, their analyses reveal that children with secure attachment
attachment tends to remain insecure. When infants with relationships are more competent socially, are less
secure attachment experience these same events, their likely to externalise disorders such as bullying and
attachment often becomes insecure, perhaps because fighting and less likely to internalise disorders such as
stress makes parents less available and less responsive to depression (Groh et al., 2017)
their children (Lamb, 2012) Two factors contribute to the benefits for children of
Men and women are equally capable of parenting a secure attachment relationship. First, secure attachment
and babies typically become attached to mothers and evidently leads infants to see the world positively and to
fathers at about the same time (Lamb, 2012) And the trust other humans. These are characteristics that lead
quality of attachment is often the same. For example, to more skilled social interactions later in childhood,

5 1 BEGINNINGS TRUST AND ATTACHMENT 159

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mary he appeased thom the eBook andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
adolescence, and adulthood (Dykas & Cassidy, 2011).
Second, parents who establish secure attachments
Because secure attachment is so important to a child’s
with infants tend to provide warm, supportive, and
later development, researchers have tried to identify the
skilled parenting throughout their child’s development
factors involved. The most important is the interaction
(McElwain, Booth-LaForce, & Wu, 2011; Thompson,
between parents and their babies. A secure attachment is
2006). Thus, continuous exposure to high-quality
most likely when parents respond to infants predictably
parenting promotes secure attachment in infancy and
positive social relationships in childhood and adolescence. and appropriately (Boldt et al., 2016; De Wolff &
van IJzendoorn, 1997). For example, when a mother
These accounts are not mutually exclusive: a successful
first relationship and continued warm parenting probably responds quickly to her baby’s crying and reassures
work together to promote children’s development. the baby, the mother’s behaviour seems to show that
Of course, attachment is only the first of many steps social interactions are predictable and satisfying. This
along the long road of social development. Infants with behaviour seems to encourage infants to develop the
insecure attachments are not doomed, but this initial trust and confidence that are the characteristics of secure
misstep can interfere with their social development. attachment.
Consequently, we need to look at the conditions that Why does predictable and responsive parenting
determine the quality of attachment. promote secure attachment relationships? To answer this
question, think about your own friendships and romantic
relationships. These are usually most satisfying when
we believe we can trust the other people and depend
on them in times of need. The same formula seems to
hold for infants Infants develop an internal working
model, a set of expectations about parents’ availability
and responsiveness, generally and in times of stress When
parents are dependable and caring, babies come to trust
them, knowing they can be relied on for comfort In
other words, babies develop an internal working model
in which they believe their parents are concerned about
their needs and will try to meet them (Huth-Bocks et
al., 2004; Thompson, 2000) In contrast, when parents
respond slowly, irregularly, or angrily, infants come to see
social relationships as inconsistent and often frustrating
In a clever demonstration of infants’ working models
of attachment (Johnson et al., 2010), infants were shown
animated videos depicting a large ellipse (representing
the mother) paired with a small ellipse (representing
the child) The video began with the mother and child
ellipses together; then the mother moved away from
the child, who began to cry. On some trials, the mother
ellipse returned to the child ellipse; on other trials,
she continued to move away. Securely attached infants
looked longer at the trials depicting an unresponsive
mother, but insecurely attached infants looked longer
at the trials when the mother returned. Evidently, each
group had a working model of how parents respond -
A When infants who have a resistant attachment relationship are securely attached infants expect parents to respond, but
reunited with the mother, they're often tearful, angry, and difficult
to console
insecurely attached infants do not - and they looked
longer at the trials that violate their expectations of
maternal behaviour.
internal working model Infant's understanding of how
Fortunately, training can help mothers respond
responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence
close relationships throughout the child's life.
more effectively to their baby’s needs (Dozier, Zeanah, &

160 CHAPTER5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Attachment, work, and alternative

caregiving
Since the 1970s, more women in the workforce and
4 Many South African infants and preschoolers attend day care or
more single-parent households have made arranging nursery school programmes
for child care a reality of parenting for many families in
South Africa. Today, millions of infants and toddlers are
Think about it
cared for by someone other than their mother. Some are
cared for in their home by their father, a paid caregiver, Imagine that your best friend is the mother of a
a grandparent, or another relative. Others receive care three-month-old. Your friend is about to return to
in the provider's home; the provider is often but not her job as a social worker, but she's afraid she'll
always a relative Still others attend day care or preschool harm her baby by going back to work. What can
programmes. you say to reassure her?
Parents and policy makers have been concerned
about the impact of such care on children generally
and, specifically, its impact on attachment In fact, These results provide clear guidelines for parents like
research shows that, overall, child care experiences Musa, the mother in the story that opened this section.
are not linked to mother-infant attachment: a They can enrol their infants and toddlers in high-quality
secure mother-infant attachment is just as likely day care programmes with little fear of lifelong harmful
regardless of the quality of child care, the time the consequences. In trying to find high-quality care for
child spent in care, the age when the child began children, parents should look for programmes that
care, how frequently the parents changed child care have a relatively small number of children per caregiver
arrangements, or the type of child care (for example, at (for example, three infants or toddlers per caregiver)
a child care centre or in the home with a nonrelative). and the caregivers are well-trained, are responsive,
However, insecure attachments are more common provide age-appropriate stimulating activities, and
when infants and toddlers of less sensitive mothers communicate well with parents (American Academy of
experience low-quality or large amounts of child care Pediatrics, 2011).
(NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2001; Forward-thinking employers know that convenient,
Sagi et al., 2002). high-quality child care helps attract and retain

5 1 BEGINNINGS TRUST AND ATTACHMENT 161

Applying human in education, became a full- * grandfather and had trouble relating
development time househusband Xolani to him as an older father However, he
does the cooking and takes quickly became an accepted member of
care of Nyabulo during the the group. On weekends, Thandi's and
day Thandi comes home Xolani’s grown children from previous
Thandi, Xolani, and
from school at noon so marmiages often visit and enjoy canng
Njabulo that the family can eat for and playing with Njabulo. By all
Thandi, 46, and Xolani, 61, lunch together, and she accounts, Njabulo looks to be a healthy,
had been married nearly is home from work by happy, outgoing 9-month-old Is this
four years when Thandi four in the afternoon arrangement nontraditional? Clearly.
gave birth to Njabulo. Thandi, Once a week, Xolani takes Is it effective for Njabulo, Thandi, and
a kindergarten teacher, Njabulo to a parent-infant Xolani? Definitely Nyabulo receives
returned to work full-time play programme The other the nurturing care she needs, Thand:
four months after Njabulo was parents, all mothers in their goes to work assured that Nijabulo ts in
born Xolani, who had been 20s and 30s, first assumed Xolani’s knowing and caring hands, and
halfheartedly pursuing a PhD that Xolani was Njabulo’s Xolani loves being the pnmary caregiver

Test yourself 5.1

Recall 7. Stressful life events are associated with

1 deacrthea devel aOE attachments during adolescence
- ________ describes development as a series 0 and young adulthood.
eight stages.
2. Infants can acquire when they Interpret
experience a balance of trust and mistrust.
¢ Compare the infant’s contributions to the
3. A blend of autonomy, shame, and doubt gives formation of mother-infant attachment with the
rise to the knowledge that within mother’s contributions.
limits, youngsters can act on their world
intentionally. Apply
4. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation experiment gave e Based on what you know about the normal
rise to the theory that there are four primary developmental timetable for the formation of
types of relationships mother-infant attachment, what would seem to be
the optimal age range for children to be adopted?
5. The types of insecure attachment are avoidant,
resistant, and Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.
6. Gadija is an 11-month-old baby. She is upset
when her mother leaves, and remains upset
when her mother returns. This suggests that her
attachment is

162 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

© Identify at what ages children begin to express basic emotions.

® Describe complex emotions, and when they develop.

® Identify when children begin to understand other people's emotions and discuss how they use this
information to guide their own behaviour.

Fatiema is ecstatic that she is finally going to the other person to feel happy, too, strengthening their
see her seven-month-old nephew, Abdul. She relationship (Conway et al., 2013) Disgust is adaptive
rushes into the house, sees Abdul playing on in keeping people away from substances that might
the floor with blocks, and sweeps him up ina make them ill. when we discover that the milk in a glass
big hug. After a brief, puzzled look, Abdul bursts is sour, we experience disgust and push the glass away
into angry tears and begins thrashing his arms (Oaten, Stevenson, & Case, 2009) So, according to the
and legs, as if saying to Fatiema, ‘Who are functional approach to human emotion, most emotions
you? What do you want? Put me down! Now!’ developed over the course of human history to meet
Fatiema quickly hands Abdul to his mother, unique life challenges and help humans to survive.
who is surprised by her baby’s outburst and
even more surprised that he continues to sob i,
while she rocks him.
The three emotions from the opening story — joy, anger,
This story illustrates three common emotions. Fatiema’s and fear — are considered ‘basic emotions, as are interest,
initial joy, Abdul's anger, and his mother’s surprise are disgust, and sadness (Lewis, 2016). Basic emotions are
familiar to all of us. In this section, we look at when experienced by people worldwide, and each consists of
children first express emotions, how children come three elements a subjective feeling, a physiological change,
to understand emotions in others, and how children and an overt behaviour (Izard, 2007) For example,
regulate their emotions. As we do, we'll learn why Abdul suppose you wake to the sound of a thunderstorm and
reacted to Fatiema as he did and how Fatiema could have then discover your roommate has left for class with your
prevented Abdul's outburst. umbrella. Subjectively, you might feel ready to explode
with anger, physiologically, your heart would beat faster;
and behaviourally, you would probably be scowling.

Why do people feel emotions? According to the functional Development of basic emotions
approach, emotions are useful because they help people Using facial expressions and other behaviours, scientists
adapt to their environment (Boiger & Mesquita, 2012,
have traced the growth of basic emotions in infants. Many
Shariff & Tracy, 2011). Think about fear as an example. scientists believe that young babies experience just broad
Most of us would rather not be afraid, but sometimes positive and broad negative emotional states. These
feeling fearful is adaptive. Imagine you are walking alone broad emotional categories differentiate rapidly, and by
late at night in a poorly lit section of campus You become approximately eight to nine months of age, infants are
frightened and, as a consequence, are particularly thought to experience all basic emotions (Lewis, 2016).
attentive to sounds that might signal threat and you walk For example, the onset of happiness is evident in a baby’s
quickly to a safer location Thus, fear is adaptive because smiles In the first month, infants smile while asleep
it organises your behaviour around an important goal - or when touched softly. The meaning of these smiles
avoiding danger (Tooby & Cosmides, 2008).
Similarly, other emotions are adaptive. For example,
happiness is adaptive in contributing to stronger basic emotions Emotions experienced by humankind that consist
interpersonal relationships When people are happy of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and
an overt behaviour.
with another person, they smile, which often causes

52 EMERGING EMOTIONS

A Social smiles emerge at about two to three months, when infants

smile in response to a human face

Anger is one of the first negative emotions to emerge

from generalised distress, generally between four and
six months. Infants will become angry, for example, if
a favourite food or toy is taken away (Sullivan & Lewis, 4 Young babies are often wary of strangers, consequently, they’re
unhappy when strangers hold them before giving them a chance
2003) Reflecting their growing understanding of goal- to ‘warm up
directed behaviour (see Section 4.1), older infants become
increasingly angry when their attempts to achieve a goal are
Several factors determine how wary an infant feels
frustrated (Braungart-Rieker, Hill-Soderlund, & Karrass,
around strangers (Brooker et al., 2013; Thompson &
2010). For example, when a parent restrains an infant trying
Limber, 1991) First, infants tend to be less fearful of
to pick up a toy, the guaranteed result is an angry baby.
strangers when the environment is familiar and more
Like anger, fear emerges later in the first year. Af
fearful when it is not. Many parents know this firsthand
about six months, infants become wary in the presence
from traveling with their infants: when they enter a friend's
of an unfamiliar adult, a reaction known as stranger
house for the first time, their baby clings tightly to his or her
wariness. When a stranger approaches a six-month-
mother. Second, a baby’s anxiety depends on the stranger's
old, the baby typically looks away and begins to make
behaviour. Instead of rushing to greet or pick up the baby,
a fuss (Stevenson-Hinde & Shouldice, 2009). If a
as Fatiema did in the opening story, a stranger should talk
grandmother picks up her grandchild without giving
with other adults and, in a while, perhaps offer the baby a
the infant a chance to warm up to her, the outcome is
toy (Mangelsdorf, 1992). Handled this way, many infants
as predictable as it was with Abdul, the baby boy in the
will soon be curious about the stranger instead of afraid.
opening story who was frightened by his aunt: He cries,

social smiles Smile that infants produce when they see a human
face. How might an infant's ability to express emotions

stranger wariness First distinct signs of fear that emerge around relate to the formation of attachment? To the
six months of age when infants become wary in the presence of temperamental characteristics described in
unfamiliar adults. Chapter 3?

164 CHAPTER5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyrapht2099 Cengage Lorsing All Raphts Reserved Mizy mot be copend acammed. or duplicatedm whol or an port. Dur so clectenc mpbes, some teed pany comicat muy be suppecencd Seen tec chook andi oChapacs(}
Edacrad sevice tum doomed that ary eappromed comer dam act muncrodh afiect the overall koenmy ctpencece Cengage Loaxtung rearve tte nett © romene addmioeal oor of any Gane of atecguees np acencuces gene 2
Wariness of strangers is adaptive because it The features of basic and self-conscious emotions are
emerges at the same time children begin to master summarised in @ TABLE 5.3.
creeping and crawling (described in Chapter 3) Babies
are inquisitive and want to use their new locomotor
skills to explore their world. Being wary of strangers
provides a natural restraint against the tendency to Explain how the different forces in the
wander away from familiar caregivers. However, as biopsychosocial framework contribute to the
youngsters learn to interpret facial expressions and development of basic and complex emotions.
recognise when a person is friendly, their wariness of
strangers declines.
Of the negative emotions, we know the least about Later developments
disgust. Preschool children may respond with disgust at As children grow, their range of emotions continues
the odour of faeces or at being asked to touch a maggot to expand. For example, some five- and six-year-olds
or being asked to eat a piece of sweet that’s resting on experience regret and relief, and by nine years of age,
the bottom of a brand-new potty seat (Widen & Russell, most children experience both emotions appropriately
2013). Parents probably play an important role in (Van Duijvenvoorde, Huizenga, & Jansen, 2014) In
helping children to identify disgusting stimuli: mothers addition, cognitive growth means that primary school
respond quite vigorously to disgust-eliciting stimuli children experience shame and guilt in situations they
when in the presence of their children. They might say would not have when they were younger (Reimer,
“That's revolting! while moving away from the stimulus 1996). For example, unlike preschool children, many
(Stevenson et al., 2010). A child’s early sensitivity to school-age children would be ashamed if they did not
disgust is useful because many of the cues that elicit defend a classmate who had been wrongly accused of
disgust are also signals of potential illness: disgusting a theft.
stimuli such as faeces, vomit, and maggots can all Fear is another emotion that can be brought about in
transmit disease different ways depending on a child’s age. Many preschool
children are afraid of the dark and of imaginary creatures.
Emergence of complex emotions These fears typically diminish during the primary school
years as children grow cognitively and better understand
In addition to basic emotions such as joy and anger, the difference between appearance and reality. Replacing
people feel complex emotions such as pride, guilt, and these fears are concerns about school, health, and
embarrassment. Most scientists (for example, Lewis, personal harm (Silverman, La Greca, & Wasserstein,
2016) believe that complex emotions don’t surface
1995) Such worries are common and not a cause for
until 18 to 24 months of age because they depend concern in most children. In some youngsters, however,
on the child having some understanding of the self, they become so extreme that they overwhelm the child.
which typically occurs between 15 and 18 months For example, some children worry so much about school
For example, children feel guilty or embarrassed when that they refuse to go (Kearney & Spear, 2013).
they've done something they know they shouldn't have
done (Kochanska et al., 2002). A child who breaks a toy
is thinking: “You told me to be careful. But I wasn't!’ Cultural differences in emotional expression
Similarly, children feel pride when they accomplish Children worldwide express many of the same basic
a challenging task for the first time Thus, children’s and complex emotions. However, cultures differ in the
growing understanding of themselves enables them extent to which emotional expression is encouraged
to experience complex emotions like pride and guilt Outward displays of emotion are encouraged and
(Lewis, 2016). common in countries like those in North America and

BPN-TSEED
Infants’ expression of emotions
Defined Emerge Examples
Basic Experienced by people worldwide and include a Birth to 9 months Happiness, anger, fear
subjective feeling, a physiological response, and an
overt behaviour
Self-conscious Responses to meeting or failing to meet 18 to 24 months Pride, guilt, embarrassment
expectations or standards

5 2 EMERGING EMOTIONS 165

(Copyraght
3019 Cengage Loemag. All Rights Reserved May not be copsnd, ccammed, or duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectronmc rights, some thand party contest ery be suppeesecd torn the citook andive of hapter's).
Edtomad svew hoe doaned thot aay wappromed comamt dacs act muscmally affect the overall kamang <xpenence. Cangage Learnung reacrves the ngbt wo comove additeeal coment at any orn if subsequent mph sextnctoes coqunsr ot
Europe that see people as independent. In contrast,
f ‘“ aa
emotional restraint is encouraged and common in
countries like those in Africa and Asia that see people as Imagine you are short of cash and hope to borrow R200
interdependent with other group members (Camras & from your roommate when she returns from class. But
when she storms into your flat, slams the door, and
Shuster, 2013). Consistent with this view, U.S. children
are typically more expressive emotionally than are throws her backpack on the floor, you change your
Chinese children, both in overall expressivity and in mind, realising that now is a bad time to ask for a loan.
terms of specific expressions (for example, smiling This example reminds us that we often need to recognise
more at funny pictures, more often expressing disgust others’ emotions and sometimes change our behaviour
when smelling vinegar). as a consequence.
Cultures also differ in the events that trigger When can infants first identify emotions in
emotions, particularly complex emotions. Situations that others? Between four and six months, infants begin to
evoke pride in one culture may evoke embarrassment or distinguish facial expressions associated with different
shame in another. For example, American primary school emotions. For example, they can distinguish a happy,
children often show pride at personal achievement, such smiling face from a sad, frowning face (Bornstein &
as getting the highest mark on a test or coming in first Arterberry, 2003, Montague & Walker-Andrews, 2001),
place in a competition. In contrast, African and Asian and when they hear happy-sounding voices, they tend
primary school children are embarrassed by a public to look at happy faces, not ones that appear angry
(Bhatt et al., 2016). What's more, like adults, infants are
display of individual achievement but show great pride
biased toward negative emotions (Vaish, Woodward,
when their entire class is honoured for an achievement
(Furukawa, Tangney, & Higashibara, 2012, Lewis et al., & Grossmann, 2008). They attend more rapidly to
faces showing negative emotions (for example, anger,
2010).
Expression of anger also varies around the world. fear) and pay attention to them longer than they do to
Suppose a child has just completed a detailed drawing emotionless or happy faces (Heck et al., 2016; LoBue &
DeLoache, 2010)
when a classmate spills a drink, ruining the drawing
Most American children would respond with anger. In Also like adults, infants use others’ emotions to
contrast, children growing up in East Asian countries direct their behaviour Infants in an unfamiliar or
that practise Buddhism (such as Mongolia, Thailand, ambiguous environment often look at a parent as if
Nepal) rarely respond with anger because this goes they are searching for cues to help them interpret the
against the Buddhist rule to be kind to all people, even situation, a phenomenon known as social referencing.
those whose actions hurt others. Instead, they would If a parent looks afraid when shown a new object,
probably remain quiet and experience shame that they 12-month-olds are less likely to play with the toy than
had left the drawing in a vulnerable position (Cole, if a parent looks happy (Repacholi, 1998). Infants’ use
of parents’ cues is precise (see @ FIGURE 5.1) If two
Tamang, & Shrestha, 2006).
Thus, culture can influence when and how much unfamiliar toys are shown to a parent who expresses
children express emotion. Of course, expressing emotion disgust at one toy but not the other, 12-month-olds
is only part of the developmental story. Children must will avoid the toy that elicited the disgust but not the
other toy (Moses et al., 2001). And if 12-month-olds
also learn to recognise others’ emotions, which is our
next topic.
encounter an unfamiliar toy in a laboratory setting
where one adult seems familiar with the toy but another
social referencing Behaviour in which infants in unfamiliar or adult does not, infants will look at the knowledgeable
ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them adult's expression to decide whether to play with the
interpret the situation. toy (Stenberg, 2013)

@ FIGURE 51 if parents seem frightened by an unfamiliar object, then babies are also wary or even afraid of it

166 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

(Copyraght
3019 Cengage Loemag. All Rights Reserved May not be copsnd, ccammed, or duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectronmc rights, some thand party contest ery be suppeesecd torn the citook andive of hapter's).
Edtorad svew hoe doaned that aay wappromed const dacs sot susicmally affect the overall kamung cxpenenece. Congage Learaung reacrves the ngbt comove additeeal coment at ay orn if subsequent mete sextnctooes coquan ot.
By 18 months, they’re more sophisticated If one emotions behaviourally. we close our eyes to shut out
adult demonstrates an unfamiliar toy and a second a disturbing scene in a movie, move closer to a loved
adult comments in an angry tone, ‘That's really one when we're frightened, or bite our inner cheeks to
annoying! That's so irritating’ then 18-month-olds avoid laughing.
play less with the toy than if the second adult makes These behavioural strategies are used
neutral remarks in a mild manner Toddlers apparently throughout the lifespan (Levine, Kaplan, &
decide that they shouldn't play with the toy if it will Davis, 2013). By four to six months, infants use
upset the second adult again (Repacholi & Meltzoff, simple strategies to regulate their emotions (Buss
2007; Repacholi, Meltzoff, & Olsen, 2008) Thus, social & Goldsmith, 1998; Rothbart & Rueda, 2005).
referencing shows that infants are remarkably skilled in When something frightens or confuses an infant -
using the emotions of adults to help them direct their for example, a menacing stranger — babies often look
own behaviour. away. Frightened infants also move closer to a parent,
Although infants and toddlers are remarkably adept another effective way of helping to control their
at recognising others’ emotions, these skills continue to fear (Parritz, 1996) And by 24 months, a distressed
develop. For example, older children and adolescents toddler's face typically expresses sadness instead of fear
are more skilled in recognising the subtle signals of or anger, apparently by this age, toddlers have learned
an emotion (Booker & Dunsmore, 2017). Similarly, that a sad facial expression is the best way to get a
compared with younger children, older children more mother’s attention and support (Buss & Kiel, 2004).
accurately recognise emotions by sound alone (Chronaki People also regulate emotions cognitively, often by
et al., 2015) So, expressions of emotion are recognised reappraising the meaning of an event (or of feelings
with steadily increasing skill throughout childhood and or thoughts) so that it provokes less emotion (John &
into adolescence. Gross, 2007). For example, a netball player nervous
What experiences contribute to children’s about taking a penalty shot at the goal can reinterpret
understanding of emotions? Parents and children her state of physiological arousal as being ‘pumped up’
frequently talk about past emotions and why people instead of being ‘scared to death. Because such strategies
felt as they did, particularly for negative emotions depend on cognitive growth, they are more common
such as fear and anger (Lagattuta & Wellman, 2002) in school-age children and adolescents (Levine et al.,
Not surprisingly, children learn about emotions when 2013; Silvers, Buhle, & Ochsner, 2014) Or a child might
parents talk about feelings, explaining how they differ reduce his disappointment at not receiving a much-
and the situations that bring them out (Brown & Dunn, anticipated and hoped-for gift by telling himself that he
1992, Hughes, White, & Ensor, 2014) Also, a positive didn't really want the gift in the first place. Or a child
and rewarding relationship with parents and siblings nervous about seeing a dentist to have a filling may try
is related to children’s understanding of emotions to think of the benefits of the visit (Zimmer-Gembeck &
(Thompson, Laible, & Ontai, 2003). The nature of this Skinner, 2011).
connection is still a mystery One possibility is that Unfortunately, not all children regulate their
within positive parent-child and sibling relationships, emotions well, and those who don't tend to have
people express a fuller range of emotions (and do so problems adjusting and interacting with peers
more often) and are more willing to talk about why (Olson et al, 2011; Zalewski et al., 2011). When
they feel as they do, providing children with more children can't control their anger, worry, or sadness,
opportunities to learn about emotions. they often have difficulty resolving the conflicts
that inevitably surface in peer relationships (Fabes
et al., 1999). For example, when children are faced
with a dispute over who gets to play with a toy,
People often regulate emotions. For example, we their unregulated anger can interfere with finding a
routinely try to suppress fear (because we know there's mutually satisfying solution. So, ineffective regulation
no real need to be afraid of the dark), anger (because we of emotions leads to more frequent conflicts with
don't want to let a friend know how upset we are), and peers and, as a result, less satisfying peer relationships
joy (because we don’t want to seem like we're gloating and less adaptive adjustment to school (Levine
over our good fortune) Sometimes people regulate their et al., 2013; Olson et al., 2005).

52 EMERGING EMOTIONS 167

Recall Interpret
1. Basic emotions consist of three elements: a e Distinguish basic emotions from complex
a physiological change, and an emotions.
overt behaviour.
Apply
2. Infants produce when they see a
human face. ® Cite similarities between developmental change in
infants’ expression and regulation of emotion and
3. Cultures differ in the to which developmental change in infants’ comprehension
emotional expression is encouraged. and expression of speech (described in Chapter 4).
4. Lebo, a 12-month-old, plays with the toy that his Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
mother ignored, but does not want to touch the end of the chapter.
toy that his mother expressed disgust at. This is
an example of :

5. People regulate emotions cognitively,

often by reappraising the meaning of an
event (or of feelings or thoughts) so that it
provokes emotion.

EX) Interacting with others

Learning objectives

® Identify when youngsters first begin to play with each other, and describe how play changes during infancy
and the preschool years.

© Discuss what determines whether children help one another.

Six-year-old Sandile and his two siblings had peers. In this section, we'll trace the development of
been told not to touch their mother’s iPad. these interactions and learn why children like Sandile
Consequently, when Sandile dropped the and Zanele don't always help others.
tablet and the screen shattered, he cried and
cried. His three-year-old brother, Thulani, and
his two-year-old sister, Zanele, watched but
The joys of play
did not help. Later, when their mother had Peer interactions begin surprisingly early in infancy.
soothed Sandile and assured him that the iPad By six months, babies look, smile, vocalise, and point
was old and needed to be replaced anyway, at each other. These behaviours become more common
she wondered about her younger children’s over the rest of the first year and babies become more
reactions. In the face of their brother's likely to respond in kind to these behaviours - smiling
obvious distress, why did Thulani and Zanele or vocalising in return (Rubin et al., 2015).
do nothing? Soon after the first birthday, children begin parallel
play, in which each youngster plays alone but maintains a
Infants’ initial interactions are with parents, but soon keen interest in what another child is doing. Two toddlers
they begin to interact with other people, notably their may each have his or her own toys, but each will watch
the other's play, too. Exchanges between youngsters
also become more common Parallel play represents
parallel play When children play alone but are aware of and a transition from playing alone to playing with others
interested in what another child is doing.
(Howes, Unger, & Seidner, 1990)

168 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyright 3019 Cengage Leareung. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scammed, ce duplicated, m whole of in part. Due to clectrosmc nights, some thend party costest muy be suppressed torn the citook and/or
cf hapter(s).
Editomad seview hon deemed that any wippromed content dacs aot maimally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Learting rencrves the ngbt w remove additional coment at any time if audmequent neh sednctoes equa
Beginning at roughly 15 to 18 months, toddlers conversations with imaginary partners or pretend to
no longer simply watch one another at play. Instead, drink imaginary tea. In the early phases of make-believe,
they engage in similar activities and talk or smile at one children rely on realistic props to support their play
another, illustrating simple social play. Play has now While pretending to drink, younger preschoolers use
become interactive (Howes & Matheson, 1992) An a real cup; while pretending to drive a car, they use a
example of simple social play is two 20-month-olds toy steering wheel In the later phases of make-believe,
pushing toy cars along the floor, making ‘car sounds’ and children no longer need realistic props. Instead, they can
periodically trading cars imagine that a block is the cup or that a paper plate is the
steering wheel.
This gradual movement toward more complex make-
believe reflects growth of language and cognitive skills
as well as interactions with parents (Karniol, 2016).
Parents initiate pretend play with their infants and
toddlers A mother feeding her 15-month-old with a
spoon may laugh and say, “Here's the plane flying into
Hassan’s mouth!’ By two years, parents often initiate
make-believe by saying ‘Let's pretend, and by age three,
children often engage in pretend play with peers. They
usually tell play partners that they want to pretend (‘Let's
pretend’), then describe those aspects of reality that are
being changed (‘I'll be the pilot, and this is my plane’
referring to the couch). It’s as if children mutually agree
to enter a parallel universe that’s governed by its own set
of rules (Wyman, 2014).

Think about it

How might Jean Piaget have explained the

emergence of make-believe during the preschool
years? How would Erik Erikson have explained it?

As you might suspect, culture influences the

development of make-believe. In many cultures (for
example, Afrikaners or Pedi people), parents routinely
engage in pretend play with their children. The contents
of pretend play often reflect the values important
A In parallel play, children play independently but actively watch what in a child’s culture (Gosso, Morais, & Otta, 2007).
other children are doing
Masekitlana, for example, does not have specific rules
and is not competitive. It is a monologue play during
Toward the second birthday, cooperative play which children usually relate stories about things that
emerges. In this, a distinct theme organises children’s worry or excite them. It can be imaginary, wishful, about
play, and they take on special roles based on the theme things or people they detest, or things around them
They may play hide-and-seek and alternate the roles of (Kekae-Moletsane, 2008). Other types of pretend play
hider and seeker, or they may have a tea party and take involve adventure, fantasy, and family roles and activities.
turns being the host and the guest (Parten, 1932). By the Thus, cultural values influence both the emergence and
time children are 344-4 years old, parallel play is much the content of make-believe (Farver & Shin, 1997)
less common and cooperative play is the norm (Howes
& Matheson, 1992)
simple social play Play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; toddlers
Make-believe engage in similar activities as well as talk and smile at each other.

During the preschool years, cooperative play often takes cooperative play Play that is organised around a theme, with each
child taking on a different role; begins at about two years of age.
the form of make-believe. Preschoolers have telephone

aoe INTERACTING WITH OTHERS 169

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copaed, scammed, or duplicated, m whole oc in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some therd party costest mury he sappeesecd fom the cfook ancice oC hapter|s)
Exhtonad sewew bon deemed thot any wuppremed content docs mot mustermally affect the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareung reserves the night t0 remove additonal comient af any te if subsequent nigh sedtnictooes neqqenre it
in South Africa have companion animals, and some
children become strongly attached to their companion
animals (Endenburg, van Lith, & Kirpensteijn, 2014).
Children without younger siblings are particularly likely
to play with companion animals. Such play sometimes
resembles cooperative play, particularly when dogs are
involved. For example, ‘fetch’ has the roles of ‘thrower’
and ‘retriever’ that are understood by child and dog
In other common forms of child-animal play, children
sometimes pretend to be an animal like the pet (for
example, barking at the companion animal) or they
pretend that the companion animal is human and hold
conversations in which they speak for it and themselves
(Melson, 2003, 2010).

Solitary play
At times throughout the preschool years, many children
prefer to play alone. Should parents be worried? Not
necessarily Some children are simply not particularly
A Make-believe becomes more sophisticated as children develop sociable - they enjoy solitary activities (for example,
colouring, solving puzzles, or building with blocks),
although they are capable of interacting effectively with
Many teachers and parents believe that make-
peers and often do so. However, other children are socially
believe play not only is entertaining for children but also
avoidant — they play alone not because they particularly
promotes their development. However, the proposed
like solitary play but because they’re uncomfortable
benefits of pretend play are not supported by research.
interacting with peers. These children are often anxious
In fact, most of the evidence indicates that pretend play
and lonely, and are more likely to be excluded by peers. In
does not enhance (or, for that matter, harm) children’s
other words, solitary play is no cause for concern when
creativity, their cognitive development, or their emotion
children enjoy playing alone but is worrisome when
regulation Pretend play may enhance children’s social
children play alone to escape interacting with peers. It's
skills but the findings are inconsistent (Lillard et al.,
best for these youngsters to see a professional who can
2013). In short, the main argument for pretend play is
help them overcome their reticence in these situations
that children enjoy it, not that they benefit from it.
(Coplan, Ooi, & Nocita, 2015).
For many preschool children, make-believe play
involves imaginary companions. Imaginary companions
were once thought to be fairly rare, but many preschoolers, Gender differences in play
particularly girls as well as firstborn and only children, Between two and three years of age, children begin to
report imaginary companions (Taylor et al., 2004, 2013) prefer playing with same-sex peers (Halim et al., 2013).
Children can usually describe what their imaginary Little boys play together with cars, and little girls play
playmates look and sound like (Tahiroglu, Mannering, together with dolls. Segregation of playmates by sex
& Taylor, 2011) Having an imaginary companion is occurs spontaneously, and children often resist playing
associated with many positive social characteristics with members of the other sex, even in gender-neutral
(Davis, Meins, & Fernyhough, 2011, Giménez-Dasi, activities such as playing catches or colouring (Maccoby,
Pons, & Bender, 2016; Roby & Kidd, 2008). Compared 1990, 1998).
with preschool children who lack imaginary friends, This preference increases during childhood, reaching
preschoolers with imaginary friends tend to be more a peak in preadolescence By age 10 or 11, the vast
sociable, have more real friends, and have a more majority of peer activity is with same-sex children, and
advanced theory of mind. And among older children most of this involves sex-typed play: boys are playing
who are at risk of developing behaviour problems, an sports or playing with cars or action figures; girls are
imaginary companion promotes better adjustment doing artwork or playing with pets or dolls (McHale
during adolescence (Taylor, Hulette, & Dishion, 2010) et al., 2004) Then the tide begins to turn, but even in
Many children also play with animals, particularly adulthood, time spent at work and at leisure is commonly
family pets or companion animals Many families segregated by gender (Hartup, 1983).

170 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Parental influence
Parents become involved in their preschool children’s
play in several ways (Parke & O'Neill, 2000):
© Playmate. Many parents enjoy the role of playmate
(and many parents deserve an award for their
performances). They use the opportunity to scaffold
their children’s play (see Chapter 4), often raising
it to more sophisticated levels (Tamis-LeMonda &
Bornstein, 1996). For example, if a toddler is stacking
A At about two or three years of age, boys and girls start to prefer
playing with members of their own sex.
toy plates, a parent might help the child stack the plates
(play at the same level) or might pretend to wash each
plate (play at a more advanced level). When parents
demonstrate the reciprocal, cooperative nature of
Why do boys and girls seem so attracted to same-sex play, their children’s play with peers 1s more successful
play partners? The first reason is self-selection by sex. (Lindsey, Cremeens, & Caldera, 2010).
Boys and girls want to play with others like themselves, e Social director. It takes two to interact, and young
and after they know their sex, they pick others on that children rely on parents to create opportunities for
basis (Martin et al., 2013). Second, boys and girls differ social interactions. Many parents of young children
in their styles of play. Boys prefer rough-and-tumble arrange visits with peers, enrol children in activities
play and generally are more competitive and dominating (such as preschool programmes), and take children
in their interactions. In contrast, girls’ play is more to settings that attract young children (such as
cooperative, prosocial, and conversation-oriented parks, swimming pools). All this effort is worth it:
Generally, boys don’t enjoy the way girls play and girls children whose parents provide them with frequent
are averse to boys’ style of play (Leaper, 2015; Maccoby, opportunities for peer interaction tend to get along
1990, 1998). better with their peers (Ladd & Pettit, 2002).
Third, when girls and boys play together, girls do © Coach Successful interactions require a host of skills,
not readily influence boys. Girls’ interactions with one including how to initiate an interaction, make joint
another are typically enabling — their actions and remarks decisions, and resolve conflicts. When parents help
tend to support others and sustain the interaction When their children acquire these skills, children tend to be
drawing together, one girl might say to another, ‘Cool more competent socially and more accepted by their
picture’ or ‘What do you want to do now?’ In contrast, peers (Grusec, 2011; Mounts, 2011). For example,
boy’s interactions are often constricting — one partner when mothers emphasise how targets of relational
tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting aggression feel, their children are less likely to resort
the other, by exaggerating, and so on. In the same drawing to relational aggression (Werner et al., 2014). But
task, one boy might say to another, “My picture's better’ there's a catch: the coaching must be constructive for
or ‘Drawing is stupid — let’s watch TV. When these styles children to benefit. Parent coaches sometimes make
are brought together, girls find that their enabling style suggestions that are misguided. Bad coaching is worse
is ineffective with boys. The same subtle overtures that than none at all, as it harms children’s peer relations
work with other girls have no impact on boys. Boys (Russell & Finnie, 1990).
ignore girls’ polite suggestions about what to do and
ignore girls’ efforts to resolve conflicts with discussion
(Rose & Rudolph, 2006). enabling actions Individuals’ actions and remarks that tend to
support others and sustain the interaction.
Early segregation of playmates by style of play means
that boys learn primarily from boys and girls from girls. constricting actions Interaction in which one partner tries to
Over time, such social segregation by sex reinforces emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other,

53. INTERACTING WITH OTHERS 171

Coryright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Ienerved. May mot be copied, xcanned, of duplicated. 2m whole or in part. Duc to electronic rights, some thind party comtest mury he suppressed feern dhe eflhowk mndliwe eCivapteris)
Tiered nevtew how dewned thet any auppreced coment dace mot muatonadly affect the overall kammg cxpenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the right to remove additional crertertt af ery tarne if sadmeupacrel rigivts weeirictoems repaint
e Mediator. When young children play, they often disagree, cooperative behaviour. If one youngster gives half of her
argue, and sometimes fight However, children play lunch to a peer who doesn't have his own, this is altruism.
more cooperatively and longer when parents are present Many scientists believe that humans are biologically
to help iron out conflicts (Mize, Pettit, & Brown, 1995). predisposed to be helpful, to share, to cooperate, and
When young children can’t agree on what to play, a to be concerned for others (Davidov et al., 2016). Why
parent can negotiate a mutually acceptable activity. When has prosocial behaviour evolved over time? The best
both youngsters want to play with the same toy, a parent explanation has nothing to do with high moral principles;
can arrange for them to share. Here, too, parents scaffold it's more realistic: people who frequently help others are
their preschoolers’ play, smoothing the interaction by more likely to receive help themselves, which increases
providing some of the social skills that preschoolers lack. the odds that they'll pass along their genes to future
generations. In fact, basic acts of altruism can be seen by
18 months of age. When toddlers and preschoolers see
other people who are obviously hurt or upset, they appear
Suppose friends ask you how their preschool concerned, like the child in the photo in this section. They
daughter could get along well with peers. What try to comfort the person by hugging him or patting him
advice would you give them? (Zahn-Waxler et al., 1992). And if an adult obviously
needs help, most 18-month-olds help spontaneously. For
example, when a teacher accidentally drops markers on a
In addition to these direct influences on children’s play, floor, most 18-month-olds help the teacher pick them up
parents influence children’s play indirectly via the quality
(Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Knafo-Noam, 2015)
of the parent-child attachment relationship. Recall that
Prosocial behaviour typically increases with
peer relationships in childhood and adolescence are most
development adolescents are more likely to help than
successful when, as infants, children had a secure attachment
children, who are more likely to help than preschoolers.
relationship with their mother (Groh et al., 2017) A child’s
These changes reflect children’s growing understanding
relationship with his or her parents is the internal working
of others’ needs and of appropriate altruistic responses
model for all future social relationships. When the parent- (Eisenberg et al., 2016) Let's look at some specific skills
child relationship is of high quality and is emotionally
that set the stage for altruistic behaviours.
satisfying, children are encouraged to form relationships with
other people. Another possibility is that an infant's secure
attachment relationship with his or her mother makes the
infant feel more confident about exploring the environment,
which in turn provides more opportunities to interact with
peers. These two views are not mutually exclusive. Both may
contribute to the relative ease with which securely attached
children interact with their peers (Hartup, 1992)

Helping others
Prosocial behaviour is any behaviour that benefits
another person. Cooperation — that is, working together
toward a common goal - is one form of prosocial
behaviour. Of course, cooperation often ‘works’
because individuals gain more than they would by not
cooperating. In contrast, altruism is behaviour that is
driven by feelings of responsibility toward other people,
such as helping and sharing, in which individuals do
not benefit directly from their actions. If two youngsters
pool their funds to buy a chocolate bar to share, this is

prosocial behaviour Any behaviour that benefits another person.

altruism Prosocial behaviour such as helping and sharing in

which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her
A By 18 months of age, toddlers try to comfort others who are hurt
behaviour.
or upset

172 CHAPTER5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, scammed, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mary he suppressed eoen the cfiock andice Chapter»)
Exttorad cuew bes deaned that aay wappromed comin doc act marily affect the overall kamung expenence. Congage Learting rewrven the nett wo comove addstaveal coment at any brne if subeequent neh rednchoes moyenne
Skills underlying altruistic behaviour e Mood. Children act altruistically when they are happy
Remember from Chapter 4 that preschool children or when they are feeling successful but not when they
are often egocentric, so they may not see the need for are feeling sad or feeling as if they have failed (Wentzel,
Filisetti, & Looney, 2007). A preschool child who just
altruistic behaviour. For example, young children might
not share sweets with a younger sibling because they spent an exciting morning as the ‘leader’ in nursery
cannot imagine how unhappy the sibling is without the school is more inclined to share treats with siblings
sweets. In contrast, school-age children, who can more than is a preschooler who was punished by the teacher
easily take another person's perspective, would perceive (Eisenberg, 2000).
the unhappiness and be more inclined to share. In fact, ® Costs of altruism. Children act altruistically when such
research consistently indicates that altruistic behaviour actions involve few or modest sacrifices. A preschool
is related to perspective-taking skill. Children who child who was given a snack that she doesn't like is
understand others’ thoughts and feelings share better more inclined to share it with others than a child who
with others and help them more often (Imuta et al., 2016; was given her favourite food (Eisenberg & Shell, 1986).
Vaish, Carpenter, & Tomasello, 2009). So when are children most likely to help? They help
Related to perspective taking is empathy, which is the when they feel responsible for the person in need, have
actual experiencing of another's feelings. Children who the needed skills, are happy, and believe they will give
deeply feel another individual's fear, disappointment, up little by helping. When are children least likely to
sorrow, or loneliness are more inclined to help that help? They are least likely to help when they feel neither
person than are children who do not feel those emotions responsible nor capable of helping, are in a bad mood, and
(Eisenberg et al., 2015). In other words, youngsters who believe that helping will entail a large personal sacrifice
are obviously distressed by what they are seeing are most With these guidelines in mind, can you explain why
likely to help if they can. Thulani and Zanele, the children in the opening story,
Of course, perspective taking and empathy do watched idly as their older brother cried? The last two factors
not guarantee that children always act altruistically. - mood and costs - are probably not relevant. However,
Even though children have the skills needed to act the first two factors may explain the failure of Thulani and
altruistically, they may not because of the particular Zanele to help their older brother. Our explanation appears
situation, as we'll see next. towards the end of this unit, just before Table 5.4.
So far, we've seen that altruistic behaviour is determined
Situational influences by children’s skills (such as perspective taking) and by
Kind children occasionally disappoint us by being cruel, characteristics of situations (such as whether children feel
and children who are usually stingy sometimes surprise competent to help in a particular situation) As we'll see in
us by their generosity. Why? The setting helps determine the next few pages, whether children are altruistic 1s also
whether children act altruistically. determined by genetics and by socialisation.
© Feelings of responsibility. Children act altruistically when
they feel responsible for the person in need. For example,
children may help siblings and friends more often than
Suppose some pre-primary school children
strangers simply because they feel a direct responsibility
for people they know well (Costin & Jones, 1992). And want to raise money for a gift for one of their
classmates who is ill. Based on the information
they're more likely to help when prompted with photos
presented here, what advice can you give the
showing two people who look like they are friends
(Over & Carpenter, 2009). In other words, a simple children as they plan their fundraising?
reminder of the importance of friendship (or affiliation
with others) can be enough to elicit helping. The contribution of heredity
e Feelings of competence. Children act altruistically when
As mentioned earlier, many scientists believe that prosocial
they believe that they have the skills to help the person
behaviour represents an evolutionary adaptation: people
in need. Suppose, for example, that a preschooler is
who help others are more likely to be helped themselves
growing more and more upset because she can't figure
and thus are more likely to survive and have offspring.
out how to work a computer game. A peer who knows
little about computer games is not likely to come to the According to this argument, we should expect to find
young girl's aid because the peer doesn't know what to evidence for heritability of prosocial behaviour. In fact,
do to help. If the peer tries to help, he or she can end
empathy Act of experiencing another person's feelings.
up looking foolish (Peterson, 1983).

5-3 INTERACTING WITH OTHERS 173

(Copyragts
2099 Comgage Leareeng. All Rashes Roserved May act be coped acommed or daphcted m whol or om pert. Der soclecteenc mpbes, somee theed pty contest mary be eappeceend fever tee cfook andibe of hapecr’+)
Edecead arvre tos doomed Gas any eapgromed coment dom ace meserodh aflect he ower koeemys copemenes. Compage Lowtang rare the mgt somes added omc ot ay tere of ateegueet mph arénchoes roger &
that’s the case: twin studies consistently find that identical parenting is harsh, is threatening, and includes
twins are more similar in their prosocial behaviour than frequent physical punishment (Newton, Thompson,
are fraternal twins (Knafo-Noam et al., 2015). & Goodman, 2016). Particularly important is parents’
One likely path of genetic influence involves oxytocin, use of reasoning as a disciplinary tactic with the goal
a hormone that influences many social behaviours (for of helping children see how their actions affect others
example, nurturance, empathy, affiliation, and cooperation) (Farrant et al., 2012). For example, after four-year-old
and that has been linked to a few specific genes. In this Rashad grabbed some crayons from a playmate, his
account, some children may inherit oxytocin-promoting mother told Rashad, “You shouldn't grab things from
genes that facilitate their prosocial behaviour (Carter, people. It makes them angry and unhappy. Ask first,
2014). For example, oxytocin may enhance perspective- and if they say “no’, then you mustn't take them:
taking and empathy, leading to greater prosocial behaviour © Opportunities to behave prosocially. You need to
(Christ, Carlo, & Stoltenberg, 2016) practise to improve skills, and prosocial behaviours
Genes probably also affect prosocial behaviour are no exception - children and adolescents are more
indirectly by their influence on temperament. For likely to act prosocially when they're routinely given
example, children who are temperamentally less able to the opportunity to help and cooperate with others. At
regulate their emotions (in part due to heredity) may help home, children can help with household tasks such
less often because they're so upset by another's distress as cleaning and setting the table. Adolescents can be
that taking action is impossible (Eisenberg et al., 2007) encouraged to participate in community service, such
Another temperamental influence may be via inhibition as working at a charity or tutoring younger children
(shyness). Children who are temperamentally shy are Experiences like these help sensitise children and
often reluctant to help others, particularly people they adolescents to the needs of others and allow them to
don't know well (Young, Fox, & Zahn-Waxler, 1999). Even enjoy the satisfaction of helping (Carlo et al., 2007).
though shy children realise that others need help and are
So, parents can foster altruism in their youngsters by
upset by another person's apparent distress, their shyness
behaving altruistically themselves, using reasoning to
prevents them from translating these feelings into action.
discipline their children, and encouraging their children
Thus, in both cases, children are aware that others need
to help at home and elsewhere. Situational factors also
help. But in the first instance, they're too upset themselves
play a role, and altruism requires perspective taking
to figure out how to help, and in the second instance, they
and empathy Combining these ingredients, we can give
know how to help but are too inhibited to follow through.
a general account of children’s altruistic behaviour. As
children get older, their perspective-taking and empathic
Socialisation of altruism
skills develop, which enables them to see and feel another's
Mahatma Gandhi said that his pursuit of the preservation needs. Nonetheless, children are never invariably
of the rights and dignity of Indian people was particularly altruistic (or, fortunately, invariably nonaltruistic)
influenced by three people: Raychandbhai (a 19th because particular contexts affect altruistic behaviour,
century Indian philosopher, poet and reformer), Tolstoy too. These factors are summarised in @ TABLE 5.4.
(a Russian author), and Ruskin (an English artist and
philanthropist). Gandhi's prosocial behaviour started in
childhood at home. But how do parents foster altruism
in their children? Several factors contribute: Gugu worries that her son Dumi is too selfish
and wishes that he were more caring and
© Modelling. When children see adults helping and caring
compassionate. As a parent, what can Gugu do
for others, they often imitate such prosocial behaviour
to encourage Dumi to be more concermed about
(Eisenberg et al., 2015). Of course, parents are the models
the welfare of others?
to whom children are most continuously exposed,
so they exert a powerful influence. When parents are
helpful and responsive, their children often imitate them Postscript: Why didn't Thulani and Zanele help?
by being cooperative, helpful, sharing, and less critical Here are our explanations First, neither Thulani nor
of others. And when parents do volunteer work for Zanele may have felt sufficiently responsible to help
charitable organisations, their adolescent children are because (a) with two children who could help, each
more likely to volunteer, too (McGinley et al., 2010) child's feeling of individual responsibility is reduced; and
e Disciplinary practices Children behave prosocially (b) younger children are less likely to feel responsible for
more often when their parents are warm and an older sibling. Second, neither was allowed to play with
supportive, set guidelines, and provide feedback; in the iPad, so they wouldn't feel competent to help. In other
contrast, prosocial behaviour is less common when words, they had no idea how to fix the damaged iPad.
174 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Skills Perspective taking they can take another person's point of view.
Empathy they feel another person's emotions.
Situational influences Feelings of responsibility they feel responsible to the person in need.
Feelings of competence they feel competent to help.
Mood they're in a good mood.
Cost of altruism the cost of prosocial behaviour is small.
Heredity Temperament they're not shy and can control their emotions.
Parents’ influence Modelling parents behave prosocially themselves.
Discipline parents reason with them.
Opportunities they practise at home and elsewhere.

Test yourself 5.3

Recall 5. Prosocial behaviour typically with

development.
1. Soon after their first birthday, children begin
in which each youngster plays
Interpret
alone but maintains a keen interest in what
another child is doing. e¢ Why must a full account of children’s prosocial
behaviour include an emphasis on skills (for
2. Lerato and Lekeshia are playing together.
example, empathy) as well as situations (for
Lekeshia asks Lerato what she would like to play
example, whether a child feels responsible)?
next, and Lerato says that shed like to play with
their dolls, if Lerato would like that too. Their Apply
behaviour is
¢ How might children’s temperament, which we
3. behaviour is any behaviour that discussed in Chapter 3, influence the development
benefits another person. of their play with peers?
4. differs from prosocial behaviour Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
in that individuals do not benefit directly from end of the chapter.
their actions.

EX] Gender roles and gender identity

Learning objectives

® Identify our stereotypes about males and females and discuss how well they correspond to actual differences
between boys and girls.

® Describe how young children learn gender roles.

® Describe how gender roles are changing, and extrapolate what further changes the future might hold.

Nerisha and Steve wanttheir six-year-old daughter, to be indistinguishable from other six-year-olds
Jyoti, to pick activities, friends, and ultimately a reared by conventional parents. Jyoti’s close
career based on her interests and abilities rather friends are all girls. When Jyoti is with her friends,
than on her gender. They have done their best to they play house or play with dolls. What seems
encourage gender-neutral values and behaviour. to be going wrong with Nerisha and Steve's plans
Therefore, both are astonished that Jyoti seems for a gender-neutral girl?
5.4 GENDER ROLES AND GENDER IDENTITY 175

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. im whole
or in part. Dur to clectronic
nights, some thend party comiest
muy be suppressed from the flock andlor oChaptes(s).
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect
the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
Family and well-wishers are always eager to know the assume that she is a girl, based on her taste in toys.
sex of a newborn. Why are people so interested in a What's more, your assumption would lead you to believe
baby’s sex? The answer is that being a ‘boy’ or a ‘girl’ is that she plays more quietly and is more readily frightened
not simply a biological distinction. Instead, these terms than a boy (Karraker, Vogel, & Lake, 1995). Once we
are associated with distinct social roles. Like a role in a assume that the child is a girl, our gender stereotypes
play, a social role is a set of cultural guidelines as to how lead to many inferences about behaviour and personality.
a person should behave, particularly with other people.
The roles associated with gender are among the first Learning gender stereotypes
that children learn, starting in infancy (Shutts, 2015). Children don't live in a gender-neutral world for long.
Youngsters rapidly learn about the behaviours assigned Although 12-month-old boys and girls look equally at
to males and females in their culture. At the same time, gender-stereotyped toys, 18-month-olds do not: girls
they begin to identify with one of these groups. As they look longer at pictures of dolls than at pictures of trucks,
do, they take on an identity as a boy or a girl. but boys look longer at pictures of trucks (Leaper,
In this section, you'll learn about the ‘female role’ 2015). By four years of age, children know much about
and the ‘male role’ in South Africa today, and you'll also gender-stereotyped activities. They believe that girls play
discover why Nerisha and Steve are having so much hopscotch but boys play rugby; girls help bake biscuits but
trouble rearing a gender-neutral girl. boys take out the rubbish; and women feed babies but men
chop wood (Gelman, Taylor, & Nguyen, 2004). They've
also begun to learn about behaviours and traits that are
stereotypically masculine or feminine. Preschoolers believe
that boys are more often aggressive physically but that girls
tend to be aggressive verbally (Giles & Heyman, 2005).
During the primary school years, children expand their
knowledge of gender-stereotyped traits and behaviours
They learn stereotypes about personality traits —- boys are
tough and girls are gentle — and about academic subjects
- maths is for boys and reading is for girls (Cvencek,
Meltzoff, & Greenwald, 2011, Kurtz-Costes et al., 2014).
By the time they in the last years of primary school, their
ideas of gender stereotypes are virtually as well formed as
those of adults (Heyman & Legare, 2004).
& Assuming that the child is a girl leads to a host of other inferences Beyond the preschool years, children learn that
about her personality and behaviour occupations associated with males tend to earn more
money and have greater power than those associated
Images of men and women: Facts and fantasy with females (Weisgram, Bigler, & Liben, 2010). At some
All cultures have gender stereotypes — beliefs and images point, children apparently internalise a general belief
about males and females that may or may not be true For about male versus female occupations — something like
example, many men and women believe that males are ‘Jobs for men are more prestigious than jobs for women.
rational, active, independent, competitive, and aggressive As children develop, they also begin to understand that
At the same time, many men and women claim that gender stereotypes do not always apply - older children are
females are emotional, passive, dependent, sensitive, and more willing than younger children to ignore stereotypes
gentle (Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). when judging other children. For example, preschoolers
Based on gender stereotypes, we expect males and who were told about a boy who likes to play with girls
females to act and feel in particular ways, and we respond and pretend to iron, think he would still want to play with
to their behaviour differently depending on their gender masculine toys. However, by the middle primary school
(Smith, Mackie, & Claypool, 2015). For example, if you years, children realise that this boy’s interests are not
saw a toddler playing with a doll, you would probably stereotypic, and he would rather play with stereotypically
feminine toys (Blakemore, 2003). In other words, older
children see gender stereotypes as general guidelines for
social role Set of cultural guidelines about how one should behaviour that are not necessarily binding for all boys and
behave, especially with other people.
girls (Conry-Murray & Turiel, 2012). This developmental
gender stereotypes Beliefs and images about males and females trend toward greater flexibility is evident in the study
that are not necessarily true.
described in the ‘Spotlight on research’ feature.

176 CHAPTER5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Resea rch
Who were the in a feminine stereotypic manner and that a girl brought up by
investigators, and men will behave in a masculine stereotypic manner A final
what was the aim of result to note ts that participants at all ages claimed greater
the study? Do children flexibility in behavioural properties for girls than for boys,
believe that physical and they thought that girls were more likely to be influenced in
behavioural properties of boys a masculine direction than boys were to be influenced in a
and girls are inherent and stable? feminine direction
Do they believe, for example, that boys necessarily like to What did the investigators conclude? Taylor and
build things and grow up to have a beard? Do they believe colleagues concluded that ‘young children treat the concepts
that girls necessarily like to play with dolls and grow up to of “boy” and “girl” as equivalent to species, in the extent to
have breasts? Mananne Taylor, Marjorie Rhodes, and Susan which features are inborn, inflexible, and intrinsically linked
Gelman (2009) conducted a study to answer these questions to category membership [By] adulthood, participants
How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? viewed both male and female behaviour as more open to the
Taylor and colleagues told participants about a baby girl who, environment and flexible * (2009, p. 475)
immediately after birth, went to live on an island inhabited What converging evidence would strengthen these
only by men, including her uncle She had no contact with conclusions? Most of the children in this sample were
females Participants were then shown a photo of the baby European American, from university towns in the U.S
as a ‘big kid’ and were asked several questions about her Midwest. It would be important to see whether children from
physical properties (for example, ‘Will she grow up to be different backgrounds, cultures, and countries responded in
a mommy or a daddy?’) and some questions about her a similar fashion In addition, it would be valuable to extend
behavioural properties (for example, ‘Will she like to play with the list of properties to, for example, psychological properties
a tea set or with trucks?’) They were also told about a baby (such as personality) to determine whether they’re considered
boy who lives on an island with his aunt and other women more like physical properties or more like behavioural
and then were asked the same questions properties in terms of flexibility Very little research has been
Who were the participants in the study? The study done on gender, stereotypes, and perceptions of people in
included 68 5-year-olds, 64 10-yearolds, and 32 college African nations, and such research would create a fuller and
students At each age, half the children were girls more nuanced picture of gender stereotyping
What was the design of the study? This study
was experimental because Taylor and colleagues were
oc

interested in the impact of the domain — physical versus

_
matching biological sex

behavioural — on participants’ judgements. The study was

Proportion of judgements

cross-sectional because it included 5-yearolds, 10-year-olds,

°
=

and college students, each tested once

Were there ethical concerns with the study? No, the
children enjoyed hearing stones about babies growing up
on the island
What were the results? The investigators recorded the
percentage of responses that were consistent with the
o
>

baby’s biological sex (for example, predicting that the baby

girl would like a tea set and want to be a nurse and that she
would grow up to be a mom and have breasts) The results
he
S

are shown in @ FIGURE 5.2, separately for physical and

behavioural properties
Se
>

Let's start with the physical properties There's 10 12 14 16 18 20

o
>

little developmental change in these judgements at all Age (in years)

ages, participants expected the baby to acquire physical
——*®— Baby boy: Physical properties
properties associated with its biological sex However, the
pattern is quite different for behavioural properties, where ---@--» Baby girl: Physical properties
there is a steady downward developmental trend. Five- —#— Baby boy: Behavioural properties
yearolds tend to believe that boys and girls will engage in ---@--- Baby girl: Behavioural properties
genderstereotypic behaviours, although they see these as
slightly more flexible than physical properties In contrast, @ FIGURE 5.2 As children develop, they gradually see behaviour and
adults believe that a boy brought up by women will behave traits aS more open to the influence of the environment.

5 4 GENDER ROLES AND GENDER IDENTITY 177

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesrmung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copacd, ecammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest my he wappeesecd thom the cfiook andice cf hapter(s).
Edttomad semew boo deemed that any wuppromed coetient docs sot sustcrally affect the overall kammg expenence. Congage Learaing reserves the night to remove additeoeal cresient af any Game if subsequent nef sextnctoes regen it
In South Africa, it is difficult to make generalisations girls read better than boys, and this difference is found
about gender stereotypes that relate to all South Africans, in virtually all industrialised countries (Miller &
as the population is culturally so diverse. Although our Halpern, 2014). Finally, more boys are diagnosed with
constitution explicitly disallows discrimination on the language-related problems such as reading disability
basis of gender (among other characteristics), we have a (Halpern, 2012).
high rate of gender-based violence and HIV and AIDS Mathematics. During the elementary school years, girls
infections among young women. This tells us that women are usually more advanced than boys in arithmetic and
in our society tend to be more vulnerable than men, and mastery of basic maths concepts, a difference that may
it is likely that perceptions of females — which includes be a by-product of girls’ greater language skill (We1
gender stereotyping — contributes to this vulnerability. et al., 2012). During high school and college, boys used
to get higher scores than girls on standardised maths
Gender-related differences tests, but that difference has diminished substantially
over the past 25 years, now boys have a negligible
So far, we've only considered people's beliefs about
advantage (Lindberg et al., 2010). This change
differences between males and females, and many of
apparently reflects efforts to encourage girls to pursue
them are false. Research reveals that males and females
mathematics generally and specifically to take more
often do not differ in the ways specified by cultural
maths courses. Around the world, gender differences
stereotypes. What are the actual differences between
in maths are negligible in countries where, compared
males and females? Of course, in addition to the obvious
with males, females have similar access to education,
anatomical differences, males are typically larger and
occupations, and political power, but gender differences
stronger than females throughout most of the life span.
remain where females are limited to traditionally
As infants, boys are more active than girls, and this
feminine-stereotyped occupations that do not require
difference increases during childhood (Alexander &
maths skills (Else-Quest, Hyde, & Linn, 2010)
Wilcox, 2012; Saudino, 2009). In contrast, girls are less
Spatial ability. On problems like those in @ FIGURE 5.3,
vulnerable to stress and disease and have a lower death
which measure the ability to manipulate visual
rate (Zaslow & Hayes, 1986).
information mentally, you must decide which figures
With regard to social roles, activities for males tend
are rotated variants of the standard shown at the left.
to be more strenuous, involve more cooperation with
Beginning in infancy, boys tend to have better mental-
others, and often require travel. Activities for females are
rotation skill than girls (Levine et al., 2016). However,
usually less demanding physically, are more solitary, and
on other spatial tasks, sex differences are smaller or
take place closer to home This division of roles is much
nonexistent (Miller & Halpern, 2014).
the same worldwide (Whiting & Edwards, 1988).
Memory. Compared with boys and men, girls and
In South Africa, we can see this pattern in a historical
women often remember the identity of objects as well
example, in the migrant labour system Men were
as their location more accurately (Miller & Halpern,
expected to leave the traditional homes to work on
2014; Voyer et al , 2007). For example, if shown
mines or farms, leaving their wives and families behind,
photos of faces, girls remember those faces more
and returning with their earnings for a short part of
accurately than boys do (Herlitz & Lovén, 2013). In
each year. The women were expected to take care of the
addition, when describing past events (such as a trip
homestead, land and children while the men were away
to a museum, a special visitor at school), girls tend
When boys grew up, they were expected to follow their
to provide more elaborate and more emotion-filled
fathers to the places of employment, thus perpetuating
descriptions (Grysman & Hudson, 2013)
the system of women looking after the home and
Social influence Girls are more likely than boys
children while the men earned an income. However,
to comply with the directions of adults (Maccoby
today both men and women from all over Africa often
& Jacklin, 1974). Girls and women are also more
move far from home in search of employment, leaving
readily influenced by others in a variety of situations,
the children with family members.
particularly when they are under group pressure
The extent of gender differences in the intellectual
(Becker, 1986, Eagly, Karau, & Makhijami, 1995).
and psychosocial arenas remains uncertain. Research
However, these gender differences may simply reflect
suggests differences between males and females in the
that females value group harmony more than males do
following areas:
and thus seem to give in to others (Miller, Danaher,
e Verbal ability. Girls have larger vocabularies than boys & Forbes, 1986; Strough & Berg, 2000) For instance,
and are more talkative (Feldman et al., 2000; Leaper & at a meeting to plan a school function, girls are just
Smith, 2004). During primary school and high school, as likely as boys to recognise the flaws in a bad idea,

178 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

b>
@ FIGURE 5.3 On Spatial ability tasks, which involve visualising information in different orientations, males tend to respond more rapudly
and more accurately than females.
From ‘Process Analysis of Spatial Aptinude’ by J. VW. Pelegine asd A.V Kall (1962) im R. 1 Stambarg (Ed), Advetoes in the Paychaigy of Hua (nnaligence, Vol 1 p. 396.

but girls are more willing to go along with it, simply their behaviour, to inhibit inappropriate responding,
because they don’t want the group to start arguing and to focus their attention (Else-Quest et al., 2006;
© Aggression. In virtually all cultures that have been Gagne, Miller, & Goldsmith, 2013). In addition, boys
studied, boys are more physically aggressive than are far more likely to be diagnosed with attentional
girls, and this is true by two years of age (Hay, 2017). disorders such as ADHD (Hyde, 2014).
This difference continues throughout the life span
In most other intellectual and social domains, boys and
(Sanson et al., 1993). In contrast, girls are more likely
girls are similar. When thinking about areas in which sex
to resort to relational aggression in which they try to
differences have been found, keep in mind that gender
hurt others by damaging their relationships with peers.
differences often depend on a person's experiences
They may call children names, make fun of them,
(Levine et al., 2016). Also, gender differences may
spread rumours about them, or pointedly ignore them
fluctuate over time, reflecting historical change in the
(Ostrov & Godleski, 2010).
contexts of childhood for boys and girls. Finally, each
e Emotional sensitivity and expression. Throughout
result just described refers to a difference in the average
infancy, childhood, and adolescence, girls identify
performance of boys and girls. These differences tend to
facial expressions (such as a happy face versus a sad
be small, which means that they do not apply to all boys
face) more accurately than boys do (Alexander &
and girls (Hyde, 2014). For example, many girls have
Wilcox, 2012; Thompson & Voyer, 2014). In addition,
greater spatial ability than some boys, and many boys are
girls are more likely to express happiness and sadness,
more susceptible to social influence than are some girls.
but boys are more likely to express anger (Chaplin &
Aldao, 2013). Finally, for the complex (self-conscious)
emotions described earlier in this chapter, adolescent
girls report experiencing shame and guilt more often Common thinking suggests that parents and other
than boys do (Else-Quest et al., 2012). adults — teachers and television characters, for example
e Effortful control. During story time in a preschool - directly shape children’s behaviour toward the roles
classroom, many children sit quietly, listening to the associated with their sex. Boys are rewarded for boyish
teacher read. But if a child is fidgeting or pestering a
nearby child, it’s probably a boy. Consistent with this
example, girls are more skilled at effortful control: relational aggression Aggression used to hurt others by
compared with boys, they are better able to regulate

5 4 GENDER ROLES AND GENDER IDENTITY 179

Copyraght2099 Congape Lowrseng All Righes Reserved May not be coped, acommed. or dupbcted m whole of on port. Dur so clectrrenc mbes, some therd party comicet muy be suppeceecd foen tac clock andive of hapecs|+)
Edecrad srvicw tos deemed thot ary eappromed comeat doc: act mumcradh affect the overall kormmy cupencece. Congage Loatung rracrve the nett someve addmeosal mee of any tone of aterquee ng apencuces mgee 2
behaviour and punished for girlish behaviour. This Of course, adults differ in their views on the relative
thinking even has a theoretical basis. According to social rights and roles of males and females. Some have very
cognitive theorists Albert Bandura (1977, 1986; Bandura traditional views and believe that men should be hired
& Bussey, 2004) and Walter Mischel (1970), children preferentially for some jobs and that it’s more important
learn gender roles in much the same way they learn for sons than daughters to attend university. Others
other social behaviours. by watching the world around have more gender-neutral views and believe that
them and learning the outcomes of different actions. women should have the same business and professional
Thus, parents and others shape appropriate gender opportunities as men and that daughters should have the
roles in children, and children learn what their culture same educational opportunities as sons. Not surprisingly,
considers appropriate behaviour for males and females parents convey these attitudes to their children (Crouter
by simply watching how adults and peers act et al., 2007) Meta-analyses show that children’s gender-
How well does research support social learning related interests, attitudes, and self-concepts are more
theory? Overall, parents often treat sons and daughters traditional when their parents have traditional views
similarly. Parents interact equally with sons and and are more gender-neutral when their parents
daughters, are equally warm to both, encourage both sons have nontraditional views (Degner & Dalege, 2013;
and daughters to be independent, and discipline sons Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002)
and daughters similarly (Hallers-Haalboom et al., 2016, Peers are also influential. By three years, most
Lytton & Romney, 1991). And, although mothers are children’s play shows the impact of gender stereotypes -
more engaged than fathers in their children’s education, boys prefer blocks and trucks, whereas girls prefer tea
mothers’ and fathers’ involvement has comparable impact sets and dolls - and youngsters are critical of peers
on boys’ and girls’ success in school (Kim & Hill, 2015). who engage in gender-inappropriate play (Hines,
However, in behaviour related to gender roles, parents 2015). This is particularly true of boys who like
respond differently to sons and daughters (Lytton & feminine toys or who choose feminine activities. Boys
Romney, 1991) Activities such as playing with dolls, who play with dolls and girls who play with cars will be
dressing up, or helping an adult, are encouraged more ignored, teased, or ridiculed by their peers, but a boy
often in daughters than in sons. Rough-and-tumble play will receive harsher treatment than a girl (Levy, Taylor,
and playing with blocks are encouraged more in sons & Gelman, 1995). Once children learn rules about
than in daughters. Parents tolerate mild aggression in gender-typical play, they often harshly punish peers
sons to a greater degree than in daughters (Martin & who violate those rules
Ross, 2005), and following the birth of a child, especially Peers influence gender roles in another way, too.
a firstborn, they become more traditional in gender- We've seen that by two or three years of age, children
related attitudes (Katz-Wise, Priess, & Hyde, 2010). most often play with same-sex peers (Leaper, 2015).
This early segregation of playmates based on a child's sex
means that boys learn primarily from boys and girls learn
primarily from girls This helps reinforce a youngster’s
The South African government actively promotes emerging sense of membership in a particular gender
gender equality. Describe how you might do
research to determine whether this has changed
the gender roles that children learn.

Fathers are more likely than mothers to treat sons

and daughters differently Fathers often encourage
gender-related play and they are more likely to accept
dependence in their daughters (Snow, Jacklin, &
Maccoby, 1983). A father, for example, may urge his
frightened young son to jump off the diving board (‘Be
a man!’) but not insist that his daughter do so (“That's
okay, baby’). Apparently mothers are more likely to
respond based on their knowledge of the needs of
individual children, but fathers respond based on gender
stereotypes. A mother responds to her son, knowing that
he’s smart but unsure of himself, a father may respond 4 Fathers are more likely than mothers to encourage their children’s
based on what he thinks boys generally should be like genderrelated play.

180 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

1
>

Se Qo ms
Not for me

Who |
| lama girl
Doll
I
i>
:
For girls
fe
For me
ne
leam

@ FIGURE 5.4 According to gendeeschema theory, children first decide if an object, an activity, or a
behaviour is for fernales or males and then learn more about the objects, activities, or behaviours that
are appropriate for their own gender

54 GENDER ROLES AND GENDER IDENTITY 181

Biological influences
Most child development researchers agree that biology Evolving gender roles
contributes to gender roles and gender identity. Gender roles are not etched in stone, they change with
Evolutionary developmental psychology, for example, the times. In South Africa, the range of acceptable roles
reminds us that men and women performed vastly for girls and boys and women and men has never been
different roles for much of human history Women were greater than today For example, some fathers stay home
more invested in child rearing, and men were more to be primary caregivers for children, and some mothers
invested in providing important resources (such as food work full-time as sole support for the family What is the
and protection) for their offspring (Geary, 2002) In impact of these changes on gender roles? Some insights
adapting to these roles, different traits and behaviours come from the results of the Family Lifestyles Project
evolved for men and women For example, men became (Weisner, Garnier, & Loucky, 1994; Weisner & Wilson-
more aggressive because that was adaptive in helping Mitchell, 1990). This research has examined families
them ward off predators. in which the adults were members of the American
If gender roles are based in part on our evolutionary counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s. Some of the
heritage, then behaviour genetic research should show families are deeply committed to living their own lives
the impact of heredity on gender-role learning. Indeed, and to rearing their children without traditional gender
twin studies show a substantial hereditary impact on stereotypes In these families, men and women share the
gender-role learning (lervolino et al., 2005) For identical household, financial, and child care tasks.
twins, if one strongly prefers sex-typical toys and The results of this project show that parents can
activities, the other one usually does, too. Fraternal twins influence some aspects of gender stereotyping more
are also similar in their preference for sex-typical toys readily than others. On the one hand, children in these
and activities, but not to the extent of identical twins. families tend to have same-sex friends and to like sex-
Twin studies point to a biological basis for gender- typed activities the boys enjoy physical play, and the
role learning, but the studies don’t tell us what factors girls enjoy drawing and reading. On the other hand, the
are responsible Some scientists believe that the sex children have few stereotypes concerning occupations:
hormones are key players. Consistent with this idea, they agree that girls can be president of the United
for both boys and girls, exposure to testosterone during States and drive trucks and that boys can be nurses and
prenatal development leads to greater interest in secretaries. They also have fewer sex-typed attitudes
masculine sex-typed activities during the elementary about the use of objects. They claim that boys and girls
school years (Hines, 2015). This link is particularly are equally likely to use an iron, a spade, a hammer and
vivid in studies of children with congenital adrenal nails, and a needle and thread.

182 CHAPTER 5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

5. Agmat is a boy in Grade R. He watches a group

of girls drawing and decides that drawing is a
girls’ activity. He decides to join the children who
are building a fort in the playground because
he has seen neighbourhood boys do something
similar, so he knows that this is a boy’s activity.
This is an example of

Interpret
© How do the different forces in the biopsychosocial
framework contribute to the development of
gender roles?

Apply
e What advice would you give to a mother who
wants her daughter to grow up to be gender-free
in her attitudes, beliefs, and aspirations?

& Gender roles continue to evolve, and the range of acceptable roles
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
for men and women continues to expand. end of the chapter.

54 GENDER ROLES AND GENDER IDENTITY 183

Copyraght 2019 Congage Leareeng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copecd, acammed oc duplicated m whole of in port. Dur to clectreenc mphes, some therd party contest mo he suppeceacd for dec citook andive of hapecs|s)
Edacead senew to doomed that ary muppromed comm! doc act maxmath affect the overall kemnmye ctpenceee. Cengage Learning reactive the nett w romete addmeogal coencar af any tame if sudecquem ngbe wenchces moqese &
5.1 Beginnings: Trust and attachment or in a day care centre. Infants and young children are
not harmed by such care as long as 1t 1s of high quality
What are Erikson’s first three stages of psychosocial and parents remain responsive to their children.
development?
¢ In Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, 5.2 Emerging emotions
individuals face certain psychosocial crises at different At what age do children begin to express basic
phases in development. The crisis of infancy 1s to
emotions?
establish a balance between trust and mistrust of the
world, producing hope; between one and three years © Basic emotions — which include joy, anger, and fear -
of age, youngsters must blend autonomy and shame to emerge in the first year. Fear first appears in infancy as
produce will; and between three and five years, initiative stranger wariness.
and guilt must be balanced to achieve purpose.
What are complex emotions, and when do they
How do infants become emotionally attached to mother, develop?
father, and other significant people in their lives? © Complex emotions have an evaluative component
@ Attachment is an enduring socioemotional relationship and include guilt, embarrassment, and pride They
between infant and parent For both adults and appear between 18 and 24 months and require more
infants, many of the behaviours that contribute to the sophisticated cognitive skills than basic emotions
formation of attachment are biologically programmed. Cultures differ in the rules for expressing emotions and
Bowlby’s theory of attachment is rooted in evolutionary in the situations that elicit particular emotions.
psychology and describes four stages in the development
of attachment: preattachment, attachment in the making, When do children begin to understand other people's
true attachment, and reciprocal relationships. emotions? How do they use this information to guide
their own behaviour?
What are the different varieties of attachment
e By six months, infants have begun to recognise the
relationships, how do they arise, and what are their
emotions associated with different facial expressions.
consequences? They use this information to help them evaluate
© Research with the Strange Situation, in which infant and unfamiliar situations. Beyond infancy, children learn
mother are separated briefly, reveals four primary forms more about the causes of different emotions.
of attachment. Most common is a secure attachment in ¢ Infants use simple strategies to regulate emotions such
which infants have complete trust in the mother Less as fear As children grow, they become better skilled
common are three types of attachment relationships in at regulating their emotions. Children who do not
which this trust is lacking. In avoidant relationships, regulate emotions well tend to have problems interacting
infants deal with the lack of trust by ignoring their with others.
mother; in resistant relationships, infants often seem
angry with her; in disorganised relationships, infants do 5.3 Interacting with others
not appear to understand their mother’s absence.
When do youngsters first begin to play with each
@ Children who have had secure attachment relationships
during infancy tend to be more skilled socially and are other? How does play change during infancy and the
at less risk of externalising disorders. Secure attachment preschool years?
is most likely to occur when mothers respond sensitively e Even infants notice and respond to one another, but the
and consistently to their infants’ needs. first real interactions (at about 12 to 15 months) take
© Responsive caregiving results in infants developing an the form of parallel play in which toddlers play alone
internal working model in which they expect parents will while watching each other. A few months later, simple
try to meet their needs. social play emerges in which toddlers engage in similar
activities and interact with one another. At about two
Is attachment jeopardised when parents of young years of age, cooperative play organised around a theme
children are employed outside the home? becomes common. Make-believe play is also common
@ Many children are cared for at home by a caregiver, and becomes more sophisticated as children develop
father or another relative, in a day care provider's home, Most forms of solitary play are harmless.

184 Cuaprer5 ENTERING THE SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening All Rights Reserved May net be copied, scammed, or duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectrossc nghts, some thend party costest muy be suppressed dom dw effiook anciive oC hapteris)
Dabtored review hen cheered thet any suppremed coment dacs set matemally affect the overall kammg expenence. Congage Learaung reserves the night to nemove additioeal content af any Game if submecpacrt rghit: nedrictioms meyainy
What determines whether children help one another? is valuable Gurls are better able to interpret emotions,
e Prosocial behaviours such as helping and sharing are more prone to social influence, and have better
are more common in children who understand (by effortful control, but boys are more aggressive These
perspective taking) and experience (by empathy) differences vary based on a number of factors, including
another's feelings. the historical period.
e Prosocial behaviour is more likely when children feel
responsible for the person in distress. Also, children help How do young children learn gender roles?
more often when they believe that they have the skills ¢ Parents treat sons and daughters simularly, except in sex-
needed, when they are feeling happy or successful, and typed activities. Fathers may be particularly important in
when they percerve that the costs of helping are small. sex typing because they are more likely to treat sons and
e Twin studies show that prosocial behaviour 1s influenced daughters differently
by heredity, probably through its impact on oxytocin, e Children gradually learn that gender 1s stable over time
behavioural control (inhibition), and emotion regulation. and cannot be changed easily according to personal
e Parents can foster altruism in their youngsters by wishes. After children understand gender, they begin to
behaving altruistically themselves, using reasoning to learn gender-typical behaviour According to gender-
discipline their children, and encouraging their children schema theory, children learn about gender by paying
to help at home and elsewhere. attention to behaviours of members of their own sex and
ignoring behaviours of members of the other sex.
5.4 Gender roles and gender identity ¢ Evolutionary developmental psychology reminds us that
different roles for males and females caused different
What are stereotypes about males and females?
traits and behaviours to evolve for men and women. The
How well do they correspond to actual differences idea that biology influences some aspects of gender roles
between boys and girls? is also supported by research on females exposed to male
© Gender stereotypes are beliefs about males and females hormones during prenatal development.
that are often used to make inferences about a person
that are based solely on his or her gender; by four years of How are gender roles changing?
age, children know these stereotypes well. © Gender roles have changed considerably in the past
© Studies of gender differences reveal that girls have greater 50 years However, studies of nontraditional families
verbal skill and memory but that boys have greater spatial indicate that some components of gender stereotypes are
skill. Differences in maths are negligible when females more readily changed than others.
have access to education and occupations where maths

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

hope (156) stranger wariness (164) answers
will (156) social referencing (166) ;
purpose (156) parallel play (168) 5.1 1. EnkEnkson 2. hope 3. will 4. attachment
evolutionary psychology simple social play (169) 5. disorganised 6. Resistant 7. insecure
(156) cooperative play (169) 5.2 1. subjective feeling 2. social smiles 3. extent
attachment (157) enabling actions (171) 4, social referencing 5. Less
secure attachment (158) constricting actions (171)
avoidant attachment prosocial behaviour (172) 5.3. 1. parallel play 2. Enabling 3. Prosocial 4. Altruism
(158) altruism (172) 5. increases
eT e ee — —) 5.4 1. social role 2. Gender stereotypes 3. vocabularies
disorganised social role (176) 4 5 eee 2
(disoriented) gender stereotypes (176) ela aca ccm or |
attachment (158) relational aggression
internal working model (179)
(160) gender identity (181)
basic emotions (163) gender-schema theory
social smiles (164) (181)

SUMMARY 185

6.3 Special children, special

needs 200
Gifted children 201
Children with disability 201
Attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder 203
Spotlight on research. Improving
children’s knowledge of
the structure of words
enhances their reading
comprehension 204
Academic skills 206
Reading 206
Writing 208
Skills in mathematics 210
Real people: Applying human
development: Shin-Ying loves
school 212
Effective schools, effective
teachers 212
6.5 Physical development 214
Growth 215
Development of motor skills 215
Physical fitness 216
Participating in sports 217

Summary 218

Key terms 220

All Rights Reserved. May met be coped, scammed,

or duplicated. m whole
or in part. Dur to cliectromic nghts, some thind party comtest mory be appressed toe the cock andice oChapter(s)
coment dacs set sustcrally affect the overall komme cxpenence. Congage Learesng reserves the ngbt to comovwe additonal coetent af any Gene if subsequent mgt sednictoes nogesse i.
changes described in the first section Next, we look at the way
the beginning of every year,
of this chapter learners learn to read, write, and do
South African 4- and 5-year-olds trot
For most South African school mathematics. In this section, you'll
off to Grade R, starting an educational
children, intelligence and aptitude discover some of the educational
journey that lasts 13 or more years.
tests are a common part of their practices that seem to foster
As the journey begins, many children
educational travels. In the second learners’ learning
can read only a few words and know
section of this chapter, you'll see what Finally, children’s growing cognitive
little mathematics; by the end, most
tests measure and why some children skills, when coupled with improved
can read complete books and many
get lower scores on tests In the third motor coordination, enable them to
have learned algebra and geometry
section, you'll discover how tests are participate in sports. In the last section,
This mastery of complex academic
often used to identify school children we'll look at such participation and the
skills is possible because of profound
with atypical or special needs physical changes that make it possible
changes in children’s thinking,

[%] Cognitive development

Learning objectives

e Identify the distinguishing characteristics of thought during Piaget's concrete-operational and formal-
operational stages.

® Describe how children use strategies and monitoring to improve learning and remembering.

Andile, a learner in Grade 7 in primary The concrete-operational period

school, just took his first social sciences Let’s start by reviewing three important limits of
test of the year - and failed. He is shocked preoperational thinking described in Chapter 4:
because he'd always received As and Bs in
tests. Andile realises that glancing through e Preschoolers are egocentric, believing that others see
the textbook chapter once before a test is the world as they do.
probably not going to work in Grade 7, but e Preschoolers sometimes confuse appearances with
he’s not sure what else he should be doing. reality.
e Preschoolers are unable to reverse their thinking.
Andile’s cognitive skills far surpass those of the None of these limits applies to children in the
infants and toddlers we examined in Chapter 4. Yet concrete-operational stage, which extends from
the story shows that his skills aren't flawless. In this approximately 7 to 11 years. Egocentrism wanes
section, we'll learn more about cognitive growth gradually as youngsters have more experiences with
in childhood, first by considering the perspective other people who assert their own perspectives on the
of Piaget's theory and then by considering the world. Understanding that events can be interpreted in
information-processing account. different ways leads to the realisation that appearances
can be deceiving. Also, thought can be reversed because
More sophisticated thinking: Piaget's school-age children have acquired mental operations,
version actions that can be performed on objects or ideas and that
consistently yield a result. Recall from Chapter 4 that on
You probably remember Piaget's stages of thinking that the conservation task, concrete-operational children
we described in Chapters 1 and 4. The first two stages, realise that the amount of liquid is the same after it has
sensorimotor and preoperational thinking, characterise
infancy and the preschool years. In the next few pages,
we describe the remaining two stages, the concrete-
operational and formal-operational stages, which mental operations Cognitive actions that can be performed on
objects or ideas.
apply to school-age children and adolescents.

187

‘opyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Muay not be copied, xcanmed, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Dur to cliectronic nights, some thend party content mary he wappecsned thom the cBiook andlor oChapter|s).
sevew bos doomed that any suppromed content dacs sot musically affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareung reserves the night t nomowe additional comient af any tare of subsequent ngh® sednctioms noqesr ot
been poured into a different beaker — pointing out that the blue liquid. For adolescents, the problem does not
the pouring can always be reversed. involve the concrete acts of pouring and mixing. Instead,
they understand that it involves identifying possible
combinations and then evaluating each one. This sort of
adolescent combinatorial reasoning 1s illustrated in the
Piaget and Erikson propose unique stages for ‘Real people’ feature.
ages 7 to 11 years. How similar are the stages
they propose? How do they differ?

As the name implies, concrete-operational

thinking is limited to the tangible and real, to the
here and now. The concrete-operational youngster
takes ‘an earthbound, concrete, practical-minded sort
of problem-solving approach’ (Flavell, 1985, p. 98).
Thinking abstractly and hypothetically is beyond the
ability of concrete-operational children — these skills are
acquired in the formal-operational period, as you'll see
in the next section.

The formal-operational period A Concrete-cperational thinkers often solve problems haphazardly,

With the onset of the formal-operational period, which but formal-operational thinkers more often set up problems in
abstract terms.
extends from roughly age 11 into adulthood, children
and adolescents apply psychological operations to Adolescents’ more sophisticated thinking is also shown
abstract entities also; they are able to think hypothetically in their ability to make appropriate conclusions from facts,
and reason abstractly (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). which is known as deductive reasoning. Suppose we tell
To illustrate these differences, let's look at problem- a person the following:
solving, where formal-operational adolescents often take
a very different approach from concrete-operational If you hit a glass with a hammer, the glass will break.
children. In one of Piaget's experiments (Inhelder & If you then tell the person ‘Hit the glass with a hammer,
Piaget, 1958), children and adolescents were presented he or she would conclude, of course, that “The glass will
with several flasks, each containing what appeared break, a conclusion that formal-operational adolescents
to be the same clear liquid. They were told that one do reach.
combination of the clear liquids would produce a blue Concrete-operational youngsters sometimes reach
liquid, and they were asked to determine the necessary this conclusion too — but based on their experience, not
combination. A typical concrete-operational youngster because the conclusion is logically necessary. To see the
plunged right in, mixing different liquids haphazardly. In difference, imagine that the statement now is:
contrast, formal-operational adolescents understood that
If you hit a glass with a feather, the glass will break.
setting up the problem in abstract terms is the key. The
problem is not really about pouring liquids, but about Told ‘Hit the glass with a feather’, the conclusion “The
testing all possible combinations. So, formal-operational glass will break’ follows just as logically as it did in the
teens mixed liquid from the first flask with liquids from first example. In this instance, however, the conclusion
each of the other flasks. When these combinations failed goes against what experience tells us 1s true. Concrete-
to produce a blue liquid, the teenagers concluded that operational 10-year-olds resist reaching conclusions
the liquid in the first flask is not essential and mixed the that are contrary to known facts, whereas formal-
liquid in the second flask with each of the remaining operational 15-year-olds often reach such conclusions
liquids. Formal-operational thinkers continued in this (De Neys & Everaerts, 2008). Formal-operational
manner until they found the critical pair that produces teenagers understand that these problems are about
abstractions that need not correspond to real-world
relations. In contrast, concrete-operational youngsters
deductive reasoning Drawing conclusions from facts; reach conclusions based on their knowledge of the
characteristic
of formal-operational thought.
world.

188 Cuarrer6 Orr 10 SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lenewing. All Rights Reserved: May mot be copied, scammed, of duplicated. m whole
of in part. Dur to clectronic rights, some third party content
mury he suppresend fern dre eflkoek madi eCTeapeer(«).
Eabtored review hoe deened that aay wuppremed coment dace aot mustonadly affect
the overall kammg cxpenence. Cengage Learsing reserves the night to remnowe additeonal crertertt af ery torn if sedmeuparenl rigivis peedrietoome recpauny
Applying human from the letters contained each of the letters individually, then all
development in the words SAFE RACE possible combinations of two letters,
would win two tickets to the and working his way up to all possible
Indianapolis 500 auto race combinations of all eight letters (for
Combinatorial reasoning Kail realised that example, SCAREEFA, SCAREEAF)
this was a problem in This was monotonous enough, but no
goes to the races combinatorial reasoning more so than the next step: looking up
As a 15-year-old, Robert He needed to create all all those possible words in a dictionary.
Kail, one of the authors of possible combinations of (Remember, this was in the days
this book, delivered the local letters, then look them up before computerised spell-checkers.)
newspaper In the spring In a dictionary Following Weeks later, he had generated 126
of 1965, the newspaper this procedure, he had to words As predicted, a few months
announced a contest for all win (or, at worst, tie). So, he later, he learned that he had won the
newspaper carriers The carner created exhaustive lists of contest Combinatonal reasoning has
who created the most words possible words, beginning with Its payoffs!

Comments on Piaget's view contents of sentences you read earlier. For you to learn
We mentioned in Chapter 4 that although Piaget's this information, it must be transferred to long-term
theory provides our single most comprehensive theory memory, a permanent storehouse of knowledge that
of cognitive development, it has some flaws. Specifically, has unlimited capacity. If information you read is not
it overestimates adolescents’ cognitive competence, transferred to long-term memory, it is lost.
it is vague concerning processes of change, does not
account for variability in children’s performance, Memory strategies
and it undervalues the influence of the sociocultural How do you try to learn the information in this book
environment Because of these limits to Piaget's theory, or your other textbooks? If you're like many university
we need to look at other approaches to understand students, you probably use some combination of
mental development during childhood and adolescence highlighting key sentences, outlining chapters, taking
In the next few pages, we'll focus on the information- notes, writing summaries, and testing yourself. These
processing approach that we first examined in Chapter 4. are all effective learning strategies that make it easier for
you to store text information in long-term memory.
Information-processing strategies for Children begin to use simple strategies fairly early.
For example, seven- or eight-year-olds use rehearsal,
learning
remembering
and = SESE a strategy of repetitively naming information that is
You'll remember from Chapter 4 that information- to be remembered. As children grow older, they learn
processing psychologists believe that cognitive other memory strategies One memory strategy is
development proceeds by increases in the efficiency with organisation — structuring information to be remembered
which children process information. In other words, just so that related information is placed together For example,
as personal computers have become progressively more a learner in Grade 6 trying to remember the different
sophisticated in their hardware and software, information- hot deserts might organise them according to whether
processing psychologists believe that cognitive they are in the Northern Hemisphere (the Sahara desert,
development reflects change in mental computing power, the Mojave desert, and the Gobi desert, for example) or
including mental hardware and mental software.
One of the key issues in this approach concerns
the means by which children store information in
working memory Type of memory in which a small number of
permanent memory and retrieve it when needed later. items can be stored briefly.
According to information-processing psychologists, most
human thought takes place in working memory, where long-term memory Permanent storehouse for memories that has
unlimited capacity.
a relatively small number of thoughts and ideas can be
stored briefly. As you read these sentences, for example, organisation As applied to children’s memory, a strategy in
the information is stored in working memory. However, which information to be remembered is structured so that related
information is placed together.
as you read additional sentences, they displace the

61 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 189

Coprraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppressed trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affectthe overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
in the Southern Hemisphere (the the Namib desert and gradually become more skilled at selecting appropriate
the Kalahari desert, for example) strategies, but even high school learners do not always use
Another memory strategy is elaboration — embellishing effective learning strategies when they should (Grammer
information to be remembered to make it more memorable et al., 2011, Schneider, 2015).
To see elaboration in action, imagine a child who can After children choose a memory strategy, they
never remember if the second syllable of rehearsal need to monitor its effectiveness. That is, they need to
is spelled her (as it sounds) or hear The child could decide if the strategy is working. If it’s not, they need
remember the correct spelling by reminding herself that to begin anew, reanalysing the memory task to select a
rehearsal is like re-hear-ing. Thus, thinking about the better approach. If the strategy is working, they should
derivation of rehearsal makes it easier to remember how determine the portion of the material they have not yet
to spell it. Finally, as children grow, they’re also more mastered and concentrate their efforts there. Monitoring
likely to use external aids to memory, such as making improves gradually with age. Even preschool children can
notes and writing down information on calendars so distinguish what they know from what they don't (Ghetti,
they won't forget future events (Eskritt & McLeod, 2008) Hembacher, & Coughlin, 2013), but older children and
adolescents do so more accurately (Bjorklund, 2005).
Diagnosing memory problems accurately and
monitoring the effectiveness of memory strategies are two
important elements of metamemory, which refers to a
child’ intuitive understanding of memory. That is, as
children develop, they learn more about how memory
operates and devise naive theories of memory that
represent an extension of the theory of mind described in
Chapter 3 (Schneider, 2015). For example, children learn
that memory is fallible (i.e., they sometimes forget!) and
that some types of memory tasks are easier than others
(for example, remembering the main idea of Mandela's
address at the Treason Trial is simpler than remembering
it word for word). This growing knowledge of memory
A As children grow, they make more use of memory aids, such as helps children use memory strategies more effectively,
taking notes just as an experienced carpenter’s accumulated
knowledge of wood tells her when to use nails, screws, or
Metacognition glue to join two boards (Ghetti & Lee, 2011)
Just as a well-stocked toolbox isn’t valuable if you don't Of course, children’s growing understanding of
know how to use the tools, memory strategies aren't much memory is paralleled by their increased understanding
good unless children know when to use them. For example, of all cognitive processes. Such knowledge and awareness
rehearsal is a great strategy for remembering phone of cognitive processes is called metacognitive knowledge.
numbers but bad for remembering the South African Bill Metacognitive knowledge grows rapidly during the
of Rights or the plot of Hamlet. During the primary school primary school years: Children come to know much
about perception, attention, intentions, knowledge,
years and adolescence, children gradually learn to identify
different kinds of memory problems and the memory and thinking (Flavell, 2000; McCormick, 2003) For
strategies most appropriate to each. For example, when example, school-age children know that sometimes they
reading a textbook or watching a documentary, outlining deliberately direct their attention — as in searching for
or writing a summary are good strategies because they a parent's face in a crowd — but that sometimes events
identify the main points and organise them Children capture attention — as with an unexpected clap of
thunder (Parault & Schwanenflugel, 2000)
One of the most important features of children’s
elaboration Memory strategy in which information is embellished
to make it more memorable.
metacognitive knowledge is their understanding of the
connections among goals, strategies, monitoring, and
metamemory Person's informal understanding of memory outcomes, shown in @ FIGURE 6.1. Children come
includes the ability to diagnose memory problems accurately and
to monitor the effectiveness of memory strategies.
to realise that for a broad spectrum of tasks - ranging
from learning words in a spelling list, to learning to
metacognitive knowledge A person's knowledge and awareness kick a ball far, to learning to get along with an overly
of cognitive processes.
talkative classmate seated nearby — they need to regulate

190 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Leseming. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcamned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectromic nghts, some thind party contest mary he suppressed tom the cffook andive eChapter(s).
Exttomal review hon deaned thot azy wippromed coment dacs act muaicrally affect
the overall kame etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the nett wo remove ahditioeal coment at amy Girne if subeequent gfe wednchoes mqair ot,
their learning by understanding the goal and selecting a
means to achieve that goal. Then they determine whether
the chosen method is working. Effective cognitive Which elements of the biopsychosocial
self-regulation - that is, skill at identifying goals, framework are emphasised in the information-
selecting effective strategies, and monitoring accurately - processing approach to cognitive development?
ts a characteristic of successful students (Usher & Pajares,
2009; Zimmerman, 2001). A learner may decide that
writing each spelling word twice before the test is a good
way to get all the words right. When the learner gets Test yourself 6.1
only 70% correct on the first test, he or she switches to a
new strategy (for example, writing each word four times Recall
and writing its definition), showing the adaptive nature 1. Actions that can be performed on objects or
of cognitive processes in self-regulated learners. ideas and that consistently yield a result are
called
2. Bontle is counting biscuits to share between her
siblings, taking into account how many each
sibling has already had from the packet. She
remembers how many each sibling should have
for long enough to share them out, but is unable
to remember the numbers the next day. She
stored the information in her
3. Anika remembers that the word ‘occasion’ has
two letter Cs in it because on a special occasion
you see many people — she links the sound of the
letter to an action that relates to the meaning of
the word. This is an example of
4. Knowledge and awareness of cognitive processes
is called
Focus on
unlearned material
5. Effective involves being skilful at
identifying goals, selecting effective strategies,
and monitoring accurately.
@ FIGURE 61 Effective learning involves understanding the goals
of the task, selecting an appropriate strategy, and monitoring the
effectiveness of the chosen strategy.
Interpret
e Do developmental improvements in memory
Some learners do not master these learning strategies strategies and metacognition emphasise nature,
spontaneously, but they may acquire them when nurture, or both? How?
teachers emphasise them in class (Grammer, Coffman,
& Ornstein, 2013; Ornstein et al., 2010). In addition, Apply
several programmes teach learners strategies for studying ¢ Formal-operational adolescents are able to reason
more effectively (Pressley, 2002). For example, teachers abstractly. How might this ability help them
demonstrate several strategies that promote greater use the study skills shown in Figure 6.1 more
reading comprehension, including selecting a goal for effectively?
reading, making a mental picture of what's going on in
the text, periodically predicting what will happen next, Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
and summarising aloud what's happened so far. Children end of the chapter.
practise these strategies separately and as part of a
reading ‘tool kit! Empowered with reading strategies such
as these, learners’ understanding of text is deeper and cognitive self-regulation Skill at identifying goals, selecting
they typically obtain greater scores on standardised tests effective strategies, and monitoring accurately; a characteristic of
successful learners.
of reading comprehension (Pressley & Hilden, 2006).

61 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 191

Copyrapht
209 Cengage Larsng All Right: Reserved Miry act be copand scammed. ot dupiacrad m wholk of im part Dur to clectorsc mye sous Gund party comarca: cary be aappeceand foes tar cfiook andive fC heapernts)
Exdtorad scvacw bee doomed tut sey eappremod comact dors set eesxmodly affect x overall koreme ctpemencs. Canpages Lowtang soerve: Ge nett w somes addeweal coment of ay Cone if efespent Pgh aeons ge
[¥) Aptitudes for school
Learning objectives

© Describe the nature of intelligence.

© Evaluate how well intelligence tests work.

e Assess how heredity and environment influence intelligence.

Lerato is an eager Grade 6 Social Sciences intelligence and personality. When psychometricians
teacher who loves history. Consequently, every want to research a particular question, they usually
year she’s frustrated when she teaches a unit on begin by administering many tests to many individuals.
Mapungubwe. Although she's passionate about Then they look for patterns in performance across
the subject, her enthusiasm is not contagious. the tests The basic logic underlying this technique
Instead, her learners’ eyes glaze over and resembles the logic you might use to decide whether
she can see young minds drifting off. And, some dark blobs in a river are three separate rotting logs
of course, they never seem to grasp the site’s or a single crocodile (Cattell, 1965) If the blobs move
historical significance. Lerato wishes she could together, you would decide that they are part of the same
teach this unit differently, in a way that would structure, a crocodile. If they do not move together, they
engage her learners more effectively. are three different structures — three logs. Similarly, if
changes in performance on one test are accompanied by
Before you read further, how would you define changes in performance on a second test — that is, if they
intelligence? If you're typical of most South Africans, you move together — then the tests are measuring the same
would mention reasoning logically, connecting ideas, and attribute or factor.
solving real problems. You might mention verbal ability,
meaning the ability to speak clearly and articulately You The hierarchical view of intelligence
might also include social competence: for example, an Research analysing performance on tests led
interest in the world at large and an ability to admit when psychometricians to propose hierarchical theories in
you make a mistake (Sternberg & Kaufman, 1998) which intelligence includes both general and specific
As you'll see in this section, many of these ideas components. John Carroll (1993, 1996), for example,
about intelligence are included in psychological theories proposed the hierarchical theory with three levels shown
of intelligence We'll begin by considering the theories of in @ FIGURE 6.2. At the top of the hierarchy is general
intelligence, where we'll get some insight into ways that intelligence (often referred to as g). Underneath general
Lerato could make the civilisation of Mapungubwe come intelligence are eight broad categories of intellectual
alive for her class. Next, you'll see how intelligence tests skill, ranging from fluid intelligence to processing speed.
were devised initially to assess individual differences in Each of the abilities in the second level is further divided
intellectual ability. Then we'll look at a simple question. into the skills listed in the third and most specific
How well do modern tests work? Finally, we'll examine level. Crystallised intelligence, for example, includes
how race, ethnicity, social class, gender, environment, understanding printed language, comprehending
and heredity influence intelligence. language, and knowing vocabulary
Theories of intelli Hierarchical models of intelligence are valuable
because they integrate findings from decades of research.
Nevertheless, some critics find them unsatisfactory
Psychometricians are psychologists who specialise
because they ignore research and theory on cognitive
in measuring psychological characteristics such as
development. The critics believe we need to look beyond
the psychometric approach to understand intelligence.
psychometricians Psychologists who specialise in measuring In the remainder of this section then, we'll look at two
psychological traits such as intelligence and personality.
theories that have done this.

192 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

a , ' 4 $ 4
age | scape 11 ey
oe
| est | perception
perception
(ecomertm| (eaee | speediness
ability
(teemeet| eet
t } | 4 4 ‘ | ‘
Sequential Printed Memory Visualisation Speech Creativity Rate of Simple
reasoning language span Spatial sound Ideational test taking | reaction time
ae cee | eee | ee eer | | ee ee eee
‘eco | tee | | ein J_| |
@ FIGURE 6.2 Hierarchical theories of intelligence have different levels that range from general intelligence (g) to very specific skills.
From Carroll, 1993

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences The first three intelligences in the list — linguistic
Other psychologists have viewed intelligence from intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, and
the perspective of Piaget's theory and information- spatial intelligence — are included in traditional theories
processing psychology. Among the most ambitious of intelligence The last six intelligences are not. musical,
is Howard Gardner's (2011) theory of multiple bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
intelligences. Rather than using test scores as the basis naturalistic, and existential intelligences are unique to
for his theory, Gardner draws on research in child Gardner's theory. According to Gardner, Brenda Fassie’s
development, studies of brain-damaged persons, and beautiful singing, Chad le Clos’s remarkable speed in the
studies of exceptionally talented people Using these water, and Oprah Winfrey’s grace and charm in dealing
criteria, Gardner identified seven distinct intelligences with people, are all features of intelligence that are
when he first proposed the theory in 1983. In subsequent ignored in traditional theories.
work, Gardner (1999, 2002) identified two additional
How did Gardner arrive at these nine distinct
intelligences, the complete list is shown in @ TABLE 6.1. intelligences? First, each has a unique developmental

TABLE 6.1 EiitameaitGires e intelligences

Type of intelligence Definition

Linguistic Knowing the meanings of words, having the ability to use words to understand new ideas,
and using language to convey ideas to others
Logical-mathematical Understanding relations that exist among objects, actions, and ideas as well as the logical
or mathematical operations that can be performed on them
Spatial Perceiving objects accurately and imagining in the mind's eye the appearance of an object
before and after it has been transformed
Musical Comprehending and producing sounds varying in pitch, rhythm, and emotional tone
Bodily-kinaesthetic Using one's body in highly differentiated ways as dancers, craftspeople, and athletes do
Interpersonal Identifying different feelings, moods, motivations, and intentions in others
Intrapersonal Understanding one’s emotions and knowing one’s strengths and weaknesses
Naturalistic Understanding the natural world, distinguishing natural objects from artefacts, and
grouping and labelling natural phenomena
Existential Considering ‘ultimate’ issues, such as the purpose of life and the nature of death

Source: Gardner, 1983, 1999, 2002

6.2 APTITUDES FOR SCHOOL 193

Copyraght2099 Congape Lowrseng All Righes Reserved May not be coped, acommed. or dupbcted m whole of on port. Dur so clectrrenc mbes, some therd party comicet muy be suppeceecd foen tac clock andive of hapecs|+)
Edecead scvicw bos deemed thot ary euppromed creme! dacs act mumcrodly affect the overall keorumy cupemence. Conpage Loxsung roacrves the npht w somes addosal comet at any ne of sabeoqueet ngbe aencuoss ogee 2
history. Linguistic intelligence, for example, develops of people living in the region of Mapungubwe
much earlier than the others. Second, each intelligence (interpersonal intelligence).
is regulated by distinct regions of the brain. For example, These guidelines do not mean that teachers should tailor
spatial intelligence is regulated by particular regions in instruction solely to a child's strongest intelligence, labelling
the right hemisphere of the brain. Third, each intelligence youngsters as ‘numerical learners’ or ‘spatial learners.
has special cases of talented individuals There are well- Instead, whether the topic is the writing of the South
known instances of musically intelligent people, for African Bill of Rights or Shakespeare's Hamlet, instruction
example, who exhibit incredible talent at an early age should try to engage as many different intelligences as
Claudio Arrau, one of the 20th century’s greatest pianists, possible (Gardner, 1999, 2002). The typical result is a much
read musical notes before he read words. And Yo-Yo Ma, richer understanding of the topic by all learners.
the famed cellist, performed in concert at seven years of Although the current South African Curriculum
age for President John F. Kennedy. and Assessment Policy (CAPS) does not specifically
Prompted by Gardner's theory, researchers have begun support Gardner's ideas, there have been studies done
to look at other nontraditional aspects of intelligence to see if implementation in South African schools is
Probably the best known is emotional intelligence, feasible (Maphalala & Mpofu, 2017, Pienaar, Nieman, &
which is the ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions Kamper, 2011) These studies found that using Gardner's
effectively for solving problems and living happily approach had a positive impact on learners’ behaviour
Emotional intelligence includes several distinct facets. and academic achievement, and aided holistic learner
perceiving emotions accurately (for example, recognising assessment There is, however, a general criticism
a happy face), understanding emotions (for example, that the theory has relatively little empirical support
distinguishing happiness from ecstasy), and regulating (Kaufman, Kaufman, & Plucker, 2013). Nevertheless,
one’s emotions (for example, hiding one’s disappointment) Gardner's work has helped liberate researchers from
People who are emotionally intelligent tend to have psychometric-based views of intelligence
more satisfying interpersonal relationships, have greater
subjective well-being, and tend to be more effective in the
workplace (Joseph & Newman, 2010, Sanchez-Alvarez, Sternberg's theory of successful intelligence
Extremera, & Fernandez-Berrocal, 2016). In Robert Sternberg’s theory, intelligence is defined as
The theory of multiple intelligences has important using one’s abilities skillfully to achieve one’s personal
implications for education. Gardner (1993, 1995) goals (Sternberg, 2015) Goals can be short-term -
believes that schools should promote all intelligences, not such as getting an A on a test, making a snack in the
just the traditional linguistic and logical-mathematical microwave, or winning the 100-metre hurdles - or
intelligences. Teachers should capitalise on the strongest longer-term, such as having a successful career and a
intelligences of individual children. That is, teachers happy family life. Achieving these goals by using one’s
need to know a child’s profile of intelligence — the child’s skills defines successful intelligence.
strengths and weaknesses - and tailor instruction to In achieving personal goals, people use three different
the strengths (Chen & Gardner, 2005). For example, kinds of abilities. Analytic ability involves analysing
Lerato, the Grade 6 teacher in the opening story, could problems and generating different solutions Suppose a
help some of her learners understand Mapungubwe by teenager wants to download songs to her cell phone, but
studying music of that period (musical intelligence) something isn’t working. Analytic intelligence is shown
Other learners might benefit by studying maps that show when she considers different causes of the problem -
the movement of trade routes (spatial intelligence) Still maybe the cell phone is broken or maybe the software to
others might profit from focusing on the experiences download songs wasnt installed correctly.
Creative ability involves dealing adaptively with
novel situations and problems Suppose our 13-year-old
emotional intelligence Ability to use one’s own and others’ discovers that her cell phone is broken just as she’s ready
emotions effectively for solving problems and living happily. to leave with her family on a daylong drive to another
analytic ability In Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to
province to visit family Lacking the time (and money)
analyse problems and generate different solutions. to buy a new phone, creative intelligence is shown
in dealing successfully with a novel goal: finding an
creative ability In Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to
enjoyable activity to pass the time on a long drive.
deal adaptively with novel situations and problems.
Finally, practical ability involves knowing what
practical ability In Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, the ability to solution or plan will actually work Problems can be
know which problem solutions are likely to work.
solved in different ways in principle, but in reality, only

194 CHAPTER6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrmiag. All Rights Riserved. May mot be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole oe in part. Dur to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mary be suppressed teem the cffook andive cChapter(s)
Exttomad semew boo deaned that any wuppromed content docs sot sustcrially affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to memnowe additeoeal crevicnt af any Gane if subsequent nett sextnctioes neqenre it.
one solution may be practical. Our teenager may realise
that surfing the internet for a way to fix the phone’s
software is her best choice because her parents wouldn't
approve of many of the songs and she doesn’t want her
sibling to know that she's downloading them anyway.
Like Gardner, Sternberg (1999) argues that
instruction is most effective when it is tailored
to a child’s strength A child with strong analytic
ability, for example, may find algebra simpler when
the course emphasises analysis and evaluation; a
child with strong practical ability may be at his or
her best when the material is organised around
practical applications. Thus, the theory of successful
intelligence shows how instruction can be matched to
learners’ strongest abilities. This enhances learners’
prospects for mastering the material (Grigorenko,
Jarvin, & Sternberg, 2002)
Sternberg emphasises that successful intelligence is
revealed in people's pursuit of goals. Of course, these
goals vary from one person to the next and, just as
important, often vary even more in different cultural
or ethnic groups. That is, intelligence is partly defined
by the demands of an environment or cultural context.
What is intelligent for children growing up in cities in
South Africa may not be intelligent for children growing
up in the Sahara desert, in the Australian outback, or on
a remote island in the Pacific Ocean. For example, in
Brazil, many school-age boys sell sweets and fruit to bus
& For street vendors in Brazil, successful intelligence involves
passengers and pedestrians. These children often cannot sophisticated arithmetic operations for buying products, making
identify the numbers on paper money, but they know change, and keeping track of sales.
how to purchase their goods from wholesale stores,
make change for customers, and keep track of their sales
(Saxe, 1988) Binet and the development of intelligence
If the Brazilian vendors were given the tests that
measure intelligence in American learners, they would
testing
do badly. Does this mean they are less intelligent than Every year South African teachers encounter learners
American children? Of course not. The skills important who struggle to keep up with the curriculum’s demands.
to American conceptions of intelligence, and that are South Africa's inclusive education system means that
assessed on their intelligence tests, are less valued in these learners with different abilities and needs are placed in
other cultures and so are not cultivated in the young. the same classroom. Teachers are therefore confronted
Each culture defines what it means to be intelligent, and with the problem of identifying those learners who
the vendors with their specialised computing skills are need special attention in the classroom. These problems
just as intelligent in their cultural settings as Americans are not unique to South Africa, and they are not new.
with their verbal skills are in their culture (Sternberg & Between 1890 and 1915 in the United States, school
Kaufman, 1998). enrolment nearly doubled because of an influx of
As with Gardner’s theory, researchers are still immigrants and because reforms restricted child labour
evaluating Sternberg’s theory and are still debating the and emphasised education (Giordano, 2005) With the
question of what intelligence is. However it is defined, increased enrolment, teachers were confronted with
the facts are that individuals differ substantially in increasing numbers of learners who did not learn as
intellectual ability and that numerous tests have been readily as the ‘select few’ who had populated their
devised to measure these differences We'll examine the classes previously. How to deal with ‘feebleminded’
construction, properties, and limits of these tests in the children was one of the pressing issues of the day for
next section. U.S. educators.

6.2 APTITUDES FOR SCHOOL 195

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lenening All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thend party contest mory he muppeewsed teem dhe efloek madive Chapters)
Fidaomad nestew han deed thet any wuppresed coment dacs set matemally affect the overall kaming expenence. Cengage Leareing rescrven the night w remove additional coevient af any turns if submeupacrnl righvis nestrictvoms nepeine if
At approximately the same time, the education of children taking a test will have IQ scores between
system in France experienced a similar issue In 1904, 85 and 115. The IQ score can also be used to compare
the Minister of Public Instruction in France asked intelligence in children of different ages A four-year-
two noted psychologists of the day, Alfred Binet and old girl with an MA of 5 has an IQ of 125 (5/4 x 100),
Theophile Simon, to formulate a way of recognising just like that of an eight-year-old boy with an MA of 10
children who would be unable to learn in school without (10/8 x 100).
special instruction Binet and Simon's approach was to 1Q scores are no longer computed as the ratio
select simple tasks that French children of different ages of MA to CA. Instead, children’s IQ scores are
ought to be able to do, such as naming colours, counting determined by comparing their test performance
backward, and remembering numbers in order. Based to the average IQ score of others their age. When
on preliminary testing, Binet and Simon identified children perform at the average for their age, their 1Q
problems that typical three-year-olds could solve, that is 100 Children who perform above the average have
typical four-year-olds could solve, and so on. Children’s 1Qs greater than 100, children who perform below
mental age (MA) referred to the difficulty of the problems the average have IQs less than 100. Nevertheless, the
they could solve correctly For example, a child who concept of IQ as the ratio of MA to CA helped to
solved problems that the average seven-year-old could popularise the Stanford-Binet test.
solve would have an MA of 7. By the 1920s, the Stanford-Binet had been joined by
Binet and Simon used mental age to distinguish many other intelligence tests. Educators greeted these
‘bright’ from ‘dull children A bright child would have new devices enthusiastically because they seemed to
the MA of an older child — for example, a six-year-old offer an efficient and objective way to assess a learner's
with an MA of 9. A dull child would have the MA of a chances of succeeding in school (Chapman, 1988).
younger child - for example, a six-year-old with an MA Today, nearly 100 years later, the Stanford-Binet remains
of 4. Binet and Simon confirmed that bright children a popular test, the latest version was revised in 2003 Like
identified using their test did better in school than did the earlier versions, the modern Stanford-Binet consists
dull children This was the first objective measure of of various cognitive and motor tasks ranging from the
intelligence. extremely easy to the extremely difficult. The Stanford-
Binet, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-V
(WISC-V), and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for
Children-II are the primary individualised tests of
If Jean Piaget were to create an intelligence test, intelligence in use today
how would it differ from the type of test Binet
created?
Do tests work?
The Stanford-Binet If tests work, they should predict important outcomes
in children’s lives: children who receive higher IQ scores
Lewis Terman, of Stanford University, revised Binet
should be more successful in school and after they
and Simon's test substantially and published a version
known as the Stanford-Binet in 1916 Terman described
leave school. In fact, IQ scores are remarkably powerful
performance as an intelligence quotient (1Q), which predictors of developmental outcomes. One expert
was the ratio of mental age to chronological age (CA) argued that ‘IQ is the most important predictor of an
individual's ultimate position within American society’
multiplied by 100:
(Brody, 1992). Of course, because IQ tests were devised
1Q = MA/CA x 100 to predict school success, it's not surprising that they do
this quite well. IQ scores predict school marks, scores
At any age, children who are perfectly average have
on achievement tests, and number of years of education
an IQ of 100 because their mental age equals their
with correlations that are usually between 0.5 and 0.7
chronological age Furthermore, roughly two-thirds
(Brody, 1992; Geary, 2005).
These correlations are far from perfect, which
mental age (MA) In intelligence testing, a measure of children’s reminds us that some youngsters with high test scores
performance corresponding to the chronological age of those do not excel in school and others with low test scores
whose performance equals the child's.
manage to get good marks. In fact, some researchers find
intelligence quotient (IQ) Mathematical representation of how that self-discipline predicts marks in school even better
a person scores on an intelligence test in relation to how other than IQ scores do (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005). In
people of the same age score.
general, however, tests predict school success.

196 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

In a typical primary school, some Grade 1 learners will

have IQs greater than 120 and others will have IQ scores
in the low 80s. Some of this 40-point difference reflects
heredity (Bouchard, 2009) For example, identical twins’
IQs are more similar than fraternal twins’ IQs (Plomin
& Deary, 2015) And adopted children’s IQ is usually
more similar to their biological parents’ 1Q than to their
adoptive parents’ IQ (Rhea et al., 2013) What's more,
the impact of heredity on intelligence increases across
A Following adoption, children’s scores on intelligence tests tend to
childhood and adolescence. For example, identical resemble the scores of their biological parents, not their adoptive
twins’ IQs become more alike across childhood and parents, which shows the impact of heredity on intelligence
adolescence (Plomin & Deary, 2015)
Do these results mean that heredity is the sole The importance of a stimulating environment
determiner of intelligence? No. Three areas of research for intelligence is also demonstrated by intervention
show the importance of environment on intelligence The programmes that prepare economically disadvantaged
first is research on characteristics of families and homes children for school Children who grow up in poverty
If intelligence were solely due to heredity, environment often struggle in school because they lack the skills
should have little or no impact on children’s intelligence needed for success. However, when such children
In fact, children have greater IQ scores when the family participate in intervention programmes that teach
environment is intellectually stimulating - when parents school readiness skills and social skills, they’re more
talk more frequently to the children, when they provide successful in school, more likely to work full time, and
their children with cognitive challenging materials such tend to be healthier

6.2 APTITUDES FOR SCHOOL 197

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghés, some thind party costest mory he suppressed trom the cfiock andlor oC hapter(s)
Edbtomad sewew bos doomed thot any wuppromed content docs sot mustcmally affect the overall kam, expenerce. Cengage Leareung reserves the night to remnowe additonal comient af any tame if subsequent mgt sedtnctooes nga ot
evidence that some ethnic groups have more ‘smart
A} Oe
Goth, Te J) KnitPrsNoe Bpyes
| ee
So Tea Vantec
sf _
genes’ than others. Instead, they believe that the
environment is largely responsible for these differences
“ 6 pee ia ¥
(Nisbett et al., 2012).
A popular analogy (Lewontin, 1976) demonstrates
a the thinking here. Imagine two kinds of maize. Each
kind produces both short and tall plants, and height is
known to be due to heredity If one kind of maize grows
in a good soil with plenty of water and nutrients, then
the mature plants will reach their genetically determined
heights - some short, some tall. If the other kind of
maize grows in poor soil, few plants will reach their full
height and overall the plants of this kind will be much
A High-quality preschool programmes provide stimulating
shorter. Even though height is heritable for each type of
environments that can increase children's scores on intelligence
tests and improve their school performance
maize, the difference in height between the two groups
is due solely to the quality of the environment. Similarly,
although IQ scores may be heritable for different groups,
The impact of ethnicity and socioeconomic less exposure to stimulating environments may mean
status that one group ends up with lower IQ scores overall (just
Like South Africa, the U.S.A is an ethnically diverse as the group of plants growing in poor soil do not reach
country. It provides an interesting example of how their full height). In other words, differences within
ethnicity affects scores. On many intelligence tests, ethnic groups are partly due to heredity, but differences
ethnic groups differ in their average scores: Asian between groups apparently reflect environmental
Americans tend to have the highest scores, followed by influences.
European Americans, Latino Americans, and African
Americans (Hunt & Carlson, 2007) The gaps have Experience with test contents
become smaller since the 1960s and reflect, in part,
Some critics argue that the differences in test scores
group differences in socioeconomic status (Nisbett et al.,
reflect bias in the tests themselves. They argue that test
2012, Rindermann & Thompson, 2013). Children from
items reflect the cultural heritage of the test creators -
economically advantaged homes tend to have higher test
typically economically advantaged European Americans
scores than children from economically disadvantaged
— so tests are biased against children from other groups
homes This relates to the examples mentioned here
(Champion, 2003). Such critics point to test items such
in the U.S.A.s tests: European American and Asian
as this one:
American families are more likely to be economically
advantaged, whereas Latino American and African A conductor 1s to an orchestra as a teacher 1s to what?
American families are more likely to be economically book school class_ eraser
disadvantaged Nevertheless, when children from Children whose background includes exposure
comparable socioeconomic status are compared, to orchestras are more likely to answer this question
group differences in IQ test scores are reduced but not correctly than children who lack this exposure.
eliminated (Magnuson & Duncan, 2006) Let's look at The problem of bias led to the development of culture-
five explanations for these differences. fair intelligence tests, which include test items based
on experiences common to many cultures An example
A role for genetics? is Raven's Progressive Matrices, which consists of items
such as the one shown in @ FIGURE 6.3 Examinees
Earlier you learned that heredity helps determine a
are asked to select the piece that would complete the
child’s intelligence smart parents tend to have smart
design correctly (piece 6, in this case). Although items
children. Does this also mean that group differences
such as this are thought to reduce the impact of specific
in IQ scores reflect genetic differences between
experience on test performance, ethnic group differences
groups? No. Most researchers agree that there is no
remain on so-called culture-fair intelligence tests
(Herrnstein & Murray, 1994) Apparently, familiarity
culture-fair intelligence tests Intelligence tests devised using with test-related items is not the key factor responsible
items common to many cultures.
for group differences.

198 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learmung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copacd, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest muy he wappeesscd from the cfbook andive of hapter|s).
Exttonal seview bon deaned thot any wappromed coment dacs sot matcrially affect the overall keammng expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night to remove additeoeal content af arty Gime if sudmequent night scetnctioes noqaar it
to their lower scores (Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson,
1995). For example, imagine two 10-year-olds taking an
intelligence test for admission to a special programme
for gifted children. The European American child
worries that if he fails the test, he won't be admitted to
the programme. The African American child has the
same fears but also worries that if she does poorly, it will
confirm the stereotype that African American children
don't get good scores on IQ tests (Suzuki & Aronson,
2005). Consistent with this idea, stereotype threat is
reduced (and performance improves) when African
American learners experience self-affirmation - they
remind themselves of values that are important to them
and why (Sherman et al., 2013). We could apply a similar
argument to race and gender stereotypes in South
Africa. One study determined that girls from affluent
backgrounds significantly underperform in mathematics
and science, and attributed this mainly to stereotype
threat: as the girls came from wealthy backgrounds, their
poor performance could not be linked to socioeconomic
@ FIGURE 6.3 Culture-fair intelligence tests are designed to
circumstances (Shepherd, 2017).
rmunimuse the impact of experiences that are unique to Some cultures or
to some children within a culture.
Based on Raven's Progressive Maticas
Interpreting test scores
If all tests reflect cultural influences to at least some
Test-taking skills degree, how should we interpret test scores? Remember
The impact of experience and cultural values can extend that tests assess successful adaptation to a particular
beyond particular items to a child’s familiarity with the cultural context. Most intelligence tests predict success
entire testing situation. Tests underestimate a child’s in a school environment, which usually promotes
intelligence if a child’s culture encourages children middle-class values. Regardless of ethnic group, a child
to solve problems by collaborating with others and with a high test score has the intellectual skills needed
discourages them from excelling as individuals. Moreover, for academic work based on middle-class values (Hunt &
because they are wary of questions posed by unfamiliar Carlson, 2007). A child with a low test score apparently
adults, many children from economically disadvantaged lacks those skills Does a low score mean that a child is
backgrounds often answer test questions by saying, destined to fail in school? No. It simply means that based
‘I don’t know’. Obviously, this strategy guarantees an on the child’s current skills, he or she is unlikely to do
artificially low test score. When these children are given well. We know from intervention projects that improving
extra time to feel at ease with the examiner, they respond children’s skills improves their school performance.
less often with ‘I don’t know’ and their test scores improve By focusing on groups of people, it’s easy to overlook
considerably (Zigler & Finn-Stevenson, 1992). the fact that individuals within these groups differ in
intelligence. The average difference in IQ scores between
Stereotype threat various ethnic groups is relatively small compared with
When people know that they belong to a group that the entire range of scores for these groups (Sternberg,
Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005). You can easily find
is said to lack skill in a domain, they become anxious
when performing in that domain for fear of confirming youngsters with high IQ scores from all ethnic groups,
the stereotype. As a result, they often do poorly. This just as you can find youngsters with low IQ scores from
self-fulfilling prophecy, in which knowledge of stereotypes all groups. In the next section, we'll look at children at
leads to anxiety and reduced performance consistent the extremes of ability.
with the original stereotype, is called stereotype threat.
In the U.S.A., this argument is applied to intelligence:
stereotype threat An evoked fear of being judged in accordance
African American children experience stereotype threat
with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong.
when they take intelligence tests, and this contributes

6.2 APTITUDES FOR SCHOOL 199

Coprright
2010 Cengage Learmang. All Rights Reserved May mot be copaod, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosic rights, some third party content ory he suppressed thorn tre efook andive eChapter( +)
dtowed eeeww hon downed that any suppremed coment dace aot matcnally affect the overall kammg cxpenenee. Cengage Leareing reserves the npbt to nemowe additeseal creviertt at aery tare if sudmecpacel raptyis weatnictoomes reyenne
Test yourself 6.2

Recall 7. include test items based on

experiences common to many cultures.
1. The ability to use one’s own and others’ emotions
effectively for solving problems and living 8. Michelle is a girl who likes mathematics. She
happily is called is about to take a mathematics exam, but she is
2. Children’s refers to the difficulty nervous: She knows that girls aren't really good
of the problems they could solve correctly. For at mathematics, so she thinks she might do
example, a child who solved problems that the badly, although she’s prepared for the exam. This
average seven-year-old could solve would have is an example of :
an MA of 7.
Interpret
3. In Sternberg’s theory of intelligence,
is the ability to analyse problems and generate © Compare and contrast the major perspectives
different solutions. on intelligence in terms of the extent to which
they make connections between different aspects
4. These intelligences are unique to
of development. That is, to what extent does
theory: musical, bodily-kinaesthetic,
each perspective emphasise cognitive processes
interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and
versus integrating physical, cognitive, social, and
existential intelligences.
emotional development?
5. The primary individualised tests of intelligence
in use today are the the Wechsler Apply
Intelligence Scale for Children-V (WISC-V), and © Suppose that a local government official proposes
the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II. to end all funding for preschool programmes
6. Samuel's mother takes him to free museums, for disadvantaged children. Write a letter to this
libraries and shows whenever she can. When official in which you describe the value of these
he was a baby, she read to him every night, and programmes.
helped him build puzzles and play stimulating Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
games. Samuel is more likely to have a end of the chapter.
1Q score.

[¥) Special children, special needs

Learning objectives

© Describe the characteristics of gifted children.

e Explain different forms of disability.

® List the distinguishing features of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Zain, a learner in Grade 2, has taken two Gaga’s music would be to Mozart What
intelligence tests, and both times he had is wrong?
above-average scores. His parents took him
to an optometrist, who determined that his Throughout history, societies have recognised children
vision is perfect — nothing wrong with his with unusual abilities and talents. Today, we know much
eyes. Nevertheless, Zain cannot read. Letters more about the extremes of human skill. Let’s begin with
and words are as mysterious to him as Lady a glimpse at gifted children.

200 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Children
with disability
“Little Rendani; so named because his father was also
named Rendani, was the oldest of four children. He
learned to sit only days before his first birthday, he began
to walk at two, and he said his first words as a three-
year-old. By age five, Rendani was far behind his age-
mates developmentally. Rendani had Down syndrome,
a disorder described in Section 2.1 that is caused by an
extra 21st chromosome

Children with intellectual disability

Down syndrome is an example of a condition that leads
to intellectual disability, which refers to substantial
limitations in intellectual ability as well as problems
adapting to an environment, with both emerging before
18 years of age. Limited intellectual skill is often defined
as a score of 70 or less on an intelligence test such as the
Stanford-Binet. Adaptive behaviour includes conceptual

dati divergent thinking Thinking in novel and unusual directions.

intellectual disability Substantially below-average intelligence
and problems adapting to an environment that emerge before the
@ FIGURE 6.4 One way to measure creativity is to determine how age of 18.
many original responses children can make to a Specific stimulus

63 SPECIAL CHILDREN SPECIAL NEEDS 201

skills (for example, interpersonal skill), and practical skills How might our definitions of giftedness and
(for example, personal grooming, occupational skills). intellectual disability differ if they were based on
It is usually evaluated from interviews with a parent Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?
or another caregiver. Only individuals who are under
18, have problems adapting in these areas, and have IQ
scores of 70 or less are considered to have an intellectual Children with learning disability
disability. (AAIDD Ad Hoc Committee on Terminology In contrast to people with intellectual disability, children
and Classification, 2010).' with learning disability have normal intelligence.
Modern explanations pinpoint four factors that place That is, children with learning disability (1) have
individuals at risk of intellectual disability: difficulty mastering an academic subject, (2) have
normal intelligence, and (3) are not suffering from other
© Biomedical factors, including chromosomal disorders,
conditions that could explain poor performance, such as
malnutrition, traumatic brain injury
sensory impairment or inadequate instruction.
© Social factors, such as poverty and impaired parent-
In South Africa, nearly 16% of school-age children are
child interactions.
classified as having a learning disability (UNICEF, 2012).
e Behavioural factors, such as child neglect or domestic
South Africa currently has no clear standard on measuring
violence.
the prevalence of specific disabilities (Nel & Grosser,
e Educational factors, including impaired parenting and
2016). However, three kinds of learning disability are
inadequate special education services.
particularly common worldwide: difficulties in reading
No single factor in this list necessarily leads to individual words, sometimes known as developmental
intellectual disability. Instead, the risk for intellectual dyslexia; difficulties in understanding words that have
disability grows as more of these factors are present been read successfully, which is called impaired reading
(AAIDD Ad Hoc Committee on Terminology and comprehension, and, finally, difficulties in mathematics,
Classification, 2010). For example, the risk is great for which is termed mathematical learning disability or
a child with Down syndrome whose parents live in developmental dyscalculia (Snowling & Hulme, 2015).
poverty and cannot access special education services. Understanding learning disabilities is complicated
As you can imagine, the many factors that can because each type has its own causes and thus requires
lead to intellectual disability mean that the term its own treatment. For example, developmental dyslexia
encompasses an enormous variety of individuals. is the most common type of learning disability (It’s so
Some people with severe intellectual disability need common that sometimes it's just referred to as reading
constant support for activities of daily living, such skills disability.) Many children with this disorder have problems
as dressing, feeding, and using the toilet. At the other in distinguishing sounds in written and oral language.
extreme are individuals who go to school and master For children with developmental dyslexia - like Rendani
many academic skills, but not as quickly as a typical (opening story) or the boy in the photo - distinguishing
child. They often work and many marry. In short, bis from bep or bis from dis is very difficult; apparently the
although people with intellectual disability face unique words all sound very similar (Hulme & Snowling, 2016).
challenges, with support and resources from families Children with developmental dyslexia typically
and communities, their lives can be active, fulfilling, benefit from two kinds of instruction: training
and productive (larocci et al., 2008). in phonological awareness (experiences that help
them to identify subtle but important differences in
language sounds) as well as explicit instruction on
learning disability When a child with normal intelligence has the connections between letters and their sounds.
difficulty mastering at least one academic subject. With intensive instruction of this sort, youngsters
with developmental dyslexia can read more effectively
(Hulme & Snowling, 2016).
"What we now call intellectual disability was previously known as Children with impaired reading comprehension,
mental retardation. However, intellectual disability is the preferred another common learning disability, have no trouble
term because it better reflects the condition not as a deficit in the
person, but as a poor ‘fit between the persons capacities and the context reading individual words. But they understand far less of
in which the person is to function’ (AAIDD Ad Hoc Committee on what they read. Asked to read sentences such as The man
Terminology and Classification, 2010, p. 13) rode the bus to go to work or The dog chased the cat through

202 CHAPTER 6 OPP TO SCHOOL. COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyraght 2010 Cengage Laweing All Rights Reserved Miry mot be copied. xcammed, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Dur toclectromc mghes, some the pany comteet wary be suppeeened fren tre clock andr Chapters)
Ectacmad arview tom docmeed thet ay eupytesned Creve! dacs eet mumenally affect the overall kornms cupencree (Compage Learnung rescrves the night © roms addmeoeal Cree of ary tare of eatmeqper! net sestnctioes roger a
for children with mathematical learning disability.
Another possibility is that youngsters with mathematical
disability are impaired in counting and retrieving
arithmetic facts from memory. Yet another idea is that
mathematical disability reflects problems in the basic
cognitive processes that are used in doing arithmetic,
such as working memory and executive function.
Because mathematical disability is not well understood,
effective interventions have just begun. For example, children
at risk of mathematical learning disability benefit from
intensive practice designed to increase their understanding
of numbers, their counting and calculation skills (Hulme &
Melby-Lervag, 2015), and improvement of perceptual skills
(Eksteen, 2014). As we learn more about the core problems
A Children with reading disabilities often have trouble associating that define mathematical disability, researchers and
sounds with letters educators should be able to fine-tune instruction for these
children. When that happens, children with mathematical
the woods, they do so easily but find it difficult to answer disability, like children with developmental dyslexia and
questions about what they've read (for example, What did impaired reading comprehension, will be able to develop
the man ride? Where did the man go?). These problems their full intellectual potential.
seem to reflect a limited spoken vocabulary (they simply
know fewer words) as well as problems linking words ia eee sea aban
in a sentence to create coherent meaning (Clarke et al.,
2014, Hulme & Snowling, 2011). When they are told to Many school classrooms include children who are
select the picture showing children sitting on a table, they chronically restless, impulsive, and distractible; often
may point to a picture of children sitting on a rug or to these children are unpopular because their peers find
a picture of children playing a game on a table, but not them annoying. Many of these children suffer from
sitting on it (Nation et al., 2004) In other words, for these attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which
youngsters, impaired reading comprehension seems to be has three defining symptoms (American Psychiatric
a by-product of impaired oral (spoken) language Association, 2004)
If impaired oral language drives impaired reading
e Hyperactivity Children with ADHD are unusually
comprehension, then extensive instruction in vocabulary
energetic, fidgety, and unable to keep still — especially
and language skills should reduce impaired comprehension.
in situations like the one in the photo later in this
It does, as shown in the study that's the focus of the ‘Spotlight
section where they need to limit their activity.
on research’ feature (Melby-Lervag & Lervag, 2014)
e Inattention. Youngsters with ADHD do not pay attention
A third common form of learning disability is
in class and seem unable to concentrate on schoolwork,
mathematical disability. Roughly 6% of young children
instead, they jump from one task to another.
struggle with arithmetic instruction from the very
¢ Impulsivity Children with ADHD often act before
beginning (Eksteen, 2014). These youngsters progress
thinking; they may run into a street before looking for
slowly in their efforts to learn to count, to add, and to
traffic or interrupt others who are already speaking.
subtract; many are also diagnosed with reading disability. As
they move into Grades 2 and 3 (and beyond), these children In South Africa, about 5% of all school-age children
often use inefficient methods for computing solutions — for are diagnosed with ADHD; boys outnumber girls by a 4:1
example, still using their fingers when they are in Grade 3 ratio (Vogel, 2014). The diagnosis is most often made in
to solve problems such as 9 + 7 (Hulme & Snowling, 2015). primary school when it becomes obvious that a child can't
We know far less about mathematical learning work alone in a classroom, struggles to make friends, and is
disability, largely because mathematics engages a broader disruptive at home. But markers of ADHD can be found in
set of skills than reading does Scientists have proposed the preschool years: children are more likely to be diagnosed
several factors that may contribute to mathematical with ADHD if, as preschoolers, they were extremely
learning disability (Hulme & Snowling, 2016). One idea overactive or had bursts of temper. During adolescence,
is that the approximate number system (described in hyperactivity often fades but inattention and impulsivity
Chapter 4) provides less precise estimates of quantities remain (Sonuga-Barke & Taylor, 2015). As young adults,

63 SPECIAL CHILDREN SPECIAL NEEDS 203

oe
°
was the number of questions answered correctly on the
three tests The study was longitudinal because children were % 70
tested as preschoolers and when they were in Grade 6 & 60
Were there ethical concerns with the study? No. Parents SS 50
provided consent for their children to participate The training 8} 0
was valuable for preschoolers and the tasks administered
in Grade 6 were similar to those used to assess learners’ gE
« 20
reading achievement. 10
What were the results? @ FIGURE 6.5 shows the
percentage of questions that were answered correctly on the Text with table Text with map
three reading tasks On each task, children who had received Reading task
training on word structure as preschoolers answered more @ Training group $m Control group
accurately when they were in Grade 6.
What aid the investigators conclude? Lyster and her @ FIGURE 6.5 Children who had, as preschoolers, been taught
colleagues concluded that ‘By giving preschoolers and young about the structure of words were more likely, as learners in Grade 6,
schoolchildren knowledge of the structure of words and to comprehend what they read
helping them to integrate meaning with the spoken and Duta from Lyster et a. (2096)

few individuals with ADHD complete college and many factors also contribute. For example, prenatal exposure to
have work-related problems (Hechtman et al., 2016). alcohol, drugs, and tobacco can place children at risk of
Scientists believe that genes put some children at risk ADHD, as can inadequate diet or exposure to lead (Vogel,
of ADHD by affecting the alerting and executive networks 2014; Sonuga-Barke & Taylor, 2015)
of attention and the brain structures that support those ADHD is typically treated in two ways First, stimulant
networks (Gizer & Waldman, 2012). But environmental drugs such as Ritalin (methylphenidate) are effective.

204 CHAPTER6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

oe) Test yourself 6.3

Recall
1. Children with learning disability (1) have
difficulty mastering an academic subject,
(2) have intelligence, and (3) are
not suffering from other conditions that could
explain poor performance.
2. Four factors place individuals at risk of intellectual
disability: biomedical factors, social factors,
A Children with ADHD are typically hyperactive as well as inattentive factors, and educational factors.
and impulsive.
3. Giftedness is defined a high score on an
It may seem odd that stimulants are given to children as well as having an exceptional
who are already overactive, but these drugs stimulate talent in a particular area.
the parts of the brain that normally inhibit hyperactive 4. refers to substantial limitations in
and impulsive behaviour. Thus, stimulants may calm intellectual ability as well as problems adapting
many youngsters with ADHD, allowing them to focus to an environment, with both emerging before
their attention (Barkley, 2004) Second, psychosocial 18 years of age.
interventions, typically including parenting programmes,
behavioural approaches, and social skills training, are 5. Miriam experiences difficulties in mathematics.
beneficial (Vogel, 2014) These are designed to improve In Grade 4, she still needs to use her fingers to
children’s self-regulation, their organisational skills, and count for basic sums, and is struggling to master
their social relationships (Sonuga-Barke & Taylor, 2015). basic operations. She may have
Unfortunately, we still know little about the best
ways to implement drug and behavioural treatments, 6. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
individually and in combination In South Africa has three defining ae hyperactivity,
psychosocial intervention for children with mild ADHD inattention, and
is preferable, whereas children with moderate to severe
Interpret
ADHD should be offered medication in combination
with psychosocial intervention (Vogel, 2014). However, © Compare and contrast traditional and modern
the ideal dosages of both kinds of treatments remain definitions of giftedness.
unclear Finally, long-term follow-up studies show that
the impact of treatment often vanishes over time (Molina Apply
et al., 2009). This result suggests that ADHD is a chronic e How might Jean Piaget have explained differences
condition, like diabetes or asthma, one that requires in intellectual functioning between children
ongoing monitoring and treatment (Hazell, 2009). with intellectual disability and children without
Tragically, many children who need these treatments intellectual disability? How might an information-
do not receive them. Underprivileged children are far less processing psychologist explain these differences?
likely than privileged youngsters to be diagnosed with Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
and treated for ADHD, even when they have the same end of the chapter.
symptoms. Why? Income plays a role. Economically

63 SPECIAL CHILDREN SPECIAL NEEDS 205

® List the components of skilled reading.

© Explain how children’s writing improves as they develop.

® Describe how arithmetic skills change during the primary school years, and how South African learners
compare with learners from other countries.

© List the characteristics of effective schools and effective teachers.

Angelique is in Grade 5 and she loves to read. As process of identifying a unique pattern of letters. Unless you
a preschooler, Angelique’s parents read Dr Seuss know Japanese, your word recognition was unsuccessful in
stories to her, and now she has progressed to the first sentence. You did not know that nawa means rope
the point where she can read (and understand!) or that kirimashita is the past tense of the English verb cut.
400-page novels intended for teens. Her parents What's more, because you could not recognise individual
marvel at this accomplishment and wish they words, you had no idea of the meaning of the sentence.
better understood the skills that were involved Comprehension is the process of extracting meaning
so they could help Angelique’s younger brother from a sequence of words In the second sentence, your
learn to read as well as his sister does. word recognition was perfect, but comprehension was
impossible because the words were presented randomly.
Reading is complex and reading well is a wonderful These examples remind us just how difficult learning to
accomplishment. Much the same can be said for writing read can be
and mathematics We'll examine each of these academic In the next few pages, we'll look at some of the skills
skills in this section. As we do, you'll learn about the children must acquire if they are to learn to read and to
skills that underlie Angelique’s mastery of reading. We'll read well. We'll start with the skills that children must
end the section by looking at characteristics that make have if they are to learn to read, then move to word
some schools and some teachers better than others. recognition and comprehension.

Foundations of reading skill

Reading
English words are made up of individual letters, so
Try reading the following sentence: children need to know their letters before they can learn
Sumisu-san wa nawa o natfu de kirtmashita. to read. Children learn more about letters and word
forms when they're frequently involved in literacy-related
Unless you know Japanese, you probably didn’t make
activities such as reading with an adult, playing with
much progress, did you?
magnetic letters, or trying to print simple words (Robins,
Now try this one:
Treiman, & Rosales, 2014). And not surprisingly,
Snore secretary green plastic sleep trucks. children who know more about letters and word forms
These are English words, and you probably read learn to read more easily compared with peers who know
less (Levy et al., 2006; Treiman & Kessler, 2003).
them quite easily, but did you get anything more out of
this sentence than the one in Japanese? A second essential skill is sensitivity to language
These examples show two important processes sounds The ability to distinguish the sounds in spoken
involved in skilled reading. Word recognition is the words is known as phonological awareness. English words
consist of syllables, and a syllable is made up of a vowel
word recognition The process of identifying a unique pattern of
that’s usually but not always accompanied by consonants.
letters. For example, dust is a one-syllable word that includes the
initial consonant d, the vowel u, and the final consonant
comprehension The process of extracting meaning from a
sequence of words.
cluster st. Phonological awareness is shown when children
can decompose words in this manner by, for example,
phonological awareness The ability to hear the distinctive sounds correctly answering “What's the first sound in dust?’ or
of letters.
“Dust without the d sounds like what?’ Phonological

206 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
awareness is strongly related to success in learning to and retrieves more (Siegler, 1986) That is, by sounding out
read: children who can readily identify different sounds novel words, children increase their store of information
in spoken words learn to read more readily than children about words in long-term memory that is required for
who do not (Melby-Lervag, Lyster, & Hulme, 2012). direct retrieval (Cunningham et al., 2002; Share, 2008)
Learning to read in English is particularly challenging
because letters in English are not pronounced consistently Comprehension
(for example, compare the sound of ‘a’ in bat, far, rake,
As we saw earlier, decoding words accurately does not
and was) and sounds are not spelled consistently (for
guarantee that children will understand what they've
example, the long ‘e’ sound is the same in each of these
read. This phenomenon is captured in the Simple View
spellings: team, feet, piece, lady, receive, magazine) In
of Reading model in which reading comprehension is
contrast, many other languages - isiZulu, Afrikaans, viewed as the product of two general processes: word
German, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch - are far more decoding and language comprehension (Gough &
consistent, which simplifies mapping sounds to letters
Tunmer, 1986) Children can’t comprehend what they
For example, in isiZulu most letters are pronounced the read when either a word can't be decoded or when it's
same way; reading a word such as sanibonani (greeting) decoded but not recognised as a familiar word. So,
is simple because beginning readers just move from left skilled reading depends on decoding accurately, together
to right converting each letter to sound and using simple with understanding the meaning of the decoded word.
rules: s, n, and b are pronounced as in English, a as in
As children gain more reading experience, they
sun, i as in in, and o as in off. In fact, children learn to better comprehend what they read. Several factors
read more rapidly in languages where letter-sound rules contribute to this improved comprehension (Siegler &
are more consistent, but phonological awareness remains
Alibali, 2005).
the single best predictor of reading success in many
languages (Caravolas et al., 2012, Song et al., 2016). e Children’s language skills improve, which allows them
If phonological skills are so essential, how can we to understand words they've decoded As children’s
help children master them? Reading to children is one vocabulary expands, they are more likely to recognise
approach that’s fun for children and parents alike. When words they've decoded. For example, a learner in Grade
parents read stories, their children learn many language- 1 with good decoding skills might be able to decode
related skills that prepare them for reading (Justice, Pullen prosper but not understand it; by Grade 5 or 6, children’s
& Pence, 2008; Raikes et al., 2006). And the benefits are larger vocabulary means that they could decode and
not limited to the first steps in learning to read, but persist understand prosper. In addition, older children know
into the middle primary school years and are just as more about the grammatical structure of sentences. This
useful for children learning to read other languages, such knowledge helps them comprehend the meaning of an
as Chinese (Chow et al., 2008; Sénéchal, 2012). entire sentence (Muter et al., 2004; Oakhill & Cain, 2012).
© Children become more skilled at recognising words,
allowing more working memory capacity to be devoted
Recognising words to comprehension (Zinar, 2000) When children
At the very beginning of reading, children sometimes struggle to recognise individual words, they often
learn to read a few words ‘by sight, but they have no cannot link them to work out the meaning of a
understanding of the links between printed letters and passage. In contrast, when children recognise words
the word's sound. However, the first step in true reading is effortlessly, they can focus their efforts on making
learning to decode printed words by sounding out the letters meaning from the whole sentence.
in them. Beginning readers often say the sounds associated © Working memory capacity increases. Older and better
with each letter and then blend the sounds to produce a readers can store more ofa sentence in memory as they
recognisable word. After a word has been sounded out a try to identify the propositions it contains (De Beni
few times, it becomes a known word that can be read by & Palladino, 2000; Nation et al., 1999) This extra
retrieving it directly from long-term memory That is, capacity is handy when readers move from sentences
children decode words by recognising familiar patterns of such as ‘Willem hit the cricket ball’ to ‘Off only the
letters and syllables (Nunes, Bryant, & Barros, 2012). second ball he faced, Willem went on the attack and
Thus, from their very first efforts to read, most children pulled a good length delivery over square leg and way
use retrieval for some words. From that point on, the over the boundary into the crowd for six runs’
general strategy is to try retrieval first and, if that fails, to © Children acquire more knowledge of their physical,
sound out the word or ask a more skilled reader for help. social, and psychological worlds This allows them to
With more experience, the child sounds out fewer words understand more of what they read (Ferreol-Barbey,

6.4 ACADEMIC SKILLS 207

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Piolat, & Roussey, 2000). For example, even if a six-year- Skills contributing to improved writing
old could recognise all of the words in the longer Several factors contribute to improved writing as
sentence about Willem’s shot, the child would not fully children develop (Adams Treiman, & Pressley, 1998;
comprehend the meaning of the passage because he or Siegler & Alibali, 2005).
she lacks the necessary knowledge of cricket.
e With experience, children use more appropriate reading Knowledge about topics. Writing is about telling
strategies. The goal of reading and the nature of the ‘something’ to others. With age, children have more to
text dictate how you read. For example, when reading tell as they gain more knowledge about the world and
a novel, do you often skip sentences or paragraphs to incorporate this knowledge into their writing (Benton et
get to ‘the good parts’? This approach makes sense al., 1995, Olinghouse, Graham, & Gillespie, 2015). For
for pleasure reading but not for reading textbooks or example, asked to write about a national election, 8-year-
recipes or how-to manuals. Reading a textbook requires olds are likely to describe it as a popularity contest but
attention to both the overall organisation and the 12-year-olds more often describe it in terms of complex
relation of details to that organisation. Children who political issues. Of course, learners are sometimes asked
know more about effective strategies for reading tend to write about topics that are unfamiliar to them. In this
to understand more of what they read (Cain, 1999). case, older children’s and adolescents’ writing is usually
e With experience, children better monitor their better because they are more adept at finding useful
comprehension. When readers don't grasp the meaning reference material and incorporating it into their writing.
of a passage because it is difficult or confusing, they
read it again (Baker, 1994) Try this sentence (adapted Organising writing. One difficult aspect of writing
from Carpenter & Daneman, 1981): “The Dullstroom is arranging all the information in a manner that readers
Fishing Contest would draw fishermen from all around find clear and interesting. In fact, children and young
the region, including some of the best bass guitarists in adolescents organise their writing differently than do
Mpumalanga’ When you first encountered bass guitarists, older adolescents and adults (Bereiter & Scardamalia,
you probably interpreted bass as a fish. This didn’t make 1987). Young writers often use a knowledge-telling
much sense, so you reread the phrase to determine that strategy, writing down information on the topic as they
bass refers to a type of guitar Older readers are better retrieve it from memory For example, asked to write about
able to realise that their understanding is not complete the day’s events at school, a learner in Grade 2 wrote:
and take corrective action (Oakhill & Cain, 2012). It is a rainy day. We hope the sun will shine We got
new spelling books. We had our pictures taken. We
Thus, several factors contribute to improved
sang Happy Birthday to Barbara. (Waters, 1980, p. 155)
comprehension as children get older.
The story has no obvious structure. The first two
sentences are about the weather, but the last three deal
with completely independent topics. Apparently the
writer simply described each event as it came to mind.
Reading and speaking are both important
During the primary school years, children begin to
elements of literacy. How is learning to read like
use a knowledge-transforming strategy, deciding
learning to speak? How do they differ?
what information to include and how best to organise
it for the point they want to convey to the reader. This
Writi approach involves considering the purpose of writing
(for example, to inform, to persuade, to entertain) and
Although few of us end up being a Nadine Gordimer, the information needed to achieve that purpose. It also
a Zakes Mda, a Wilbur Smith, or a J. K. Rowling, most involves considering the needs, interests, and knowledge
adults do write, both at home and at work. The basics of the anticipated audience. For example, an adolescent's
of good writing are remarkably straightforward, but essay that was written to entertain peers about humorous
writing skill develops only gradually during childhood, events at school would differ from one that was written
adolescence, and young adulthood. to convince parents about problems in schoolwork
(Midgette, Haria, & MacArthur, 2008)
knowledge-telling strategy Writing down information as it is
The mechanical requirements of writing.
retrieved from memory, a common practice for young writers.
Compared with speaking, writing is more difficult
knowledge-transforming strategy Deciding what information to because it involves spelling, punctuation, and actually
include and how best to organise it to convey a point.
forming the letters. These many mechanical aspects of

208 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

TREE
T TOPIC SENTENCE
Tell what
you believe!
A Writing can be particularly hard for young children who are still R_ REASONS - 3 or More
learning how to print or write cursive letters Why do | believe this?
Will my readers believe this?
Skill in revising Skilled writers revise and revise, E EXPLAIN Reasons
then revise some more. Unfortunately, young writers Say more about each reason.
often don't revise at all — the first draft is usually the final E ENDING
draft. To make matters worse, when young writers revise, Wrap it up right!

the changes do not necessarily improve their writing

(Fitzgerald, 1987). As children develop, they're better
@ FIGURE 6.6 The POW +TREE strategy for good writing provides
able to find problems with their writing and to know how young writers with a general plan for writing (POVV) and a structure for a
to correct them, (MacArthur, 2015). paragraph (TREE).

6.4 ACADEMIC SKILLS 209

210 Cuarren6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2010 Cengage Lewrmsng All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, acanned, of duplicated. im whole or in part. Dur to clectronic rights, some third party comtest mory he suppressed teoen the eftook andive eChapters)
Hdacead weetew hen downed thet any wuppromed comicm dacs aot musxmally affect the overall kammy cxpencnee. Cengage Leareing reserves the npbt to romeve additeoeal crentert at srry time if sudmeqperl nptris pestrictooms neyeone
rillitivel

100 400 = 500'—(i«ist«i00

@FIGURE 67 Compared with learners in other countries, South African learners fare poorly on tests
of mathematics skills
Data from Mulls et a. (2096)

Note: The TIMSS achievement scale was established in 1995 based on the combined achievement distribution
of all countries that participated in TIMSS 1995. To provide a point of reference for country comparisons, the
scale centre point of 500 was located at the mean of the combined achievement distribution.

Tucker, 2011) suggest several ways schools could be

improved.
What information-processing skills may contribute
to growth in children’s arithmetic skills?
e Improve teachers’ training by allowing them to work
closely with older, more experienced teachers and give
them more free time to prepare lessons and correct
Why do South African learners rate so poorly? The learners’ work.
‘Real people’ feature has some answers. e Organise instruction around sound principles of
Many of Shin-Ying’s comments are typical of primary learning, such as providing multiple examples of
school students in Asia, and Taiwan in particular. concepts and giving learners adequate opportunities
Compared with learners in South Africa, students to practise newly acquired skills.
in many Asian countries often spend more time on © Create curricula that emphasise problem-solving and
homework and are more enthusiastic about homework. critical thinking
Asian parents often set higher standards for their learners © Set higher standards for children who need to spend
than South African parents do. Finally, students in Asia more time and effort in school-related activities in
often spend more time in school and more of this time is order to achieve those standards.
devoted to school-related activities (Ni, Chiu, & Cheng,
2010; Pomerantz et al., 2014, Stevenson & Lee, 1990). Changing teaching practices and attitudes toward
What can South Africans learn from Taiwanese achievement would begin to reduce the gap between
educational systems? Experts (Stevenson & Stigler, 1992; South African learners and learners in industrialised

6.4 ACADEMIC SKILLS 211

(Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmang. All Rights Reserved Muay not be copied, xcammed, or duplicated. mm whol of in part. Dur so clectreenc nghts, some therd pany contest muy he suppecescd torn tac citook andive of haptcs|+).
Edtorad seview toe deemed thot any euppromed conten! docs sot rusticmally affect the overall komm expenceee. Cengage Leareung reacrves the right to remove additiogal coment af ary tae if sabeequent gh acenctions rogaine a.
Applying human hour or two doing homework “ Shin-Ying My teacher and my parents
development We asked Shin-Ying what think it’s important And
she thought of school and | like doing tt.
schoolwork Her answers Us Do you think you would do
7 surpnsed us nearly as well in school if
Shin-Ying loves school you didn’t work so hard?
Shin-Ying Is an 11-year-old Us Why do you go Shin-Ying Ohno The best students
attending school in Taipei, to school? are always the ones who
the largest city in Tarwan Shin-Ying | like what we work the hardest.

: = ar ee ph bes U range h Schoolwork ts the focal point of

Se eee a oe Shin-Ying's life. Many South African
is in school from 8 a.m until reasons? ;
4 p.m daily. Most evenings Shin-Ying The things that school children are unhappy when
: : 2 schoolwork intrudes on time for
she spends two to three hours | learn in school .
play and television, but Shin-Ying ts
doing homework This academic are useful
; enthusiastic about school and school-
routine ts gruelling by South Us What about felsindinciatune
Afncan standards, where Grade homework?
5 learners typically spend six to Why do you
seven hours in school each day and an ‘ do it?

countries, particularly Asian countries. Ignoring the Although both these schools are hypothetical, they
problem will mean an increasingly undereducated accurately depict a common outcome in South Africa.
workforce and citizenry in a complex world. Some schools are more successful than others, whether
success is defined in terms of the percentage of learners
who are literate, who graduate, or who go to college or
university. Why? Researchers (El Nokali, Bachman, &
South Africa has government, private and independent Votruba-Drzal, 2010; Good & Brophy, 2008; Preston
schools. Schools differ along many dimensions, et al., 2017) have identified a number of characteristics
including their emphasis on academic goals and the of schools where learners typically succeed:
involvement of parents Teachers, too, differ in many © Staff and learners alike understand that academic
ways, such as how they run their classrooms and how excellence is the primary goal and schools provide high-
they teach. These and other variables do affect learner
quality instruction to allow learners to achieve that
achievement, as you'll see in the next few pages. Let’s goal. The school day emphasises instruction — not
begin with school-based influences. nonacademic activities —- and learners are recognised
publicly for their academic accomplishments. Teachers
School-based influences on learner engage learners through dialogue, feedback, and
achievement responsiveness.
Mbeki High School, in Tembisa, has an enrolment of © The school climate is safe and nurturing Learners know
3 500 learners in Grades 8 to 12 Opened in 1936, the that they can devote their energy to learning (instead
building shows its age The rooms are drafty, the desks of worrying about being harmed in school) and that
are decorated with generations of graffiti, and new the staff truly cares that they succeed.
technology means an overhead projector. Nevertheless, © Parents and communities are involved. Parents may
attendance at Mbeki is good. Most learners graduate, participate through parent-teacher associations or
and many continue their education at colleges and informally (for example, helping a teacher to prepare a
universities. Newlands High School, in the Western lesson or to grade papers). Social agencies may provide
Cape, has about the same enrolment as Mbeki High mentors who guide learners at risk of dropping out;
School, and the building is about the same age Yet businesses partner with schools to provide internships
truancy is commonplace at Newlands, where fewer than or vocational training. Such involvement signals that a
half the learners graduate and almost none go on to network of concerned adults is committed to learners’
college or university. success

212 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcammed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some therd party contest mary he suppeessed thom the cftook andive eChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
e Progress of learners, teachers, and programmes is instruction (in case the learner heard everything but
monitored The only way to know whether schools are just didn’t ‘get it’). These teachers persist because they
succeeding is by measuring performance. Learners, feel at fault if learners don't learn.
teachers, and programmes are evaluated regularly, e Emphasise mastery of topics. Teachers introduce
using objective measures that reflect academic goals. a topic, then give learners many opportunities to
understand, practise, and apply the topic. Just as youd
In schools where these guidelines are followed regularly,
find it hard to go directly from driving lessons to race
learners usually succeed. In schools where the guidelines
car driving, learners more often achieve when they
are ignored, learners more often fail.
grasp a new topic thoroughly, then gradually move to
Of course, on a daily basis, individual teachers have
other more advanced topics.
the most potential for impact. Let's see how teachers can
© Teach actively. Effective teachers don't just talk or give
influence their learners’ achievement.
learners an endless stream of worksheets. Instead, they
demonstrate topics concretely or provide hands-on
demonstrations for learners. They also have learners
participate in class activities and encourage learners
to interact, generating ideas and solving problems
together.
© Pay careful attention to pacing. Teachers present
~~ material slowly enough so that learners can understand
a new concept but not so slowly that learners get bored.
e Value tutoring Teachers work with learners
individually or in small groups so they can gear their
instruction to each learner’s level and check each
learner's understanding They also encourage peer
tutoring, in which more capable learners tutor less
capable learners. Children who are tutored by peers
do learn, and so do the tutors because teaching helps
A In successful schools, the child’s parents are involved — often
tutors organise their knowledge
as tutors.
e Teach learners techniques for monitoring and managing
their own learning. Learners are more likely to achieve
Teacher-based influences on learner when they are taught how to recognise the aims of
achievement school tasks as well as effective strategies for achieving
In most schools, some teachers are highly sought after those aims.
because their classes are very successful youngsters
learn and the classroom climate is usually positive What
are the keys to the success of these master teachers?
Research reveals that several factors are critical for
learners achievement (Allen et al., 2013, Good &
Brophy, 2008, Walberg, 1995). Learners tend to learn the
most when teachers:
© Manage the classroom effectively so that they can devote
most of their time to instruction When teachers spend
much time disciplining learners or when learners do
not move smoothly from one class activity to the next,
instructional time is wasted and learners are apt to
learn less.
e Believe that they are responsible for their learners’
learning and that their learners will learn when taught
well. When learners don't understand a new topic,
these teachers may repeat the original instruction 4 Peer tutoring can be very effective, both the tutored learner and
(in case the learner missed something) or create new the tutor usually learn

6.4 ACADEMIC SKILLS 213

Test yourself 6.4

Recall 7. Teachers should be aware of the of

their lessons: they should present material slowly
1. is the process of identifying a enough so that learners can understand a new
unique pattern of letters. concept but not so slowly that learners get bored.
2. Michelle struggles to hear the distinctive sounds
of letters and often mixes the sounds up. She has Interpret
difficulties with © Review the research regarding factors associated
3. During the primary school years, children with skilled reading comprehension under the
begin to use a : they decide sub-heading ‘Comprehension in this unit. Which
what information to include and how best to of these factors — if any - might also contribute to
organise it for the point they want to convey skilled writing?
to the reader.
Apply
4. By Grade children have mastered e Imagine two children, both entering Grade
counting and use this skill as the starting point 1. One has mastered prereading skills, can
for learning addition. sound out many words, and recognises a rapidly
5. A good curriculum should emphasise growing set of words. The second child knows
most of the letters of the alphabet but knows only
a handful of letter-sound correspondences. How
6. When are involved in a school,
are these differences in reading skills likely to
it shows the learners that there is a network
lead to different experiences in Grade 1?
of concerned adults is committed to their
success. Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.

[J] Physical development

Learning objectives

® Describe how much school-age children grow.

® Discuss how motor skills improve during the primary school years.

e Evaluate whether South African children are physically fit.

® Describe the consequences of participating in sports.

Vuyo and Rochley are nine-year-olds playing game In contrast, Rochley’s coach was furious
organised soccer for the first time. Vuyo’s coach when the team lost, and he was extremely critical
is always upbeat. He constantly emphasises the of three players who made errors that contributed
positive. When Vuyo's team lost a game 3 to 0, to the loss. Vuyo thinks that soccer is great, but
the coach complimented all the players on their Rochley can hardly wait for the season to be over.

214 CHAPTER6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

ES ERE SE
147.32

cess
142.24
& 137.16

(in kg)
= 13208

Weight
$ 127.00
121.92
116.84
111.76
106.68

.
101.60
C2) 8) 8) 3102-41-12 6 7 86 9 10 11 12
Age (in years) Age (in years)

@ FIGURE 6.8 Height and weight increase steadily during the primary school years

During the primary school years, children grow steadily To support this growth and to provide energy for
and their motor skills continue to improve. We'll discuss their busy lives, school-age children need to eat more.
these changes in the first two parts of this section. Then Although preschool children need only consume about
we'll see whether South African children are physically 1 500 to 1 700 calories per day, the average 7- to 10-year-
fit. We'll end the section by examining children’s old needs about 2 400 calories each day Of course,
participation in sports and see how coaches like those in the exact figure depends on the child's age and size
the opening story influence children in organised sports and can range anywhere from roughly 1 700 to 3 300
calories daily.
Growth As was true for preschool children, primary school
children need a well-balanced diet. They should eat
Physical growth during the primary school years regularly from each of the major food groups: grains,
continues at the steady pace established during the vegetables, fruits, milk, meat, and beans Too often
preschool years. From @ FIGURE 6.8, you can see that children consume ‘empty’ calories from sweets that have
a typical 6-year-old weighs about 20 kilograms and is very little nutritional value.
1 1 metres tall, but grows to about 40 kilograms and 1 5 It’s also important that school-age children eat
metres by age 12. In other words, most children gain breakfast. At this age, many children skip breakfast -
about 3.5 kilograms and 5 to 8 centimetres per year often because they're too rushed in the morning. In
Many parents notice that their primary school children fact, breakfast should provide about one-fourth of a
outgrow shoes and trousers more rapidly than they child's daily calories. When children are well fed, they're
outgrow jerseys, shirts, or jackets; this is because most better able to pay attention in class and this translates
of the increase in height comes from the legs, not the into better marks and higher scores on tests - for
trunk. children who are well nourished overall as well as for
Boys and girls are about the same size for most of children who are undernourished (Adolphus, Lawton, &
these years (which is why they are combined in the Dye, 2013, Littlecott et al., 2016) So, parents should plan
figure), but girls are more likely than boys to enter mornings so children have enough time for breakfast.
puberty toward the end of the primary school years.
Once girls enter puberty, they grow rapidly and
become much bigger than the boys their age. (We have
more to say about this in Chapter 8.) So, at ages 11 and Primary school children’s greater size and strength
12, the average girl is about two centimetres taller than contribute to improved motor skills. During these
the average boy. years, children steadily run faster and jump farther. For

65 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

y & i | i | L i \ | |
1 1 1 iy
1 1 1 1 1
S 3 6 9 12 15 18 3 6 9 12 #15 18 24 2 2 3
Metres Metres

Standing long jump

——.
ee 2a: 8
88s 8&8 £8
Centimetres
mAge6 mAge8 m Age 11
@ FIGURE 6.9 Between 6 and 11 years, children’s motor skills improve considerably.

example, @ FIGURE 6.9 shows how far a typical boy and and catching, body composition is less important (Duff,
girl can throw a ball and how far they can jump (in the Ericsson, & Baluch, 2007, Smoll & Schutz, 1990). In these
standing long jump). By the time children are 11 years cases, children’s experience is crucial. At break times,
old, they can throw a ball three times farther than they primary school girls are more often found playing on a
could at age 6 and can jump nearly twice as far. swing set, jumping rope, or perhaps talking quietly in a
Fine motor skills also improve as children move group; in contrast, boys are playing soccer or rugby. Many
through the primary school years Children’s greater girls and their parents believe that sports and physical
dexterity is evident in a host of activities ranging from fitness are less valuable for girls than boys. Consequently,
typing, writing, and drawing to working on puzzles, girls spend less time in these sports and fitness-related
playing the piano, and building model cars. Children activities than boys, depriving them of the opportunities
gain much greater control over their fingers and hands, to practise that are essential for developing motor skills
making them more nimble. This improved fine motor (Fredricks & Eccles, 2005)
coordination is obvious in children’s handwriting.

Gender differences in motor skills

In both gross and fine motor skills, there are gender Exercise has many benefits children who are active
differences in performance levels. For example, girls physically are healthier, have better self-esteem, and greater
tend to excel in fine motor skills, their handwriting tends achievement in school (Booth et al., 2014; Lubans et al.,
to be better than that of boys. Girls also excel in gross 2016; Rangul et al., 2012). South African schools do not
motor skills that require flexibility and balance, such as incorporate much physical activity in the school day, and
tumbling. On gross motor skills that emphasise strength, they fall far short of the 60 minutes of physical activity
boys usually have the advantage. Figure 6.9 shows that recommended for adolescents (President’s Council on
boys throw and jump farther than girls. Physical Fitness, Sports and Nutrition, 2012). The subjects
Some of the gender differences in gross motor skills that of Life Skills (taught at primary school level) and Life
require strength reflect the fact that as children approach Orientation (taught at high school level) teach a variety of
and enter puberty, girls’ bodies have proportionately more skills, with only a small focus on nutrition and fitness. A
fat and less muscle than do boys’ bodies. This difference 2011 study of South African schools found that fitness needs
explains why, for example, boys can hang by their hands to be promoted in school children, and that the curriculum
or arms from a bar much longer than girls can However, should reintroduce some form of formal physical education
for other gross motor skills such as running, throwing, in the classroom (Armstrong, Lambert & Lambert, 2011)

216 CHAPTER6 OFF TO SCHOOL COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
Experts recommend many ways to increase children’s stop playing (Curran et al., 2015). And when adolescents
and adolescent's fitness. At school, physical education find sports too stressful, they often get ‘burned out’ -
classes can be more frequent, longer, and spend more they lose interest and quit (Lu et al., 2016).
time in vigorous activity. In addition, classroom time To encourage youth to participate, adults (and parents)
can include regular stints of physical activity. Children need to have realistic expectations for children and coach
and adolescents can be encouraged to walk or ride a positively, praising children instead of criticising them.
bicycle whenever possible, and communities can support And they need to remember that children play games for
these activities by building sidewalks and bike lanes recreation, which means they should have fun!
(President's Council on Physical Fitness, Sports and
Nutrition, 2012). Families can encourage fitness, too.
Instead of spending an afternoon watching TV, parents
and children can go running, playing soccer, netball What skills of concrete-operational thinking make
or baseball, or doing weight and strength training. If it possible for children to participate in organised
families have the resources, they can play exergames, sports?
which are digital games such as Dance Dance Revolution
that combine video gaming with exercise, playing these
games regularly enhances physical fitness (Best, 2013). Test yourself 6.5
air Recall
Children’s greater motor skill means they are able 1. Gerhard needs another pair of school trousers
to participate in many team sports, including rugby, and another pair of school shoes - the second
netball, hockey, and soccer. Obviously, when children pair of each this year. But his jerseys and shirts
play sports, they get exercise and improve their motor still fit him, to his mother’s relief. Gerhard’s
skills. But there are other benefits as well Sports can clothing needs show that most of the increase
enhance participants’ self-esteem and can help them to in an adolescent's height comes from the legs,
learn initiative (Bowker, 2006; Eime at al., 2013). Sports not the
can provide children with a chance to learn important 2. Girls are more likely than boys to enter
social skills, such as how to work effectively (often in toward the end of the primary
complementary roles) as part of a group (Brenner, 2016). school years.
And playing sports allows children to use their emerging
cognitive skills as they devise new playing strategies or 3. The average 7- to 10-year-old needs between
modify the rules of a game calories daily.
These benefits of participating in sports are balanced 4. Most adolescents in South Africa do not get the
by potential hazards. Specialising in one sport early - recommended minutes of physical
before early or mid-adolescence — can occasionally lead activity each day.
to injuries because of overuse and can limit children’s
peer relationships to others participating in the same 5. When adult coaches children
sport (Brenner, 2016). Also, several studies have linked usually enjoy playing, often improve their skills,
adolescents’ participation in sports to delinquent and and increase their self-esteem
antisocial behaviour (for example, Gardner, Roth, &
Brooks-Gunn, 2009). However, outcomes are usually Interpret
positive when sports participation is combined with
participation in activities that involve adults, such as e Whatare the pros and cons of children and
school, religious, or youth groups (Linver, Roth, & adolescents participating in organised sports?
Brooks-Gunn, 2009, Zarrett et al., 2009)
potential benefits depend on the adults who are involved.
But these
Apply
When adult coaches like the one in the opening story e Describe how participation in sports illustrates
encourage their players and emphasise skill development, connections between motor, cognitive, and social
children usually enjoy playing, often improve their skills, development.
and increase their self-esteem. In contrast, when coaches Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
emphasise winning over skill development and criticise end of the chapter.
or punish players for bad play, children lose interest and

6.5 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 217

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Meserved May net be copand, scammed, ce duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectrorec nights, some thend party costest mory be suppeesecd torn tre cfiock ancice cf hapter|s).
Exton scuiew boo deaned thot aay wappromed coment dacs act misirially affect
the overall kamung cxpenence. Congage Leartung reserves the night to nomove additeveal coment af arty tre if subsequent mgt setnictoes myanre
6.1 Cognitive development and depends on three abilities: analytic ability to analyse
a problem and generate a solution, creative ability to deal
What are the distinguishing characteristics of adaptively with novel situations, and practical ability to
thought during Piaget's concrete-operational and know what solutions will work.
formal-operational stages?
© In progressing to Piaget's stage of concrete operations, Why were intelligence tests first developed? What
children become less egocentric, rarely confuse appearances are their features?
with reality, and are able to reverse their thinking. They © Binet created the first intelligence test to identify learners
now solve perspective-taking and conservation problems who would have difficulty in school. Using this work,
correctly. Thinking at this stage 1s limited to the concrete Terman created the Stanford-Binet in 1916; it remains
and the real. an important intelligence test. The Stanford-Binet
e With the onset of formal-operational thinking, introduced the concept of the intelligence quotient
adolescents can think hypothetically and reason (IQ): MA/CA x 100.
abstractly. In deductive reasoning, they understand that
conclusions are based on logic, not on experience. How well do intelligence tests work?
e Intelligence tests are reasonably valid measures of
How do children use strategies and monitoring to achievement in school. They also predict people's
improve learning and remembering? performance in the workplace and their longevity
© Rehearsal and other memory strategies are used to
transfer information from working memory, a temporary How do heredity and environment influence
store of information, to long-term memory, a permanent intelligence?
store of knowledge. Children begin to rehearse at about e Evidence for the impact of heredity on IQ comes from
age seven or eight and take up other strategies as they the findings that (1) siblings’ IQ scores become more
grow older alike as siblings become more similar genetically, and (2)
© Effective use of strategies for learning and remembering adopted children's IQ scores are more like their biological
begins with an analysis of the goals of a learning task. It parents’ test scores than their adoptive parents’ scores
also includes monitoring one's performance to determine Evidence for the influence of the environment comes
whether the strategy 1s working. Teachers can help from the impact on IQ scores of home environments,
learners master these skills. historical change, and intervention programmes.

6.2 Aptitudes for school How and why do test scores vary for different racial
What is the nature of intelligence? and ethnic groups?
© Traditional approaches to intelligence led to hierarchical e There are substantial differences between ethnic groups
theories that include both general intelligence and in their average scores on IQ tests. This difference is
specific skills, such as verbal and spatial ability attributed to differences in socioeconomic status as
© Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes nine well as stereotype threat and test-taking skills. IQ scores
distinct intelligences. Three are found in psychometric remain valid predictors of school success because middle-
theories (linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial class experience is often a prerequisite for school success.
intelligence), but six are new (musical, bodily-kinaesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential 6.3 Special children, special needs
intelligence). Gardner's theory has stimulated research on What are the characteristics of gifted children?
nontraditional forms of intelligence, such as emotional © Traditionally, gifted children have high scores on IQ tests.
intelligence. The theory also has implications for education Modern definitions of giftedness have been broadened
~ suggesting, for example, that schools should adjust to include exceptional talent in the arts. However it is
teaching to each child’s unique intellectual strengths. defined, giftedness must be nurtured by both parents and
© According to Robert Sternberg, intelligence is defined teachers. Gifted children usually are socially mature and
as using abilities to achieve short- and long-term goals emotionally stable.

218 CHAPTER6 OFF TO SCHOOL. COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

(Copyragts
2099 Comgage Leareeng. All Rashes Roserved May act be coped acommed or daphcted m whol or om pert. Der soclecteenc mpbes, somee theed pty contest mary be eappeceend fever tee cfook andibe of hapecr’+)
Edecead arvre tos doomed Gas any eapgromed coment dom ace meserodh aflect he ower koeemys copemenes. Compage Lowtang rare the mgt somes added omc ot ay tere of ateegueet mph arénchoes roger &
What are the different forms of disability? What are the charactersitics of effective schools and
e Individuals with intellectual disability have IQ scores effective teachers?
of 70 or lower and deficits in adaptive behaviour. © Schools influence learners’ achievement in many ways.
Biomedical, social, behavioural, and educational factors Learners are most likely to achieve when their school
place children at risk of intellectual disability. emphasises academic excellence, has a safe and nurturing
e Children with learning disability have normal intelligence environment, monitors pupils’ and teachers’ progress,
but have difficulty mastering specific academic subjects. and encourages parents to be involved.
The most common 1s developmental dyslexia, which © Learners achieve at higher levels when their teachers
involves difficulty reading individual words because manage classrooms effectively, take responsibility for
children haven't mastered language sounds. their learners’ learning, teach mastery of material, pace
material well, value tutoring, and show children how to
What are the distinguishing features of attention- monitor their own learning.
deficit hyperactivity disorder?
e Children with ADHD are distinguished by being 6.5 Physical development
hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive. Treating ADHD
How much do school-age children grow?
with medication and psychosocial treatment is effective in
the short run but does not ‘cure’ children of the disorder. © Primary school children grow at a steady pace, but more
so in their legs than in the trunk. Boys and girls tend to
6.4 Academic skills be about the same size for most of these years.
© School-age children need approximately 2 400 calories
What are the components of skilled reading? daily, preferably drawn from each of the basic food
© Reading includes a number of component skills groups. Children need to eat breakfast, a meal that
Prereading skills include knowing letters and the should provide approximately one-fourth of their
sounds associated with them Word recognition 1s the calories. Without breakfast, children often have trouble
process of identifying a word. Beginning readers more concentrating in school.
often accomplish this by sounding out words; advanced
readers more often retrieve a word from long-term How do motor skills develop during the elementary
memory Comprehension, the act of extracting meaning
school years?
from text, improves with age as a result of several factors
Vocabulary and working memory capacity increase, ¢ Fine and gross motor skills improve substantially over
readers gain more world knowledge, and readers are the primary school years, reflecting children's greater size
better able to monitor what they read and to match their and strength. Girls tend to excel in fine motor skills that
reading strategies to the goals of the reading task. emphasise dexterity as well as in gross motor skills that
require flexibility and balance; boys tend to excel in gross
As children develop, how does their writing improve? motor skills that emphasise strength. Although some
e As children develop, their writing improves, which of these differences reflect differences in body makeup,
reflects several factors: they know more about the world they also reflect different cultural expectations regarding
and so have more to say; they use more effective ways of motor skills for boys and girls.
organising their writing; they master the mechanics of
writing (for example, handwriting, spelling); and they Are South African children physically fit?
become more skilled at revising their writing. © Many South African school children don't meet today’s
standards for being physically fit, and childhood obesity
How do arithmetic skills change during the is a growing concern.
elementary school years? How do South African
learners compare with learners in other countries? What are the consequences of participating in
e Children first add and subtract by counting, but soon sports?
they use more effective strategies such as retrieving © Many school-age children participate in team sports.
addition facts directly from memory. In mathematics, Benefits of participation include exercise, enhanced self-
South African learners lag behind learners in most other esteem, and improved social skills. But participation
countries, partly because of cultural differences in time sometimes leads to antisocial behaviour, and when
spent on schoolwork and homework and in parents’ adults are involved, they sometimes overemphasise
attitudes toward school, effort, and ability. competition, which can turn ‘play’ into ‘work:

SUMMARY 219

220 CHAPTER 6 OFF TO SCHOOL. COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

7.1 Family relationships 223

The family as a system 224
Dimensions and styles of
parenting 224
Siblings 231
Divorce and remarriage 234
Parent-child relationships gone
awry" Child maltreatment 235

7.2 Peers 239

Friendships 239
Groups 241
Popularity and rejection 242
Aggressive children and their
victims 243

73 Electronic media 245

Television programmes 246
Spotlight on research Playing a
video game improves children’s
visual-spatial skill 247
Video games 248
Social media 248

74 Understanding others 249

Describing others 249
Real people: Applying human
development:
Tell me about a
girl you like alot 250
Understanding what others
think 250
Prejudice 252

Summary 253

Key terms 256

All Rights Reserved. May not be copscd, scammed, ce duplicated. m whole of in part. Duc to clectrosmc nghts, some therd party costest mory be suppeesscd thorn dre ciiook andice oC hapter|s)
coment dacs sot mutcmally affect the overall kamung expenence. Cengage Learung rencrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af arty tame if submequent nef aeatnctooes neqpaane it
context, the extended family plays an Soon other powerful forces
'{) you've never had a
important role in the socialisation of contribute to socialisation In the
course called ‘Culture 101’, your
children, as does the culture of that second section, you'll discover how
knowledge of your culture is deep
extended family. When we consider peers become influential through
Like all human beings, you have
the social context and its impact on both individual friendships and social
been learning since birth to live in
the upbringing of children, we need groups. Next, you'll learn how the
your culture Teaching children the
to think about the role played by a media — particularly television —
values, roles, and behaviours of their
parent or caregiver's educational contribute to socialisation as well
culture —socialisation — is a major
level and economic status. In the first As children become socialised,
goal of all people \n many cultures,
section of this chapter, we see how they begin to understand more about
the task of socialisation falls first to
parents and caregivers set and try to other people We'll examine this
parents or the child's caregivers,
enforce standards of behaviour for growing understanding in the last
those primarily responsible for taking
their children section of the chapter
care of the child \n the South African

[4] Family relationships

Learning objectives

® Explain a systems approach to parenting.

e Examine the factors that determine how siblings get along, and how first-born, later-born, and only
children differ.

® Discuss how divorce and remarriage affect children.

® Elaborate on factors that lead children to be maltreated.

Thandi and Musandiwe, both in Grade 6, approaches in this chapter and learn how Thandi and
wanted to go to a local street festival with Musandiwe are likely to be affected by their mothers’
two boys from their school. When Thandi styles of parenting. We'll start by considering parents
asked if she could go, her mom said, ‘No as key components of a broader family system, but
ways!’ Thandi replied defiantly, ‘Why not?’ before we do, let’s think about our country as a
Her mother blew up: ‘Because | say so. context.
That's why. Stop bothering me’. Musandiwe South Africa is a unique country with a complicated
wasn't allowed to go either When she asked history and many cultures. This history and diversity
why, her mom said: ‘I think you’re too young have helped to form diverse family structures. While
to be dating | don’t mind your going to the the nuclear family, consisting of a mother, father and
festival If you want to go just with Thandi, two children might be the norm in some parts of the
that would be fine What do you think of
that?’
socialisation Teaching children the values, roles, and
behaviours of their culture.
The opening story illustrates what we all know from
personal experience — parents go about bringing up caregiver The person (not necessarily the biological parent)
who is primarily responsible for looking after a child.
their children in many ways. We study these different

‘opyraght
3019 Cengage Learmng All Rights Reserved May not be copied, ucanmed, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party content mary be suppreased feoen the cook andice Chapters)
aeview bon deaned that any wppromed comicat dacs aot maximally affect the overall amung expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night to remove additional coment af any tne if submequent mgt sednctooes noqaare at.
world, it is merely one type of family form. It might be By their behaviours, attitudes, and interests, children
useful to think of South African families as existing affect how their parents behave toward them. For
on a continuum. On one side of the continuum are example, when children resist discipline, parents may
family forms and parenting styles that are influenced by become less willing to reason and more inclined to use
individualist culture. These resemble the type of families force (Ritchie, 1999).
often seen in high-income countries in North America The systems view reveals other, more subtle
and Europe On the other side of the continuum are influences. For example, fathers’ behaviours can affect
families that are collectivist in nature. The family is mother-child relationships; a demanding husband
an extended group of people that can include parents, may leave his wife with little time, energy, or interest
grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins Somewhere in helping her daughter with her homework. Or
on this continuum there are many different types of when siblings argue constantly, parents may become
families that don’t fall into either category: single-parent preoccupied with avoiding problems rather than
families, families with gay parents, grandparent-headed encouraging their children’s development.
households, and child-headed households Keep these The family itself is embedded in other social systems,
different types of families in mind as you work through such as the wider community and religious institutions
the chapter. (Parke & Buriel, 1998) These other institutions can
affect family dynamics. Sometimes they simplify child
rearing, as when neighbours can help care for each
The
family
as a system others’ children. Ubuntu is the indigenous African
Families are rare in the animal kingdom. Only human philosophy that focuses on the common humanity
beings and a handful of other species form family- that we all share It suggests that ‘it takes a village to
like units Why? Compared with the young in other raise a child’ and that ‘your child is my child’ Often
species, children develop slowly. And because children the extended family and community play an integral
are unable to care for themselves for many years, the part in raising children according to cultural practices.
family structure evolved as a way to protect and nurture This means that everyone in a community takes some
young children during their development (Bjorklund, responsibility for raising a child.
Yunger, & Pellegrini, 2002) Of course, modern families At times, the impact of the larger systems is indirect,
serve many other functions as well - they’re economic as when long hours of work and needing to travel far
units, and they provide emotional support — but child distances cause a parent to be away from home or when
rearing is probably still one of the most important family schools eliminate programmes that benefit children due
functions. to financial constraints.
Today, most theorists view families from a contextual @ FIGURE 7.1 summarises the many interactive
perspective (described in Chapter 1 and above) in influences that exist in a systems view of families In
which families form a system of interacting elements the remainder of this section, we'll describe parents’
parents, caregivers and children influence one another influences on children and then discuss how children
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Schermerhorn & affect their parents’ behaviour.
Cummings, 2008), and families are part of a much larger
system that includes extended family, communities, Siiiieiad (cient asia
and friends as well as institutions that influence
development (for example, schools) The contextual Parenting can be described in terms of general
perspective highlights the idea that human development dimensions that are like personality traits in representing
should always be considered in relation to context. This stable aspects of parental behaviour that hold across
perspective takes the interplay between the individual different situations (Holden & Miller, 1999). When
and the environment into account. This is of particular viewed this way, two general dimensions of parental
importance in a South African context, given that a great behaviour emerge One is the degree of warmth and
deal of psychological knowledge about family systems responsiveness that parents show their children Some
and parenting styles has been developed in North parents are openly warm and affectionate with their
America and Europe, which have a very different history children. They are involved with them, respond to their
and very different cultural practices from our own. emotional needs, and spend much time with them. Other
In the systems view, parents influence their children parents are relatively uninvolved with their children and
both directly (for example, by encouraging them to study sometimes even hostile toward them. These parents often
hard) and indirectly (for example, by being generous and seem more focused on their own needs and interests
kind to others). And children influence their parents than those of their children. Warm parents enjoy hearing

224 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

*
a
@ FIGURE 71 In a systems view of families, parents and children influence
each other; this interacting family unit is also influenced by other forces outside the
family.

their children describe the day’s activities; uninvolved or set rules for their children and to impose limits on what
hostile parents aren't interested, considering it a waste children can and cannot do. Some parents are dictatorial.
of their time. Warm parents see when their children are they try to regulate every facet of their children’s lives.
upset and try to comfort them, uninvolved or hostile At the other extreme are parents who exert little or no
parents pay little attention to their children’s emotional control over their children: these children do whatever
states and invest little effort in comforting them when they want without asking their parents first or worrying
they’re upset. As you might expect, children benefit from about their parents’ response
warm and responsive parenting (Pettit, Bates, & Dodge, What's best for children is minimal psychological
1997; Zhou et al., 2002) control combined with an intermediate amount of
It is important to keep in mind that sometimes behavioural control Children typically fare best when
parents’ lack of involvement in their children’s lives is parents and caregivers set reasonable standards for
as a result of the social and economic circumstances children’s behaviour and expect their children to
in which the family find themselves. Parents are meet those standards while having some insight into
sometimes forced to work long hours far away from what their children are doing and with whom (Racz &
the family home, and as a result have little energy left McMahon, 2011).
for engagement with their children Poverty has an
important impact on the style of parenting, as well as Parenting styles
many other aspects of family life. Research related to parenting styles in South Africa
A second general dimension of parental behaviour specifically is still limited, but studies which look at
involves control, which comes in two forms (Grusec, parental behaviour and its effects on child outcomes
2011). Psychological control refers to parents’ efforts have been growing in number over the past 10 years.
to manipulate their children’s emotional states by, for Combining the dimensions of warmth and control
example, withdrawing their love or making children feel produces four prototypic styles of parenting, as shown in
guilty. Behavioural control refers to parents’ efforts to @ FIGURE 7.2 (Baumrind, 1975, 1991).

71 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 225

Copyraght 3019 Cengage Lesrzing. All Rights Reserved May mot be copeed, scammed, ce duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosec nights, some therd party comtest moy be suppecescd thorn the citook and/or oC hapter|s)
Edttomal seview tos deemed that any suppromed comicnt docs aot mustcrally affect the overall kare cupencnee. Cengage Learning rescrwex the mph to nomove addmoeal comicnt af any tne if abeequent nghe sednctoss rogaine a.
accept their children’s behaviour and punish them
infrequently. Little is expected of these children and
rules are rarely enforced. Parents who are permissive
often allow children to make decisions for themselves
despite not yet being developmentally mature enough
to do so. An indulgent-permissive parent would
readily agree to Thandi or Musandiwe’s request to go
to the festival simply because it is something the child
wants to do.
© Uninvolved parenting provides neither warmth nor
control. Uninvolved parents provide for their children’s
@ FIGURE 7.2 Combining the two dimensions of parental behaviour basic physical and emotional needs but little else. They
(warmth and control) creates four prototypic styles of parenting. try to minimise the time they spend with their children
and avoid becoming emotionally involved with them.
e Authoritarian parenting combines high control with If Thandi had parents with this style, she might have
little warmth These parents lay down the rules and gone to the concert without asking, knowing that
expect them to be followed without discussion. These her parents wouldn't care and would rather not be
parents emphasise respect and obedience. There is bothered.
little give-and-take between parent and child because Authoritative parenting is best for most children
authoritarian parents do not consider children’s needs most of the time Children and adolescents with
or wishes. This style is illustrated by Thandi’s mother authoritative parents tend to have higher grades, they
in the opening story She feels no obligation to explain are responsible, self-reliant, and friendly, and they're
her decision. Research has showed that authoritarian less likely to drink alcohol (Amato & Fowler, 2002,
parenting is associated with negative emotions and Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000; Merianos et al., 2015).
need frustration in South African children (Roman
In contrast, children with authoritarian parents are often
et al., 2015).
unhappy and withdrawn, anxious, have low self-esteem,
e Authoritative parenting combines a fair degree of and can be overly aggressive (for example, Braza et al.,
parental control with being warm and responsive to 2015; Silk et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2008) Finally, children
children Authoritative parents explain rules and with permissive parents are often impulsive and have
encourage discussion. Children are often involved in little self-control, whereas children with uninvolved
decision making in a manner that is age-appropriate. parents often do poorly in school and are aggressive
This style is exemplified by Musandiwe’s mother (Aunola et al., 2000, Barber & Olsen, 1997; Driscoll,
in the opening story She explained why she did not Russell, & Crockett, 2008). Thus, children typically
want the girls going to the festival with the boys and thrive on a parental or caregiving style that combines
encouraged her daughter to discuss the issue with her. control, warmth, and affection.
Research has showed that authoritative parenting is
associated with positive emotions in South African
children (Roman et al., 2015) Variations associated with culture
© Permissive parenting offers warmth and caring and socioeconomic status
but little parental control. These parents generally The general aim of child rearing - helping children
become contributing members of their culture - is much
the same worldwide (Lansford et al., 2016), and warmth
authoritarian parenting Style of parenting in which parents and control are universal aspects of parents’ behaviour.
show high levels of control and low levels of warmth toward their
children.
But views about the ‘proper’ amount of warmth and
the ‘proper’ amount of control vary with particular
authoritative parenting Style of parenting in which parents use a cultures. European Americans emphasise happiness and
moderate amount of control and are warm and responsive to their
children.
self-reliance, while in many other countries around the
world, individualism is less important than cooperation
permissive parenting Style of parenting in which parents offer and collaboration. In China, for example, emotional
warmth and caring but little control over their children.
restraint and obedience are seen as the keys to family
uninvolved parenting Style of parenting in which parents harmony (Chao, 2001). Consequently, parents in China
provide neither warmth nor control and minimise the time they often rely on an authoritarian style in which they are
spend with their children.
less often affectionate and expect their children to obey

226 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learing. All Rights Reserved Muay not be copied, scammed, or duplicated m whol of in part. Dur to clectroemc nighes, some therd party contest muy he suppressed trom dic cftook andive chapters).
Edttomal seview tos deemed that any suppromed comicnt docs aot mustcrally affect the overall kare cupencnee. Cengage Learning rescrwex the mph to nomove addmoeal comicnt af any tne if abeequent nghe sednctoss rogaine a.
them without question (Lin & Fu, 1990; Zhou et al., many South African families. Because of their limited
2008). Interestingly, one South African study found a financial resources, parents and caregivers of lower
positive association between a father’s authoritarian socioeconomic status often lead more stressful lives
style and emotion-focused coping strategies in white (for example, they wonder whether they'll have enough
adolescents (Kritzas & Grobler, 2009). In other words, money at the end of the month for food) and are far
white teenagers in this sample tended to have better more likely to live in communities where violence, drugs,
emotional coping strategies if their fathers emphasised and crime are commonplace. Thus, the potential risk
the importance of respect and obedience It is important that parents of lower socioeconomic status may be too
to point out, however, that South African mothers tend stressed to invest the energy needed for the warmth and
to have a more authoritative parenting style (Roman moderate control that define authoritative parenting, is
et al., 2015), and these emotion-focused coping strategies increased (Simons et al., 2016).
could therefore be as a result of the interaction between
different parental styles between the father and mother. Genetic influences on parenting
Another common pattern worldwide is for parents to Families and parenting are adaptations that evolved to
be warm and controlling (Deater-Deckard et al., 2011).
provide for children until they mature In other words,
For example, many traditional African cultures typically genes linked to behaviours that make for effective
place greater emphasis on having strong extended family parenting (e.g., being nurturing) were more likely to
ties, and in these cultures, respect for elders is paramount. be passed on because they helped children to reach
Thus, cultural values help specify appropriate ways maturity. Consistent with this view, research on twins as
for parents to interact with their offspring. parents shows the impact of genetics on parental style.
For example, as parents, identical twins are more similar
than fraternal twins in the amount of warmth that
they express to their children (McAdams et al., 2017);
apparently heredity makes it easier for some people to
be warm parents. Behaviour genetic studies also reveal
several environmental influences on parental style,
including the quality of the parents’ marital relationship
and the children themselves (Klahr & Burt, 2014); we'll
examine these later in this module.

ae Parental behaviour
Dimensions and styles are useful as general
characterisations of parents, but they tell us little about
A Authoritative parents are warm and responsive with children and how parents behave in specific situations and how these
encourage discussion parental behaviours influence children’s development.
Researchers have identified three specific parental
Parental styles vary not only across South African behaviours that influence children: direct instruction,
cultures but also within cultures, depending on the modelling, and feedback.
parents’ situation One challenge facing many South
Africans has been the destruction caused by the HIV Direct instruction and coaching. Parents often tell
and AIDS pandemic. The disease has contributed to their children what to do. But ordering children around -
the deaths of many parents, resulting in children being ‘Go to bed!’ “Turn off the TV! — is not very effective. A
raised by grandparents, siblings, and other members of
better approach is direct instruction, which involves telling
a child what to do, when, and why. Instead of just shouting,
the extended family. The HIV and AIDS pandemic has
driven families already struggling financially into further ‘Share your sweets with your brother!’ a parent should
poverty by removing the productive adults (the people
explain when and why it’s important to share with a sibling.
In addition, just as coaches help athletes master sports
who can earn an income) and leaving the young or older
skills, parents can help their youngsters master social
family members with the responsibility of raising the
children who remain. and emotional skills. Parents can explain links between
emotions and behaviour: ‘Nosipho is sad because you broke
An additional contributing factor derives from
another variable that defines socioeconomic status
direct instruction Telling a child what to do, when, and why.
income (Melby et al., 2008). Poverty is a lived reality for

71 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 227

counterimitation Learning what should not be done by observing

the behaviour.
reinforcement Consequence that increases the likelihood that a
behaviour will be repeated in the future.

punishment Application of an aversive stimulus (for example, a

hiding) or removal of an attractive stimulus (for example, play time).

negative reinforcement trap Unwittingly reinforcing a behaviour

you want to discourage.

228 CHAPTER7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS: SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyragts 2009 Comgape Leareeng. All Raghes Reserwod May act be coped, ecommed of Gaphoeed m whol of op pert. Der so clecteenc mghes, scene theed petty contest sary be eapgpeceecd cee tar eBook ander chapter's
Edeored aver bos doomed Gus any eappromed comet docs act rexeredhy affect Ge ower koeemy cepemence. Compage Loweang srecrees the mbt comers addeesd comes ot ay tere of sateeguest rg srénchoes sogeer &
At the same time, research reveals some serious A time-out period usually lasts just a few minutes,
drawbacks to punishment. One is that punishment is which helps parents and caregivers use the method
primarily suppressive: punished responses are stopped, consistently. During time-out, both parent and child
but only temporarily if children do not learn new typically calm down When time-out is over, a parent
behaviours to replace those that were punished. For explains to the child why the punished behaviour is
example, denying TV to brothers who are fighting stops objectionable and what the child should do instead.
the undesirable behaviour, but fighting is likely to recur ‘Reasoning’ like this - even with preschool children - is
unless the boys learn new ways of solving their disputes effective because it emphasises why a parent punished
A second drawback is that punishment can have initially and how punishment can be avoided in the
undesirable side effects Children become upset when future.
they are being punished, which means they often miss These techniques can be taught to parents. Many
the feedback that the punishment is meant to convey meta-analyses describe the effectiveness of programmes
A child denied TV for misbehaving may become angry that teach parenting skills (for example, using positive
over the punishment itself and ignore why he's being reinforcement and using nonphysical punishment
punished. consistently), that promote good communication within
The practice of giving hidings or spankings families, and that make parents feel confident in their
illustrates the problems with punishment Although ability to be good parents. Throughout South Africa,
used by many parents in South Africa and around the the number of non-governmental organisations that
world, it is ineffective in getting children to comply provide positive parenting intervention programmes is
with parents and often leads children to aggressive on the increase. These programmes seek to empower
behaviour (Altschul, Lee, & Gershoff, 2016). And parents and caregivers with the necessary skills to form
harsher forms of physical punishment are associated warm and positive parent-child relationships Many
with a range of negative outcomes, including mental of these interventions have been shown to be effective
health problems, impaired parent-child relationships, in reducing risk and supporting development (Knerr,
and delayed cognitive development (Gershoff, 2013) Gardner, & Cluver, 2013) These kinds of intervention
Because physical punishment is so harmful to children, programmes make parents feel more satisfied with their
South Africa, like many countries around the world (for parenting, lead them to parent more effectively, and
example, Costa Rica, the Netherlands, New Zealand, reduce children’s behaviour problems (Sanders, 2014;
Spain), have banned it altogether (Global Initiative to Sandler et al., 2015) Thus, although the path to good
End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2011). parenting may be easier for some people, most adults
can master the skills that foster children’s development.

Think about it

When 10-year-old Luvo's family got a puppy,

he agreed to walk it every day after school. But
when his mom reminds him to do this, he gets
angry because he'd rather play with his friends.
After they argue for about 15 minutes, Luvo's
mom gives up and walks the dog herself. And
Luvo goes back to playing with his friends.
Analyse this situation. What could Luvo’s mom
do to prevent these regular arguments?

One method combines the best features of

punishment while avoiding its shortcomings. In
time-out, a child who misbehaves must briefly sit alone 4 An effective form of punishment is time-out, in which children sit
in a quiet, unstimulating location Some parents have alone briefly.
children sit alone in a bathroom, other parents have
children sit in a corner of a room. Time-out is punishing
because it interrupts the child’s ongoing activity and time-out Punishment that involves removing children who
isolates the child from other family members, toys, and are misbehaving from a situation to a quiet, unstimulating
environment.
generally all forms of rewarding stimulation.

7 1 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 229

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghés, some thind party costest mory he suppressed trom the cfiock andlor oC hapter(s)
Edbtomad sewew bos doomed thot any wuppromed content docs sot mustcmally affect the overall kam, expenerce. Cengage Leareung reserves the night to remnowe additonal comient af any tame if subsequent mgt sedtnctooes nga ot
Influences of the marital system The extent and resolution of conflict is an obvious
When Chester returned from the supermarket with way in which the parental system affects children, but it's
a six-pack of beer and chips instead of nappies and not the only way. Another influence concerns parents’
baby food, Anita exploded “How could you! I used effectiveness as a parenting team Parenting is far less
the last nappy an hour ago!’ Huddled in the corner effective when each parent tries to ‘go it alone’ instead
of the kitchen, their son Roscoe watched yet another of working with the other to achieve shared goals using
episode in the daily soap opera that feature Chester methods they both accept When parents don’t work
and Anita. together, when they compete, or when they limit each
Although Chester and Anita aren't arguing about other's access to their children, problems can result.
Roscoe — in fact, they're so wrapped up in their conflict For example, children can become withdrawn (McHale
that they forget he's in the room - it’s easy to imagine that et al., 2002; Scrimgeour et al., 2013).
such chronic parental conflict is harmful for children. So far, we've seen that to understand parents’ impact
When parents are constantly in conflict, children and on children’s development, we need to consider the
adolescents often become anxious, withdrawn, and nature of the marital relationship as well as parenting
aggressive and are more prone to chronic diseases style and specific parenting behaviours (for example,
and sometimes to be abusive in their own romantic use of feedback). In addition, Figure 7.1 reminds us
relationships (Miller & Chen, 2010; Narayan, Englund, that forces outside the family can influence parenting
& Egeland, 2013; Rhoades, 2008).
and children’s development To illustrate, let's consider
Parental conflict affects children’s development work-related influences. One such influence is a
through three distinct mechanisms. First, seeing parents parent's job security when children believe that their
fight jeopardises a child's feeling that the family is stable parents may lose their jobs, children’s well-being
and secure, making the child feel anxious, frightened, suffers — they're more likely to be sad or anxious
and sad (Cummings et al., 2012, Davies et al., 2016) and they’re less likely to believe they can succeed -
Second, chronic conflict between parents often spills and their marks in school often go down Children
over into the parent-child relationship. When a wife is and adolescents lose self-esteem and find it difficult
unhappy with her husband, this often leads her to be to concentrate in school when their parents become
unhappy with her children as well (Kouros et al., 2014). unemployed or, for that matter, when they worry
Third, when parents invest time and energy fighting with that their parents may become unemployed (Mauno,
each other, they’re often too tired or too preoccupied Cheng, & Lim, 2017) This is particularly relevant in
to invest themselves in high-quality parenting (Katz & the South African context, which has high rates of
Woodin, 2002)
adult unemployment.
Of course, all long-term relationships experience Another well-known factor is work-related stress. Not
conflict at some point. Does this mean that all children surprisingly, when men and women lead stressful lives at
bear at least some scars? Not necessarily. Many parents work, they parent less effectively Some frazzled parents
resolve conflicts in a manner that’s constructive instead withdraw from family interactions; they seem detached
of destructive. For example, suppose one parent believes and uninterested, which makes children anxious
that his child should attend a school trip but the other and upset. Others are less warm and less consistent
in their parenting (Cooklin, et al., 2016, Crouter &
parent believes it’s too expensive and not worthwhile
Bumpus, 2001).
because the child attended the previous trip and it
just seemed like fun, rather than being educational. So, a person’s work life can profoundly affect
Instead of shouting and name calling (for example, children and adolescents by changing the parenting they
“You're always so cheap!’), some parents seek mutually experience. For now, another way to view family systems
acceptable solutions the child could go on the trip if she in action is by switching perspectives to see how children
earns money to cover part of the cost, or the child could affect parenting behaviour
attend the trip planned for the next year instead. When
disagreements are routinely resolved this way, children Children’s contributions: Reciprocal influence
respond positively to conflict, apparently because At the beginning of this chapter, we emphasised that the
they believe their family is cohesive and can withstand family is a dynamic, interactive system with parents and
problems (Bergman, Cummings, & Warmuth, 2016) children influencing each other In fact, children begin at
And youth exposed to this sort of constructive approach birth to influence the way their parents treat them Let's
rely on it when solving conflicts in their peer and look at two characteristics of children that contribute to
romantic relationships (Miga, Gdula, & Allen, 2012). this influence.

230 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Age. Parenting changes as children grow. The same As time goes by, these reciprocal influences lead
parenting that works well with infants and toddlers is many families to adopt routine ways of interacting with
inappropriate for adolescents. These age-related changes each other. Some families end up functioning smoothly:
in parenting can be seen in the two basic dimensions parents and children cooperate, anticipate each other's
of parental/caregiver behaviour: warmth and control. needs, and are generally happy. Unfortunately, other
Warmth is beneficial throughout development because families end up troubled: disagreements are common,
toddlers and teens alike enjoy knowing that others care parents spend much time trying unsuccessfully to
about them. But the manifestation of parental affection control their defiant children, and everyone is often
changes, becoming more reserved as children develop. angry and upset. And others are characterised by
The enthusiastic hugging and kissing that delights toddlers disengagement. parents withdraw from each other and
embarrasses adolescents. are not available to their children (Sturge-Apple, Davies,
Parental control also changes as children develop. As & Cummings, 2010). These troubled families do not fare
children develop cognitively and are better able to make well in the long run, but they can be helped by improving
their own decisions, parents gradually give up control a family’s communication and problem-solving skills
and expect children to be responsible for themselves. (Liddle, 2016)
As children enter adolescence, they believe that Although parent-child relationships are central to
parents have less authority to make decisions for them, human development, other relationships within the
especially in the personal domain (Darling, Cumsille, & family are also highly influential. In South Africa the
Martinez, 2008). Parents do give up control — although number of single-parent, child-headed and grandparent-
sometimes not as rapidly as adolescents want them to - headed households are on the rise, so it is important to
and increases in decision-making independence are consider the protective nature of the relationships that
associated with greater adolescent well-being (Eagleton, children have with extended family members, as well
Williams, & Merten, 2016, Wray-Lake, Crouter, & as with other community members. Similarly, for many
McHale, 2010). children, relationships with siblings are very important,
as we'll see in the next few pages.
Temperament and behaviour. Temperament can
be understood as an individual's unique manner of Sibli
responding to the environment (Shaffer & Kipp, 2007).
A child’s temperament can have a powerful effect on Sibling relationships are complicated from the
parental behaviour. To illustrate the reciprocal influence of beginning. Expectant parents are typically excited by
parents and children, imagine two children with different the prospect of another child, and their enthusiasm is
temperaments as they respond to a parent's authoritative contagious: their children, too, eagerly await the arrival
style. The first child has an ‘easy’ temperament; she readily of the newest family member. However, the baby’s
obeys parental requests and responds well to family arrival prompts varied responses. Some children are
discussions about parental expectations But suppose distressed, sad, and less responsive to parents — these
the second child has a ‘difficult’ temperament and obeys responses are more common with younger children
reluctantly or sometimes not at all. Over time, the parent (Volling, 2012). Parents can minimise their older
becomes more controlling and less affectionate. The child children’s distress by remaining attentive to their needs
in turn obeys even less in the future, leading the parent to (Howe & Ross, 1990).
adopt an authoritarian parenting style (Brody et al., 2017). Many older siblings enjoy helping their parents take
As this example illustrates, parenting behaviours care of newborns Older children play with, comfort, or
and styles often evolve as a consequence of the child’s feed the baby or change the baby’s nappies. In middle-
behaviour. With a moderately active young child who is class Western families, such caregiving often occurs in
eager to please adults, a parent may discover that a modest the context of play, with parents nearby. But in many
amount of control is adequate. But for a very active child developing nations, such as South Africa, children -
who is not as eager to please, a parent may need to be particularly girls — play an important role in providing
more controlling and directive. Influence is reciprocal: care for their younger siblings. In some instances they
children’s behaviour helps determine how parents treat even become the primary caregiver (Zukow-Goldring,
them, and the resulting parental behaviour influences 2002). We see this in child-headed households, where an
children’s behaviour. This in turn causes parents to older sibling looks after younger children, if both parents
change their behaviour again (Choe, Olson, & Sameroff, have died and in the absence of any other relative who
2013; Schermerhorn, Chow, & Cummings, 2010). can step in as caregiver.

71 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 231

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrmang. All Rights Reserved May mot be copeed, acammed. oe duplicated mm wholeof on part. Dur so clectroenc mghts, some therd party contest muy he suppecescd form the citook andice of hapece|s).
Edeomal seiew toe deemed that any euppromed crencmt docs sot muxicmadly affect the overall kare cupenence. Congape Learing reacrwes the mpbt to remove addmosal comicet af any tome af satecquent neh scenctoss moqenn &
As the infant grows, interactions between siblings relationships, they have better relationships with
become more frequent and more complicated. peers and better well-being overall. Unfortunately, the
For example, toddlers tend to talk more to parents than opposite is also true: when siblings have low-quality
to older siblings. But by the time the younger sibling relationships, they often behave aggressively, bully their
is four years old, the situation is reversed: now young peers, and are prone to anxiety and depression (Dirks
siblings talk more to older siblings than to their mother et al., 2015) Often children take the social-interaction
(Brown & Dunn, 1996) Older siblings become a source skills developed with siblings and apply them with peers.
of care and comfort for younger siblings when they are This strategy is productive with the effective social skills
distressed or upset (Gass, Jenkins, & Dunn, 2007; Kim learned in high-quality sibling relationships but not with
et al., 2007). the antagonistic, coercive skills learned in low-quality
Older siblings also serve as teachers for their younger relationships.
siblings, teaching them to play games or to cook simple Why are some sibling relationships so filled
foods (Maynard, 2002). Finally, when older children with love and respect while others are dominated
do well in school and are popular with peers, younger by jealousy and resentment? First, children’s gender
siblings often follow suit (Brody et al., 2003) and temperament matter Sibling relations are more
As time goes by, some siblings grow close, becoming likely to be warm and harmonious when siblings are
best friends in ways that nonsiblings can never be. Other the same gender (Dunn & Kendrick, 1981) and when
siblings constantly argue, compete, and, overall, do not neither sibling is too emotional (Brody, Stoneman,
get along with each other. The basic pattern of sibling & McCoy, 1994) Age is also important. Sibling
interaction seems to be established early in development relationships generally improve as the younger child
and remains fairly stable (Kramer, 2010). In general, approaches adolescence because siblings begin to
siblings who get along as preschoolers continue to get perceive one another as equals (Kim et al., 2006;
along as young adolescents, and siblings who quarrel as McHale et al., 2013). Finally, the impact of culture must
preschoolers often quarrel as young adolescents (Dunn, be considered, given that sisterhood and brotherhood
Slomkowski, & Beardsall, 1994). are often endowed with particular meaning based on
the cultural norms in which siblings grow up.
Parents and caregivers contribute to the quality
of sibling relationships, both directly and indirectly
(Brody, 1998). The direct influence comes from
parents’ treatment. Siblings more often get along
when they believe that parents have no ‘favourites,
but treat all siblings fairly (McGuire & Shanahan,
2010) When parents enthusiastically praise one child’s
accomplishments while ignoring another's, children
notice the difference, and their sibling relationship
suffers (Updegraff, Thayer, et al., 2005)
This doesn’t mean that parents must treat all their
children the same. Children understand that parents
should treat their children differently - based on
their age or personal needs Sibling relationships only
deteriorate when differential treatment is not justified
(Kowal & Kramer, 1997). In fact, during adolescence,
siblings get along better when each has a unique, well-
defined relationship with parents (Feinberg et al., 2003).
The indirect influence of parents on sibling
A In many cultures, older siblings regularly provide care for younger
siblings
relationships comes from the quality of the parents’
relationship with each other: A warm, harmonious
relationship between parents promotes positive sibling
Getting along with siblings makes growing up relationships. Conflict between parents is associated
easier, both for children and parents. But there are also with conflict between siblings, although intense marital
longer-term effects of the quality of sibling relationship conflict sometimes leads siblings to become closer, as
on children’s development (McHale, Updegraff, & they support each other emotionally (McHale, Updegraff,
Whiteman, 2012). When siblings have high-quality & Whiteman, 2013).

232 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Coprraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppressed trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affectthe overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
to quality adoptive services and a lack of information
about adoption (Rochat et al., 2016). Research on the
Pranav, age eight, and his younger sister, public perceptions and beliefs of fostering and adoption
Sahana, argue about everything and constantly in South Africa has revealed that there are also
compete for their mothers’ attention. Teenage important sociocultural elements that affect whether a
sisters Karabo and Masego love doing everything family will adopt a child or not (Rochat et al., 2016).
together and enjoy sharing clothes and secrets First, extended families often believe that it is their
about their teen romances. Why might Pranav responsibility to care for and raise the child, regardless
and Sahana get along so poorly while Karabo and of the government's policy on adoption Because this
Masego get along so well? care is culturally normative the family does not see
the need to legally adopt the child. Second, ancestral
world views affect whether or not families will adopt
Many of the features associated with high-quality
from outside their own family group. This 1s because
sibling relationships, such as the gender of the siblings,
are common across different ethnic groups. But some there is a belief that the children will lose their roots
and therefore lose contact with their ancestors. As a
unique features also emerge. For example, in a study of
result the ancestors of the different family groups will
African American families, sibling relations were more
fight over who owns the child, and this could result
positive when children had a stronger ethnic identity
in unpleasant and punitive consequences for the
(McHale et al., 2007).
future happiness of the child. For ritualistic practices
In the pursuit of family harmony (what many parents
information on the birth family 1s required, and this is
call ‘peace and quiet’), parents can influence some of
problematic with the high rate of child abandonment.
the factors affecting sibling relationships but not others.
Adopted children often experience adversity before
Parents can help reduce friction between siblings by
being adopted. For example, children adopted from
being equally affectionate, responsive, and caring to all
of their children and by caring for one another. At the foster care have often experienced maltreatment that
same time, parents must realise that some dissension is led them to be placed in foster care, or were abandoned
or orphaned and lived in institutions prior to adoption.
natural in families, especially those with young boys and
These circumstances aren't optimal for children’s
girls. Children’s different interests lead to conflicts that
youngsters cannot resolve because their social skills are development, so it’s not surprising that adopted children
limited. are at risk of many problems, including antisocial and
aggressive behaviour, depression and anxiety, and
Siblings can be a great source of support for each
other, especially under difficult circumstances. In South learning problems (Grotevant & McDermott, 2014).
However, outcomes are varied. Most adopted children
Africa, studies have shown the significant role that
develop within the typical range Problems are most
siblings play in providing powerful sources of social
likely when children are adopted after infancy and
support for one another in families affected by HIV and
when their care before adoption was poor (e.g., they
AIDS (Sharer, Cluver, Shields, & Ahearn, 2016).
were institutionalised or lived in a series of foster
homes). For example, the fall of the Ceausescu regime
Adopted children in Romania in 1989 revealed hundreds of thousands
Statistics on children in residential care facilities of children living in orphanages under incredibly
and adoptions are scarce and inconsistent as a result primitive conditions. Beginning in the 1990s, many
of many unregistered homes and illegal adoptions of these children were adopted internationally. Some
in South Africa (Rochat et al., 2016). However, the have shown remarkable catch-up growth, but many
National Adoption Coalition of South Africa (n.d.) show multiple impairments, such as delayed cognitive
states that between the period of 2004 and 2010, development and disordered attachment (Kreppner
14 803 children were legally adopted in South Africa. et al., 2007). Thus, although adoption per se 1s not
That means around 2 400 children were adopted per a fundamental developmental challenge for most
year, and this figure includes related adoptions, where children, quality of life before adoption certainly places
the adoptive parents are related in some way to the some adopted children at risk. And these children often
child. This is concerning, because estimates from fare well when they receive excellent care after adoption
child welfare organisations indicate that at least 3 500 (Grotevant & McDermott, 2014).
children were abandoned in 2010 alone (Blackie, 2014). In recent years, adopted children (and their adoptive
The low adoption rates are, amongst others, influenced families) are more likely to communicate with the
by an absence of subsidies from the state, little access children’s birth family, an arrangement known as an

7) PAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 233

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lenening All Rights Reserved: May not be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some thend pany costent muy he suppeensed tern dye eflioek andl eCTuapter(+)
Fadtomed eevhew how decd thet any wappremed content dacs set musterially affect the overall keaming expenence. Cengage Learaung rencevex the mgbt to nemowe additional coset af aay tirne if sudmeeparl righvis weatrictboms neupeine it
open adoption. Open adoptions come in many forms. growth. However, many studies have compared only and
Contact can be face-to-face or via social media and can non-only children in China and most find no differences.
be occasional or frequent. Research on the impact of One of the few differences is that Chinese only children,
open adoption suggests that adoptees who are satisfied like Western only children, are more successful in school
with the amount of contact with their birth families are (Falbo, 2012; Liu, Lin, & Chen, 2010) Thus, contrary
at less risk of externalising disorders In addition, contact to the popular stereotype, only children are much like
with birth families can lead adoptees and their adoptive children who grow up with siblings
families to discuss adoption, and these discussions help
adopted teens to construct an identity as an adoptee Impact of gender
(Grotevant et al., 2013) In some families the gender of a child has a significant
impact Traditional African cultures are patriarchal
Impact of birth order in nature, which results in boys being accorded more
First-born children are often ‘experiments’ for most status than girls, and boy children being considered
parents, who have much enthusiasm but little practical higher in the social hierarchy (Russell, 2003). An
experience of rearing children. Parents generally have example of this is when a male is considered the head
high expectations for their first-borns and are both of the family, and other family members are expected
more affectionate and more punitive toward them. As to abide by his decisions — even if he is considerably
more children arrive, most parents become more adept younger than his female siblings, and less educated. Or
at their roles, having learned ‘the tricks of the trade’ if a family can only afford for one child to go to school,
from earlier children. With later-born children, parents often boys are given preferential treatment, while girls
are more relaxed in their discipline and less likely to are more likely to be expected to stay home and take
punish children for not doing well in school (Hotz & care of siblings.
Pantano, 2013). Whether children grow up with siblings or as ‘onlies,
The different approaches that parents use with their and whether they are male or female, they may have
first- and later-born children help explain differences that their family relationships disrupted by divorce. What is
are commonly observed between these children. First- the impact of divorce on children and adolescents?
born children generally have higher scores on intelligence
Di .
tests, are more likely to go to university, and are more
conscientious. They are also more willing to conform
to parents’ and adults’ requests. In contrast, perhaps While divorce has traditionally been considered a
because later-born children are less concerned about white-middle class phenomenon, the proportion
pleasing parents and adults, they are more outgoing, of black South African couples divorcing has been
increasing significantly over the past 20 years (Statistics
more popular with their peers, more innovative, and
more likely to take risks (Beck, Burnet, & Vosper, 2006, South Africa, 2015) Research suggests that children
Bjerkedal et al., 2007; Sulloway & Zweigenhaft, 2010)
of divorce often fare poorly in school achievement,
What about only children? According to conventional conduct, adjustment, self-concept, and parent-child
wisdom, parents adore ‘onlies, who therefore become
relations when compared with children whose parents
are a couple As adults, children of divorce are more
selfish and egotistical. Is this popular perception correct?
No. Research suggests that only children are more likely likely to experience conflict in their own marriages, to
become divorced themselves, and to become depressed
to succeed in school than are other children and to have
(Lansford, 2009). These findings don't mean that children
higher levels of intelligence and self-esteem but don't
of divorce are destined to be unhappy and unsuccessful
differ in popularity, adjustment, and personality (Falbo,
during childhood and to have unhappy, conflict-ridden
2012; Falbo & Polit, 1986).
marriages that inevitably lead to divorce, but children of
The possibility that only children are selfish has been
divorce are at greater risk of these outcomes.
a concern in China, where only children are common
The first year following a divorce is often rocky
because of governmental efforts to limit population
for parents and children alike. But beginning in the
second year, most children begin to adjust to their new
open adoption An adoption in which adopted children (and their
adoptive families) communicate with the children’s birth family.
circumstances, especially when their parents get along
(Sweeper, 2012) In joint custody, both parents retain
joint custody Custody agreement in which both parents retain legal custody of the children Children benefit from joint
legal custody of their children following divorce.
custody — they adjust better behaviourally and socially,

234 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
especially when they spend approximately equal time The resulting unit, consisting ofa biological parent,
with both parents (Baude, Pearson, & Drapeau, 2016). a stepparent, and children, is known as a blended
When joint custody is not an option, mothers have family (Other terms for this family configuration
traditionally been awarded custody. When this happens, are ‘remarried family’ and ‘reconstituted family.) The
children benefit when fathers remain involved in most common form of blended family is a mother,
parenting, particularly when they get along with their her children, and a stepfather. Children can thrive in
ex-wives (Modecki et al., 2015). a blended family: those who report being close to their
mother and their stepfather are well-adjusted (Amato,
Which children are most affected by divorce? King, & Thorsen, 2016).
One striking finding of research on the impact of divorce Adjusting to life in a blended family is more difficult
is that although many children suffer in the short term, when a stepfather brings his own biological children
only a few children suffer serious harm in the longer to the mix. In such families, parents sometimes favour
term Researchers have identified several features that their biological children over their stepchildren — they're
predict how well children adjust in the longer term. more involved with and warmer toward their biological
Many features concern parents. Children do best when children. Such preferential treatment usually leads
custodial and noncustodial parents don't experience to conflict and unhappiness (Dunn & Davies, 2001,
psychological problems themselves, when they get along Sweeney, 2010)
with each other, and when they stay involved with their The best strategy for stepfathers is to be interested
children and parent effectively (Amato, 2010, Tabor, in their new stepchildren but to avoid intruding on
2016) In addition, children are less likely to suffer harm established relationships. Newly remarried mothers
from divorce when they are temperamentally easy, are must be careful that their enthusiasm for their new
smart, don't consistently interpret life events negatively, spouse does not come at the expense of spending time
and actively cope with problems brought on by divorce with and showing affection for their children. Both
(Lansford, 2009; Weaver & Schofield, 2015) parents and children need to have realistic expectations.
Parents can reduce divorce-related stress and help The blended family can be successful, but it takes effort
children adjust to their new life circumstances. Together, because of the complicated relationships, conflicting
parents should explain to their children what divorce loyalties, and jealousies that usually exist (Sweeney,
2010; White & Gilbreth, 2001).
means and what their children can expect to happen.
They should reassure children that they will always love Unfortunately, second marriages are slightly more
them and always be their parents, parents must back likely than first marriages to end in divorce, particularly
when stepchildren are involved (Teachman, 2008).
up these words with actions by remaining involved in
their children’s lives. Finally, parents must expect that This means that many children relive the trauma of
their children will sometimes be angry or sad about the divorce.
divorce, and they should encourage children to discuss
these feelings with them.
To help children deal with divorce, parents should
not compete with each other for their children’s love and
attention. Parents should not take out their anger with
each other on their children nor criticise their ex-spouse
in front of them. Finally, parents should not ask children
to mediate disputes — parents should work out problems
without putting children in the middle.
Following all these rules consistently is difficult.
After all, divorce is stressful and painful for adults, too.
However, if parents can stick to these guidelines, their
children will be happier and have healthier relationships -
which will help to make the parents happier too.
A Following divorce, most men and women remarry, creating a
blended family.
Blended families
Following divorce, most children live in a single-
parent household for about five years. However, most blended family Family consisting of a biological parent, a
stepparent, and children.
men and women eventually remarry (Sweeney, 2010).

71 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 235

Copyraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May mot be copeed, scammed, ce duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectroesc nights, some thend party comtent mary he suppecescd horn the citook and/or ol hapter|s)
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
Parent—child relationships gone awry: which parents bring up their children. In South Africa, the
Child maltreatment impact of poverty, patriarchy, and gender-based violence
all create conditions in which abuse can occur, and often
The first time that seven-year-old Max came to school with few consequences (Richter & Dawes, 2008). Schools
with bruises on his face, he explained to his teacher have not been allowed to use corporal punishment
that he had fallen down the steps in front of his house. (hitting) against children, and it became illegal for parents
When Max had similar bruises a few weeks later, his to hit their children in 2017 Nevertheless, in South
teacher spoke to the school principal, who contacted Africa, physical punishment is still common at home
local authorities It turned out that Max’s mother hit and in schools Condoning physical punishment in this
him with a belt for even minor misconduct, for serious manner opens the door for child maltreatment.
transgressions, she beat Max and made him sleep alone What social conditions seem to promote maltreatment?
in a dark storeroom in the yard. Poverty is one. Maltreatment is more common among
Unfortunately, cases like Max's occur far too often children living in poverty, partly because lack of money
in modern South Africa. Maltreatment comes in many increases the stress of daily life, and this means that parents
forms. The two that often come to mind first are are more likely to punish their children physically instead
physical abuse involving assault that leads to injuries, of making the extra effort to reason with them (Bywaters
and sexual abuse involving fondling, intercourse, or et al., 2016). Social isolation is a second force. Abuse is
other sexual behaviours. Another form of maltreatment more likely when families are socially isolated from other
is neglect — not giving children adequate food, clothing, relatives or neighbours because living in isolation deprives
or medical care. And children can also be harmed children of adults who could protect them and deprives
by psychological abuse - ridicule, rejection, and parents of social support that would help them better deal
humiliation (Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2015). with life's stresses (Coulton et al., 2007).
Exact numbers of children who are victims of abuse Cultural factors clearly contribute to child abuse, but
in their homes is unknown, because many of these they are only part of the puzzle. Although maltreatment
incidents go unreported. However, in 2008 Childline is more common among families living in poverty, it does
received 3 428 calls from children claiming to be not occur in a majority of these families and it occurs in
physically abused, 4 827 calls from children claiming middle- and upper-class families, too. Consequently, we
to be emotionally abused, and 3 883 calls from children need to look for additional factors to explain why abuse
claiming to be neglected (Vivier, 2013). The UBS occurs in some families but not in others.
Optimus Study conducted by the University of Cape Child development researchers have identified
Town and Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention several characteristics of parents that lead them to abuse
(2016) found that approximately 8% of children their children. First, parents who maltreat their children
reported having experienced some form of neglect. often were maltreated themselves, which may lead them
These numbers are not accurate because a lot of cases to believe that abuse is a normal part of childhood. This
are not reported to the police or social workers, but they does not mean that abused children inevitably become
do give us an indication of the kind of violence that is abusing parents — only about one-third do. But a history
experienced by children. of child abuse places adults at risk of mistreating their
own children (Widom, Czaja, & DuMont, 2015) Second,
Who are the abusing parents? parents who mistreat their children often use ineffective
Why would a parent abuse a child? Most abusing parenting techniques (for example, inconsistent
parents do not suffer from any specific mental or discipline), have such unrealistic expectations that their
psychological disorder. Instead, many factors put children can never meet them, and often believe they are
some children at risk of abuse and protect others, the powerless to control their children. For example, when
number and combination of factors determine whether abusive parents do not get along with their children, they
the child is a likely target for abuse (Cicchetti & Toth, often attribute this to factors out of their control, such as
2006). Let's look at three of the most important factors children having a difficult temperament or being tired
those associated with the cultural context, those that day, they’re less likely to think their own behaviour
associated with parents, and those associated with contributed to unpleasant interactions. Third, in families
children themselves. where abuse occurs, the couple's interactions are often
The most general category of contributing factors is unpredictable, unsupportive, and unsatisfying for both
that relating to cultural values and the social conditions in husbands and wives. This marital discord makes life

236 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
more stressful and makes it more difficult for parents to Effects of abuse on children
invest effort in child rearing. The prognosis for youngsters like Max is not very good.
To place the last few pieces in the puzzle, we must look Some, of course, suffer permanent physical damage. Even
at the abused children themselves You've probably heard when there is no lasting physical damage, children’s social
stories about a parent who shakes a baby to death because and emotional development is often disrupted. They
the baby wouldn't stop crying. Younger children are more tend to have poor relationships with peers, either because
likely to cry or whine excessively — behaviours that irritate they withdraw from interactions or because they are too
all parents sooner or later —- and they are more likely to aggressive (Cicchetti, 2016). Their cognitive development
be the targets of abuse Infants and preschoolers are more and academic performance are also disturbed. Abused
often abused than older children are, probably because they youngsters often don’t do well in school, they don't
are less able to regulate aversive behaviours that may elicit regulate their emotions well, they don't recognise others’
abuse (Sidebotham, Heron, & the ALSPAC Study Team,
emotions accurately, and they are at risk of depression
2003). Does the baby’s crying excuse a parent's abuse? Of (Cyr & Alink, 2017). As adults, children who were
course not. Babies and infants can't communicate in the abused are at risk of psychiatric disorders (Rehan et al.,
way that adults can, and being a parent involves the hard 2017) In short, when children are maltreated, the effects
process of learning to communicate with and comfort a are usually widespread and long-lasting
child, even when you are tired and stressed yourself.
Children who are frequently ill or who are disabled
Resilience
are more often abused (Jones et al., 2012). When
children are sick or disabled, they often need extra The study of resilience has allowed social scientists to
attention and special care (which means additional identify those characteristics that allow some children
expense), conditions that increase stress in a family to cope and even thrive, despite having faced some
and put children at risk of maltreatment. And, just as seemingly insurmountable difficulties in life such as
Cinderella's stepmother adored her biological children abuse (Killian, 2004). Ego resilience, which denotes
but abused Cinderella, stepchildren are more likely to be children’s ability to respond adaptively and resourcefully
abused and neglected than biological children (Archer, to new situations, is a protective factor for children. The
2013). Perhaps adults are less invested emotionally in effects of abuse tend to be smaller when children are
their stepchildren, and this lack of emotional investment flexible in responding to novel and challenging social
leaves stepchildren more vulnerable. situations (Cicchetti, 2013). Another protective factor
Thus, cultural, parental, and child factors all is being engaged in school When maltreated children
contribute to child maltreatment Any single factor are cognitively engaged in school — they pay attention,
usually will not result in abuse Maltreatment becomes complete tasks, and are well organised - they are less
more likely when cultures condone physical punishment prone to antisocial and aggressive behaviour (Pears et al.,
and parents lack effective skills for dealing with children. 2013) A final protective factor is a positive mother-
South Africa has a violent history and this may contribute child relationship. When children have a positive
to a culture that accepts and condones violence towards representation of their mother - they describe her as
children. Perhaps we can look to the extended family ‘kind’ and ‘loving, for example - they suffer relatively
and philosophy of ubuntu to instil the values that will few symptoms of maltreatment (Cicchetti, 2013)
help to protect vulnerable children against abuse
Preventing abuse and maltreatment
The complexity of child abuse does not allow a simple
solution (Kelly, 2011) Because maltreatment is more
likely to occur when several contributing factors are
Pieter has never physically abused his 10-year-
present, eradicating child maltreatment requires many
old son, Derek, but he constantly torments Derek
different approaches
emotionally. For example, when Derek got an
South African attitudes toward ‘acceptable’ levels of
F on a spelling test, Pieter screamed, ‘I missed
punishment and poverty would have to change South
Monday night rugby just to help you, but you still
African children will be abused as long as physical
failed. You're such a dummy’. When Derek began
punishment is considered acceptable and effective
to cry, Pieter taunted, ‘Look at Derek, crying like
a baby’. These interactions occur nearly every
day. What are the likely effects of such repeated ego resilience Person's ability to respond adaptively and
episodes of emotional abuse? resourcefully to new situations.

71 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS 237

Test yourself 7.1

Recall 9. Constantly ill, , and young children

are more likely to be abused.
1. In the systems view, parents influence their
children both 10. A person's ability to respond adaptively and
resourcefully to new situations is called
2. There are two general dimensions of parental
behaviour: the degree of warmth and
responsiveness that parents show their children,
Interpret
and
e How can child abuse be explained in terms of the
3. There are four prototypic styles of parenting:
biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces
in the biopsychosocial framework?
4. parenting is best for most children
most of the time. Apply
5. A consequence that increases the likelihood e Imagine a family in which Mom and Dad
that a behaviour will be repeated in the future is both work full-time outside the home. Mom's
called a : employer wants her to take a new position in
a distant small town. Mom is tempted because
6. Sakhile tells his mom that he wants some sweets. the position represents a promotion with more
She tells him that it’s close to dinner, so he can't responsibility and higher pay. However, because
have any, but if he’s really hungry, he can have the town is so small, Dad wouldn't be able to get
an apple. But Sakhile is determined to have the a job comparable to the one he has now, which
sweets, and he nags until she gives in and lets he likes. Based on the family systems theory
him have the sweets. Sakhile’s mom has fallen shown in Figure 7.1, how might the move affect
into the the couple’s 10-year-old daughter and 4-year-
7. Harsher forms of physical punishment are old son?
associated with a range of negative outcomes, Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
including end of the chapter.
8. Sibling relations are more likely to be
when siblings are the same gender.

238 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Learning objectives

® Describe the benefits of friendship.

® Identify the important features of groups of children and adolescents, and describe how these groups
influence individuals.

® Explain why some children are more popular than others, and discuss the causes and consequences of being
rejected.

e Discuss some effects of childhood aggression, and explain why some children are chronic victims of
aggression.

Only 36 hours had passed since the children So, the key elements of friendship for younger
arrived at the summer sports camp. Nevertheless, children are that children like each other and enjoy
groups had already formed spontaneously playing together
based on the children’s main interests: soccer, As children develop, their friendships become more
running, rugby and netball. Within each group, complex. For older primary school children (ages 8
leaders and followers had already emerged. to 11), mutual liking and shared activities are joined
This happens every year, but the staff members by features that are more psychological in nature:
are always astonished at how quickly a ‘social trust and assistance At this age, children expect that
network’ emerges at sports camp. they can depend on their friends - their friends will
be nice to them, will keep their promises, and won't
The groups that form at camps — as well as in schools and say mean things about them to others. Children also
neighbourhoods — represent one of the more complex expect friends to step forward in times of need. a friend
forms of peer relationships: many children are involved, should willingly help with homework or willingly share
and there are multiple relationships. We'll examine these a snack.
kinds of interactions later in this section. Let's start by Adolescence adds another layer of complexity to
looking at a simpler social relationship: friendship. friendships. Mutual liking, common interests, and trust
remain Intimacy is new to adolescence - friends now
confide in one another, sharing personal thoughts and
feelings. Teenagers reveal their excitement over a new
Over time, children develop special relationships with romance or disappointment at not being selected for the
some peers. Friendship is a voluntary relationship school choir Intimacy is more common in friendships
between two people involving mutual liking By age four or among girls, who are more likely than boys to have
five, most children claim to have a ‘best friend’ If you ask one exclusive ‘best friend’ (Markovits, Benenson, &
them how they can tell a child is their best friend, their Dolenszky, 2001) Because intimacy is at the core of their
response will probably resemble five-year-old Katelyn's: friendships, girls are also more likely to be concerned
INTERVIEWER. Why is Rina your best friend? about the faithfulness of their friends and worry about
KATELYN’ Because she plays with me. And she’s being rejected (Rose & Asher, 2017).
nice to me
INTERVIEWER. Are there any other reasons? friendship Voluntary relationship between two people involving
KATELYN’ Yes, Rina lets me play with her dolls. mutual liking.

Quality and consequences of friendships

You probably remember some childhood friendships
& Friends tend to be alike in age, race, and gender that were long-lasting and satisfying as well as others that
rapidly wore thin and soon dissolved. What accounts
for these differences in the quality and longevity of
Who are friends? friendships? Sometimes friendships are brief because
Most friends are alike in age, gender, and race (Hamm, children have the skills to create friendships - they know
2000, Mehta & Strough, 2009) Because friends are funny stories, they joke around, they know good gossip
supposed to treat each other as equals, friendships are — but lack the skills to sustain those friendships - they
rare between an older, more experienced child and can't keep secrets, are too bossy, or are too emotional

240 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
(Blair et al., 2014; Jiao, 1999, Parker & Seal, 1996). Groups are just as prevalent in South African schools.
Sometimes friendships end because when conflicts arise, ‘Jocks’, ‘dropouts, ‘druggies, and ‘nerds’ - you may
children are more concerned about their own interests remember these or similar terms referring to groups of
and are unwilling to compromise or negotiate (Glick & older children and adolescents. During late childhood
Rose, 2011; Rose & Asher, 1999). Sometimes friendships and early adolescence, the peer group becomes the focal
end when children and families move from place to place point of social relationships for youth. The starting point
as a coping strategy to deal with poverty And sometimes is often a clique — a small group of children or adolescents
friendships end when children discover that their needs who are friends and tend to be similar in age, gender, race,
and interests aren't as similar as they initially thought and attitudes. Members of a clique spend time together
(Gavin & Furman, 1996) and often dress, talk, and act alike A crowd is a larger
Long-lasting friendships are to be treasured. In fact, mixed-sex group of older children or adolescents who
children benefit from having good friends (Berndt have similar values and attitudes and are known by a
& Murphy, 2002). Compared with children who lack common label such as ‘jocks’ or ‘nerds’ (Rubin, Bukowski,
friends, children with good friends have higher self- & Bowker, 2015).
esteem, are less likely to be lonely and depressed, and Crowds emerge in the transition from middle school
more often share and cooperate (Burk & Laursen, 2005, to high school Crowds have stereotyped identities —
Hartup & Stevens, 1999). Children with good friends cope nerds are smart kids who are good at technology but
better with stressful experiences, such as doing poorly socially awkward - and younger adolescents are attracted
in an exam or being rejected by peers (Adams, Santo, & to crowds that match their person identity Initially, some
Bukowski, 2011, McDonald et al., 2010). And they’re less crowds have more status than others For example, jocks
likely to be victimised by peers (Schwartz et al., 2000) The are often the most prestigious crowd, while dropouts
benefits of friendship are long-lasting as well: children are the least. However, later in high school, the status
who have friends are, as adults, at less risk of depression, of crowds becomes less significant and the boundaries
anxiety, and aggressive behaviour (Sakyi et al., 2015) between crowds become fuzzy (Brown, 2014)
Although children and adolescents benefit from their
friends’ support, there can be costs as well. Sometimes Group structure
friends spend much of their time together discussing each Groups - be they in school, at a sports camp as in the
other's personal problems, which is known as co-rumination. opening story, or elsewhere — typically have a well-
Girls do this more than boys (consistent with the fact that
defined structure. Often groups have a dominance
intimacy is more important to girls’ friendships). Such hierarchy, which is headed by a leader to whom all other
co-rumination strengthens girls’ friendships but also puts members of the group defer. Other members know their
them at greater risk of depression and anxiety. In other position in the hierarchy. They yield to members who are
words, when Avanti and Fahima spend day after day above them in the hierarchy and assert themselves over
talking about their problems with parents and schoolwork, members who are below them A dominance hierarchy is
they grow closer but also more troubled (Brendgen et al., useful in reducing conflict within groups because every
2010; Schwartz-Mette & Rose, 2012).
member knows his or her place (Rubin et al., 2015)
There are other ways in which friendships can be What determines where members stand in the
hazardous. For example, when aggressive children are hierarchy? In children, especially boys, physical power is
friends, they often encourage each other's aggressive often the basis for the dominance hierarchy. The leader
behaviour (Dishion, Poulin, & Burraston, 2001, Piehler is usually the member who is the most intimidating
& Dishion, 2007) Similarly, when teens engage in risky physically (Hawley, 2016). Among girls and older boys,
behaviour (for example, when they drink, smoke, or have
hierarchies are often based on individual characteristics
sex), they often reinforce each other's risky behaviour
that relate to the group’s main function. For example,
(Huang et al., 2014).
So, friends are one important way in which peers co-rumination Conversations about one’s personal problems,
influence children’s development. Peers also influence common among adolescent girls.
development through groups, the topic of the next clique Small group of friends who are similar in age, sex, and race.
section.
crowd Large group including many cliques that have similar
attitudes and values.
Groups dominance hierarchy Ordering of individuals within a group
At the summer sports camp in the opening story, in which group members with lower status defer to those with
greater status.
children formed groups based on common interests.

Chapter 5 described important differences in the

ways that boys and girls interact with peers of
the same gender. How might these differences
help explain why boys' and girls’ dominance
hierarchies differ?

Peers can influence behaviour through other means

A Group leaders tend to be those who have skills that are valuable to beyond pressure. For example, a crowd provides models
the group. for how its members should look and act, members
go along willingly because they want to identify with
the group (Brown et al., 2008). And the mere presence
Peer influence of peers can sensitise the adolescent brain’s reward
Groups establish norms — standards of behaviour that system, making it particularly receptive to rewards
apply to all group members — and may urge members to associated with risky behaviour like experimenting
conform to these norms. The stereotype is that teenagers with drugs and violent behaviour (Albert, Chein, &
exert enormous, irresistible pressure on each other to Steinberg, 2013).
behave antisocially In reality, peer pressure is neither
always powerful nor always evil. For example, most Dialsitin
aad sabiated
primary and high school students resist peer pressure to
behave in ways that are clearly antisocial, such as stealing Pumla is the most popular child in her Grade 5 class
(Cook, Buehler, & Henson, 2009), and such resistance Most of the other learners like to play with her and to
increases from mid- to late adolescence (Steinberg & sit near her at lunch or try to walk with her to school.
Monahan, 2007). And peer pressure can be positive, too. Whenever the class must vote to pick a child for
Peers often urge one another to work hard in school, something special — to be class representative to the
to participate in school activities, and to get along with learner council or to recite a poem on Heritage Day -
their family (Brown, 2014). Pumla invariably wins. In contrast, Kagiso is the least
Peer pressure is not all-powerful Instead, peer popular child in the class. When he sits down at a
influence is stronger when youth are younger and more classroom table, other kids move away. When he tries to
socially anxious; peers have high status or are friends, join a game during break time, others leave Students in
and standards for appropriate behaviour are not clear- the class dislike Kagiso as much as they like Pumla.
cut, as in the case of tastes in music or clothing or Popular and rejected children like Pumla and Kagiso
standards for smoking and drinking (Allen et al., 2012; are common While little South African research exists
Brechwald & Prinstein, 2011). Thus, when 14-year-old on the subject, Western studies of popularity (Rubin
et al., 2015) reveal that most children in primary school
classrooms can be placed, fairly consistently, in one of
popular children Children who are liked by many classmates. these five categories.
rejected children As applied to children’s popularity, children
who are disliked by many classmates.
© Popular children are liked by many classmates.
e Rejected children are disliked by many classmates.
controversial children As applied to children’s popularity, e Controversial children are both liked and disliked by
children who are intensely liked or disliked by classmates.
classmates.

242 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Leseming. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcamned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectromic nghts, some thind party contest mary he suppressed tom the cffook andive eChapter(s).
Exttomal review hon deaned thot azy wippromed coment dacs act muaicrally affect
the overall kame etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the nett wo remove ahditioeal coment at amy Girne if subeequent gfe wednchoes mqair ot,
e Average children are liked and disliked by some their emotions. These children are usually more hostile
classmates, but without the intensity found for popular, than popular aggressive children and seem to be
rejected, or controversial children aggressive for the sheer fun of it, which peers dislike,
© Neglected children are ignored by classmates instead of using aggression as a means toward other
ends, which peers may not like but grudgingly respect
Of these categories, we know the most about
Other rejected children are shy, withdrawn, timid, and,
popular and rejected children. Each of these categories
not surprisingly, lonely (Rubin et al., 2015)
includes two subtypes. Most popular children are skilled
academically and socially. They are good students who are
Causes and consequences of rejection
usually friendly, cooperative, helpful, and funny. They are
more skilful at communicating and better at integrating No one enjoys being rejected Not surprisingly, peer
themselves into an ongoing conversation or play session - rejection is a major obstacle in children’s development
they ‘fit in’ instead of “barging in’ A smaller group of Over time, rejected youngsters become less involved
popular children includes physically aggressive boys in classroom activities, they end up feeling lonely and
who pick fights with peers and relationally aggressive disliking school. Repeated peer rejection in childhood can
girls who thrives on manipulating social relationships lead youth to drop out of school, commit juvenile offences,
Although these youth are not particularly friendly, their and suffer from psychopathology (Rubin et al., 2015).
antisocial behaviour nevertheless gains respect from Peer rejection can be traced, at least partly, to direct
peers (Rubin et al., 2015). and indirect influences of parents The direct influence
is via disciplinary practices. Harsh discipline and
inconsistent discipline are associated with antisocial,
aggressive behaviour, which prepares the way for
rejection (Kawabata & Crick, 2016). The indirect
influence is via modelling: when parents typically
respond to interpersonal conflict with intimidation or
aggression, their children may imitate them, obstructing
the development of their social skills and making them
less popular (Cummings, Goeke-Morey, & Papp, 2016).
Thus, the origins of rejection are clear socially
awkward, aggressive children are often rejected because
they rely on an aggressive interpersonal style, which
can be traced to parenting. The implication is that by
teaching youngsters (and their parents) more effective
ways of interacting with others, we can make rejection
A Most popular children are good students and are socially skilled
less likely. This is complicated in a country such as
they tend to be friendly and helpful with peers
South Africa, which has a long history of violence
Being well-liked seems straightforward: be pleasant, and aggression. But, with improved social skills,
rejected children would not need to resort to antisocial
friendly, and socially skilled, not obnoxious. These
behaviours that peers deplore. Training of this sort does
strategies apply to children in many areas of the world,
including Canada, Europe, Israel, and China. However,
work. Rejected children can learn skills that lead to
sometimes popular children have other characteristics
peer acceptance and thereby avoid the long-term harm
associated with being rejected (Lochman et al., 2014).
unique to their cultural setting. For example, in Israel
popular children are more likely to be assertive and direct 5 ive child { their victi
than children in other countries (Krispin, Sternberg, &
Lamb, 1992).
By the time toddlers are old enough to play with one
another, they show aggression. For example, one- and
Think about it

Effective parents and popular children have many average children As applied to children’s popularity, children who
characteristics in common. What are they? are liked and disliked by different classmates, but with relatively
little intensity.

As for rejected children, many are overly aggressive, neglected children As applied to children’s popularity, children
who are ignored — neither liked nor disliked - by their dassmates.
hyperactive, socially unskilled, and unable to regulate

72 PEERS 243

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, canned, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectronic nights, some therd party costest mary he suppecased thom the cfiook andive oChapter(s)
Edttomal seview hon deaned that ary wippromed coment dacs act muatcnally affect
the overall kamung ctpencnee. Cengage Leartung remcrves the nett wo remove additioeal coment af any Girne if udeequent ng weanchoes moyen
two-year-olds sometimes use physical aggression to
resolve their conflicts (Hay, 2017). In instrumental
aggression, a child uses aggression to achieve an explicit
goal By the start of the primary school years, another
form of aggression emerges (Coie et al., 1991) Hostile
aggression is unprovoked and seems to have as its sole goal
to intimidate, harass, or humiliate another child Hostile
aggression is illustrated by a child who spontaneously
says, “You're stupid!’ and then kicks a classmate A third
form of aggression is relational aggression, in which
children try to hurt others by undermining their social
relationships (see Chapter 5). Examples include telling
friends to avoid a particular classmate or spreading
malicious gossip (Kawabata & Crick, 2016) 4 Children are likely to become chronic victims of aggression if they
Children’s tendencies to behave aggressively are refuse to defend themselves
stable over time, particularly among children who are
highly aggressive at a young age. For example, infants
who often bite or strike other people are, as preschoolers, As you can imagine, being tormented daily by
more likely to kick or hit peers to obtain toys (Hay, peers is hard on children. When children are chronic
2017). And preschool children judged by their teachers victims of aggression, they're often lonely, anxious, and
to be very aggressive are, as young adults, much more depressed; they dislike school and have low self-esteem
likely to commit crimes (Asendorpf, Denissen, & van (Rubin et al., 2015). As adults, they’re prone to poor
Aken, 2008). Finally, aggression during childhood often health and unsatisfying social relationships (Wolke et al.,
leads to failure in high school (for example, dropping 2013). Why do some children suffer the sad fate of being
out, failing a grade), which leaves few options for victims? Some victims are aggressive themselves. These
employment (Alatupa et al., 2013). Clearly, aggression youngsters often overreact, are restless, and are easily
is not simply a case of playful pushing and shoving that irritated. Their peers soon learn to insult or ridicule these
children eventually outgrow. To the contrary, children children, knowing that they will probably start a fight.
who are highly aggressive can develop into young adults Other victims tend to be withdrawn and submissive.
who cause chaos. Because they are unwilling or unable to defend
Most school children are the targets of an occasional themselves from their peers’ aggression, they are usually
aggressive act — a shove or kick to gain a desired toy referred to as passive victims. When attacked, they show
or a stinging insult by someone trying to save face. obvious signs of distress and usually give in to their
However, a small percentage of children are chronic attackers, thereby rewarding the aggressive behaviour.
targets of bullying. In both Europe and the United So, both aggressive and withdrawn submissive children
States, 10% to 25% of primary school children and can end up as victims (Rubin et al., 2015).
adolescents are chronic victims of physical attacks, Other factors contribute to make children victims
name-calling, backstabbing, and similar aggressive of bullying. Children are more likely to be bullied when
acts (Juvonen & Graham, 2014). South African results they are obese, depressed, disabled, poor, or immigrants.
appear to be in keeping with Western findings (Liang, In essence, any feature that makes children different from
Flisher, & Lombard, 2007). In recent years, some youth their peers puts them in the sights of bullies (Juvonen &
have been victims of electronic bullying, also known Graham, 2014, Strohmeier, Karna, & Salmivalli, 2011).
as cyberbullying, in which they are harassed via cell Also, bullying is more likely in classrooms that have a
phones or the internet (Kowalski et al., 2014). strong status hierarchy - everyone in the class knows
which children are high status and which are low status
- and when the norm is that bullying is acceptable
(Saarento & Salmivalli, 2015).
instrumental aggression Aggression used to achieve an explicit
goal.
Researchers have developed effective programmes
to combat bullying in schools. These programmes work
hostile aggression Unprovoked aggression that seems to have at many levels. schools build a school climate in which
the sole goal of intimidating, harassing, or humiliating another
child.
bullying is not condoned and victims are supported by
their peers; teachers learn how to recognise bullying

244 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS: SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyragts2099 Congags Lewreang All Kaphes Rewerwed Miry mot be copend scammed
of depicted m whok
of on pen Der to clecieesc mytes somes Gund pany Casares aury be wapyrerned fewer tre cfd adie COhspecs +)
Etecred arvare tem doceed Gus any mapqremed comme does get emerady aflect te ower koeems cupemeses Consage Lowtang raven Ge mgts we moms aS dcentad comet ot ary tne of eabeegueet ree anenctoe: suger 2
and how to respond when they see it; children who their children and how to work with school personnel
have been victimised learn social skills for dealing Programmes that include these elements can reduce
with peers and strategies for regulating their emotions, bullying and the harmful outcomes associated with it
and parents of victimised children learn how to help (Bradshaw, 2015)

Test yourself 7.2

Recall 6. are unwilling or unable to defend

themselves from their peers’ aggression.
1. Adolescent friendships often include the new
characteristic of : friends now
Interpret
confide in one another, sharing personal
thoughts and feelings. © How could developmental change in the nature of
friendship be explained in terms of Piaget's stages
2. Most friends are alike in age, and
of intellectual development, discussed in Chapters
race.
4 and 6?
3. Girls are more likely than boys to discuss
each other's personal problems. This is called Apply
e Earlier, you met Kagiso, who is the least popular
4. Ayesha is the undisputed leader of her group of child in his class. Kagiso’s mom is worried about
friends: whenever there is a decision to be made her son’s lack of popularity and wants to know
or an opinion sought, they all automatically look what she can do to help him. Kagiso’s grandmother
to Ayesha. She is the head of the dominance thinks that Kagiso’s mom is upset over nothing -
she argues that, like fame, popularity is fleeting and
that Kagiso will turn out okay in the end. What
5. On his second day at school, Lesego hit and advice would you give to Kagiso’s family?
swore at two other children without provocation.
This is an example of Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.

EE) Electronic media

Learning objectives

® Explain how playing video games affect youth.

® Describe how the use of social media affects development.

Every day, seven-year-old Michael follows the In generations past, children learned their culture's values
same routine when he gets home from school: from parents, teachers, religious leaders, and print media.
He watches one action-adventure cartoon after These sources of cultural knowledge were joined by
another until it’s time for dinner Michael's television in the 1950s, by the internet in the 1990s, and
mother is disturbed by her son’s constant TV by social media in the 2000s In this section, we examine
viewing, particularly because of the amount of three ways in which technology can influence children
violence in the shows he likes. Her husband and adolescents: by watching television programmes, by
tells her to stop worrying: ‘Let him watch what playing video games, and by communicating via social
he wants. It won’t hurt him, and besides, it media. As we look at their influence, we'll see if Michael's
keeps him out of your hair’. mother should be worried.

73 ELECTRONIC MEDIA 245

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
The biggest positive influence of TV on children
worldwide has been the American children’s programme,
Typical American children and adolescents spent about Sesame Street. Big Bird, Bert, Ernie, and their friends
1% hours watching programmes on TV and another hour have been helping to educate preschool children for
each day watching DVDs or videos (Rideout, 2016). South nearly 50 years. Youngsters who watch regularly improve
African research, while limited, suggests that the amount their knowledge of numbers, letters, shapes, and colours;
of TV watched also has a socioeconomic element. Children they learn more about the physical and social world; and
of single-parent families and from lower socioeconomic they develop positive attitudes toward social outgroups
backgrounds frequently spend more time watching TV (Mares & Pan, 2013) Other programmes designed to
(McVeigh, Norris, & de Wet, 2007). If 30-second TV ads teach young children about language and reading skills
are designed to influence children’s preferences in toys, and about basic science and maths concepts show that
cereals, and hamburgers, the programmes themselves TV can be harnessed to help children learn important
ought to have even more impact. And a half-century of academic skills (Prot et al., 2014). For example, in
research consistently shows that they do. For example, Takalani Sesame (the South African adaptation of
Michael's mother should be concerned: children become Sesame Street), the muppets give children 3 words that
more aggressive after viewing violence on television. In begin with the Sound of the Day and they provide the
addition, from watching TV, children learn stereotypes definition of the Word on the Street in isiZulu, Sepedi,
about gender and race and they're more likely to engage English, Afrikaans and Tshivenda.
in risky behaviours (for example, use drugs, become For decades, critics have argued that the medium
involved in gangs, have unprotected sex) after seeing such itself - independent of the content of programmes -
behaviours glorified in TV ads or movies (Prot et al., 2014). harms viewers, particularly children (Huston & Wright,
Watching television can also help children learn 1998). One common criticism is that because TV
to be more generous and cooperative and have greater programmes consist of many brief segments presented in
self-control. Youngsters who watch TV shows that rapid succession, children who watch a lot of TV develop
emphasise prosocial behaviour are more likely to behave short attention spans and have difficulty concentrating
prosocially (Calvert, 2015). However, because prosocial in school Another concern heard frequently is that
behaviours are portrayed on TV far less frequently than because TV provides ready-made, simple-to-interpret
aggressive behaviours, opportunities to learn the former images, children who watch a lot of TV become passive,
from television are limited; we are far from harnessing lazy thinkers and become less creative
the power of television for prosocial uses. In fact, as stated, neither of these criticisms is
consistently supported by research (Huston & Wright,
1998). The first criticism - TV watching reduces
attention — is easiest to dismiss. Research repeatedly
shows that increased TV viewing does not lead to
reduced attention, greater impulsivity, reduced task
persistence, or increased activity levels (Foster &
Watkins, 2010). The content of TV programmes can
influence these dimensions of children’s behaviour -
children who watch impulsive models behave more
impulsively themselves — but TV watching itself does not
harm children’s ability to pay attention.
As for the criticism that TV viewing promotes lazy
thinking and stifles creativity, the evidence is mixed.
On the one hand, some educational programmes depict
people being creative and encourage children to pretend.
When children watch these programmes frequently,
they’re often more creative. On the other hand, when
children often watch programmes that are action-
oriented, they may be less creative. The content and
pacing of these shows often do not provide viewers with
"MRS. HORTON, COULD YOu STOP the time to reflect that is essential for creativity (Calvert
BY SCHOOL TODAY?" & Valkenburg, 2013).

246 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS: SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

“
Sandiego. improved thelr performance
What was the design of the study?
Percentage of problems answered correctly

This study was experimental! The Example problems

independent vanable was the type
of video game that children played Same

= ®
(Tetris or Carmen Sandiego), the
dependent variable was the number
of pairs judged correctly before and
after playing the video games. The
s

study was not developmental because

the researchers tested only eight- and Different (mirror images)
nine-year-olds

ez
Were there ethical concerns with
the study? No Parents provided
consent for their children to participate
Before playing — After playing
and the children enjoyed playing the game game
video games @ Playing Carmen Sandiego Mi Playing Tetris
What were the results?The
right panel of Figure 73 shows the
percentage of pairs that children @ FIGURE 7.3 Children improved their spatial skill when they played a video game that required
answered correctly before and them to rapidly rotate stimuli

73 ELECTRONIC MEDIA 247

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesrmung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copacd, ecammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest my he wappeesecd thom the cfiook andice cf hapter(s).
Exttomal sewew too deaned thot any wappromed coment docs act mutcmally affect the overall kame expenence. Congage Leartung reserves the net remove additiogal coment af any time if subsequent nef aeatnchoes myer at
In general, then, the sheer amount of TV that Social media
children watch is not a powerful influence on
development. Most of the impact of TV - for good or In the U.S., children don't spend much time on social
bad — comes through the content of TV programmes media — less than 20 minutes daily - but adolescents
that children watch spend nearly 1% hours daily using social media or video
chatting (Rideout, 2016). Although we don't have figures
for the South African context (which is affected by high
Video games data costs and a lack of access to electronic devices), it is
The impact of video game playing on youth depends likely that we would see a comparable pattern in social
on a game's contents Many games, such as Tetris, Angry media use Teens use social media to stay in touch with
Birds, or Candy Crush, emphasise perceptual-spatial friends Such communication leads most to feel more
skills, such as estimating the trajectory of a moving connected with their friends. One explanation of this
object, responding rapidly, and shifting efficiently from result is that adolescents are more likely to reveal intimate
one task goal to another. When children play such games thoughts and feelings to friends over social media. Such
frequently, they improve their spatial skills, processing self-disclosure promotes high-quality friendships -
speed, and executive functioning (Cardoso-Leite, & revealing something personal creates a bond with the
Bavelier, 2014). The ‘Spotlight on research’ feature shows other person and encourages that person to reveal in
the benefits of game-playing on visual-spatial skills. turn (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011)
In contrast, many popular games such as Manhunt Using social media helps adolescents form new
and Grand Theft Auto are violent, with players killing friends face-to-face. In one study (Koutamanis et al.,
game characters in extraordinarily gruesome ways. Just 2013) conducted in Holland, teens who messaged often
as exposure to televised violence can make children were, a year later, more confident in their friendship
behave more aggressively, playing violent video games skills One idea is that social media provide a forum
can make children more aggressive, less empathic, and where adolescents can practise these friendship-related
desensitise them to violence (Calvert et al., 2017) social skills, a forum where the costs of failure —- someone
Finally, a minority - roughly 10% - of youth rejects your invitations — are less painful.
internationally get ‘hooked’ on video games (Gentile, There's also a dark side to social media: cyberbullying,
2009). They show many of the same symptoms associated which refers to the use of social media to harm other people,
with pathological gambling. Playing video games comes by repeatedly insulting them, excluding them or spreading
to dominate their lives, it provides a ‘high, and it leads rumours about them. You may have received a nasty text - or
to conflict with others. Not surprisingly, extreme video- even sent one — but that doesn't really count as cyberbullying.
game playing is associated with less success in school, Instead, cyberbullying refers to repeated, deliberate actions,
apparently because youth spend time playing games actions for which a victim is basically defenceless.
instead of studying (Weis & Cerankosky, 2010) Cyberbullying is a relatively common feature of modern
adolescence. In a South African study on cyberbullying,
1 726 young people between the ages of 12 and 24 years
from major urban centres were interviewed. Of those
interviewed, 37% had experienced some type of cyber
aggression in the past year (Burton & Mutongwizo, 2009).
The consequences of cyberbullying are much the
same as those for offline bullying: victims are, at the
least, embarrassed, and, at the worst, frightened, angry,
lonely, and depressed. Another parallel: perpetrators and
victims of cyberbullying tend to be the teens who are
perpetrators and victims of offline bullying (Hong et al.,
2016, Kowalski et al., 2014). This is ‘good’ news because
it means that cyberbullying can be addressed with the
same preventive measures that work for offline bullying.
« When children play violent video games, they often become more In many respects, social media have changed the how of
agoressive. adolescence but not the what As with previous generations,
youth still are particularly concerned about their peer
cyberbullying Using social media to hurt other people by repeatedly relations and some youth pick on others. Social media simply
insulting them, excluding them, or spreading rumours about them. provide different means for accomplishing these tasks.

248 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Recall Interpret
1. Youngsters who watch TV shows that emphasise ¢ Compare and contrast the ways in which TV
prosocial behaviour are more likely to behave viewing and web surfing might affect children’s
development.
2. The content of TV programmes can influence Apply
children’s behaviour. For example, children
who watch impulsive models behave more e Assume that you had the authority to write new
themselves. regulations for children’s TV programmes. What
shows would you encourage? What shows would
3. Some games can improve children’s you want to limit?
such as estimating the trajectory of a moving
object, responding rapidly, and shifting Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
efficiently from one task goal to another. end of the chapter.

4. Playing violent video games can make children

EZ) Understanding others

Learning objectives

® Describe how children’s descriptions of others change as they develop.

® Discuss how understanding of others’ thinking changes as children develop.

e Identify when and why children develop prejudice toward others.

When 12-year-old Roscoe agreed to babysit at how children describe others and then examine their
Kyle, his five-year-old brother, their mother understanding of how others think. Finally, we'll see
reminded Roscoe to keep Kyle out of the garage how children’s recognition of different social groups can
because Kyle's birthday presents were there, lead to prejudices.
unwrapped. But as soon as their mother left,
Kyle wanted to go to the garage to ride his
tricycle. When Roscoe told him no, Kyle burst
into angry tears and shouted, ‘I’m gonna tell As children develop, their descriptions of themselves
Mom that you were mean to me!’ Roscoe become richer, more abstract, and more psychological.
wanted to explain to Kyle, but he knew that These same changes also occur in children’s descriptions
would just cause more trouble! of others. Children begin by describing other people
in terms of concrete features, such as behaviour, and
As children spend more time with other people, they progress to describing them in terms of abstract traits
begin to understand other people better. In this story, for (Barenboim, 1981; Livesley & Bromley, 1973). The ‘Real
example, Roscoe realises why Kyle is angry, and he knows people’ feature shows this progression in one child.
that if he gives in to Kyle now, his mother will be angry Research confirms that Tamsen — the girl in the ‘Real
when she returns. Children’s growing understanding of people’ feature — describes friends like most children
others is the focus of this section. We begin by looking her age do. Descriptions referring to appearances or

7 4 UNDERSTANDING OTHERS 249

possessions become less common as children grow older, and will be quiet at a meal with many relatives (Liu,
as do descriptions giving general information such as Gelman, & Wellman, 2007)
the person's age, gender, religion, or school. In contrast, One idiosyncrasy of young children’s descriptions
descriptions of personality traits (for example, ‘friendly’ of others is that they see others ‘through rose-coloured
or ‘conceited’) increase between 8 and 14 years of age glasses. In other words, until about 10 years of age,
(Livesley & Bromley, 1973) So, children’s descriptions of children have a bias to look for positive, not negative,
others begin with the concrete and later become more traits in others Young children are willing to believe
conceptual. that someone is smart (or friendly or helpful) based
More recent research also supports the trend to more on relatively little evidence (and based on inconsistent
abstract and richer psychological descriptions of others evidence), but they require more evidence (and more
but indicates that young children’s understanding of consistent evidence) to decide that someone is mean or
other people is more sophisticated than is suggested by stupid (Boseovski, 2010).
their verbal descriptions of people they know (Heyman,
2009) Indeed, four- and five-year-olds have begun to Und i | hin!
think about other people in terms of psychological traits
such as being smart, friendly, helpful, and shy. They One trademark of the preschooler’s thinking is
can use behavioural examples to infer an underlying difficulty in seeing the world from another person's
trait. When they are told about a child who won't share view Piaget's term for this is egocentrism, and it is a
sweets or won't allow another child to play with a toy, defining characteristic of his preoperational stage of
four- and five-year-olds accurately describe the child development. As children move beyond the preschool
as selfish. In addition, given information about a trait, years, they realise that others see the world differently,
they correctly predict future behaviour. When they are both literally and figuratively. For example, in the story,
told about a child who is shy, they believe that the child Roscoe knows why his little brother, Kyle, is angry: Kyle
will not volunteer to help a puppeteer at a school play thinks that Roscoe is being bossy and mean. Roscoe

250 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

TABLE 7.1 Iman’ f perspective taking

Stage Approximate ages Description
Undifferentiated 3-6 years Children know that self and others can have different thoughts and
feelings but often confuse the two.
Social-informational 4-9 years Children know that perspectives differ because people have access to
different information.
Self-reflective 7-12 years Children can step into another person's shoes and view themselves as
others do; they know that others can do the same.
Third-person 10-15 years Children can step outside the immediate situation to see how they and
another person are viewed by a third person.
Societal 14 years to adult Adolescents realise that a third-person perspective is influenced by
broader personal, social, and cultural contexts.

7 4 UNDERSTANDING OTHERS 251

Copyright
2019 Congage Lesemag All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectromsc nights, some thend party contest mury be wappeessed tom the cflook andive cChapter(s).
Edtomad seview bon deaned that any wappremed coment dacs sot muzicmally affect
the overall lamang expenence. Congage Learning reserves the ngbt to comove additeveal coment at any orne if subsequent mgt sextnctoes cogent
Now children are asked: “Where does Fatima think (Rhodes, 2013) At the same time, overt prejudice
Boitumelo thinks the kids are?’ Children understand declines, in part because children learn norms that
second-order belief if they say that Fatima thinks that discourage openly favouring their own group over
Boitumelo will go to the park. This sort of ‘he thinks that others (Apfelbaum et al, 2008) But implicit bias
she thinks. * reasoning is known as recursive thinking. remains — many children automatically associate their
It emerges at about five or six years of age and improves group with positive features and associate other groups
steadily during the junior school years due to the with bad features (Baron, 2015)
combined effects of increased language skill and greater
executive functioning (Miller, 2009)
One of the benefits of a developing appreciation of
others’ thoughts and viewpoints is that it allows children
to get along better with their peers. That is, children who
can readily take another person's perspective and better
understand other people's thinking are generally well-
liked by their peers (Slaughter et al., 2015) For example,
perspective-taking skill allows children to realise that a
peer wants to join in their fun and so they invite the peer
Of course, mere understanding does not guarantee
good social behaviour; sometimes children who
understand what another child is thinking take advantage
of that child. In general, however, greater understanding
of others seems to promote positive interactions.
4 One effective way to reduce prejudice is for children from
Prejudice different races to work together toward a common goal, such as
completing a class project.
Around the world, many adults are prejudiced against
individuals based solely on their membership in a social As children move into the primary school years, their
group (for example, a racial, ethnic, or religious group) knowledge of racial stereotypes and prejudices increases
This is of particular relevance in South Africa, given steadily; by 10 or 11 years of age, most children are aware
the impact that apartheid, a form of institutionalised of broadly held racial stereotypes (Pauker, Ambady, &
prejudice had, and continues to have, on the lives of many Apfelbaum, 2010)
South Africans today Preferring one’s group over others Some scientists believe that bias and prejudice emerge
is first observed in two- to four-year-olds, becomes naturally out of children’s efforts to understand their
stronger in five- to seven-year-olds, and remains strong social world (Bigler & Liben, 2007) Young children
thereafter (Raabe & Beelmann, 2011). But there’s more actively categorise animate and inanimate objects as they
to the story. By the preschool years, most children can try to understand the world around them. As children’s
distinguish males from females and can identify people social horizons expand beyond their parents to include
from different racial groups (Nesdale, 2001). After peers, they continue to categorise and try to decide
children learn their membership in a specific group, how different groups of people ‘go together’ They use
they typically have an enhanced view of that group. That perceptually salient features (for example, race, gender,
is, preschool children attribute many positive traits, such age, sexuality) as well as verbal labels that adults may apply
as being friendly and smart, and few negative traits, to different groups (for example, “The girls go to lunch
such as being mean, to their own group (Bigler, Jones, & first, then the boys’). After children have identified the
Lobliner, 1997; Patterson & Bigler, 2006) relevant features that define peers in their environment,
Negative views of other groups form more slowly, they begin to classify people they encounter along these
beginning in the primary school years (Buttelmann dimensions. James is now seen as a white boy; Thembi is
& Bohm, 2014) During the primary school years, now seen as a black girl (Patterson & Bigler, 2006).
many children come to see race as a ‘natural kind’ - What can parents, teachers, and other adults do
determined by birth, stable, and referring to people who to rid children of prejudice? One way is to encourage
are similar to each other physically and behaviourally friendly and constructive contacts between children
from different groups. However, contact alone usually
recursive thinking Thoughts that focus on what another person accomplishes little. Intergroup contact is most likely
is thinking.
to reduce when the participating groups of children

252 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

7.1 Family relationships What are the primary dimensions of parenting? How
do they affect children’s development?
What is a systems approach to parenting?
© One key factor in parent-child relationships 1s the degree
© According to the systems approach, the family consists
of warmth that parents express. Children clearly benefit
of interacting elements: that 1s, parents, caregivers
from warm, caring parents. A second factor 1s control,
and children influence each other. The family itself
which 1s complicated because neither too much nor
is influenced by other social systems, such as the
too little control 1s desirable. Effective parental control
community and religious organisations.

SUMMARY 253

Copyraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May mot be copeed, scammed, ce duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectroesc nights, some thend party comtent mary he suppecescd horn the citook and/or ol hapter|s)
Edtomal seview ton deemed that any suppromed creviemt docs sot muztcmially affect the overall kammg cxpenenee. Cengage Learning reserves the npht to remove addioeal coment af any tore if subsequent nghe sednctioes noqene a
involves setting appropriate standards, enforcing them, development. Problems are most likely when children
and trying to anticipate conflicts. are adopted after infancy and when their care before
e Taking into account both warmth and control, four adoption was inadequate.
prototypic parental styles emerge. Authoritarian parents e Parents have higher expectations for first-born children,
are controlling but uninvolved, authoritative parents are which explains why such children are more intelligent
fairly controlling but are also responsive to their children, and more likely to go to college. Later-born children
permissive parents are loving but exert little control, and are more popular and more innovative Contradicting
uninvolved parents are neither warm nor controlling the popular belief, only children are rarely worse off
Authoritative parenting seems best for children in terms than children with siblings, in some respects (such as
of both cognitive and social development, but important intelligence and self-esteem), they are often better off.
exceptions are associated with culture and socioeconomic
status. How do divorce and remarriage affect children?
© Parents influence development by direct instruction © Divorce can harm children in a number of areas, ranging
and coaching In addition, parents serve as models from school achievement to adjustment. Many children
for their children, who sometimes imitate parents’ suffer from divorce in the short-term; 1n the longer-
behaviour directly Sometimes children behave in ways term children fare better when parents get along and
that are similar to what they have seen and sometimes stay involved and when the children are easy, smart, and
in ways that are the opposite of what they’ve seen actively cope with problems.
(counterimitation) e Children can thrive in a blended family but this 1s more
e Parents also use feedback to influence children’s difficult when a stepfather brings his own children to the
behaviour Sometimes parents and other caregivers family
fall into the negative reinforcement trap, inadvertently
reinforcing behaviours that they want to discourage. What factors lead children to be maltreated?
© Punishment 1s effective when it is prompt, consistent, e Factors that contribute to child abuse include poverty,
accompanied by an explanation, and delivered by a social isolation, and a culture’s views on violence
person with whom the child has a warm relationship. Parents who abuse their children were often neglected
Punishment has limited value because it suppresses or abused themselves and tend to be unhappy, socially
behaviours but does not eliminate them, and it unskilled individuals Younger or unhealthy children
often has side effects. Time-out 1s one useful form of are more likely to be targets of abuse Children who
punishment. are abused often lag behind 1n cognitive and social
e Chronic conflict is harmful to children, but children development.
benefit when their parents solve problems constructively
Parenting 1s a team sport, but not all parents play well 7.2 Peers
together because they may disagree in child-rearing goals
or parenting methods. What are the benefits of friendship?
e Parenting is influenced by characteristics of children © Friendships among preschoolers are based on mutual
themselves. A child’s age and temperament will influence liking. As children grow, loyalty, trust, and intrmacy
how a parent tries to exert control over the child. become more important features in their friendships.
Friends are usually similar in age, sex, and attitudes.
What determines how siblings get along? How do Children with friends are more skilled socially and are
first-born, later-born, and only children differ? better adjusted.
e The birth of a sibling can be stressful for children,
What are the important features of groups of children
particularly when they are still young and parents ignore
their needs. Siblings get along better when they are of the and adolescents? How do these groups influence
same gender, believe that parents treat them similarly, individuals?
enter adolescence, and have parents who get along well. © Older children and adolescents often form cliques — small
e Although most adopted children develop within the groups of like-minded individuals — that become part of a
typical range, experiencing adversity before being crowd. Some crowds have higher status than others.
adopted puts some adopted children at risk of problems ¢ Common to most groups 1s a dominance hierarchy, a
such as disordered attachment and delayed cognitive well-defined structure with a leader at the top. Physical

254 CHAPTER 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

SUMMARY 255

open adoption (234) cyberbullying (248)

joint custody (234) recursive thinking (252)

256 CuHaPpTer 7 EXPANDING SOCIAL HORIZONS. SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

81 Pubertal changes 259

Signs of physical maturation 260
Mechanisms of maturation 261
Psychological impact of
puberty 262

8.2 Health 265

Nutrition 265
Physical fitness 267
Spotlight on research: Evaluating
a programme for preventing
eating disorders 268
Threats to adolescent
well-being 269

Information processing
during adolescence 271
Working memory and processing
speed 271
Content knowledge, strategies,
and metacognitive skill 272
Problem-solving and
reasoning 272

8.4 Reasoning about moral

issues 274
Kohlberg's theory 274
Real people: Applying human
development: Schindler's
list 276
Evaluating Kohlberg’s theory 276
Promoting moral reasoning 277

Summary 278
Key terms 279

EX] Pubertal changes

Learning objectives

® Identify the physical changes during adolescence that mark the transition to a mature young adult.

e Identify the factors that cause the physical changes associated with puberty.

® Describe how physical changes affect adolescents’ psychological development.

Philani just celebrated his 15" birthday, but In this section, we'll begin by describing common
as far as he is concerned, there is no reason physical changes that take place in adolescence and
to celebrate. Most of his friends have grown explore the mechanisms responsible for them. Then
about 15 centimetres in the past year or so, we'll look at the impact of these physical changes on
have a much larger penis and larger testicles, adolescents’ psychological functioning As we do, we'll
and have mounds of pubic hair, but Philani learn about the possible reasons for Philani and Ursula’s
looks just as he did when he was 10 years maturation experiences.
old. He is embarrassed by his appearance,
particularly in the changing rooms at school,
where he considers himself a little boy
among men. Philani often wonders, ‘Am |
ever going to change?’ and ‘Will | ever look
like my friends do?’ and ‘If | do not change
will | even have any friends?’
Similarly, Ursula, an 11-year-old girl from
Cape Town has not yet begun to menstruate
She lives alone in a small apartment with
her mom, who works tirelessly at a local
supermarket to cover their basic needs
Ursula’s mom has not yet spoken to her
about menarche and Ursula wonders,
‘Is there something wrong with me?’ At
school, she has heard some of her friends
talking about using things like tampons and
menstrual cups, but this is all foreign to her.

The physical changes associated with maturity

(i.e. appearance of body hair, emergence of breasts,
and the enlargement of the penis and testicles),
are for many adolescents a welcomed sign that
childhood is over. For others, like Philani and
Ursula, these changes may come too soon or too late 4 During the growth spurt, girls are often much taller than boys of
compared to their peers, and cause distress. the same age

‘opyraght
2019 Cengage Lawemag All Rights Reserved May net be copscd, scanned, or duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to clectromc nghts, some thind party content mary be suppemacd fom the cfiock andive cChapter( +)
aovew bee dooned thos aay wappromed comamt das act masrally atfoctthe overall amuang cxpencnee. Congage Leoarting rowrven the nett comes addetveal coment at any ree if sebeequent nef rodtnchoes mga t
Signs of physical the girls are often taller and look more mature than
the boys.
Puberty denotes two general types of physical changes Body parts don't mature at the same rate. Instead,
that mark the transition from childhood to young the head, hands, and feet usually begin to grow first,
adulthood. The first is bodily changes, which include a followed by growth in the arms and legs. The trunk and
large increase in height and weight, as well as changes shoulders are the last to grow (Tanner, 1990). The result
in the body’s fat and muscle content. The second type of these differing growth rates is that an adolescent's
of change concerns sexual maturation, including change body sometimes appears out of proportion as though
in the reproductive organs and the appearance of their head and hands are too big for the rest of their
secondary sexual characteristics such as facial and body body. Fortunately, these imbalances don’t last long as the
hair and growth of the breasts. later developing parts catch up.
During the growth spurt, bones become longer
Physical growth (which, of course, is why adolescents grow taller)
For physical growth, the primary school years are the and denser Bone growth is accompanied by several
calm before the adolescent storm. @ FIGURE 8.1 shows other changes that differ for boys and girls Muscle
that in an average year, a typical 6- to 10-year-old gains fibres become thicker and denser during adolescence,
about 2-3 kilograms and grows about 5-7 centimetres. producing substantial increases in strength, particularly
In contrast, during the peak of the adolescent growth for boys (Smoll & Schutz, 1990). Body fat also increases
spurt, a girl may gain as many as 5-7 kilograms in a year during adolescence, but more rapidly in girls than in
and a boy may gain 7-8 kilograms (Tanner, 1970). boys. Finally, heart and lung capacity increases more in
Figure 8.1 also shows that girls typically begin their adolescent boys than in adolescent girls. Together, these
growth spurt about two years before boys. Girls typically changes help to explain why the typical adolescent boy is
start the growth spurt at about age 11, reach their peak stronger, is quicker, and has greater endurance than the
rate of growth at about 12, and achieve their mature typical adolescent girl.
stature at about 15 In contrast, boys start the growth
spurt at age 13, hit peak growth at 14, and reach their
mature stature at 17. This two-year difference in the
growth spurt can lead to awkward social interactions Compare and contrast the events of puberty for
between 11- and 12-year-old boys and girls because boys and girls.

puberty Collection of physical changes that marks the onset of Brain growth in adolescence
adolescence, including a growth spurt and the growth of breasts At the beginning of adolescence, the brain is nearly full size
or testes.
— it’s about 95% of the size and weight of an adult's brain.

8.15

— Boys
R

2
Average cm grown per year
a

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Age (years) Age (years)

@ FIGURE 81 Children grow steadily taller and heavier until puberty, when they experience a rapid increase known as the adolescent
growth spurt.

260 CuaprTer 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May mot be copeed, scammed, ce duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectroesc nights, some thend party comtent mary he suppecescd horn the citook and/or ol hapter|s)
Edtomal seview ton deemed that any suppromed creviemt docs sot muztcmially affect the overall kammg cxpenenee. Cengage Learning reserves the npht to remove addioeal coment af any tore if subsequent nghe sednctioes noqene a
Nevertheless, adolescence is important for fine-tuning the change in primary sex characteristics, which refer to
brain’s functioning. Two features of brain development organs that are directly involved in reproduction. These
that begin early in life (and that we discussed in Chapter include the ovaries, uterus, and vagina in girls, and the
3) are nearly complete in adolescence: myelination, which scrotum, testes, and penis in boys. Sexual maturation also
is the acquisition of fatty insulation that allows neurons includes changes in secondary sex characteristics, which
to transmit information faster, and synaptic pruning, are physical signs of maturity not directly linked to the
which is the weeding out of unnecessary connections reproductive organs. These include the growth of breasts
between neurons (Jernigan & Stiles, 2017). These changes and the widening of the pelvis in girls, the appearance of
mean that different regions in the adolescent brain are facial hair and the broadening of shoulders in boys, and
well connected and that information is rapidly conveyed the appearance of body hair and changes in voice and
between them. This means that adolescents can process skin in both boys and girls.
information more efficiently than the child, a theme that Changes in primary and secondary sexual
we will explore more later on in this chapter. characteristics occur in a predictable sequence for boys
Another distinguishing feature of the adolescent brain and for girls For girls, puberty begins with growth of the
is that some, but not all, brain regions reach maturity. breasts and the growth spurt, followed by the appearance
Some brain systems that are sensitive to reward (especially of pubic hair. Menarche, the onset of menstruation,
to rewards from peers) may reach maturity in adolescence typically occurs between ages 12 and 13. Early menstrual
but the systems responsible for self-control aren't fully cycles are usually irregular and without ovulation.
specialised until adulthood (Casey, 2015) As shown in For boys, puberty usually commences with the growth
@ FIGURE 8.2, this makes adolescents vulnerable. The of the testes and scrotum, followed by the appearance of
reward- and pleasure-seeking systems are more mature pubic hair, the start of the growth spurt, and growth of
than the systems for controlling behaviour. Consequently, the penis. At about age 13, most boys reach spermarche,
even though adolescents may know that behaviours the first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm-laden fluid.
involve risk, the anticipated rewards and pleasure of risky Initial ejaculations often contain relatively few sperm;
behaviour sometimes overtake the adolescent's ability to only months or sometimes years later are there sufficient
suppress the desire to engage in such activities (Sturman sperm to fertilise an egg (Dorn et al., 2006).
& Moghaddam, 2012) As we'll see later in this chapter,
this makes adolescents vulnerable to high-risk activities Mechanisms
of maturation
(for example, drinking, unprotected sex).
What causes the many physical changes that occur
during puberty? The pituitary gland is key here. It helps
to regulate physical development by releasing growth
hormone. In addition, the pituitary regulates pubertal
changes by signalling other glands to secrete hormones.
During the early primary school years — long before there
are any outward signs of puberty - the pituitary signals
the adrenal glands to release androgens, which initiates
the biochemical changes that will produce body hair. A
few years later, in girls, the pituitary signals the ovaries
to release oestrogen, which causes the breasts to enlarge,
the female genitals to mature, and fat to accumulate.
In boys, the pituitary signals the testes to release the
androgen hormone testosterone, which causes the male
genitals to mature and muscle mass to increase.
@ FIGURE 8.2 Adolescence is a vulnerable time because the reward-
and pleasure-seeking centres of the brain (limbic system) mature more
rapidly than the behavioural control systems (frontal system) The gap primary sex characteristics Physical signs of maturity that are
between the two systems is particularly great in adolescence directly linked to the reproductive organs.
From Casey at al, 2008, The Aduleacent Brain’, Awl: of the New Yivk Acaderny of Soances, 1124, Fig. 3, p. 196
secondary sex characteristics Physical signs of maturity that are
not directly linked to reproductive organs.
Sexual maturation
menarche Onset of menstruation.
Not only do adolescents become taller and heavier, they
spermarche First spontaneous ejaculation of sperm.
also become mature sexually. Sexual maturation includes

81 PUBERTAL CHANGES 261

as
testes, but it is enough to influence the emergence of
body hair. In boys, the testes secrete very small amounts
of oestrogen, which explains why some boys’ breasts
temporarily enlarge early in adolescence.
The timing of pubertal events is regulated, in part,
by genetics (Cousminer et al., 2013). This is shown by
the closer synchrony of pubertal events in identical
twins than in fraternal twins If one identical twin has
body hair, the odds are that the other twin will too
(Mustanski et al., 2004) Genetic influence is also shown
by the fact that a mother’s age at menarche is related
to her daughter's age at menarche (Belsky, Bakermans-
Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2007) Genetic studies
have established that the LIN28B is one of the first
genetic loci identified as influencing puberty. Genes
from this locus seem to orchestrate, among other
things, the growth spurts and body changes seen during
adolescence (Elks et al., 2010). However, genetic forces
are strongly influenced by the environment, particularly
an adolescent's nutrition and health. In general, puberty
occurs earlier in adolescents who are well nourished
and healthy than in adolescents who are not (St. George,
Williams, & Silva, 1994).
The social environment also influences the onset of
puberty, at least for girls Menarche occurs at younger
ages in girls who experience chronic stress or harsh
punishment, or who are depressed (James et al., 2012)
When young girls experience chronic socioemotional 4 Young adolescents are often quite concerned about their
stress, this may release hormones that activate the appearance
hormones that trigger menarche.
This mechanism has an evolutionary advantage
If events of a girl’s life suggest that her future Body image
reproductive success is uncertain — as indicated by Compared with children and adults, adolescents are
chronic socioemotional stress — then it may be adaptive more concerned about their overall appearance. Many
to reproduce as soon as possible instead of waiting teenagers spend hours in front of the mirror, checking
until later when she would be more mature and better their faces and bodies for sign of physical change.
able to care for her offspring. That is, the evolutionary Generally, girls seem to be more dissatisfied with
gamble in this case might favour ‘lower-quality’ their appearance than boys (Vander Wal & Thelen,
offspring early over ‘higher-quality’ offspring later 2000). However, boys seem to experience greater
(Cabeza de Baca & Ellis, 2017) Earlier in the opening dissatisfaction with their bodies when they are subjected
story, young Ursula was concerned that she had not to criticism from their friends (Jones et al., 2004)
yet began to menstruate, although some of her peers Further, girls seem to discuss their general appearance
had. Given that the average age of onset is around 13, more frequently in peer groups whereas boys seem to
Ursula had no cause for concern. The role of genetics discuss certain characteristics of their bodies more, like
and environment may explain why her peers began to their muscularity. Adolescents’ preoccupation with and
menstruate at an earlier age. concern over body image has become more pronounced

262 CuaprTer8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Response to menarche and spermarche

Adolescent girls tend to learn about menstruation from
discussions with their mothers. Most girls are usually
pleased at this new sign of maturity but the inconvenience
and messiness of menstruation seems to be a source of
great frustration and irritation (Brooks-Gunn & Ruble,
1982). Girls usually tell their moms about menarche right
away, and after two or three menstrual periods, they tell
their friends, too (Brooks-Gunn & Ruble, 1982)

Think about it

Umhlonyane is a celebration for menarche and

coming of age in amaZulu culture. Can you
think of other similar ceremonies that take place
to celebrate other milestones of adolescent
development?

Menarche is usually a private occasion for adolescents

living in industrialised countries, but in some traditional
cultures, it is often celebrated. For example, in South
Africa, the coming of age ceremony in amaZulu culture
is celebrated in a ceremony known as umhlonyane. The
name comes from the umhlonyane plant, which is used
& Xhosa amaKwetha (young men who have just been circumcised as
in the ceremony. This celebration takes place shortly after
part of their initiation into manhood) outside the hut, Coffee Bay,
menstruation begins. A secluded place of confinement Eastern Cape
will be prepared for the girl, and she will stay there for at
least a week, with only her peers keeping her company.
Think about it
Her peers will also visit neighbours asking for gifts, singing
and dancing in appreciation. After confinement, a fire Some initiation schools are not run by trained
will be made in front of the house, and the girls will have medical staff, and unhygienic and poorly
to jump over this fire and run to the river to wash their performed circumcisions can lead to infection,
bodies. A female elder will also go down to the river to penile injury, spread of disease and even death.
shave the head of the girl for whom the ceremony is being Some boys have had to have their penises
held. Incense is burnt to communicate with the ancestors, amputated as a result of botched circumcisions.
a goat is slaughtered for the ceremony and traditional beer What effect do you think this is likely to have on
will be given to the guests (Mnguni, 2006) the way an adolescent boy views himself?
Boys also undergo rites of passage Between the ages
of 16 and 26, boys in the amaXhosa tradition undergo
a rite of passage ceremony known as ulwaluko (Ntozini Unlike menarche, less is known about boys’ reactions
& Ngqangweni, 2016). Initiates generally go away in to spermarche (first spontaneous ejaculation). Most
groups to an initiation school in a rural area. As part of boys know about spontaneous ejaculations beforehand,
the initiation, the boy’s foreskin is removed, and the boys and they get their information by reading, not by asking
remain secluded from society for about a month. The parents (Gaddis & Brooks-Gunn, 1985). When boys are
purpose of the initiation is to transform boys into men, prepared for spermarche, they feel more positively about
and to instil good moral and social values (Magodyo, it. Nevertheless, boys rarely tell parents or friends about
Andipatin & Jackson, 2016). this new development (Stein & Reiser, 1994).

81 PUBERTAL CHANGES 263

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scammed, ce duplicated im whole of in part. Dur to clectroesc nights, some therd party contest may he suppressed from the cftook andlor oChaptex(s)
Edttomal seview ton deemed thot ary suppromed crenent dacs sot rastcrially affect the overall kamnmg expencree. Cengage Leasing reacrvex the ngbt 0 remove additoeal comcast af ary tame if subeequent ngbe sednchioes noqein
Moodiness For boys and girls, maturing late poses few risks.
Adolescents are often thought to be extraordinarily Late-maturing girls fare well; late-maturing boys are at
moody - quickly moving from joy to sadness — reflecting somewhat greater risk of depression (Mendle & Ferrero,
the influx of hormones associated with puberty. In fact,
2012). But otherwise, Philani, the late-maturing boy in
adolescents are moodier than children or adults, but this is the opening story, has nothing to worry about.
not due primarily to hormones (Steinberg, 1999). Scientists
often find that rapid increases in hormone levels are Test yourself 8.1
associated with greater irritability and greater impulsivity,
but the correlations tend to be small and are found primarily
in early adolescence (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992).
Recall
Instead of reflecting hormones, teenagers’ moodiness 1. The physical changes associated with maturity
reflects frequent changes in their activities and social include the appearance of body hair, eee of
settings. Teens are more likely to report being in a good breasts, and the enlargement of the
mood when hanging out with friends or when recreating.
2. denotes two general types of
They tend to report being in a bad mood when in adult- physical changes that mark the transition from
regulated settings such as school classrooms or at a part- childhood to young adulthood: bodily changes
time job. Because adolescents often change activities and and sexual maturation.
social settings many times in a single day, they appear
to be moodier than adults (Larson, Csikszentmihalyi, & 3. Girls typically begin their growth spurt about
Graef, 2014). years before boys.
4. Body parts don't mature at the same rate: the
Rate of maturation head, hands, and feet usually begin to is first,
Puberty begins at age 10 in the average girl and age followed by growth in the
12 in the average boy, but for many children, puberty 5. Two features of brain development that begin
begins months or even years before or after these ages. early in life are nearly complete in adolescence:
An early-maturing boy might begin puberty at age 11, myelination and
whereas a late-maturing boy might start at 15 or 16
6. Girls seem to be more with their
An early-maturing girl might start puberty at age 9; a
appearance than boys.
late-maturing girl might start at 14 or 15.
Maturing early can be psychologically harmful for 7. Teenagers’ moodiness reflects in
girls. Girls who mature early often lack self-confidence, their activities and social settings
are less popular, are more likely to be depressed and have
behaviour problems, and are more likely to smoke and 8. Girls who mature early often lack self-
drink. Early maturation often leads girls to relationships confidence, are less popular, are more likely to be
with older boys, and these girls are ill-prepared to cope with depressed and have behaviour problems, and are
the demands of these relationships (Skoog & Stattin, 2014). more likely to
In turn, this can result in life-changing effects on early-
maturing girls who are pressured into sex and become Interpret
mothers while still teenagers. As adults, they typically
* Compare and contrast the impact of rate
have less prestigious and lower-paying jobs (Mendle,
of maturation — that is, maturing early versus
Turkheimer, & Emery, 2007). These harmful outcomes
late — on boys and girls.
are more likely when early-maturing girls live in poverty
or experience harsh punishment from parents (Skoog & Apply
Stattin, 2014). Fortunately, when early-maturing girls have
warm, supportive parents, they are less likely to suffer the e At first glance, the onset of puberty would seem
harmful consequences of early maturation (Ge et al., 2002).
to be due entirely to biology. In fact, the child's
Maturing early can be harmful for boys, too. environment influences the onset of puberty.
Summarise the ways in which biology and
Early-maturing boys are at risk of psychological
disorders such as depression; they are also more prone experience interact to trigger the onset of puberty.
to substance abuse and to sexual activity (Mendle & Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
Ferrero, 2012). However, the effects of early maturation end of the chapter.
are weaker for boys than they are for girls (Graber, 2013).

264 Cuaprer 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyragns
2079 Congags Loaraang. All Raghe: Reserved May aot be copend wcummed
of daphorat m whok
of un pert Dur so clectomnc mbes some ded pay comscet mary be eappecencd freer far eBook ander Chapters)
Edecead arvre tos doomed Gas any eapgromed coment dom ace meserodh aflect he ower koeemys copemenes. Compage Lowtang rare the mgt somes added omc ot ay tere of ateegueet mph arénchoes roger &
EY) Health
Learning objectives

* Outline the elements of a healthy diet for adolescents, and explain why some adolescents suffer from eating
disorders.

* Assess whether adolescents get enough exercise, and evaluate the pros and cons of participating in sports in
high school.

* Describe common obstacles to healthy growth in adolescence.

Daniel had just started Grade 7 and was too much sodium and fat. With inadequate iron, teens
overjoyed that he could try out for the soccer are often listless and moody, with inadequate calcium,
team He'd always excelled in sports and bones may not develop fully, placing the person at risk
enjoyed playing soccer with his friends after later in life of osteoporosis
school and over the weekend But this was
Daniel's first opportunity to play on a real Obesity
team — with a real kit - and he was feeling like Childhood obesity has become a major public health
a member of Bafana Bafana already! Daniel's concern in recent years in South Africa, as well as in
dad played soccer at school and thought Daniel many other countries Many children and adolescents
could benefit from the experience. His mom, are overweight (Wang & Lim, 2012). The technical
although a huge fan of the sport, worried that definition of overweight’ is based on the body mass index
he would injure himself one day and have to (BMI), which is an adjusted ratio of weight to height.
deal with the injury for the rest of his life. Children and adolescents who are in the upper 5% (very
heavy for their height) are defined as being overweight.
Adolescence is a time of transition with regard to health. In low- and middle-income countries such as South
On the one hand, teens are less affected by the minor Africa, malnutrition and obesity are co-occurring
illnesses that kept them bedridden as children. On phenomena, and obesity seems to be particularly
the other hand, teens are at greater risk of harm when prominent amongst older adolescent girls (Kimani-
they engage in unhealthy and risky behaviours. In this Murage et al., 2010). Childhood and adolescent obesity is
section, we'll look at some of the factors essential to problematic because obese children are likely to become
adolescent physical and mental health. We'll start with obese adults (Reilly et al., 2003). This is closely related to
physical health and in particular, nutrition the increase of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such
as hypertension and diabetes In addition to being at risk
Nutrition of NCDs, overweight youngsters are often unpopular and
at risk of depression and anxiety (Pryor et al., 2016).
The physical growth associated with puberty means that
No single factor causes children to become obese.
the body has special nutritional needs A typical teenage
Instead, several factors contribute, including the
girl should consume about 2 200 calories per day; a typical
following:
boy should consume about 2 700 calories. (The exact
levels depend on a number of factors, including body ¢ Heredity. Obesity runs in families, showing that genes
composition, growth rate, and activity level.) Teenagers contribute perhaps by causing some people to overeat,
also need calcium for bone growth and iron to make extra to be sedentary, or to be less able to convert fat to fuel
haemoglobin, the matter in red blood cells that carries (Cheung & Mao, 2012).
oxygen. Boys need additional haemoglobin because of e Parents. Some parents urge children to ‘clean their
their increased muscle mass; girls need haemoglobin to plates’ even when the children are not hungry. Other
replace that lost during menstruation. parents use food to comfort children who are upset.
Unfortunately, although many teenagers consume Both practices cause children to rely on external cues
enough calories each day, too much of their intake
consists of fast food rather than well-balanced meals.
The result of too many meals of burgers and french fries body mass index (BMI) Adjusted ratio of weight to height; used
to define ‘overweight.
is that teens may get inadequate iron or calcium and far

8.2 HEALTH 265

Anorexia and bulimia

In 2010, French model and actress Isabelle Caro died of
respiratory disease just months after turning 26. Near
her death, she weighed less than 35 kilograms. Caro
suffered from anorexia nervosa, a disorder marked by
a persistent refusal to eat and an irrational fear of being
overweight. Individuals with anorexia nervosa have a
grossly distorted image of their body and claim to be
overweight despite being painfully thin. Anorexia is a
serious disorder that, left untreated, can result in death
(Attia, 2017).
A related eating disorder is bulimia nervosa.
Individuals with bulimia nervosa alternate between
binge eating periods, when they eat uncontrollably, and
purging through self-induced vomiting, laxatives, fasting,
or excessive exercise. During binge eating, adolescents
with bulimia consume two days’ worth of calories
& Childhood obesity is a major public health concern in low- and in two hours or less, then purge once or twice daily
middle-income countries.
(Keel, 2017).
Anorexia and bulimia are alike in many respects.
Individually these factors may not lead to obesity. Both disorders primarily affect females and emerge in
But collectively they may put children and adolescents
adolescence and many of the same factors put teenage
on the path to obesity: a youth is at greater risk if
girls at risk of both eating disorders. Heredity puts
she is genetically prone to overeat, is sedentary, and
some girls at risk as do psychosocial factors, such
is chronically sleepy To understand obesity during
as adverse life experiences (for example, stressful or
childhood and adolescence, we need to consider all of
traumatic events) and low self-esteem However, the
most important risk factor for adolescents is being
anorexia nervosa Persistent refusal to eat accompanied by an overly concerned about one's body and internalising
irrational fear of being overweight.
the thin body that is often thought to be ideal in
bulimia nervosa Disease in which people alternate between binge Western cultures Teenage girls are at risk when they
eating - periods when they eat uncontrollably - and purging with frequently watch TV shows that emphasise attractive,
self-induced vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.
thin characters and when their friends frequently talk

266 CHAPTER 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Think about it

Describe how obesity, anorexia, and

bulimia represent the different forces in the
biopsychosocial network.

Being physically active promotes mental and physical

health during adolescence and throughout adulthood.
Individuals who regularly engage in physical activity
reduce their risk for obesity, cancer, heart disease,
diabetes, and psychological disorders, including
depression and anxiety. According to the World Health
Organization (2018), “Regular activity’ consists of at least
60 accumulated minutes per day of moderate to high
intensity exercise that is developmentally appropriate.
Running, vigorous walking, swimming, aerobic dancing,
and biking are all examples of activities that can provide
this level of intensity.

Think about it
TENET TEETH EEE wee Ee EEE EET THEE EEO EE EET EET ESET EEE EEO EE EET EE THEE EEE EEE -

Many teenagers do not eat well-balanced meals,

A Adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa believe that they are
and many do not get enough exercise. What
overweight, and they refuse to eat
would you do to improve teenagers’ dietary and
exercise habits?
about weight and diet constantly to stay thin (von
Ranson & Wallace, 2014).
Although eating disorders are far more common Unfortunately, all the evidence indicates that most
in girls, boys make up about 10% of diagnosed cases adolescents rarely get enough exercise. Part of the
of eating disorders. Boys with eating disorders have problem is that physical education classes provide the
a distorted body image but, instead of worrying that only regular opportunity for many high school students
they're not sufficiently thin, they worry that they're not to exercise. Many schools do not employ a specialised
sufficiently muscular. In trying to achieve a muscular physical education teacher, as the subject falls under the
ideal, boys with eating disorders reduce their intake of subject of Life Orientation, and the physical education
calories and they exercise excessively (Weltzin, 2017) aspect of the subject may be neglected or even ignored.
Fortunately, there are programmes that can help Many teenagers get exercise by participating in
protect teens from eating disorders (Becker et al., 2017). organised sports as an extra-mural at school or at a
These programmes work to change attitudes toward club outside the school system. Participating in sports
being thin and provide ways to resist social pressure has many benefits for youth. Sports can enhance
to be thin. One such programme is described in the participants’ self-esteem and can help them to learn
‘Spotlight on research’ feature. initiative (Bowker, 2006, Eime et al., 2013). Sports can
Programmes such as the one described in the also provide adolescents a chance to learn important
‘Spotlight on research’ feature are effective At-risk social skills, such as how to work effectively as part of a
adolescents who participate in these programmes are group, often in complementary roles.
more satisfied with their appearance and are less likely These benefits of participating in sports are balanced
to diet or overeat (Stice, South, & Shaw, 2012). For those by potential hazards. Some high school athletes will be

8.2 HEALTH 267

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. im whole
or in part. Dur to clectronic nights, some thend party comiest muy be suppressed from the flock andlor oChaptes(s).
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
Evaluating a programme for preventing eating disorders
Spotlight on
Who were the investigators, and what was the aim of the
study? One way to prevent teenage girls from developing
that included items such
as ‘Do you try to eat less
Research
eating disorders ts to help them see faults in the thin at meal times than you
female body that is often idealised in the media Teens would like to eat?’ and ‘Do
who participate in activities critiquing this ideal are less you deliberately eat foods
prone to eating disorders For example, they no longer find that are slimming?’ Scores on
the thin ideal as attractive, they're less likely to diet, and the scale ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (always) The results,
they report fewer symptoms of eating disorders However, shown in @ FIGURE 8.3, indicate that at the pre-test, girls in
research demonstrating the effectiveness of this prevention both groups occasionally endorsed dieting-related behaviours
has been conducted under highly controlled conditions What's noteworthy is that these responses were reasonably
(for example, in a research centre, with facilitators who stable for girls in the control condition but declined for girls
are highly trained and closely monitored) Eric Stice and in the prevention group In other words, the prevention
colleagues (2009) wanted to confirm that the prevention condition caused girls to be less likely to report dieting-related
would work when administered in a more realistic setting behaviours
— in this case, by school personne! (for example, nurses, What did the investigators conclude? These findings,
counsellors) in a high school like the prior work, illustrate that girls change their body- and
How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? eating-related attitudes and behaviours after participating in
Stice and colleagues recruited high schoo! girls who had a prevention emphasising the costs and shortcomings of an
concerns about their body image. Half of the girls were ideal thin body As Stice and colleagues put it, ‘The findings
assigned to a control condition in which they were given a from the present trial suggest that positive intervention
brochure describing eating disorders and suggesting ways to effects still emerge when real-world providers deliver the
improve one's body image The other half were assigned to an prevention programme in ecologically valid settings with a
intervention condition in which they attended four sessions of heterogeneous population’ (p 831)
one hour each that included a variety of exercises designed What converging evidence would strengthen these
to show girls the costs of the thin ideal For example, they conclusions? All four outcome measures were obtained
engaged in role play in which they tried to convince group from questionnaires completed by the adolescents An
leaders why girls shouldn't pursue the thin ideal and they obvious way to provide converging evidence would be to
completed homework in which they listed pressures they measure some of these outcomes differently, such as by
experienced to be thin and ways to resist those pressures. asking parents to describe their daughter's dieting-related
Before the intervention started and at 1, 6, and 12 months behaviours, by using experimental tasks to estimate body
after it ended, girls in both groups completed questionnaires dissatisfaction, or by obtaining physiological measures that
measuring their adherence to the thin ideal, their body reflect eating disorders
dissatisfaction, their dieting behaviour, and their symptoms of
eating disorders 25
Who were the participants in the study? The researchers
tested 306 adolescent girls, 139 were in the intervention 2.25
condition, and 167 were in the control condition E 2
What was the design of the study? This study was
1.75
experimental because Stice and colleagues were interested

CP& fe
In comparing the impact of the prevention programme, 15
relative to the control condition, on adolescent girls’ attitudes

OP
and behaviours related to eating disorders The researchers
did not investigate age differences, so the study was neither
cross-sectional nor longitudinal
Were there ethical concerns with the study? No. The
researchers obtained informed consent from the adolescents Testing time
and their parents The measures and the prevention — Prevention — Control
programme posed no obvious risks to participants Any girls
in either condition who showed symptoms of eating disorders @ FIGURE 8.3 When teenage girls participate in prograrmmes that
were referred to treatment emphasise the costs and shortcomings of an ideal thin body, they
What were the results? The results were similar for the change their body- and eating-related attitudes and behaviours.
different outcome measures For simplicity, we focus on Soures. Stice, E.. Rohde, P,Gau,J & Stu, 4. (2005). An effectiveness tial of cissonance-tased eating
Ghacrdar prevention program for highGk adolescent gir Jounal of Consulting aq Ofnica! Paychotagy,
dieting behaviour, which was measured with a questionnaire 72 825-834

268 CuHaprTer 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

ee
,
i

& From participating in sports, youth can improve their self-esteem and learn skills about how to work
effectively as part of a group.

injured, requiring some medical treatment. Fortunately,

most of these injuries are not serious (Nelson, 1996).
Daniel's mom can rest easy; the odds are that he won't In South Africa, tuberculosis (TB) was the most common
be injured, and if he is, it won't be serious. Another cause of death amongst youth in 2013 (Statistics South
concern is that several studies have linked youth Africa, 2015b), @e FIGURE 8.4 shows the causes of death
participation in sports to delinquent and antisocial amongst youth in South Africa in 2013 After TB, HIV
behaviour (e.g., Gardner, Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, and other viral diseases were among the top three causes
2009). However, outcomes are usually positive when of death among youth in 2013. Sadly, many of these deaths
sports participation is combined with participation in may be prevented by educating youth on prevention
activities that involve adults, such as school, religious, strategies, as well as early access to treatment and care.
or youth groups (Linver, Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, 2009; Risk-taking behaviour is in many ways synonymous
Zarrett et al., 2009). with adolescence, and is linked to TB and HIV infection.
A more serious problem is the use of illegal drugs Adolescentsare more likely than children andadultsto engage
to enhance performance. Some athletes are known in unprotected sex, and sometimes use illegal and dangerous
to use anabolic steroids - drugs that are chemically drugs (we'll discuss the latter behaviours more in Chapter 9).
similar to the male hormone testosterone — to increase Why? Many adolescents believe they are invulnerable -
muscle size and strength and to promote more rapid only others experience the harmful consequences of risky
recovery from injury. About 30% of high school behaviours (Hill, Duggan, & Lapsley, 2012).
athletes (aged 15 to 18) in Johannesburg reported In addition, adolescents find the rewards associated
having used performance enhancing substances. Of with risky behaviour far more appealing than adults
these, 4% reported using anabolic steroids (Gradidge do - so much so that they’re willing to ignore the
et al., 2010). This is worrisome because steroid use risks. For many adolescents, the pleasure, excitement,
has been linked to cardiovascular disease, cancer, and and intimacy of sex far outweigh the risks of disease
mental health problems (Bird et al., 2015). Parents, and pregnancy, just as the relaxation associated with
coaches, and health professionals need to make sure smoking outweighs the threat of lung cancer (Albert &
that high school athletes are aware of the dangers of Steinberg, 2011). And as we saw earlier in this chapter,
steroids and should encourage youth to meet their the appeal of high-risk behaviours reflects the maturity
athletic goals through methods that do not involve of the pleasure-seeking brain regions relative to those
regions that control behaviour (Casey, 2015).
drug use (Gradidge et al., 2010).

82 HEALTH 269

Copyragtt 2019 Cengage Learmag All Righes Reserved Muy met be coped. scammed. or duplicated m whole
of in part Dur to clectromc mghe, some ttead party comment aury be eeppresand form fre cBicck andite Clzapter(s)
Exitorad srvarw bos doomed thes aay aappremed comment dws eet sustemadty affect
the oversil kamung cxpenence. Cengage Leartung remrves the night 2 acme aifianmal content of anty forme if sabeerpacmt mepinte acetrictooes onpans
Causes of death - Young female

@ Tuberculosis Other forms of heart disease

I Human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] disease lm Episodic
and paroxysmal disorders
lm Other viral diseases IH Other acute lower respiratory infections
i Influenza and pneumonia @ Protozoal diseases
@ Certain disorders involving the immune mechanism @ Other natural causes
Intestinal infectious diseases ™® Non-natural causes
@ Inflammatory
diseases of the central nervous system

@ FIGURE 8.4 Adolescent boys and girls in South Africa are more likely to die from infectious
diseases such as tuberculosis than any other cause.
Souwte: Statates South Africa. (2015) Movbedity aod movtadty panorns among the youth of South Africa, 2073. Presoia Suances South Africa
Rethaved form odn 24 co za/Tea/Cms/Generaiid!! M/s8bd4 3 1b6da4oS0b61 as 4092630248 pot

Test yourself 8.2

Recall
1. A typical teenage girl should consume about
per day; a typical boy should
consume about j
2. Obesity seems to be particularly prominent
amongst
3. are drugs that are chemicallysimilar to
the male hormone testosterone. Athletes sometimes
take them to increase muscle size and strength and
to promote more rapid recovery from injury.

4. Adolescents are more likely than to

engage in unprotected sex.

Interpret
e Distinguish the biological factors that contribute
to obesity from the environmental factors.

Apply
© How does adolescent risk taking illustrate the
idea that individuals help to shape their own
development?

A Adolescents are far more prone to risky behaviour than children

Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
and adults, in part because they believe the rewards of risky end of the chapter.
behaviour far outweigh the potential harm.

270 CHAPTER 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyragte
2009 Comgage Lowseng. All Rights Reserved Moy act be copand, scommod or depicted m whole of im part. Der to clectrommc raghes, scene teed party contest ery be eappecend ieee fae eBook andibe of eapter’s)
Edeowad wvarw bos doomed Gos any eappromed coment doc act sxsxmoddy affect he overall koeemes cxpemencs. Canpages Lowtang scarves the met wm somes addtecead coment at any tree of eateeguent rei aotecteoes ogee ¢
EE) Information processing during adolescence
Learning objectives

e Describe how working memory and processing speed change in adolescence.

® Discuss the changes in problem-solving and reasoning that take place in adolescence.

Amir, a 14-year-old boy, was an enigma to his seen in childhood. Adolescence is a time when cognitive
mother, Faiza. On one hand, Amir’s growing processes are refined to adult levels. We'll describe these
reasoning skills impressed and sometimes changes in this section, and as we do, we'll see why
surprised her: he not only easily grasped adolescents such as Faiza’s son don't always think as
technical discussions of her medical work but effectively as they might.
also was becoming good at finding loopholes
in her explanations of why he wasn't allowed Worki .
to do some activities with his friends. On the
other hand, sometimes Amir was a real teenage Working memory is the site of ongoing cognitive
‘space cadet’ Simple problem-solving stumped processing, and processing speed is the speed with which
him, or he made silly mistakes and got the people complete basic cognitive processes. Both of these
wrong answer. Amir didn’t correspond to Faiza’s capacities achieve adult-like levels during adolescence.
image of the formal-operational thinker that Adolescents’ working memory has about the same
she remembered from her university human capacity as adults’ working memory, which means
development class. that teenagers are better able than children to store
information needed for ongoing cognitive processes. In
For information-processing theorists, adolescence does addition, processing speed becomes faster, as illustrated
not represent a distinct, qualitatively different stage of in @ FIGURE 8.5 and shown by performance on a simple
cognitive development Instead, adolescence represents a response-time task in which individuals press a button
transition from the rapidly changing cognitive processes as rapidly as possible in response to a visual stimulus.
of childhood to the mature cognitive processes of The time needed to respond drops steadily during
young adulthood. Cognitive changes take place during childhood - from about one-third of a second at age 8
adolescence, but they are small compared with those to one-quarter of a second at age 12 — but changes little

*
2 300
=
DAS
o

i ®@ CCOLOCLe
0
5 7 9 1 13 #15 7 «19 «2 2
Age (years)

@FIGURE 8.5 Response time declines steadily during childhood and reaches
adult-like levels during middle adolescence.
Dena from Kal (2004).

83 INFORMATION PROCESSING DURING ADOLESCENCE 271

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcanned, ce duplicated. 1m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some therd party contest mury he wuppeesscd thom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew bon deemed that any suppromed creme! dacs sot matcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learning reserves the night to remove additiosal coetent af any tame if subsequent nghe sednctioes noqene at.
thereafter. This pattern of change 1s not specific to Compared with heuristics, analytic solutions are slower
simple response time. Instead, it is found for a wide and require more effort.
range of cognitive tasks: adolescents generally process
information just about as quickly as young adults (Kail,
2004). Change in working memory and processing speed
means that compared with children, adolescents process Learners are typically introduced to the study
information very efficiently. of complex topics such as biology and physical
These changes in efficiency reflect changes to the science during adolescence. Explain how their
brain described earlier in this chapter Increases in maturing cognitive skills contribute to the study
myelination during adolescence allow nerve impulses to of these and other subject areas.
travel more rapidly, which contributes to more rapid and
more efficient information processing during this period To see the difference between heuristic and analytic
(Scantlebury et al., 2014). solutions, think about the following problem (based on
Kail, 2013):
Content knowledge, strategies, Gabriela wants a new smartphone. A well-known
and
metacognitive
skill tech website reports that consumers rate Samsung as
the best model, but Gabriela’s aunt has a Huawei that
As children move into adolescence, they acquire adult- she likes a lot. Which phone should Gabriela get, the
like levels of knowledge and understanding in many Samsung or the Huawei?
domains. For example, many parents turn to their teens The heuristic solution relies on personal testimony from
for help in learning how to use fancy features on their familiar people. In this case, that means relying on the
smartphone. This increased knowledge is useful for its aunt's experience. In contrast, the analytic solution relies
own sake, but it also has the indirect effect of enabling on the statistical information from consumers’ ratings.
adolescents to learn, understand, and remember more
of new experiences (Schneider, 2015). Imagine two
primary school students - one a cricket expert, the
other not — watching a cricket game Compared with the
novice, the adolescent expert would understand many
of the nuances of the game and, later, remember more
features of the game.
As their content knowledge increases, adolescents
also become better skilled at identifying strategies
appropriate for a specific task, than monitoring the
chosen strategy to check that it 1s working (Schneider,
2015) For example, adolescents are more likely to
outline and highlight information in a text. They are
more likely to make lists of material they don’t know
well and should study more, and they more often 4 When children reach adolescence, they are more likely to use
embed these activities in a master study plan (for reasoning skills and solve problems analytically.
example, a list of assignments, projects, and tests for a
two-week period). All these activities help adolescents Heuristics are used throughout childhood,
learn more effectively and remember more accurately adolescence, and adulthood, but analytic solutions
(Schneider, 2015). become more common in adolescence (Klaczynski,
2013). In other words, teens are more likely than children
to rely on logic or maths and would be more likely to
suggest that Gabriela pick the phone with the higher
When solving problems, two approaches are common ratings from consumers. This developmental change
(Evans & Stanovich, 2013). One is to rely on heuristics, reflects adolescents’ mastery of formal operational
rules of thumb that do not guarantee a solution but are thinking (described in Chapter 6). But it also reflects
useful in solving a range of problems. Heuristics tend adolescents’ greater working-memory capacity (needed
to be fast and require little effort. Another approach is because analytic solutions require effort) and their greater
to determine an answer mathematically or logically. self-regulation (needed to suppress fast-acting heuristics).

272 Cuarprter 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

(Copyraght
2099 Cengage Lorene. All Raghes Reserved Mozy act be copacd, scommed or daphioted m whol
of op pert. Der to clectemnc mphes, somec thee party contrat muy be eappeceecd Seen tar cBiock andite of napecs’s)
Edecrad scvacw bos doomed ut ary eappromed coment dors set sexxrotly aflect Ge ower koremy cupemeace. Canpages Lowzang scare tc mgt © somes adden eee of any tne of chert rege encmons mgee s
Adolescents also are better skilled at finding standards to dismiss findings that threaten their beliefs
weaknesses in arguments. In logical reasoning, they and lowering them to admit findings compatible with
can pinpoint flaws in arguments (Weinstock, Neuman, their beliefs.
& Glassner, 2006). In scientific reasoning, adolescents Findings such as these tell us that Faiza, the mother
recognise the hazards in making generalisations in the opening story, should not be so perplexed
from extremely small samples. They would be wary by her son's seemingly erratic thinking: adolescents
of concluding that people from another country are (and adults, for that matter) do not always use the
particularly friendly based on meeting just two people most powerful levels of thinking that they possess.
from that country (Klaczynski & Lavallee, 2005). The information-processing account of intellectual
Of course, adolescents may not always use their skills functioning in adolescence is a description of how
effectively. Sometimes they resort to heuristics because children and adolescents can think, not how they
they take less effort and are ‘good enough’ for the always or even usually think.
problem. Also, sometimes adolescents’ beliefs interfere These changing features of information processing
with effective thinking: when evidence is inconsistent are summarised in @ TABLE 8.1. Change in each of these
with adolescents’ beliefs, they may dismiss the evidence elements of information processing occurs gradually
as being irrelevant or try to reinterpret the evidence to When combined, they contribute to the steady progress
make it consistent with their beliefs Adolescents are to mature thinking that is the destination of adolescent
able to use their reasoning skills selectively, raising their cognitive development.

Feature State in adolescence

Working memory and Adolescents have adult-like working memory capacity and processing speed, enabling them to
processing speed process information efficiently.
Content knowledge Adolescents’ greater knowledge of the world facilitates understanding and memory of new
experiences.
Strategies and Adolescents are better able to identify task-appropriate strategies and to monitor the
metacognition effectiveness of those strategies.
Problem-solving and Adolescents often solve problems analytically by relying on mathematics or logic, and they
reasoning can detect weaknesses in scientific evidence and logical arguments.

Test yourself 8.3

Recall Interpret
1. Adolescents’ has about the same e The information-processing account of cognitive
capacity as adults, which means that teenagers change in adolescence emphasises working
are better able than children to store information memory, knowledge, and strategies. How might
needed for ongoing cognitive processes. each of these factors be influenced by nature? By
nurture?
2. Increases in myelination during adolescence
allow nerve impulses to travel more rapidly, Apply
which contributes to faster and more efficient
e How can the information-processing skills
during this period.
described here — and, in particular, the limits in
3. are rules of thumb that do not adolescent thinking — help to explain adolescent
guarantee a solution but are useful in solving a risk taking described earlier?
range of problems.
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
4. Adolescents’ improves: they have end of the chapter.
greater knowledge of the world facilitates
understanding and memory of new experiences.

8.3 INFORMATION PROCESSING DURING ADOLESCENCE 273

e Discuss how adolescents reason about moral issues.

© Describe the other factors that influence moral reasoning.

Henry, the least popular boy in Grade 8, was the bread as well as argue why he shouldn't have stolen
wrongly accused of stealing a learner’s cell the bread. Lawrence Kohlberg created stories like this
phone. Siya, another learner in Grade 8, knew one in which decisions were difficult because every
that Henry was innocent but said nothing to alternative involved some undesirable consequences. In
the school principal because he was worried fact, there is no ‘correct’ answer — that’s why the stories
about what his friends would say about siding are referred to as moral ‘dilemmas. Kohlberg was more
with Henry. A few days later, Siya’s father heard interested in the reasoning used to justify a decision -
about the incident He was upset that his son Why should Jean Valjean steal the bread? Why should he
apparently had so little ‘moral fibre’. Why hadn't not steal the bread? — than in the decision itself
Siya acted in the face of an injustice? Kohlberg’s (1969) best-known moral dilemma is this
story about Heinz, whose wife is dying:
One day a local newspaper had two articles about youth
from the area. One article was about a 15-year-old In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One
drug might save her, a form of radium that a chemist
girl who was badly burned while saving her younger
in the same town had recently discovered. The chemist
brothers from a fire in their flat. Her mother said she
was charging ten tumes what the drug cost him to make.
wasn't surprised by her daughter's actions because she The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone
had always been an extraordinarily caring person The he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get
other article was about two 17-year-old boys who had together about half of what it cost. He told the chemist
beaten an elderly man to death. They had only planned that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper
to steal his wallet, but when he insulted them and tried or let him pay later. But the chemist said, ‘No. The
to punch them, they became enraged. husband got desperate and broke into the man’s shop to
Reading articles like these, you can't help but question steal the medication for his wife (Adapted from p. 379)
why some teenagers (and adults) act in ways that earn our
deepest respect and admiration, whereas others earn our Thus, Heinz and Jean Valjean both face moral dilemmas
utter contempt as well as our pity. And at a more mundane in which the various alternative courses of action have
level, we wonder why Siya didn't tell the principal the truth desirable and undesirable features
about the stolen cell phone In this section, we'll start our Kohlberg analysed children’s, adolescents, and adults’
exploration of moral reasoning with an influential theory responses to a large number of dilemmas and identified
proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg. three levels of moral reasoning, each divided into two
stages. Across the six stages, the basis for moral reasoning
shifts. In the earliest stages, moral reasoning is based
Kohiberg's theory on external forces, such as the promise of reward or the
Some of the world’s great novels are based on moral threat of punishment. At the most advanced levels, moral
dilemmas. For example, Victor Hugo's Les Misérables reasoning is based on a personal, internal moral code and
begins with the protagonist, Jean Valjean, stealing a is unaffected by others’ views or society’s expectations.
loaf of bread to feed his sister's starving child. You can Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning:
probably give many reasons for Valjean to have stolen pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
Each level is subdivided into two sub-stages At the
pre-conventional level First level of reasoning in Kohlberg’s pre-conventional level, moral reasoning is based on
theory, where moral reasoning is based on external forces.
external forces. For most children, many adolescents,
obedience orientation Characteristic of Kohlberg’s stage 1, and some adults, moral reasoning is controlled almost
in which moral reasoning is based on the belief that adults can exclusively by rewards and punishments. Individuals in
distinguish
between right and wrong.
stage 1 moral reasoning assume an obedience orientation,

274 CuaprTer 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrmiag. All Rights Riserved. May mot be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole oe in part. Dur to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mary be suppressed teem the cffook andive cChapter(s)
Exttomad semew boo deaned that any wuppromed content docs sot sustcrially affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to memnowe additeoeal crevicnt af any Gane if subsequent nett sextnctioes neqenre it.
which means believing that authority figures know what Abstract principles such as justice, compassion, and
is right and wrong. Consequently, stage 1 individuals do equality form the basis of a personal code that may
what authorities say is right to avoid being punished. At conflict with society’s expectations and laws. Stage
this stage, one might argue that Heinz shouldn't steal the 6 individuals might argue that Heinz should steal
drug because an authority figure (for example, parent or the drug because saving a life takes precedence over
police officer) said he shouldn't do it. Alternatively, one everything else, including the law Or they might claim
might argue that Heinz should steal the drug because he that Heinz’s wife has a right to die and that he should
would get into trouble if he let his wife die. not force his views on her by stealing and administering
In stage 2 of the pre-conventional level, people adopt the drug.
an instrumental orientation, in which they look out for Putting the stages together, the entire sequence of
their own needs. Stage 2 individuals are nice to others moral development looks like this.
because they expect the favour to be returned in the future. Pre-conventional level: Punishment and reward
Someone at this stage could justify stealing the drug
because Heinz’s wife might do something nice for Heinz in Stage 1. Obedience to authority
return. Or someone might argue that Heinz shouldn't steal Stage 2: Nice behaviour in exchange for future
the drug because it will create more problems for him. favours
At the conventional level, adolescents and adults look Conventional level. Social norms
to society's norms for moral guidance. In other words, Stage 3: Live up to others’ expectations
people's moral reasoning is largely determined by others’ Stage 4: Follow rules to maintain social order
expectations of them. In stage 3, adolescents’ and adults’
moral reasoning is based on interpersonal norms The Post-conventional level: Moral codes
aim is to win the approval of other people by behaving Stage 5: Stick to a social contract when it 1s valid
as ‘good boys’ and ‘good girls’ would. Stage 3 individuals Stage 6: Personal moral system based on abstract
might argue that Heinz shouldn't steal the drug because principles
he must keep his reputation as an honest man or that
This developmental sequence usually unfolds
he should steal the drug because no one would think
over many years, but sometimes it happens more
negatively of him for trying to save his wife's life
dramatically, such as when individuals undergo a
Stage 4 of the conventional level focuses on social
major transformation in their moral motivation One
system morality. Here, adolescents and adults believe
noteworthy example of such a transformation was
that social roles, expectations, and laws exist to maintain
depicted in Steven Spielberg's Oscar-winning movie
order within society and to promote the good of all
Schindler's List, as described in the ‘Real people’ feature.
people. Stage 4 individuals might reason that Heinz
shouldn't steal the drug, even though his wife might
die, because it is illegal and no one is above the law.
Alternatively, they might claim that he should steal it to instrumental orientation Characteristic of Kohlberg’s stage 2,
live up to his marriage vow of protecting his wife even in which moral reasoning is based on the aim of looking out for
though he will face negative consequences for his theft. one’s own needs.
At the post-conventional level, moral reasoning conventional level Second level of reasoning in Kohlberg’s theory,
is based on a personal moral code. The emphasis is no where moral reasoning is based on society's norms.
longer on external forces such as punishment, reward, or
interpersonal norms Characteristic of Kohlberg’s stage 3, in
social roles. In stage 5, people base their moral reasoning which moral reasoning
is based on winningthe approval of others.
on a social contract. Adults agree that members of social
groups stick to a social contract because a common set social system morality Characteristic of Kohlberg’s stage 4,
in which moral reasoning is based on maintenance of order in
of expectations and laws benefits all group members. society.
However, if these expectations and laws no longer
promote the welfare of individuals, they become invalid. post-conventional level Third level of reasoning in Kohlberg’s
theory, in which morality is based on a personal moral code.
Consequently, stage 5 individuals might reason that
Heinz should steal the drug because social rules about social contract Characteristic of Kohlberg’s stage 5, in which
property rights no longer benefit individuals’ welfare. moral reasoning is based on the belief that laws are for the good of
all members of society.
Alternatively, they could argue that he shouldn't steal the
drug because it would create social anarchy. universal ethical principles Characteristic of Kohlberg’s stage 6,
Finally, in stage 6 of the post-conventional level, in which moral reasoning is based on moral principles that apply
to all.
universal ethical principles dominate moral reasoning.

8.4 REASONING ABOUT MORAL ISSUES 275

Copyraght
2009 Congage Lowmag All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xommed or dupbicted m whole of im part. Dur to clectrosc mghes, scene thand party contest aery be eappeesend fern fe cock andive of heapter’s)
Edsorad sverw bos doomed thos aay eappromed comamt dacs act susxmodly affect the over komang ctpenence. Congage Leateng rowrves the ngbt wo corarve addstaveal coment af any Orne if sehpequent ogi netnchoes snger t
Applying human list of workers essential to the moved to the post-conventional level,
development factory's continued operation where he was motivated by the higher
The list protected employees principle of saving lives It is at the post-
because the plant's products conventional level that heroes are made
were used in the war effort.
Schindler's list
No longer driven by profit,
In 1939, Oskar Schindler Schindler went to great
was an entrepreneur lengths to preserve life.
who made a great deal He created cover stones
of money working for to support his claims
the Germans after they that certain employees
conquered Poland. Motivated were essential and went
at first strictly by the potential to Auschwitz to rescue
for personal profit, he opened — employees who were sent
with few qualms — a factory there despite being included
in which he employed Jewish on his list.
people as slave labour Schindler's list saved many
Schindler's company was quite lives Profits were made (and helped
successful But as the war continued, provide the perfect cover), but he
Jewish citizens in Poland were rounded employed Jewish people in his factory
up and shipped to concentration camps primarily to save them from the gas
A During World War Il, Oskar Schindler
or summarily executed This deeply chamber Schindler may have begun
saved the lives of many Jewish people by
disturbed Schindler, and his attitudes the war at Kohlberg's pre-conventional adding their names to lists of employees
began to change His employees level —- where he was motivated solely who were essential for his factory's
suggested that he give the Germans a by personal profit — but he ultimately operation

Evaluating Kohiberg’s theory On some other features, the theory does not
fare as well For example, Kohlberg claimed that the
Research supports many features of Kohlberg’s theory sequence of stages is universal. However, except for
For example, Kohlberg proposed that individuals move the earliest stages, moral reasoning in other cultures is
through the six stages only in the order listed and often not described well by Kohlberg’s theory, mainly
longitudinal studies confirm this prediction: individuals because not all cultures and religions share the theory's
progress through each stage in sequence, rarely skipping emphasis on individual rights and justice. For example,
stages (Colby et al., 1983) In addition, less advanced
the Hindu religion emphasises duty and responsibility
moral reasoning reflects the influence of external forces to others. Consistent with this emphasis, when Hindu
(for example, rewards) but more advanced reasoning
children and adults respond to moral dilemmas, they
is based on a personal moral code. This means that favour solutions that provide care for others even
only individuals with advanced reasoning should be when individual rights or justice may suffer (Miller &
compelled to moral action when external forces may
Bersoff, 1992) Thus, the bases of moral reasoning are
not favour it Consistent with this claim, adolescents
not universal as Kohlberg claimed; instead, they reflect
who defend their principles in difficult situations tend
cultural values.
to be more advanced in Kohlberg’s stages (Gibbs et al., Even for people living in Western cultures, research
1986). In contrast, Siya, the boy in the opening story, said does not consistently support the theory’s emphasis
nothing because speaking out on behalf of the unpopular on justice. Many children, adolescents, and adults
student is unlikely to lead to being rewarded by his peers
think about moral issues in terms of justice and caring,
depending on the nature of the moral dilemma and
Think about it the context (Turiel, 2006) To illustrate, suppose a child

Research shows that people sometimes do not

forgot to bring her lunch to school. One classmate might
refuse to share her lunch with the child and justify it in
reason at the most advanced levels of which they
justice terms by saying, first, that the lunch is the child’s
are capable. Instead, they revert to simpler, less
property and she has the right to eat all of it, and, second,
mature levels. Might this happen in the realm of
moral reasoning too? What factors might cause
that the class rules prohibit sharing. Another classmate
a person's moral reasoning to revert to a less
might be eager to share her lunch and justifying it in
caring terms by saying that helping others is paramount
sophisticated level?
and requires that she share.
276 CuaprTer 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

4 When adolescents discuss moral issues together, the thinking of

Whether it is based on justice or care, most cultures those at lower stages in Kohiberg's theory is often influenced by
and most parents want to encourage adolescents to those whose thinking ts at the higher stages, that is, individuals
who reason at the lower levels typically move ther thinking to a
think carefully about moral issues What can be done to more sophisticated stage
help adolescents develop more mature forms of moral
reasoning? Sometimes simply being exposed to more Research findings such as these send an important
advanced moral reasoning is sufficient to promote message to parents: the best way for them to promote
developmental change (Walker, 1980). Adolescents may their children’s moral reasoning is through discussion
notice, for example, that older friends do not wait to be (Walker & Taylor, 1991). Research consistently shows
rewarded to help others. Or a teenager may notice that that mature moral reasoning comes about when
respected peers take courageous positions regardless of adolescents are free to express their opinions on moral
the social consequences. Such experiences apparently issues to their parents, who in turn express their own
cause adolescents to re-evaluate their reasoning on moral opinions and thus expose their adolescent children to
issues and push them toward more sophisticated thinking. more mature moral reasoning (Hoffman, 1988, 1994)

3.4 REASONING ABOUT MORAL ISSUES 277

Recall mainly because not all cultures and religions

share the theory's emphasis on
1. In Kohlberg’s stage 2, moral reasoning is based
on the aim of looking out for one’s own needs.
Interpret
This is called
© How similar is Piaget's stage of formal operational
2. Lulu and Maria were passing a house where
thought to Kohlberg’s stage of conventional moral
they saw a starving and beaten puppy. They
reasoning?
spoke to the dog’s owners, who told them that
he had the right to treat the animal any way he Apply
wanted to. They realised that the puppy would
die, so that night, they quietly took the puppy e Imagine that you were the father of Siya, the boy
without permission and found it a good home. in the opening story who did not stand up for the
Lulu and Maria were probably in stage 6 of the boy who was wrongly accused of stealing the cell
level in Kohlberg’s theory. phone. Based on the research described in this
section, what might you do to try to advance Siya's
3. The best way for parents to promote their level of moral reasoning?
children’s moral reasoning is through
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
4. A flaw in Kohlberg’s theory is that it does not end of the chapter.
describe moral reasoning in other cultures well,

8.1 Pubertal changes How do physical changes affect adolescents’

What physical changes during adolescence mark the psychological development?
transition to a mature young adult? © Pubertal changes affect adolescents’ psychological
functioning. Teens, particularly girls, become concerned
© Puberty includes bodily changes in height and weight
about their appearance. When forewarned, adolescents
as well as sexual maturation. Girls typically begin the
respond positively to menarche and spermarche
growth spurt earlier than boys, who acquire more muscle,
Adolescents are moodier than children or adults
less fat, and greater heart and lung capacity The brain
primarily because their moods shift in response to
communicates more effectively, and the frontal cortex
frequent changes 1n activities and social setting Early
continues to mature. Sexual maturation, which includes
maturation tends to be harmful, especially for girls.
primary and secondary sex characteristics, occurs in
predictable sequences for boys and girls. 8.2 Health
What factors cause the physical changes associated What are the elements of a healthy diet for
with puberty? adolescents? Why do some adolescents suffer from
e Pubertal changes take place when the pituitary gland eating disorders?
signals the adrenal gland, ovaries, and testes to secrete © For proper growth, teenagers need to consume adequate
hormones that initiate physical changes. The timing of calories, calcium, and iron Unfortunately, many
puberty 1s influenced strongly by health and nutrition Its teenagers do not eat properly and do not receive adequate
timing 1s also influenced by the social environment, for nutrition.
example, puberty occurs earlier for girls who experience e Anorexia and bulimia, eating disorders that typically
stress, harsh punishment, or depression affect adolescent girls, are characterised by an irrational

278 CHAPTER 8 RITES OF PASSAGE PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

puberty (260) obedience orientation answers
primary sex (274)
characteristics (261) instrumental orientation 8.1 1. penis and testicles 2. Puberty 3. two 4. arms and
secondary sex (275) legs 5. synaptic pruning 6. dissatisfied 7. frequent
characteristics (261) conventional level (275) changes 8. smoke and dink
menarche (261) interpersonal norms (275) 8.2 1. 2200 calories/ 2 700 calones 2. older adolescent
spermarche (261) social system morality (275) girls 3. Anabolic steroids 4. children and adults
body mass index (BMI) post-conventional level 8.3 1. working memory 2. information processing
(265) (275) 3. Heuristics 4. content knowledge
anorexia nervosa (266) social contract (275) 8.4 1. instrumental orientation 2. post-conventional
bulimia nervosa (266) universal ethical 3. discussion 4. individual mghts and justice
pre-conventional level (274) principles (275)

SUMMARY 279

Romantic relationships and

sexuality 288
Romantic relationships 288
Sexual behaviour 289
Sexual minority youth 291
Dating and intimate partner
violence 291

9.3 The world of work 292

Career development 293
Real people: Applying human
development: ‘The life of
Lindo’ A drama in three
acts 294
Youth unemployment 296

9.4 When things go wrong 297

Drinking and smoking 297
Depression 299
Spotlight on research. Does
racial discrimination lead to
depression? 300
Violence and crime 301
Resilience 303
What do you think? Are
adolescents able to
understand the nature of
their criminal actions? 303

Summary 304

Key terms 306

All Raghes Reserved May met be coped, aammed, of duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectromec nights, sone thend party costest gery be euppeesecd fem te cfhock andive chapter's
poxmed comacrt dace set sustcmodly affect the overall kamang cupenerce. Congage Leweeng remerves the nett w comove additonal comet af ay Orne if sebpequant mghe setnchoes mga &
with a person you desperately wanted and is a time when individuals
probably have vivid memories
to impress, and being in constant Struggle with their identity Many
of your teenage years Remember the
disagreement with your parents have their first experiences with love
exhilarating moments — finishing matric,
Feelings of pride and accomplishment and sex, and some enter the world
your first trip to a club, the matric dance
accompanied by feelings of of work. In the first three sections
marking the end of your high school
embarrassment and bewilderment are of this chapter, we investigate these
journey, and your first feelings of love
common to individuals who are on the challenging developmental issues.
and sexuality? Of course, there were
threshold of adulthood. Then we look at the special obstacles
also painful tmes — not being able to
Adolescence represents the that sometimes make adolescence
do anything right on your first day on a
transition from childhood to adulthood difficult to handle
job, not knowing what to say on a date

EX] Identity and self-esteem

Learning objectives

e Identify the ways in which adolescents achieve an identity.

® Describe how the South African context affects identity development.

* Explain how self-esteem changes in adolescence.

Tumi was born in Johannesburg to a Sesotho The

search
for identity
mother and an Afrikaans father, who could not
Erik Erikson’s (1968) account of identity
marry because they were too young. When
she was three years old, Tumi was adopted
formation has been particularly influential in our
by a white South African family of Portuguese
understanding of adolescence. Erikson argued
descent Growing up, she considered herself
that adolescents face a crisis between identity and
to be simply a true South African. In university
role confusion This crisis involves balancing the
however, Tumi realised that others saw her
desire to try out many possible selves and the need
to select a single self (We looked briefly at this
as a ‘mixed-race’ or ‘coloured’ person, an
theory in Chapter 1.) Adolescents who achieve a
identity she had never considered. She began
sense of identity are well prepared to face the next
to wonder, ‘Who am | really? South African,
developmental challenge. establishing intimate,
black South African, white South African,
sharing relationships with others. However, Erikson
biracial South African, Portuguese South
believed that teenagers who are confused about
African? How much does it matter?’
their identity do not experience intimacy in human
Like Tumi, do you sometimes wonder who you are? relationships but remain isolated and respond to
Self-concept refers to the attitudes, behaviours, and
others stereotypically
values that make a person unique. In adolescence, How do adolescents achieve an identity? They
self- concept takes on special significance as individuals use the hypothetical reasoning skills of the formal-
struggle to achieve an identity that will allow them operational stage described by Piaget (see Chapter
to participate in the adult world. Youth search for an 6) to experiment with different selves to learn more
identity to integrate the many different and sometimes about possible identities. Adolescents’ advanced
conflicting elements of the self. In this section, we'll cognitive skills enable them to imagine themselves in
learn more about the adolescent search for an identity. different roles.

281

‘opyraght 2019 Cengage Learmung All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some thind party content mory he wappeeased tom the cfiock andice (Chapters).
seview bos deaned that any wuppromed comient docs act musicmadly affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learning reserves the ngbt to nomowe additeeal coment at any Gene if subsequent mgt eutnctoes mxgein it.
A As part of their search for an identity, adolescents often try on different roles (for example,
imagining what life might be like as a famous musician)

Much of the testing and experimentation is career- 2011). Teens give different identities a trial run just as
oriented. Some adolescents may picture themselves you might test-drive different cars before buying one
as famous musicians; others may imagine being By fantasising about the future, adolescents begin to
professional sports players, international aid workers, discover who they will be
or best-selling novelists. Other testing is romantically As adolescents strive to achieve an identity, they
oriented. Teens may fall in love and imagine living often progress through different phases or statuses as
with the loved one Still other exploration involves shown in @ TABLE 9.1 Unlike Piaget's stages, these
religious and political beliefs (Lopez, Huynh, & Fuligni, four phases do not necessarily occur in sequence Most

pe-¥-35-a8-Pee Four identity statuses

Status Definition Example
Diffusion The individual is overwhelmed by the task Mark hates the idea of deciding what to do with
of achieving an identity and does little to his future, so he spends most of his free time
accomplish the task. playing video games.
Foreclosure The individual has a status determined by For as long as she can remember, Thembi's
adults rather than by personal exploration. parents have told her that she should be a lawyer
and join the family law firm. She plans to study an
LLB at university, although she's never given the
matter much thought.
Moratorium The individual is examining different Nazir enjoys most of his high school subjects.
alternatives but has yet to find one that's Some days he thinks it would be fun to be a
satisfactory. chemical engineer, some days he wants to be a
novelist, and some days he’d like to be a primary
school teacher. He thinks it’s a little weird to
change his mind so often, but he also enjoys
thinking about different jobs.
Achievement The individual has explored alternatives and Throughout primary school, Thinavhuyo wanted to
has deliberately chosen a specific identity. play netball professionally. During Grades 9 and
10, she thought it would be cool to be a doctor.
In Grade 11, she took a computing course and
everything finally ‘clicked’ - she'd found her niche.
She knew that she wanted to study computer
science at university.
Source: Marcia (1980).

282 CHAPTER9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD’ SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyeaght 2019 Cengage Lesrmng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanned, of duplicated. m whale oc in part. Dur to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mury be suppressed teem the cfiook andive Chapter().
Exton scview ton deaned that a2y wippromed coment dacs act seaicrally affect the overall keamung expenence. Cengage Learaung reserves the night to nemove akditweal coment at ary tre if subpequent gh sedtnctoes soya at
young adolescents are in a state of diffusion or foreclosure. adolescents wrongly believe that they are the focus
The common element in these phases is that teens are not of others’ thinking. A teen who spills food on herself
exploring alternative identities. They are avoiding the may imagine that all her friends are thinking only
crisis altogether or have resolved it by taking on an identity about the stain on her top and how sloppy she is. Many
suggested by parents or other adults. As individuals move adolescents believe that they are, in effect, actors whose
beyond adolescence into young adulthood and have more performance is watched constantly by their peers, a
opportunity to explore alternative identities, diffusion and phenomenon known as the imaginary audience.
foreclosure become less common and achievement and Adolescent self-absorption is also demonstrated by the
moratorium become more common (Meeus et al., 2010). personal fable, teenagers’ belief that their experiences
However, identity is not set in stone in adolescence. and feelings are unique and that no one has ever felt or
Sometimes, adolescents and adults evaluate different thought as they do. Whether it is the excitement of
features of their identity. Sometimes these evaluations first love, the despair of a broken relationship, or the
reassure people of their chosen identity. when a university confusion of planning for the future, adolescents often
student who has long wanted to be a primary school believe they are the first to experience these feelings and
teacher enjoys tutoring a Grade | learner, this reaffirms that no one else could possibly understand the power
the student's choice to be a teacher. But sometimes of their emotions (Elkind & Bowen, 1979). Adolescents’
evaluations cause people to reconsider their identity belief in their uniqueness also contributes to an illusion
when a teenager who has long identified as a member of of invulnerability: the belief that misfortune happens
a religious group discovers that her values are not shared only to others. They think that they can have sex without
by most of the other members of the group, she may becoming pregnant or that they can drive recklessly
question this aspect of her identity Reevaluations like without being in a car accident. These characteristics of
these cause adolescents and young adults to shift between adolescents’ thinking are summarised in @ TABLE 9.2.
moratorium and achievement (Crocetti, 2017)
During the search for identity, adolescents reveal
adolescent egocentrism Self-absorption that is characteristic of
a number of characteristic ways of thinking. They teenagers as they search for identity.
are often very self-oriented. The self-absorption that
imaginary audience Adolescents’ feeling that their behaviour is
marks the teenage search for identity is referred to
constantly being watched by their peers.
as adolescent egocentrism (Elkind, 1978). Unlike
preschool children, adolescents know that others have personal fable Belief of many adolescents that their feelings
and experiences are unique and have never been experienced by
different perspectives on the world. Adolescents are
anyone else.
simply much more interested in their own feelings
and experiences than in anyone else's experiences. illusion of invulnerability Adolescents’ belief that misfortunes
cannot happen to them.
In addition, as they search for an identity, many

Feature Definition Example

Adolescent Adolescents are overly concerned with their own When Alex's grandmother died unexpectedly,
egocentrism thoughts and feelings. Alex was preoccupied with how the funeral
would affect his weekend plans and ignored
how upset his mother was by her own
mother’s death.
Imaginary audience Adolescents believe that others are watching them Sello had to ride his bike to the soccer match,
constantly. rather than having his parents drop him off.
He was sure that all his other friends would
see and make fun of him.

Personal fable Adolescents believe that their experiences and When Lesedi's boyfriend decided to date
feelings are unique. another girl, Lesedi cried and cried. She
couldn't believe how sad she was, and she
was sure that her mom had never felt this
way.
Illusion of Adolescents think that misfortune happens only to Clinton and his girlfriend had been having sex
invulnerability others. for about six months. Although she thought it
would be a good idea to use contraceptives,
he thought it was unnecessary: there was no
way his girlfriend would get pregnant.

91 IDENTITY AND SELF ESTEEM 283

Identity formation and the South African

context
Erikson emphasised that identity forms as the result
of a combination of personal and societal factors.
In the South African context, a variety of societal
demands have had an impact on adolescent identity
development.
South Africans have been particularly affected in
& Adolescents often believe that others are constantly
watching them a phenomenon known as the imaginary
their identity development as a result of apartheid.
audience, as a result, they're often upset or embarrassed During apartheid, a study on Erikson’s identity
when they make obvious mistakes or blunders, such as development in South Africa showed that many black
Spilling food or drink
women did not reach identity achievement, and that
black men only did so in their 40s (Ochse & Plug, 1986).
This can now be interpreted as having been heavily
invulnerability become less common What influenced by the social context, where apartheid
circumstances help adolescents achieve identity? policies disrupted families and dismantled communities.
Parents are influential. When parents encourage The period that Erikson called the moratorium period
discussion and recognise children’s autonomy, their (where individuals explore alternatives) would have been
children are more likely to reach the achievement limited by a lack of career opportunities and by financial
status. Apparently these youth feel encouraged constraints imposed on people by the apartheid policies
to undertake the personal experimentation that (Stevens & Lockhat, 1998).
leads to identity. In contrast, when parents set rules Thom and Coetzee (2004), however, found that race
with little justification and enforce them without and identity seemed to have shifted its course. In this
explanation, children are more likely to remain in later study, black adolescents showed a stronger identity
the foreclosure status These teens are discouraged when compared to white adolescents. This was seen to
from experimenting personally; instead, their be linked to their social situation at the time, as well
parents simply tell them what identity to adopt. as the development of a strong cultural and national
Overall, adolescents are most likely to establish a well- identity, and the positive role models available to them.
defined identity in a family atmosphere where parents For white participants, it was seen that being part of a
encourage children to explore alternatives on their minority group impacted negatively on their identity
own but do not pressure or provide explicit direction development (Norris et al., 2005).
(Crocetti, 2017, Koepke & Denissen, 2012). Studies on identity in South Africa show that
Beyond parents, peers are also influential. When factors such as domestic violence and HIV also
adolescents have close friends whom they trust, they influence identity. For example, exposure to domestic
feel more secure exploring alternatives (Doumen et violence impacts negatively on the strength of identity
al., 2012) The broader social context also contributes (Makhubela, 2012), and being HIV positive also
(Bosma & Kunnen, 2001). Exploration takes time and significantly impacts on an adolescent's sense of who
access to resources These may not be readily available they are (Pienaar & Visser, 2012).

284 CuaPTer 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyraght
2099 Congage Lorsing. All Rights Reserved
Mizy not be copeed xcammed.
or duplicated m whole
or an port. Dur so-clectroenc mpbes, some teed pany comicat mary be suppecencd oer tac clock ander oC hapacs|+)
Edecrad srvicw tos deemed thot ary eappromed comeat doc: act mumcradh affect the overall kormmy cupencece. Congage Loatung rracrve the nett someve addmeosal mee of any tone of aterquee ng apencuces mgee 2
Self-esteem
in adolescence
Self-esteem is normally very high in preschool children
Although Piaget's theory of cognitive
but declines gradually during the early primary school
development was not concerned with identity
years as children compare themselves to others. By
formation, how might his theory explain why
the beginning of adolescence, self-esteem has usually
identity is a central issue in adolescence?
stabilised - it neither increases nor decreases in these
Ci lten aa Ble years (Harter, Whitesell, & Kowalski, 1992). Evidently,
children learn their place in the social hierarchy
South Africa is a country with many diverse ethnic groups. of different domains and adjust their self-esteem
A strong ethnic identity means that you feel part of your accordingly. However, self-esteem sometimes drops
ethnic group and learn the special customs and traditions when children move from primary school to high
of your groups culture and heritage (Phinney, 2005). school (Harris et al., 2017). Apparently when students
Achieving an ethnic identity seems to occur in three from different primary schools enter the same high
phases. Initially, children have not examined their ethnic school, they know where they stand compared with
roots too closely A young teenage white girl in this phase their old primary school classmates but not compared
remarked, “Why should | learn about the Dutch and the with students from other primary schools So, peer
Great Trek? I’m not interested in what happened in South comparisons begin anew, and self-esteem often suffers
Africa before I was born. Besides, I'm a South African’ For temporarily. As a new school becomes familiar and
this girl, ethnic identity is not yet an important personal issue. students gradually adjust to the new social hierarchy,
In the second phase, adolescents begin to explore self-esteem again increases.
the personal impact of their ethnic heritage The These changes in overall level of self-esteem are
curiosity and questioning that is characteristic of this accompanied by another important change Self-
stage is captured in the comments of a teenage Zulu girl esteem becomes more differentiated as children enter
who said, ‘I want to learn more about my culture—the adolescence (Boivin, Vitaro, & Gagnon, 1992) Youth
ceremonies and the clothing. Speaking to my elders is are able to evaluate themselves in more domains as
one way | can find out about myself’ they develop, and their evaluations in each domain are
In the third phase, individuals achieve a distinct increasingly independent That is, children’s ratings
ethnic self-concept. One Indian South African of self-esteem are often consistent across different
adolescent explained his ethnic identification this way: dimensions of self-esteem, but adolescents’ ratings more
‘I was born in South Africa, but my parents grew up in often vary from one domain to another. For example, a
India and came here when they were teenagers like me. 9-year-old may have high self-esteem in the academic,
1 love hearing them talk about their lives there, and I’m social, and physical domains, but a 15-year-old might
proud that I can speak Hindi with my cousins who live have high self-esteem in the academic domain, moderate
in India. But I’m also proud to be a South African and I self-esteem in the social domain, and low self-esteem in
like to learn about my country’s heritage: the physical domain.
To see if you understand the differences between As children progress through primary school and
these stages of ethnic identity, reread the opening story enter high school, their academic self-concepts become
about Tumi, the university student. Then decide which particularly well defined (Marsh & Martin, 2011) As
stage applies to her. Our answer appears towards the end students accumulate successes and failures in school,
of this unit, just before “Test yourself’ they form beliefs about their ability in different content
Do adolescents benefit from a strong ethnic identity? areas (for example, English, mathematics, science). These
Yes. Adolescents who have achieved an ethnic identity beliefs contribute to their overall academic self-concept.
tend to have greater self-esteem and find their interactions A teenager who believes she is skilled at English and
with family and friends more satisfying (Mandara mathematics but not so skilled in science will probably
et al., 2009, Rivas-Drake et al., 2014). They're also have a positive academic self-concept overall But a
happier and worry less (Kiang et al., 2006). In addition, teenager who believes he is untalented in most academic
adolescents with a strong ethnic identity are less affected areas will have a negative academic self-concept.
by discrimination—they maintain their self-worth after During adolescence, the social component of
experiencing racial or ethnic discrimination (Neblett, self-esteem becomes particularly well differentiated.
Rivas-Drake, & Umafia-Taylor, 2012, Tynes et al., 2012). Adolescents distinguish self-worth in many different

91 IDENTITY AND SELF ESTEEM 285

(Copyraght 3019 Cengage Lewemsag. All Rights Reserved May not be copsnd, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectromec nights, some thend party contest ery be suppeesecd torn fre cftook andice of hapter(s).
Eddttomed seview bos doomed thot aay wappromed comicnt dace act sxsicmally affect the overall kamung cxpenence. Congage Leasing rencrves the night to come additaveal content af any Gre if subsequent mete sextnichoes cepenre of.
social relationships. A teenager may, for example, feel who have reasonable expectations for their children
very positive about her relationships with her parents and are willing to discuss rules and discipline with their
but believe that she’s no good in romantic relationships. children (Awong, Grusec, & Sorenson, 2008, Laible &
Another teenager may feel loved and valued by his Carlo, 2004). Parents who fail to set rules are implicitly
parents but believe that his peers can't stand him (Harter, telling their children they don't care — they don't value
Waters, & Whitesell, 1998) their children enough to go to the trouble of creating
In the South African context, broader social issues rules and enforcing them. In much the same way, parents
such as internalised racism following apartheid are who refuse to discuss discipline with their children
linked to a decrease in self-esteem (Bruce, 2006). It is are saying, ‘Your opinions don’t matter to me’ Not
likely that many other factors of daily life, such as poverty surprisingly, when children internalise these messages,
and social class, also impact on the self-esteem of South the result is lower overall self-worth.
African youth. So, between the late preschool years and Peers’ views are important, too. Children’s and
adolescence, self-esteem becomes more complex as particularly adolescents’ self-worth is greater when they
older children and adolescents identify distinct domains believe that their peers think highly of them (Harter,
of self-worth. This growing complexity is not surprising; 2012) Dambisa’s self-worth increases, for example,
it reflects the older child’s and adolescent's greater when she hears that Seagi, Matt, and Michael think
cognitive skill and the more extensive social world of that she’s the smartest girl in Grade 8 Conversely, self-
older children and adolescents esteem drops when peers provide negative feedback,
especially when those peers are popular themselves
Influences on adolescents’ self-esteem (Thomas et al., 2010).
What factors contribute to adolescents’ self-esteem?
Heredity contributes indirectly Genes help to make
some youth smarter, more sociable, more attractive, The myth of storm and stress
and more skilled athletically. Consequently, these According to novelists and filmmakers, the search for
adolescents are more likely to have greater self-worth identity that we just described is inherently a struggle,
because they are competent in so many domains In a time of storm and stress for adolescents. Although
other words, genes lead to greater competence, which this view may make for best-selling novels and hit
promotes greater self-worth (Harter, 2012, Neiss, movies, in reality, the rebellious teen is vastly overstated.
Sedikides, & Stevenson, 2006). Adolescents generally enjoy happy and satisfying
Children’s and adolescents’ self-worth is also relationships with their parents (Steinberg, 2001). Most
affected by how others view them, particularly other teens love their parents and feel loved by them. And they
people who are important to them. Parents matter, of embrace many of their parents’ values and look to them
course — even to adolescents. Children are more likely for advice
to view themselves positively when their parents are Evidence from around the world documents that
affectionate toward them and are involved with them adolescence is not necessarily a time of turmoil and
(Behnke et al., 2011; Ojanen & Perry, 2007). Around the conflict Teens in the U.S. reported that their parents
world, children have greater self-esteem when families support them - they listen, give good advice, and help
live in harmony and parents nurture their children make good decisions (Rueger et al., 2014). Adolescents
(Scott, Scott, & McCabe, 1991). A father who routinely in Turkey and Belgium rated their mothers as being very
hugs his daughter and gladly takes her to extra lessons supportive, agreeing with statements such as “My mother
is saying to her, ‘You are important to me. When supports me in dealing with problems’ and ‘My mother
children hear this regularly from parents, they evidently talks to me in a comforting way’ (Giingér & Bornstein,
internalise the message and come to see themselves 2010) Finally, Palestinian teens who were refugees
positively. However, when adults use inflated praise - in Jordan described their families as being very close
for example, saying to their children “You played that (Ahmad, Smetana, & Klimstra, 2015) These findings
song amazingly well’ when the playing was mediocre - contradict the myth of adolescence as necessarily being
children with low self-esteem tend to shy away from a time when adolescent storms rain on parent-child
challenges because they're afraid they won't succeed relationships.
(Brummelman et al., 2014). Of course, parent-child relations do change during
Parents’ discipline also is related to self-esteem. adolescence. As teens become more independent,
Children with high self-esteem generally have parents their relationships with their parents become more

286 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD’ SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Test yourself 9.1

Recall Interpret
1. Erikson argued that adolescents face a crisis e How do parent-child relationships change in
between adolescence? Do these changes indicate a period
of storm and stress?
2. The four identity statuses are diffusion,
moratorium, and achievement.
Apply
3. Gavin wants to get a motor bike so that he e Mrs Jacobs is very concerned about her daughter,
can ride to school and other places, and Chanel. Chanel was always very happy and
gain some independence from his parents. popular at primary school. When she started
His mother doesn’t want him to get one, high school a few months ago, Chanel’s self-
because she thinks they are dangerous. Gavin esteem started to plummet. She no longer
dismisses her fears — he knows that nothing seemed confident about her abilities, and became
will happen to him. Gavin is experiencing an unhappy. How would you explain to Mrs Jacobs
about changes in Chanel’s self-esteem at this point
in time?
4. Self-esteem is normally very high in preschool
children but declines gradually during the Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
as children compare themselves to end of the chapter.
others.

91 IDENTITY AND SELF ESTEEM 287

® Discuss why teenagers date.

® Explain why some adolescents are sexually active, and why contraceptives are not used consistently.

® Identify sexual-minority youth.

e Describe the circumstances that make date and intimate partner violence especially likely.

For six months, 15-year-old Lerato has been companionship (like that provided by a best friend) and
dating Andre, a 17-year-old. She thinks she an outlet for sexual exploration. For older adolescents
is truly in love for the first time, and she like those in the photo, intimacy, trust, and support
often imagines being married to Andre They become important features of romantic relationships
have had sex a few times, each time without (Shulman & Kipnis, 2001) Finally, like friendships,
contraception It sometimes crosses Lerato’s when children have high-quality parenting, they more
mind that tf she gets pregnant, she could move readily invest in romantic relationships as adults (Orifia
into her own flat and begin a family. etal., 2011).
It’s tempting to dismiss teen romances as nothing
The fires of romantic relationships have long warmed more than puppy love, but they are often developmentally
the hearts of adolescents everywhere in the world. significant (Collins et al., 2009). On the one hand,
Often, as with Lerato and Andre, romance leads adolescents involved in a romantic relationship are
to sex In this section, we'll explore adolescent often more self-confident and have greater self-esteem.
dating and sexual behaviour. As we do, you'll better And high-quality adolescent romances are associated
understand Lerato’s reasons for having unprotected with positive relationships during adulthood On the
sex with Andre. other hand, adolescents in romantic relationships report
more emotional upheaval and conflict. In addition, early
fineansiic relationahd dating with many different partners is associated with
a host of problems in adolescence (for example, drug
The social landscape adds a distinctive landmark use, lower school marks) and is associated with less
in adolescence - romantic relationships These are satisfying romantic relationships in adulthood (Furman
uncommon during the primary school years, but during & Rose, 2015).
high school, many teenagers around the world become
involved in short and longer-term relationships

According to the ‘storm and stress’ view of

adolescence, sexual behaviour is one way for
adolescents to rebel against their parents. Does
research on adolescent sexuality support this
prediction?

Romantic relationships build on friendships. Like

friends, romantic partners tend to be similar in popularity
and physical attractiveness. And a best friendship
serves as both a model for and a source of support
during ups and downs of close relationships (Collins
et al., 2009) What's more, romantic relationships change
over time in ways that resemble changes in friendship: A Adolescent romantic relationships build on friendships and offer
for younger adolescents, romantic relationships offer companionship as well as an outlet for sexual exploration.

288 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

ay-¥-25 =e) Features of sexually transmitted infections

Disease Symptoms Complications
Caused by bacteria
Chlamydia 75% of women and 50% of men have no Infections of the cervix and Fallopian tubes
symptoms; sometimes abnormal discharge of pus __ that can lead to infertility; rare in men
from the vagina or penis or pain while urinating
Gonorrhoea Often no symptoms at all; pus discharged from the Pelvic inflammatory disease, a serious
penis or vagina, pain associated with urination; for infection of the female reproductive tract that
women, pain during intercourse; for men, swollen _can lead to infertility; in men, epididymitis,
testicles an infection of the testicles that can lead to
infertility

Syphilis A sore, called a chancre, at the site of the infection-— _ Left untreated, can damage internal organs
usually the penis, vulva, or vagina such as the brain, nerves, eyes, heart, bones,
and joints

Caused by virus

Genital herpes Itching, burning, or pain in the genital or anal area; Recurrent sores; pregnant women can pass
sores on the mouth, penis, or vagina the virus (which can be fatal to the newborn)
to the baby during birth

Genital human Usually no symptoms; sometimes genital warts Usually goes away; in rare cases leads to
papilloma virus (HPV) or discharge from the penis or vagina cervical cancer

Hepatitis B Jaundice, fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain Death from chronic liver disease

HIV Initially a flu-like illness; later, enlarged lymph Loss of immune cells (AIDS), cancer, death
nodes, lack of energy, weight loss, frequent fevers
Source. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007, 2010.

g2 ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS AND SEXUALITY

Copyeaght
2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, wcanned, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Due to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mury be suppressed Soom tre cffiook andive Chapters)
Exton scview ton deaned that any wuppromed coment dacs act eeaicrally affect
the overall keamung expenence. Cengage Learaung reserves the night wo nemove additiveal coment at ary tee if subsequent gh sednctoes nya ot
South Africa has the largest number of HIV infections struggle with their sexuality, and they fear infecting
in the world (UNAIDS, 2018), with over 7 million people others. They may also be rejected if they are honest with
(12.6%) infected with the virus (Statistics South Africa, their partners, and may become outcast within their
2018a). community. Infected teens also have to adhere strictly
The four main routes of HIV transmission are: to medication regimes, cope with the side-effects of
e via unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex, although medication, and deal with the health issues that come
oral sex carries a very small risk with an HIV infection (Van Dyk, 2001).
e sharing unsterilised needles, such as through injecting Many adolescents (particularly girls) have to carry
drugs the burden of caring for those who are infected. This
¢ mother-to-child transmission in pregnancy, childbirth, may mean having to drop out of studies to care for
or breastfeeding parents who are ill, as well as experiencing the distress of
¢ infected blood transfusions, as well as transplants or witnessing their parent's illness or death.
medical procedures. However, medical standards and
processes protect people acquiring HIV by this route Teenage pregnancy and contraception
(Van Dyk, 2001).
Adolescents’ sexual behaviour is also troubling because
Treatment using antiretroviral (ARV) medication among South African adolescent girls, approximately 7%
is standard practice in South Africa, and has improved become pregnant (Statistics South Africa, 2017f).
in effectiveness over the years. This medication works Teen pregnancy is common because many sexually
to suppress the virus in the infected person's body. The active teens do not use birth control consistently or
treatment helps to manage HIV, although it does not correctly (Guttmacher Institute, 2013). Some adolescents
provide a complete cure (Van Dyk, 2001). see no need because they believe they are invulnerable -
While figures of HIV-infected youth, aged 15-24, that only others become pregnant. Others don’t know
are high (4.6%), this figure has dropped from 7.3% how to use contraception or where to obtain it (Ralph
in 2002 (Statistics South Africa, 2018a) Despite this & Brindis, 2010). And some adolescent girls, like Lerato
improvement, there are various factors that make youth from the opening story, avoid contraception because
vulnerable to infection. Recent research (Department of they see becoming pregnant as a way to break away from
Social Development, 2017) indicates that young people parents and gain status as an independent-living adult
in South Africa are more vulnerable to HIV due to peer (Phipps et al., 2008).
pressure to engage in sexual behaviour, and wanting to In South Africa, there are a variety of additional
belong to the group. Other risk factors include being in factors that contribute to the high rate of teen pregnancies.
multiple relationships at the same time, and engaging Gender inequality and gender-based violence can
in sexual behaviour early on, and without protection. contribute to women being coerced or forced into sex,
Intergenerational relationships (such as ‘sugar daddies’ or and women may lack the power in a relationship to
‘blessers, who provide young girls with money and gifts) insist on contraception. Poverty, insufficient access to
also contribute. Gender-based violence and the use of contraceptives, and a lack of healthcare facilities also add
alcohol and drugs that lower inhibitions are an additional to the problem (Jonas et al., 2016).
factor. How can we reduce irresponsible adolescent sexual
Furthermore, absent parents, poor family structure, behaviour and the rate of teen pregnancy? Parents matter’
and a general lack of supervision due to various when they discuss sex with their teenage children, those
circumstances mean that adolescents don't get the children are more likely to use contraception (Widman
support they need to tackle relationships (Department et al., 2016). In South Africa, a study revealed that if
of Social Development, 2017). A lack of communication families remain intact, despite the context of poverty,
with parents also puts teens at risk (Psaros et al., 2017). this helps to prevent early sexual relations among
These factors are made worse by other issues in teens (Setswe et al., 2014). However, more effective are
the South African context, such as unemployment, comprehensive sex education programmes that teach the
poverty, and a lack of education (Department of Social biological aspects of sex and emphasise sexual behaviour
Development, 2017). Adolescent’s perception of their that is responsible and safe. Teens who participate in such
own invulnerability is also a contributing factor (Psaros programmes know more about the risks of unprotected
et al., 2017). sex and better understand contraception. They also have
HIV and AIDS has an important effect on youth safer sexual practices, such as using contraceptives and
development in South Africa. Those who are infected limiting sexual partners (Denford et al., 2017).

290 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

(Copyragts
2099 Comgage Leareeng. All Rashes Roserved May act be coped acommed or daphcted m whol or om pert. Der soclecteenc mpbes, somee theed pty contest mary be eappeceend fever tee cfook andibe of hapecr’+)
Edeomad anvare tos doomed Gus any eappromes comune Gam act msxodly aflat Ge overall koeemy copemeece. Canpages Loweang rere the nett © sceeve addeesd comes ot ary tere of rateeguest rgb arenchoes roger ¢
South Africa has been at the forefront of LGBTQI
Think about it
rights, being the fifth country in the world to legalise same-
Suppose you had to convince a group of 15-year- sex marriages and civil union partnerships. However,
olds about the hazards of adolescent sex and strong bias against sexual minorities can still be seen in
teenage pregnancy. What would you say? people's attitudes (Vincent & Howell, 2014), which affect
sexual minority youth. This prejudice can sometimes be
carried to extreme levels, such as the practice of ‘corrective
rape, typically perpetrated against black lesbians in
township settings, as a supposed punishment to cure
For most adolescents, dating and romance involve lesbians (Mwambene & Wheal, 2015).
members of the opposite sex. However, in early and
However, in recent years, more (and more visible)
mid-adolescence, some identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, role models and more centres for sexual-minority youth
transgender, queer, or intersex (often termed LGBTQI).
are making it easier for these youth to cope; most end
Collectively, these adolescents are often described as
up as well-adjusted as heterosexual youth (Olson et al.,
sexual-minority youth (Martin-Storey, 2016). The paths 2016; Saewyc, 2011).
that lead youth to identify with a sexual minority are
poorly understood. For boys who identify as gay, one
idea is that genes and hormones may lead some boys to
feel ‘different’ during early adolescence; these feelings
lead to an interest in gender-atypical activities and, later,
attraction to other males (Diamond, 2007). For females,
the path to a sexual-minority identity is more variable.
During adolescence, some girls are attracted to girls and
consistently identify as lesbians thereafter. For some
women, attraction to other females does not emerge
until later in life, often growing out of deep feelings for a
particular woman. And still other women have repeated
transitions in their sexual orientation and identity (Farr,
Diamond, & Boker, 2014).
Scientists know even less about transgender youth
- those whose gender identity does not match their
biological sex. This identity often emerges early. For
example, some preschool-aged boys insist that they
are girls and resist parental efforts to become more
masculine but are happy when allowed to wear their
hair long and wear girls’ clothing. These children were
once thought to be confused about their gender identity & About 5% of adolescents identify themselves as gay or lesbian
and they received treatment designed to align their
gender identity with their biological sex. An alternative,
more recent view is a transgender identity is simply an Dati ‘inti ‘al
uncommon but normal gender identity, one that’s most
likely in children who insist they are members of the As adolescents begin to explore romantic relationships
other sex, not just that they wish they were members of and sex, many teens experience violence in their
the other sex (Olson, 2016). intimate relationships, which can include physical
Although the origins of gender identity in sexual- violence (for example, being hit or kicked), emotional
minority youth are not yet well understood, it is clear violence (for example, experiencing threats or bullying
that they face many challenges. Their behaviour designed to harm self-worth), sexual violence (being
and appearance often differ from what's considered forced to engage in sexual activity against one’s will), or
appropriate for their gender, leading them to be harassed stalking (being harassed or threatened in a way designed
and attacked by others. In turn, this may lead sexual- to frighten). Intimate partner violence is considered to
minority youth to experience mental health problems, be highly prevalent in South Africa, although under-
including depression and anxiety (Martin-Storey, 2016). reporting makes it difficult to establish accurate figures

9.2 ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS AND SEXUALITY 291

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening All Rights Reserved May met be copied, acanmed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Due to clectroric nights, some therd party costent muy he wuppeeeand doen dye eflinek mache oC hapter(s
Fihtoned nevtew how decrsed thet any suppresed content dacs met rustertally affect the overall keamng expenence. Cengage Learning reserves the night t remove additional content af any Gane if submegpacet rigtvis wairicthons nexpeine
(Lopes, 2016). The youth victims of intimate partner successful in school, and use drugs (Foshee & Reyes,
violence often don't do well in school and suffer from 2012; Johnson et al., 2017) In South Africa, rates of
mental health and behavioural problems (Centers for intimate partner violence have been linked to alcohol
Disease Control, 2016) abuse, gender bias in the community, and males feeling
Several factors make teenage boys and girls more entitled to sex (Shamu et al., 2015)
likely to perpetrate intimate partner violence. Parents Intimate partner violence leads to many harmful
contribute: teens are more likely to be violent during consequences for adolescent victims, including
dating when they're exposed to violence at home - depression, antisocial behaviour, and substance abuse. It
either through maltreatment from their parents is also likely to start a lifelong pattern of intimate partner
or from observing violence between their parents violence, particularly when it is experienced in the early
(Calvete et al , 2017). But intimate partner violence teen years (Shamu et al., 2015)
is less likely when teens have caring parents who While there are many interventions based on
communicate well with them (Kast, Eisenberg, & preventing this type of violence in America (Foshee
Sieving, 2016). Peers matter as well: intimate partner et al., 2012, 2015), the lack of resources in South Africa,
violence is more common when teens believe that and the social context, make prevention more difficult.
their peers condone this type of violence, when they South African research indicates that prevention
know peers who are in abusive relationships, and when strategies for intimate partner violence should focus on
their school’s climate condones it (Garthe, Sullivan, & reducing gender bias and empowering women, reducing
McDaniel, 2017, Giordano et al., 2015). Finally, teens excessive alcohol consumption, teaching conflict
are more likely to commit violence in their romantic resolution skills, and reducing levels of violence in
relationship when they're antisocial, aggressive, not society (Russell et al., 2015)

Test yourself 9.2

Recall through maltreatment from their parents or

from observing violence between their parents.
1. Adolescents are more likely to be sexually active
when they regularly.
Interpret
2. The four main routes of HIV transmission are
e Some sexually active teenagers do not use
via unprotected sex, sharing unsterilised needles,
contraceptives. How do the reasons for this failure
and infected blood transfusions.
show connections between cognitive, social, and
3. helps to manage HIV, although it emotional development?
does not provide a complete cure.
4. When parents discuss sex with their teenage
Apply
children, those children are more likely to use e Prepare a brief fact sheet for high school learners
which discusses the factors that put South African
women at risk of intimate partner violence.
5. Teens are more likely to be violent during dating
when they're exposed to either Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.

EE] The world of work

Learning objectives

© Explain how adolescents select an occupation.

e Describe the impact of unemployment on youth.

292 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD’ SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

“What do you want to be when you grow up®’ Children

are often asked this question in fun. However, it takes
on special significance in adolescence because work is
such an important element of the adult life that looms
on the horizon. A job — be it as a bricklayer, journalist, or
social worker — helps define who we are. In this section,
we'll see how adolescents begin to think about possible
occupations. We'll also look at some of the difficulties
of entering into the world of work in the South African
context. A In the specification stage of career development, adolescents
try to learn more about different careers, sometimes by being
mentored by someone more experienced

Career
development
Adolescence is a time when youth face the challenge The end of the teenage years or the early 20s
of selecting a career or need to start looking at how marks the beginning of the third phase During
to earn an income. For those in a position to choose implementation, individuals enter the workforce and
a career path, according to a theory proposed by learn firsthand about jobs. This is a time of learning
Donald Super (1976, 1980), identity is a primary about responsibility and productivity, of learning to
force in an adolescent's choice of a career At about get along with coworkers, and of altering lifestyle to
age 13 or 14, adolescents use their emerging identity accommodate work. This period is often unstable;
as a source of ideas about careers, a process called individuals may change jobs frequently as they adjust to
crystallisation. Teenagers use their ideas about their the reality of life in the workplace.
own talents and interests to limit potential career In the ‘Real people’ feature, you can see these three
prospects. A teenager who is extroverted and sociable phases in one young woman's career development.
may decide that working with people is the career
for him Decisions are provisional, and adolescents
experiment with hypothetical careers, trying to
picture what each is like. Discussions with parents crystallisation First phase in Super's theory of career development,
in which adolescents use their emerging identities to form ideas
help adolescents refine their emerging ideas, many
about careers.
schools also help by assisting adolescents to find job
shadowing opportunities, providing talks on different specification Second phase in Super’s theory of career
development, in which adolescents learn more about specific lines
careers, and assessing students’ job-related interests
of work and begin training.
(Diemer, 2007).
At about age 18, adolescents extend the activities implementation Third phase in Super’s theory of career
development, in which individuals enter the workforce.
associated with crystallisation and enter a new phase.

93 THE WORLD OF WORK 293

‘The life of Lindo’ illustrates the progressive shape career development. Changing times can force
refinement that takes place in a person’s career individuals to take new, often unexpected career paths,
development An initial interest in maths and finance
led to a degree in business, which led to a job as an Personality-type theory
accountant However, one other aspect of Lindo’s life Super’s (1976, 1980) work helps to explain how self-concept
sheds more light on Super’s theory After 18 months and career aspirations develop hand in hand, but his theory
on the job, Lindo’s accounting group was merged with does not explain why particular individuals are attracted
another. The merger would have required Lindo to to one line of work rather than another. Explaining the
move to another province; she resigned instead. After match between people and occupations has been the aim
six months looking for another accounting job, Lindo of a theory devised by John Holland (1985, 1987, 1996).
gave up and began studying to become an estate agent. According to Holland’s personality-type theory, people
The moral? Economic conditions and opportunities also find work fulfilling when the important features of a job
or profession fit their personality. Holland identified six
personality-type theory View proposed by Holland that people prototypic personalities that are relevant to the world of
find their work fulfilling when the important features of a job or
profession fit their personality.
work. Each one is best suited to a specific set of occupations,
as indicated in the right-hand column of e TABLE 9.4.

TABLE 9.4BR rh pes in Holland's theory

Personality type Description Careers
Realistic Individuals enjoy doing physical labour and Mechanic, truck driver, construction worker
working with their hands; they like to solve
concrete problems.

Investigative Individuals are task-oriented and enjoy thinking Scientist, technical writer
about abstract relations.

Social Individuals are skilled verbally and Teacher, counsellor, social worker
interpersonally; they enjoy solving problems
using these skills.

Conventional Individuals have verbal and quantitative skills that Bank teller, accountant, traffic manager
they like to apply to structured, well-defined tasks
assigned to them by others.

Enterprising Individuals enjoy using their verbal skills in Business executive, television producer,
positions of power, status, and leadership. estate agent

Artistic Individuals enjoy expressing themselves through Poet, musician, actor

unstructured tasks.

294 CHAPTER9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Social cognitive career theory 4 According to Holland's personality-type theory, people are
satisfied with a job when it matches their personality. For example,
Another approach to career choice combines elements adolescents with an enterprising personality type enjoy working in
of Super’s focus on development and Holland’s focus business because this allows them to use verbal skills in positions
of leadership.
on the match between interests and careers. According
to social cognitive career theory (Brown & Lent, 2016;
Lent, 2005) progress toward a vocation rests on self- We've summarised these connections in
efficacy, which refers to youths’ beliefs about their @ FIGURE 9.1 and you can see them in an example.
ability to succeed in specific domains. It also rests on Imagine a Grade 4 learner who is often successful on
their outcome expectations, which refers to youths’ maths tests. Over time, she comes to believe that she’s
beliefs about the likely outcome of their behaviour good at maths and that she’s usually successful on
These beliefs are based on youths’ history of success maths-related activities. These beliefs help to create an
and failures. As children and adolescents experience interest in maths and promote maths-related goals (for
success and failure on different activities and tasks, they example, taking advanced maths classes outside school),
develop beliefs about themselves and beliefs about usual and participating in these activities would typically
outcomes These beliefs lead to interests — youth enjoy reinforce her beliefs about her strengths in maths. As
activities in which they're skilled and likely to succeed. she starts to think about work, she naturally thinks
And interests lead to goals — youth decide that they about occupations that would allow her to pursue her
should pursue activities in which they’re interested. maths-related interests and goals. Similarly, success in
Pursuing these activities often leads to additional art, sports, or literature could develop beliefs, interests,
success, strengthening youths’ beliefs about themselves and goals in those domains. So, social cognitive career
and the outcomes they're likely to experience. theory helps to explain why adolescents develop interests

@ FIGURE 91 In social cognitive career theory, experiences lead to beliefs, which are
linked to interests and goals
Source: Based on Lara (2005), Figure 72

93 THE WORLD OF WORK 295

Think about it
Unemployment doesn’t just affect those who do
How do the different personality types in not have an education. Even those who have finished
Holland's theory relate to the different types a university degree may find that they struggle to
of intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner, find traditional work (Statistics South Africa, 2018b)
described in Chapter 6? Because of this, both educated and uneducated South
Africans turn to entrepreneurship to generate an income
in the formal and informal business sectors (Herrington
Youth unemployment et al., 2010).

While late adolescence is typically seen as a time

when youth start to engage with the world of work,
unfortunately, things do not always go to plan. About
Think about whether or not you know anyone
52% of South African youth are unemployed (and not
who is creating their own employment or running
studying or in school) (Statistics South Africa, 2018a)
their own business. Think about how you would
The widespread problem of unemployment in South
go about generating an income if you were
Africa has its roots in historical inequalities, with apartheid
unable to find work.
policies limiting education for people of colour, and
certain jobs being reserved exclusively for white people
This has created a cycle of poverty and poor education that Overall, unemployment has a severe impact on
is difficult to break out of (Graham & Mlatsheni, 2015) mental health, and also increases suicide risk (Thern
Other factors that hinder employment are the et al., 2018). In the South African context, young
current economic climate, a high cost of transport to people may find themselves discouraged at their
get to interviews and jobs, poor access to the internet, prospects, and suffer from low self-esteem The
and the role of young women taking on responsibilities shame of unemployment, and the stress of lack of
for relatives and having their own children (Graham & work, and even being unsure of how to get enough
Mlatsheni, 2015). food to survive, also affects the mental health of those
However, some young people are engaged in less who are unemployed (Gibbs, Govender & Jewkes,
formal employment. Some buy and sell items, such as 2018).

296 CHAPTER9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Recall 4. Adolescents who are unemployed may have an

increased risk of
1. Super’s theory helps to explain how self-concept
and career aspirations develop hand in hand. Interpret
However, his theory has a gap in that it does not
¢ Based on the description of Lindo’ career, how would
explain why particular individuals
you describe continuity of vocational development
2. Kagiso studied to become an engineer, but he during adolescence and young adulthood?
rapidly rose through the company as a manager,
because he was good at speaking, leading and Apply
communicating with people. In Holland's theory, © Suppose that you are a high school life orientation
Kagiso may a have a/an personality teacher and have been asked to prepare a set of
type- guidelines for students who may face unemployment
3. In South Africa, many people who can't find after school. What would you recommend?
employment may turn to in order Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
to generate an income. end of the chapter.

EY] When things go wrong

Learning objectives

e Explain why teenagers drink and use drugs.

© Identify the causes of juvenile violence and crime.

e Define resilience, and explain the factors in the South African context that promote resilience.

Loyiso was an excellent student and a top look at these problems, you'll understand why Loyiso
player in the school’s cricket team He was feels so miserable without Thandi.
looking forward to going to the matric dance
with Thandi, his long-time girlfriend, and then
going to university with her the next year. Then,
Drinki cal e
without a hint that anything was wrong in their
relationship, Thandi dumped Loyiso and moved Teenage drinking
in with the singer in a hip hop band. Loyiso was Teen use of illicit drugs such as cocaine and
stunned and miserable. Without Thandi, life methamphetamine often makes headlines, but in reality,
meant so little. Cricket and university seemed the misuse of alcohol is far more common. About half
pointless. Some days Loyiso wondered if he of South African adolescents have used alcohol, with
should just kill himself to make the pain go away. around 25% reporting being involved in binge drinking
in the past year (Morojele & Ramsoomar, 2016)
Some young people do not adapt well to the new Teens are more likely to drink when their parents drink,
demands and responsibilities of adolescence and when their parents do not monitor their teen's behaviour,
respond in ways that are unhealthy In this last section and when parents are not warm toward them (Donaldson,
of Chapter 9, we look at three problem areas, often Handren, & Crano, 2016). Also, they're more likely to drink
inter-related, that arise from difficulties in adolescence: when peers do (Leung, Toumbourou, & Hemphill, 2014).
drinking and smoking, depression and violence As we Finally, teens who report frequent life stresses — problems

9.4 WHEN THINGS GO WRONG 297

Depression
The challenges of adolescence can lead some youth to
become depressed (Fried, 2005). When suffering from
depression, adolescents have pervasive feelings of sadness,
are irritable, have low self-esteem, sleep poorly, and are
unable to concentrate. About 5% to 15% of adolescents
are depressed, with around 9% of South African 18-34
year olds reporting having been depressed at some point
in their lifetime (Herman et al., 2009) Adolescent girls
are more often affected than boys, probably because
4 Adolescents often drink because their peers encourage them
social challenges in adolescence are greater for girls
than boys (Garber & Rao, 2014). Depressed adolescents
Teenage smoking are often unhappy, angry, and annoyed. They believe
Approximately 20% of South African young adults that family and peers are not friendly to them (Cole
smoke, and although total tobacco use has declined & Jordan, 1995), and they are often extremely lonely
among the South African population, there have been (Mahon et al., 2006). Rather than being satisfying
recent increases in youth smoking, especially among girls and rewarding, life is empty and joyless for depressed
(Reddy et al., 2015). Most smokers start to experiment adolescents.
with smoking during the teen years. As was true for Depression is often triggered when adolescents
teenage drinking, parents and peers are influential in experience a serious loss, disappointment, or failure, such
determining whether youth smoke. When parents smoke, as when a loved one dies or when a much-anticipated date
their teenage children are more likely to smoke, too. But turns out to be a disaster (Schneiders et al., 2006). Think

298 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, ce duplicated im whole
oe in part. Dur to clectronic
nights, some thend party cosiest
muy he suppressed from the cfiook andlor oC haptcs(s)
Edaonad review boo deemed
that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect
the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt
af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
Parents and families can also put an adolescent at
risk of depression. Not surprisingly, adolescents more
often become depressed when their parents are critical
of them, don't respect their opinions and choices, and
seem unwilling to accept them as they are. In addition,
adolescents are at risk when parents are inconsistent in
their discipline and when they're frequently in conflict
with one another (Yap et al., 2014).
In South Africa, a number of other contextual factors
contribute to depression in adolescence. Adolescents
in families affected by HIV are prone to depression
(Boyes & Cluver, 2015), as are those adolescents who
experienced difficult events in childhood (Cluver et al.,
2015). In the general South African population, low
income is also associated with depression (Burns, Tomita,
& Lund, 2017) In a study of an informal settlement in
South Africa, factors such as not having enough food,
and a lack of work were found to contribute strongly to
depression (Gibbs, Govender, & Jewkes, 2018)
Another potential trigger for depression - racial
discrimination — is the focus of the ‘Spotlight on research’
feature
A Adolescents sometimes become depressed when they feel as if
they've lost control of their lives
Treating depression
back to Loyiso, the adolescent in the opening story at Medication and psychotherapy are successful in helping
the beginning of this section. His girlfriend had been the adolescents who are depressed. Medication operates
centre of his life. When she left him unexpectedly, he felt by allowing the brain regions that regulate mood to
helpless to control his own destiny. Similarly, an athlete communicate more effectively. Although medication
may play poorly in a soccer match because of illness, or a treatment reduces the symptoms of depression, many
learner may get a low mark on a matric exam because of adolescents dislike this kind of treatment and often don't
a family crisis the night before the paper In each case, the take the medicines that are prescribed. Consequently,
adolescent could do nothing to avoid an undesirable result. psychotherapy is often the preferred approach. For
example, in cognitive behavioural therapy, adolescents
learn to replace negative thoughts (for example, blaming
Think about it
themselves) with more positive thoughts and they learn
How does depression illustrate the interaction of how to become involved in activities that are pleasurable
biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces and rewarding. Other psychotherapy approaches focus
on development? on processing the losses and adverse experiences that
often precede depression. These methods work, but we
still don’t know the conditions under which they are
Of course, many adolescents experience negative events most effective (Asarnow & Miranda, 2014).
like these, but don’t become depressed. Why? Heredity
plays a role, putting some adolescents at greater risk of Preventing teen suicides
depression. Another contributing factor is temperament:
children who are less able to regulate their emotions are, Suicide is a frequent cause of death among adolescents
around the world, and the third highest cause of death
as adolescents, more prone to depression. A third factor
is a belief system in which adolescents see themselves in among youth in Africa and East Asia (World Health
an extremely negative light. Depression-prone adolescents Organisation, 2017). In South Africa, overall suicide rates
are around 10 in 10 000 (World Health Organisation,
are, for example, more likely to blame themselves for
2015) Ina study of adolescents in South Africa, 3.2% of
failure (Gregory et al., 2007) So, after the disappointing
date, a depression-prone teen is likely to think ‘I acted like
an idiot, instead of placing blame elsewhere by thinking depression Disorder characterised by pervasive feelings of
sadness, irritability, and low self esteem.
‘Eish — he was a real jerk!’ (Garber & Rao, 2014).

9.4 WHEN THINGS GO WRONG 299

was associated with more symptoms of

depression The nght panel shows the 0.4 0.1
complementary correlations — predicting
racial discrimination from depressive 0.05
0.05
symptoms In both cases, these
correlations are not significant
What did the investigators conclude? 0
Discrimination —_ Discrimination Depression Depression
Racial discnmination, a well-established Grade 7 - Grade8- Grade 7 - Grade 8 -
stressor, can put African American youth depression depression discrimination —_ discrimination
at nsk of depression English and his Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 9 Grade 10
colleagues note ‘for Afncan American
adolescents [in the U.S.], expenenced
racial discnmination predicted depressive @ FIGURE 9.2 African American adolescents who perceive that they are victims of racial
symptoms _ the persistence of this discrimination are more likely to become depressed.
predictive association across adolescence Data from Englah at al. (2014)

300 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD’ SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghés, some thind party costest mory he suppressed trom the cfiock andlor oC hapter(s)
Edbtomad sewew bos doomed thot any wuppromed content docs sot mustcmally affect the overall kam, expenerce. Cengage Leareung reserves the night to remnowe additonal comient af any tame if subsequent mgt sedtnctooes nga ot
adolescents reported attempting suicide, with 5.8% Implicit in this popular title is the idea that from birth,
planning suicide and around 7% with thoughts about some individuals follow a developmental track that
suicide (Cluver et al., 2015). Many features are linked to leads to destructive, violent, or criminal behaviour In
suicide, including substance abuse and a family history of other words, the claim is that biology pushes people
suicide, but the strongest predictor is depression. Between to be aggressive long before experience can affect
40% and 80% of teens who attempt suicide are depressed development.
(Cash & Bridge, 2009). In South Africa, in addition to Is there any truth to this idea? In fact, biology
mental health problems, many adolescent suicides have and heredity do contribute to aggressive and violent
been linked to experiences of recent adversity (Cluver behaviour, but not in the manner suggested by the
et al., 2015) Few suicides are truly spontaneous, and in epithet ‘born to be bad’ Twin studies make it clear
most cases, there are warning signs, such as talking about that heredity contributes: identical twins are usually
death or looking for ways to kill one’s self. If someone you more alike in their levels of physical aggression than
know shows these signs, don't ignore them and dont leave are fraternal twins (Brendgen et al., 2006; Lacourse
him or her alone Seek help immediately (Rudd et al., et al., 2014) But these studies do not tell us that
2006): call Lifeline on 0861 322 322, SADAG on 0800 aggression itself is inherited. Instead, they indicate
567 567, a mental health professional, or an ambulance if that some children inherit factors that place them at
there is an immediate threat of suicide. risk of aggressive or violent behaviour. Temperament
is one such factor: youngsters who temperamentally
have trouble regulating and processing emotions
(especially negative ones like anger) are more likely
Adolescents are generally acknowledged to be to be aggressive. What's more, these children seem to
responsible for much of the criminal activity around be prone to sensation seeking and find that aggressive
the world. South Africa is volatile in terms of its socio- behaviour is rewarding (van Goozen, 2015)
economic conditions, with many families facing the Hormones represent another factor. Higher levels
challenges that accompany poverty and which may of the hormone testosterone are often associated,
contribute to the high incidence of crime. Many weakly, with greater aggression and stronger
adolescents encounter challenges that lead them to responses to provocation (Carré, McCormick, &
participate in criminal activities (Singh & Ntuli, 2017) Hariri, 2011; Tremblay et al., 1998)
To understand such delinquent behaviour, we need to
distinguish two forms of antisocial behaviour (Piquero
& Moffitt, 2014) The most common form is relatively
mild: adolescent-limited antisocial behaviour refers to A letter to the editor of your local newspaper
relatively minor criminal acts by adolescents who aren't claims that ‘Adolescent criminals should be
consistently antisocial. These youth may become involved thrown in jail because they're born as “bad
in petty crimes such as shoplifting or using drugs but apples” and will always be that way’. Write a
may be careful to follow all school rules. As the name reply that states the facts correctly.
implies, their antisocial behaviour is short-lived, usually
vanishing in late adolescence or early adulthood. These factors don't cause a child to be aggressive.
A second form of delinquent behaviour is far more But they do make aggressive behaviour more likely
serious but, fortunately, much less common. Life-course For instance, children who are emotional and easily
persistent antisocial behaviour refers to antisocial irritated may be disliked by their peers and be in
behaviour that emerges at an early age and continues frequent conflict with them, opening the door for
throughout life. These individuals may start hitting other aggressive responses So, biological factors place
children at 3 years of age, then progress to shoplifting children at risk of aggression; to understand which
at age 12 and to stealing cars at age 16 Fewer than 5% youth actually become aggressive, we need to look
of youth fit this pattern of antisocial behaviour, but they
account for most adolescent criminal activity
Researchers have identified several forces that adolescent-limited antisocial behaviour Behaviour of youth who
contribute to this type of antisocial and delinquent engage in relatively minor criminal acts but aren't consistently
behaviour: antisocial.

1. Biological contributions. Born to Be Bad is the title life-course persistent antisocial behaviour Antisocial behaviour
that emerges at an early age and continues throughout life.
of at least two movies, two songs, and three books.

9.4 WHEN THINGS GO WRONG 301

w
aggressive behaviour (McQuade, 2017) characterised by political violence, as well as general
Cognitive processes contribute to antisocial forms of oppression (Stevens & Lockhat, 1998) This
behaviour in another way, too: aggressive youth often might have led to an internalisation of violence in
respond aggressively because they are not skilled at some as a means of resolving conflict This history
interpreting other people's intentions. Without a clear of political violence, combined with a lack of
interpretation in mind, they respond aggressively by material resources, and the breakdown of family and
default That is, aggressive boys far too often think, community systems, might have contributed towards
‘I don’t know what you're up to, and when in doubt, the current violence so prevalent in South African
attack’ (Crick & Dodge, 1994; Galan et al., 2017) society.
When others inadvertently get in their way, these
adolescents often respond without regard to the
nature of the other person’ acts or intentions.
. Family processes. Antisocial behaviour has roots
in parenting. Adolescents are more likely to become
involved in criminal behaviour when their parents use
harsh discipline or don't monitor effectively (Gershoff,
2013; Lee, Altschul, & Gershoff, 2013; Vieno et al.,
2009). In the South African context, poverty and
migrant labour have led to a society where families
are not able to live together, or parents have to work
and travel for long hours in order to provide for their
children This leads to parents who are often unable
to be as present in their children’s lives as they would
like to. Parents may also contribute to delinquent
behaviour if their marital relationship is marked by
constant conflict. When parents constantly argue and
fight, their children are more likely to be antisocial
(Cummings et al , 2006; Narayan, Englund, &
Englund, 2013) This has been found in the parenting
styles associated with violence in South Africa (van
der Merwe, Dawes, & Ward, 2012) Of course, children
are spectators to many of these confrontations; so they
see firsthand how parents use verbal and physical
aggression against each other. And, sadly, children
come to believe that these patterns of interacting
represent ‘natural’ ways of solving problems (Graham-
Bermann & Brescoll, 2000).
. Poverty. Aggressive and antisocial behaviour is more A Aggressive teens see the world as a hostile place and typically
common among children living in poverty than among respond aggressively by default
children who are economically advantaged (Williams,
Conger, & Blozis, 2007). As we've seen, living in Obviously, many factors contribute to making some
poverty is extremely stressful for parents and often adolescents prone to violent behaviour. As you can
leads to the very parental behaviours that promote imagine, when risk factors mount up in children’s lives,
aggression — harsh discipline and lax monitoring (Shaw they are at ever-greater risk for aggressive behaviour
& Shelleby, 2014). In addition, violent crime is more (Greenberg et al., 1999). What’s more, many of the
common in poverty-stricken areas. Older children factors operate in a cascading fashion, as later risk factors

302 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD’ SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

WHAT DO YOU THINk? * be sentenced to direct impnsonment

at a correctional facility if they have
committed a serious crime, such as
Are adolescents able to understand the nature rape or murder (Child Justice Act, 2008)
What do you think? Many countnes
of their criminal actions? don't have a specific set of guidelines for
children aged 14-17, but treat everyone
under the age of 18 the same. Do you
In South Africa, anyone under the age they can be arrested, and may be think that the guideline of 14 years Is
of 18 who commits a cnme ts dealt diverted towards other rehabilitation appropnate, and that someone at this
with separately under the Child Justice programmes, such as making age has a full understanding of their
Act (2008) However, from the age restitution via community service, criminal actions? Using the theones
of 14, a child is assumed to have full being supervised by the Department on adolescent development we have
criminal capacity In other words, they of Justice, paying a fine, attending a covered, discuss why you think this
are considered able to understand programme or going to a youth centre. 14-17 age guideline is appropriate or
the nature of their actions As such, However, a child aged 14-17 can also inappropriate.

9.4 WHEN THINGS GO WRONG

Test yourself 9.4

Recall 6. Aggressive youth often respond

because they are not skilled at interpreting other
1. Teens are more likely to drink when their people's intentions.
drink.
2. Adolescents who suffer from depression have Interpret
pervasive feelings of are irritable,
© Describe potential biological and environmental
have low self-esteem, sleep poorly, and are
contributions to violence and crime.
unable to concentrate.
3. A study in the U.S. showed that Apply
can put African American youth at risk of e Prepare a fact sheet that high schools could use
depression. to educate antisocial adolescents about ways to
4. Medication and are successful in resolve conflicts and achieve goals without relying
helping adolescents who are depressed. on aggression.

5. The strongest predictor of suicide is depression; Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
other predictors include substance abuse and end of the chapter.

9.1 Identity and self-esteem autonomy; they are least likely to achieve an identity
when parents set rules and enforce them without
How do adolescents achieve an identity? explanation.
@ The task for adolescents 1s to find an identity, a search that
typically involves four statuses Diffusion and foreclosure In what ways has the South African context affected
are more common 1n early adolescence; morator1um and identity development?
achievement are more common in late adolescence and e Apartheid severely limited black South Africans’
young adulthood. As they seek identity, adolescents often opportunities to engage with identity exploration, although
believe that others are constantly watching them and that it did provide a common social identity in fighting
no one else has felt as they do. oppression. Following apartheid, this collective identity
e Adolescents are more likely to achieve an identity has been disrupted, leaving youth without structure. Over
when parents encourage discussion and recognise their time, there are indications that black South Afmcans have

304 CHAPTER 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD’ SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

How does self-esteem change in adolescence? What circumstances make intimate partner violence
© Social comparisons begin anew when children move likely?
from primary school to high school; consequently, self- e Many adolescents experience dating violence, particularly
esteem usually declines somewhat during this transition. if they've experienced harsh parenting, their peers are
In middle and late adolescence, self-esteem becomes familiar with and accept dating violence, and they're
differentiated, especially in the academic and social aggressive and antisocial. Addressing the role of women,
domains Self-esteem 1s linked to adolescents’ actual and reducing the excessive use of alcohol and reducing
competence in domains that matter to them and is linked social violence are seen as key to tackling intimate partner
to how parents and peers view them. violence in South Africa.
¢ The parent-child relationship becomes more egalitarian
during the adolescent years, reflecting adolescents’ 9.3 The world of work
growing independence Contrary to myth, adolescence 1s
not usually a period of storm and stress. Most adolescents
How do adolescents select an occupation?
love their parents, feel loved by them, rely on them for ¢ In his theory of vocational choice, Super proposes three
advice, and adopt their values. phases of vocational development during adolescence and
young adulthood: crystallisation, in which basic interests
9.2 Romantic relationships and sexuality are identified, specification, 1n which jobs associated
with interests are identified, and implementation, which
Why do teenagers date? marks entry into the workforce.
© Romantic relationships emerge in mid-adolescence. For Holland proposes six different work-related personalities.
younger adolescents, dating is for both companionship realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising,
and sexual exploration; for older adolescents, it 1s a and artistic Each is uniquely suited to certain jobs
source of trust and support Adolescents in romantic People are more productive when their personality fits
relationships are more self-confident but also report their job and less productive when it does not.
more emotional upheaval. According to social cognitive career theory, vocational
choice reflects beliefs about their abilities and beliefs
Why are some adolescents sexually active? Why do about the outcome of their behaviour.
so few use contraceptives?
e By the end of adolescence, most South African boys What ts the impact of unemployment on adolescents?
and girls have had sexual intercourse, which boys view e Around half of South African youth are unemployed,
as recreational but girls see as romantic Adolescents are with the poor economy and current levels of poverty
more likely to be sexually active if they believe that their contributing to the continuation of the problem.
parents and peers approve of sex. Adolescents do not As a result, many adolescents find themselves working
use birth control consistently because they do not see in the informal sector, and/or using entrepreneurship
the need for contraception, don’t know where to obtain to generate an income. However, unemployment takes a
contraceptives, and sometimes find pregnancy appealing. large toll on mental health. Depression, stress, low self-
In the South African context, gender inequality, esteem and shame commonly arise In addition to this,
violence towards women, poverty, and insufficient basic survival of these young people 1s also under threat.
resources all contribute to the problem. Because they use
contraception infrequently, they are at risk of contracting 9.4 When things go wrong
sexually transmitted diseases and becoming pregnant.
Why do teenagers drink and smoke?
Who are sexual-minority youth? © Many adolescents drink alcohol regularly. The primary
© Sexual-minority youth identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, factors that influence whether adolescents drink are
queer, intersex, or transgender For boys who identify encouragement from others (parents and peers) and
as gay, the first step involves feeling different from stress. Sumularly, teenage smoking is influenced by parents
other boys and becoming interested in gender-atypical and peers.

SUMMARY 305

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

adolescent egocentrism personality-type theory answers
(283) (294)
imaginary audience (283) depression (299) 9.1 1. 1dentity and role confusion 2. foreclosure
personal fable (283) dilittencont tatied 3. illusion of invulnerability 4. early primary school
illusion of invulnerability antisocial behaviour ms
(283) : (301) . 9.2 1.drinkalcohol 2. mother-to-child transmission
crystallisation (293) life-course persistent 3. ARV treatment 4. contraception 5. violence at
specification (293) antisocial behaviour aus
implementation (293) (301)
resilience (304) 9.3 1. are attracted to one line of work rather than
another 2. enterprising 3. entrepreneurship
4. suicide

9.4 1. parents and peers 2. sadness 3. racial

discrimination 4. psychotherapy 5. a family history
of suicide 6. aggressively

306 CHuaprTer 9 MOVING INTO THE ADULT SOCIAL WORLD SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

10.1 Emerging adulthood 309

Role transitions marking
adulthood 309
Neuroscience, behaviour, and
emerging adulthood 311
Achieving milestones Education,
workforce, and Erikson’s
intimacy 311
So when do people become
adults? 314
Real people: Applying human
development: Does being rich
and famous mean you're an
adult? 314
10.2 Physical development and
health 315
Growth, strength, and physical
functioning 315
Lifestyle factors in health 316
What do you think? Healthcare
disparities in the South African
context 323
10.3 Cognitive development 324
How should we view intelligence
in adults? 324
Primary and secondary mental
abilities 325
Spotlight on research. The Seattle
Longitudinal Study 326
Fluid and crystallised
intelligence 326
Neuroscience research and
intelligence 329
Going beyond formal operations:
Thinking in adulthood 330
Integrating emotion and logic
in emerging and young
adulthood 331
10.4 Who do you want to be?
Personality in young
adulthood 334
. Creating life stories 335
Siete Ce eal Possible selves 336
| ‘ ° Personal control beliefs 337

Summary 339
Key terms 341

All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcammed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectronic nghts, some thind party coment mary he suppressed teoen the cftook andlor oChapter(s)
coment docs aot materially affect the overall amg expenence. Cengage Learning rescrvex the night to remove additional comment af ary time if submequent right sextnictoes neqaure it
Without question, young adulthood we make plans and dream of what
comes a time in life when
is the peak of physical processes and lies ahead Itis a me when we
we feel the urge to move beyond
health. Itis also a tme when people think about what life as an adult
adolescence and aspire to be
who acquired unhealthy habits earlier will be like But above all, itis a
an adult. In some societies, the
in life may decide to adopt a healthier time when we lay the foundation
transition to adulthood is abrupt and
lifestyle Young adulthood also marks for the developmental changes
dramatic, marked by clear rites of
the peak of some cognitive abilities that we will experience during the
passage However, many adolescents
and the next step in the continued rest of our lives We will consider
wonder about what it means to be a
development of others. these issues as we examine young
‘real’ adult. Adulthood is marked in
On a more personal level, adulthood in this chapter
numerous ways, some of which we
young adulthood is a time when
explore in the first section

EX] Emerging adulthood

TURRET TET TEETER EERE eR TT ETT E ETRE EE EEE ROO R EET ET TEE TEETER EERE REET TEE TEETER TORR RR TTT T TEETER ORO e ETT E TEE E EEE EERO EEE ETE E TEETER OO Ee OEE ETE EEE EE EE Eee

Learning objectives

® Identify the role transitions that signal entry into adulthood.

e Describe the evidence from neuroscience that helps us understand behavioural development in young
adulthood.

® Explain how going to university, obtaining career training, and entering the workforce reflect the
transition to adulthood.

Jacob woke up with the worst headache legally, but he may not feel that way in other respects,
he could ever remember having. ‘If this such as financially.
is being an adult, they can keep it,’ he Some human developmentalists view the period
muttered to himself. Like many young from the late teens to the mid- to late 20s as distinctive.
adults today, Jacob spent his 21st birthday They refer to it as emerging adulthood, a period when
celebrating with his friends at a popular individuals are not adolescents but are not yet fully adults
club near his university. However, each (Arnett, 2013, 2016). Emerging adulthood is a time to
time he calls home to ask his parents for explore careers, self-identity, and commitments It is
extra money, he is reminded that he is not also a time when certain biological and physiological
yet an adult. developmental trends peak and brain development
continues in different ways.
Think for a minute about the first time you felt like In this section, we examine some of the ways societies
an adult When was it? What was the context? Who mark the transition to adulthood, and we'll see that the
were you with? How did you feel? criteria vary widely from culture to culture.
Even though becoming an adult is one of the
most important life transitions, it is difficult to pin Rol - sista distill
down exactly when this occurs. In South Africa,
for example, the age needed to achieve ‘adult’ status When people become adults in different cultures
includes 15 to be employed, 16 for opening a bank depends on how you define adulthood and the kind of
account and applying for an ID document, 18 for role transitions cultures create. Consider the following
driving a car and voting as well as for purchasing three women Terusha looked older than her 20 years;
and consuming alcohol. Clearly there is no age
that signals a clean break with adolescence and full emerging adulthood Period between late teens and mid- to late
achievement of adulthood. Certainly Jacob may 20s when individuals are not adolescents but are not yet fully
adults.
feel like an adult because he can purchase alcohol

‘opyraght
2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scammed, or duplicated, im whole or in part. Duc to clectrosic nghts, some thind party costest mory he muppeeased teoen the cock andice cChapter{s)
aeview bon deaned that any wppromed comicat dacs aot maximally affect the overall amung expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night to remove additional coment af any tne if submequent mgt sednctooes noqaare at.
her son was playing quietly on the floor. She and such as the controversial practices of male and female
her husband live in a small house in a village in rural circumcision (Castro, 2010). Female circumcision
India. Nokuthula left high school a few years ago, after is practised in many countries in Africa, the Middle
completing Grade 9. She works full time at Shoprite and East and Asia, while male circumcision is practised in
shares a small flat nearby. Claudia recently graduated South Africa as well as other countries. Other practices
from university in Germany. She just started a job at a may involve being given a specific tattoo (Irish, 2009).
tech firm, and she is living with her mother until she Because rites in such cultures change little over time,
saves enough money for her own flat. they provide continuity across generations (Keith,
Are these women adults? Yes and no. As we will see, 1990); older adults lead young people through the same
it all depends on how you define adulthood and the kind rites they themselves experienced years earlier. Such
of role transitions cultures create. A role transition is transitions might also be less formalized and are hard
movement into the next stage of development signalled to identify; indeed, you may be hard-pressed to think of
by assumption of new responsibilities and duties. any. A father buying his son his first razor or a mother
helping her daughter with her first menstrual period
Cross-cultural evidence of role transitions may be as close as we get in some societies.
Cultures in the developing world tend to be clear about
when a person becomes an adult (Mazur & Li, 2016;
Nelson, Badger, & Wu, 2004). Rituals marking initiation
into adulthood, often among the most important ones in a
culture, are termed rites of passage. Rites of passage may
involve highly elaborate steps that take days or weeks,
or they may be compressed into a few minutes. Initiates
are usually dressed in apparel reserved for the ritual to
denote their special position. In Chapter 8 we discussed
two such rite of passage ceremonies for adolescents in
South Africa.
In many cultures, rites of passage to adulthood are
connected with religious rituals and tradition (Levete,
2010). For example, Christian traditions use a ritual
called ‘confirmation’ to mark the transition from being a
child spiritually to being an adult. Judaism celebrates bar & This couple from India reflects a culture in which the passage to
adulthood for many occurs with marriage
and bat mitzvahs. In many Latin American countries, a
girl's 15th birthday is celebrated as the transition between
childhood and young womanhood. In some countries, Role transitions
this ceremony, called the quinceafiera, is preceded by a
Mass if the girl's family is Catholic. In many cultures, the most widely used criteria for
Marriage is the most important rite of passage to deciding whether a person has reached adulthood are role
adulthood in many cultures because it is a prelude to transitions, which involve assuming new responsibilities
childbearing, which in turn provides clear evidence of and duties. Certain role transitions are key markers for
achieving adulthood (Hall & Willoughby, 2016; Mensch, attaining adulthood: voting, completing one’s education,
Singh, & Casterline, 2006). In this sense, Terusha is an adult
beginning full-time employment, leaving home and
in her culture. In many cultures in developed economies, establishing financial independence, getting married,
establishing a career is the most likely alternative pathway and becoming a parent. However, many people in their
to adulthood (Hall & Willoughby, 2016).
20s in industrialised countries spread these achievements
Some cultures mark the transition to adulthood over several years (Arnett, 2013, 2016).
in public ways so that the whole community witnesses The point in the life span when these marker events
it. In a few cultures, it may involve pain or mutilation, for role transitions happen, though, has changed over
the years Such changes are examples of cohort effects,
described in Chapter 1. For example, in South Africa,
rites of passage Rituals marking initiation into adulthood.
the average age at first marriage has increased to about
34 years for men and 29 years for women (Statistics
role transitions Movement into the next stage of development South Africa, 2011). This has changed since 1998, when
marked by assumption of new responsibilities and duties.
estimates for mean age were 28 years among men and

310 Carrer
10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL COGNITIVE, AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

(Copyragts
200) Compags Loemag All Bagtes Rovervect Mx aes be cope coped ee depict
mn where or om past. Dew te ciesrerec roghee_ wenn heed paty contest cary be exppretend bere fhe eibeok amabte of heapeerl+
Esters ew fe tecesd dos any eappeceeent comemom Gee mee seseddy afht te ever bowery cupersmes. Congage Loweseg soere fe nget we mcrervs abieareel coerece at avy cree if vefecugentt rete mam hows sige
24 years among women (Statistics South Africa, 2002) taking’ ability (King & Kitchener, 2015). We will consider
Similar trends are seen in high income countries such as this developmental change later in this chapter.
the United States and Europe. Emerging adults engage in more risky behaviours
South Africa is a diverse nation with several than do any other age group of adults (Arnett, 2013,
indigenous cultures, many of whom have rite of passage 2015) The desire to live life more on the edge through
ceremonies to denote coming of age and transition physically and emotionally threatening situations on the
to adulthood. However, these are not consistent and boundary between life and death is termed edgework
markers for transition vary across different cultural and (Brymer & Mackenzie, 2017; Lyng, 2012; PetersonLund,
religious groups 2013) Edgework is seen through such sports as rock
In modern day society, living independently from climbing, motor racing, and other extreme sports in
one’s parents, financial independence, and romantic which the slightest mistake may result in death.
involvement seem to denote transition readiness. So There is an important distinction between edgework,
depending on how you look at it, Terusha, Nokuthula, which involves high levels of risk but a great deal
and Claudia may — or may not — be considered adults. of expertise and planning, and reckless behaviour,
We will consider some components of the role which involves high levels of risk but tends to be more
transitions and how they help shape role transitions. spontaneous (Zinn, 2016) People who engage in
First, let's consider new evidence from neuroscience edgework activities tend to share their experiences with
about important changes during emerging adulthood. other like-minded individuals across the spectrum of
socioeconomic dimensions and as a mode of escape
from the modern everyday world (Lyng, 2012)
Managing to deal with intense emotions when faced
Why does Western society lack clear rites of with real danger is a delicate balance, and how men and
Passage? women accomplish this differs. For example, in thinking
about or planning future dangerous activities, men
tend to be highly confident in their ability to extricate
Neuroscience, behaviour, and emerging themselves from tough positions and do not feel a need
to rehearse just in case Women, though, are more likely
adulthood to have doubts, which they ease by rehearsing.
Emerging adulthood is a time of very important On the psychosocial front, young adulthood marks
developments in the brain, especially in terms of the transition from concern with identity (see Chapter 9)
strengthening interconnections across different brain to concern with behaviours related to autonomy and
structures that help integrate different modes of intimacy, which we explore later in this chapter and in
thinking and feeling. This neuroscience research has Chapter 11 (Erikson, 1982) Becoming independent from
raised intriguing questions could continuing brain one’s parents includes being able to fend for oneself, but
development during early adulthood explain shifts it does not imply a complete ending of the relationship.
in thinking and behaviour, and possibly provide a On the contrary, adult children usually establish a
physiological marker for adulthood? rewarding relationship with their parents, as we will see in
There is considerable evidence that the prefrontal Chapter 13.
cortex, a part of the brain involved in high-level thinking,
is not fully developed until a person reaches his or her
Achieving milestones: Education,
mid-20s (Cohen et al., 2016). Additionally, important kf | Erikson’s inti
connections between the prefrontal cortex and the
parietal lobe involved in the processing of emotional As we noted earlier, a key marker of the transition to
information also mature in adulthood The key point adulthood is achieving certain milestones, such as the
is that the brain structures and connections that govern launching of one's career and reaching developmental
much of the higher level reasoning we associate with markers such as Erikson’s stage of intimacy Let's take a
adulthood is not possible prior to early adulthood. We look at how they are accomplished.
will come back to these aspects of brain development
later in this chapter
From a psychological perspective, the neurological
developments are observed through changes in edgework The desire to live life more on the edge through
behaviour. Cognitively, young adults think in different physically and emotionally threatening situations on the
boundary between life and death.
ways from adolescents, especially in their ‘perspective

101 EMERGING ADULTHOOD 311

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanmed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party costest mary he suppecssed tom the cflook andlce eChapter(s).
Ecttomal seview ho deaned thot ary wippromed coment dacs aot miaicnally affect the overall amg etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the night to remove additional coment af amy brne if udmequent nef wednctoes moyenne at.
Education and workforce attainment academic studies. However, support from family and
For many high school graduates all over the world, a employers, as well as the positive effects of continuing
marker of the transition to adulthood is going straight one’s education, are stress reducers. Many mature
to university or college - although the rates vary students, especially middle-aged women, express a
significantly across income and ethnic groups. sense of self-discovery they had not experienced before
Considerable research has documented how students (Miles, 2009; Ronnie, 2016). The main conclusion here
develop while they are in university or college (King & is that going to college or university impacts students of
Kitchener, 2015; Patton et al., 2016, Perry, 1970). This
all ages; for traditional-aged students (ages 18 to 25), it
research provides a theoretical and practical framework helps foster the transition to adulthood.
for understanding how adult students learn specific As we noted earlier, a key indicator of becoming
content (Nickerson & Thurkettle, 2013; Sargent &
an adult for many people is establishing financial
Borthick, 2013). Students start acting and thinking like independence by joining the workforce. For high school
adults because of advances in intellectual development graduates who do not go on to university and for some
and personal and social identity. It is thought that much of those who do not finish high school, an intermediary
of this developmental change in college occurs through step may include learning a trade such as building in
social interaction, especially when it is supported construction, painting, auto mechanics, and so forth
within an active learning process Indeed, there is a In any case, there are many pathways to financial
belief that the university social experience can either independence: working a series of part-time jobs, finding
facilitate or frustrate the development of one’s sense of full-time employment, or starting one’s own business.
identity, including ethnic/racial identity (Guiffrida, Pathways to financial independence and employment
2009). Campus discussions and activities around such
opportunity in South Africa are particularly challenging,
movements as Black Lives Matter and safe spaces are as is evidenced by the 27.7% unemployment rate at the
examples of these processes. end of 2017 (Statistics South Africa, 2017c).
Those changes may well describe the experience of While educational attainment plays a significant role
people who go directly from high school to university in financial independence, it is important to note that it
or college. But take a look around, literally, at your is not always a guarantee of employment. In fact, over
classmates. In addition to the ethnic and racial diversity recent years in South Africa, the number of unemployed
you see, the age diversity you also likely experience university graduates has increased dramatically.
However, as shown in @ FIGURE 10.1, data from high
is a reflection of the changing nature of college and
university campuses. income countries like the United States show that for
Large numbers of students are in at least their each increased educational level beyond high school,
mid-20s or older For them, obtaining a degree and the chances of being employed increases. Estimates
receiving higher education isn't the marker of adulthood. are that as of 2016, Americans with some college
Institutions for higher education in South Africa usually education obtained 11 5 of the 11.6 million jobs created
in the recovery from the Great Recession (Carnevale,
refer to students over age 23 as returning adult students
Jayasundera, & Gulish, 2016) So while employment
or mature students, which implies that these individuals
have already reached adulthood. opportunity may be scarce in the South African context,
Overall, mature students tend to be problem solvers, educational attainment remains an important pathway
self-directed, and pragmatic. They may have increased to financial independence.
stress due to work-family-school conflict and may prefer Regardless of when and how it occurs, reaching
having clearer understanding of the pathways from financial independence is a major achievement and
courses to careers. They have relevant life experiences serves as a marker of becoming an adult There are
they can integrate with their course work (Cleary barriers, though. Graduates who have significant student
et al., 2017, Patton et al., 2016; Swingle, 2013). Balancing loan debt may experience delays in achieving financial
employment and families along with their courses independence and turn to living with parents to make
often causes stress, especially early in mature students’ quicker progress.

Establishing intimacy
returning adult or mature students Students over the age of 23.
According to Erikson, the major task for young adults is
intimacy versus isolation Sixth stage in Erikson’s theory and the dealing with the psychosocial conflict of intimacy versus
major psychosocial task for young adults.
isolation. This is the sixth step in Erikson’s theory of

312 CHAPTER 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

5s 50
aq
40

0
Total Males Females
Sex
MTotal W Less than high i High school i Some college, @ Bachelor's
or
school completion completion no bachelor's degree higher degree

NOTE: For each group presented, the employment to population ratio, or employment rate, is the number of persons in that
group who are employed as a percentage of the civilian population in that group. Data exculde persons enrolled in school.
‘Some college, no bachelor's degree’ includes persons with an associate's degree. “High school completion’ includes
equivalency credentials, such as the GED credential.

@ FIGURE 10 1 Percentage of American 20- to 24-yearolds employed, by sax and educational attainment: 2015. While South
Africa struggles with employment opportunities, these American statistics do show that educational attainment remains an
important pathway to financial independence
urce. Netoral Cantar for Education Statisice (2016) Expy ates
of cv ge graduates. Ratrieved trom noes ed gowlast

psychosocial development (see Chapter 1). Once a

Think about it
person's identity is established, Erikson (1982) believed
that he or she is ready to create a shared identity with Why do you think it mattered to Erikson whether
another — intimacy. Without a clear sense of identity, identity issues are resolved before intimacy
Erikson argued, young adults would be afraid of issues?
committing to a long-term relationship with another
person or might become overly dependent on the
partner for his or her identity. The challenges adults face in their 20s in modern
But is this explanation, developed in the mid-20th society can be difficult and present challenges for
century, applicable to contemporary emerging adults? Erikson’s model. Robbins and Wilner (2001) used the
Research evidence for Erikson’s view is conflicting. term quarter-life crisis to describe how life in one’s 20s
For example, a meta-analytic study (see Chapter 1) of is far from easy as individuals struggle to find their way.
the connection between identity and intimacy showed Adjusting to the ‘real world’ is increasingly difficult for
that men and women resolve identity and intimacy college and university graduates who face significant
issues differently under certain circumstances (Arseth debt from educational loans, and for all early adults who
et al., 2009). For example, some women resolve face challenges from workplace politics, networking,
intimacy issues before identity issues by marrying time management, and other daily hassles. Indeed,
and rearing children, and only later do they deal with Byock (2010) and Robinson, Wright, and Smith (2013)
the question of their own identity. An example of this argue that a crisis in emerging or early adulthood
form of identity development can be seen in middle- represents a period of self-exploration and search for
aged women who go to college for the first time meaning. Jung described a similar search for meaning
(Miles, 2009) in his original theory of the midlife crisis (a topic we

101 EMERGING ADULTHOOD 313

Copyright 2019 Cengage Leaeming. All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mary be wppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
External seview box decned that any uppremed content docs aot musterially affect the overall leammng expenence. Cengage Leasing reserves the night to remove additwseal content at arty time if subsequent rights sextnctooes rexpanse it
will explore more in Chapter 13). It may be that adults So when do people become adults? =
reflect on their life from time to time and seek clarity on
its direction. Evidence is clear that the years between late adolescence
Robinson (2015) describes an expanded approach and the late 20s to early 30s may reflect a distinct life
based on both Erikson and modern theory and stage that researchers call emerging adulthood (Arnett,
2013, 2015). Additional evidence is mounting that
research about emergent adulthood. Robinson argues
that early adulthood should be separated into two social and demographic trends are perhaps creating two
distinct stages: emerging adulthood, which relates to developmental periods between adolescence and middle
the changes and instability of the 18 to 25 age range, age, much as similar changing circumstances created
and early adulthood, which is a more settled phase the period of adolescence in the early 20th century All
At the beginning of early adulthood is a normative of the evidence points to the conclusion that achieving
period of turmoil, referred to as the ‘quarter-life crisis’ adulthood takes much longer now than it did for past
(Robinson, 2015, Robinson & Smith, 2010; Robinson
generations. In addition, the psychosocial issues that
& Wright, 2013, Robinson et al., 2013), which was not people face are more complex.
accounted for in Erikson’s model. As society continues to shed formal rites of passage,
Robinson proposes that the quarter-life crisis can especially those connected to religious ceremonies, the
take two forms, the locked-out form (feeling unable to exact moment a person becomes an adult will become
enter adult roles) or the locked-in form (feeling trapped less and less certain. The perspectives considered in
in adult roles). Further, Robinson suggests that the issues
this section do not provide any definitive answers to
in early adulthood be reframed away from Erikson’s the question of when people become adults All we can
intimacy-isolation toward commitment-independence say is that the transition depends on numerous cultural
This extension of Erikson’s theory reflects the longer and psychological factors In cultures without clearly
time it takes more recent generations to overcome defined rites of passage, defining oneself as an adult rests
the challenges of early adulthood compared to earlier on one’s perception of whether personally relevant key
generations. As noted earlier and will be repeated in criteria have been met In Western society, this can be
subsequent chapters, this is reflected in later ages at first very complicated — for example, when success comes at a
marriage and other key life indicators, such as lower young age, as discussed in the ‘Real people’ feature. Read
home ownership rates. the story of the international pop singer Lorde to see how.

Applying human Beat' from The Hunger Games to make her an adult. What do you
development Mockingjay — Part 1 soundtrack think about that? Is fame and wealth
Music cntics have already enough?
noted her talent by bestowing
numerous awards and
Does being rich and
having her perform at major
famous mean you're ceremonies. Her recording
an adult? and publishing contracts are
Ella Mana Lani Yelich- worth millions of dollars, so
O'Connor, better known she is already wealthy at a
as Lorde, is a world-famous young age
singersongwriter from Lorde has also risen to
New Zealand. Born on 7 prominence in other ways,
November 1996, Lorde’s talent too She has become a
was recognised early — she sought-after spokesperson
received a contract to work with on a number of major issues,
songwniters at Universal when and her endorsement of
she was barely in her teens. other entertainers carries significant
Lorde’s leap to world stardom came weight Her loyal following has a
with the release of her first single, great deal of purchasing power, so
‘Royals’, which hit number one in the she has developed important financial
Billboard Hot 100 in 2013. Her first album, influence There ts no question that
Pure Heroine, was an international best- Lorde is famous and wealthy The
seller She had a hit single, “Yellow Flicker _ question is whether that is enough
A Lorde is a pop icon, but is she an adult?

314 Cuaprer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT’ PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Recall to find it much more difficult than she did.

However, all of the evidence points to the
1. are rituals marking initiation into conclusion that achieving takes
adulthood. These are often among the most much longer now than it did for past generations.
important ones in a culture.
2. The a part of the brain involved in Interpret
high-level thinking, is not fully developed until a
© Why are formal rites of passage important? What
person reaches his or her mid-20s.
has Western society lost by eliminating them?
3. involves high levels of risk but What has it gained?
a great deal of expertise and planning, while © Why is understanding how rites of passage occur
involves high levels of risk but tends in different cultures important?
to be more spontaneous.
Apply
4. In theory, a person is ready to
create a shared identity with another person once e When do you think people become adults? Why?
the person's own identity is established. ¢ How do legal definitions of adulthood matter
in professions such as law enforcement and
5. Thuli finds ‘adulting’ hard. Her mother is healthcare?
irritated: she had to do the same things as she Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
is expecting of her daughter, but Thuli seems end of the chapter.

ET] Physical development and health

Learning objectives

® Describe how young adults are at their physical peak.

® Evaluate how healthy young adults are in general.

e Explain how smoking, alcohol, and nutrition affect young adults’ health.

® Discuss how the health of young adults differs as a function of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and
education.

Tarryn is 25 years old. She started smoking in

oa as
Grade 8 because she was curious and wanted to
try it, and because her friends all smoked. Now
Physical functioning generally peaks during young
adulthood (Aldwin & Gilmer, 2013). You’re as tall as
that she is getting older, she wants to stop. She
you will ever be Physical strength, coordination, and
realises that this will be difficult to do, and she
dexterity in both sexes peaks during the late 20s and early
has been told by others that there is really no
30s, declining slowly throughout the rest of life even when
point in stopping now as the damage is already
you maintain an active lifestyle. Because of these trends,
done Despite this, she wants to try anyway.
few professional athletes remain at the top of their sport
Tarryn, like most young adults in their early to mid-20s, in their mid-30s. Individuals such as Brett Favre, who
is in the prime of her life. Indeed, the early 20s are the
played football in the National Football League into his
early 40s, Jaromir Jagr, who played in his mid-40s in the
best years for strenuous work, trouble-free reproduction,
National Hockey League, Diana Nyad, who swam about
and peak athletic performance. But an individual's
physical functioning is affected by several health-related 140 kilometres from Cuba to Key West at age 64, and
Dara Torres, who set the record for the oldest swimmer
behaviours, including smoking.

10.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH 315

Smoking
Smoking is the single biggest contributor to health
problems. In the United States alone, roughly 480 000
people die each year from tobacco use and exposure
to second-hand smoke (American Lung Association,
2016), and medical treatment of smoking-related
ailments alone costs over $170 billion annually (Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016a).
Smoking has many risks. @ FIGURE 10.2 shows the
various forms of cancer and other chronic diseases that
are caused by smoking. And smoking during one’s lifetime
has a significant negative impact on cognitive functioning
in adults over age 50 (Dregan, Stewart, & Gulliford, 2013).
4 Dara Torres, shown on the right, won three medals at the Beijing Tarryn, the young woman in the opening story,
Olympics in 2008 at age 41 is typical of people who want to stop smoking. Most
people begin the process in young adulthood. More
than 90% of those who stop do so on their own. But as
Tarryn suspects, stopping is not easy; most people who
The leading cause of death among young adults in try to stop smoking relapse within six months. For most
South Africa between the ages of 25 and 44 are diseases people, success is attained only after a long period of
closely related to lifestyle factors. For example, in 2016, stopping and relapsing.

Cancers Chronic Diseases

Head or Neck +———_+* C ——

> e—~ Blindness

Gum infection

Lung

Aortic rupture
Leukemia e

Heart disease
Pneumonia
Stomach »

Kidney Hardening of the arteries

Pancreas
Chronic tung disease
& asthma

Reduced fertility

Hip fracture

@ FIGURE 10.2 Smoking can damage every part of the body.

Saute Coruers for Disease Control Retrieved from www cc. gowtatacca
hase _iniormationhalth_oflectsstancesindes tier

316 Cuaprer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Leasing. All Rights Reserved May mot be copecd, ecammed, or duplicated’ m whole
of in part. Dur to clectroemc
nights, some therd party comtest
mury he suppecescd form the citook ancice oC haptes|s)
Edtomal seview bon deemed
thot ary wappromed crenem! dacs sot suzicmially affect the overall komme ctpencree. Cengage Leareung reserves the npbt wo remove addmoeal coment
af any Gimeif udeequent neh seanchoes noqea ot
Regardless of how it happens, to stop smoking has on drinking behaviour among university students show
enormous health benefits (American Cancer Society, that they generally engage in higher levels of risky
2016a). For example, in less than a year after stopping, drinking (Peltzer & Ramlagan, 2009). A 2008 study at a
the lungs regain their normal ability to move mucus local South African university revealed that hazardous
out The risks of stroke and coronary heart disease and harmful drinking occurred in approximately 35%
return to normal after a period of roughly 15 years. of women and 50% of men (Young & De Klerk, 2008).
Even people who do not stop until late life show marked Being a university student does not appreciably affect
improvements in health Check out the American the likelihood of binge drinking overall, but university
Cancer Society’s Guide to Quitting Smoking for key students tend to drink more at parties and are especially
information about how to stop and a quiz about whether at risk during the first six weeks of their first year
you need help to stop. Also see the South African (NIAAA, 2015).
Tobacco Smoking Cessation clinical guidelines www. Research indicates that average binge drinking
cansa.org.za/sa-tobacco-smoking-cessation-clinical- among college and university students is an international
practice-guideline/. problem (Crawford-Williams, Roberts, & Watts, 2016;
Karam, Kypri, & Salamoun, 2007; Kypri et al., 2009),
Drinking alcohol with rates in many countries roughly the same as those
South Africa has a high rate of alcohol consumption, in South Africa.
especially binge or episodic drinking (Ramsoomar & Students between the ages of 18 and 24 are more likely
Morojele, 2012). The rates vary across gender, race, and than older students to binge drink. They are significantly
even province. Among the adolescents between 10 and more likely to binge drink if alcohol is readily available, if
19 years who completed a survey, 64.8% (36.6% males, they live in a campus residence, or if they feel positively
28.2% females) reported alcohol use in the past 30 days about what they are doing, which tends to make some
in 2011 (Reddy et al., 2013). people behave rashly (NIAAA, 2015).
Evidence suggests that moderate drinkers (one Studies of binge drinking, differential metabolism
or two glasses of beer or wine per day for men, one of alcohol in men and women, and the cognitive and
per day for women) have a 25% to 40% reduction in behavioural effects of alcohol intoxication set off a
risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke than either debate regarding whether women at university should
abstainers or heavy drinkers, even after controlling be educated about the dangers of binge drinking All
for hypertension, prior heart attack, and other sides agree on one thing alcohol is a factor in most
medical conditions (Harvard School of Public Health, sexual assaults, especially incapacitated sexual assault,
on university campuses (Bird et al., 2016). From there,
2010). However, moderate drinking also increases the
risk for certain types of cancer, so whether moderate people take sides. On the one hand, some (for example,
drinking is an appropriate health behaviour depends Marcus, 2013; Yoffe, 2013) argue that educating women
on the balance between lowering cardiovascular about potential unwanted and dangerous outcomes
risk and increasing cancer risk (LeWine, 2013). For
from binge drinking is simply a sensible practice.
Others (for example, Adelman, 2013; Ryan, 2013)
the majority of people, drinking alcohol poses no
serious health problems as long as they do not drink argue that such approaches constitute ‘blaming the
and drive. According to a 2015 survey by the World victim’ and that women have every right to engage in
Health Organisation, 58% of road traffic deaths in binge drinking should they choose to do so and that
South Africa involved alcohol, making it the highest unwanted outcomes such as sexual assault were the
number of drunk-driving related deaths in the world perpetrators’ fault. As we will see, binge drinking has
(WHO, 2015). consequences for both the drinker and the people
For many students, university parties and drinking around the drinker, and education programmes take
alcohol are virtually synonymous. Unfortunately, these outcomes into account.
drinking among college and university students @ FIGURE 10.3 shows the rate of a variety of
often goes beyond moderate intake to become binge problems related to binge drinking.
drinking Binge drinking is defined for men as
consuming five or more drinks in a row and for women
as consuming four or more drinks in a row within the binge drinking Type of drinking defined for men as consuming
five or more drinks in a row and for women as consuming four or
past two weeks. Binge drinking has been identified as
more drinks in a row within the past two weeks.
a major health problem in South Africa, and surveys

10.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH 317

Miss a class
a

oe:
Get behind in school work Ee

weveee
Engage in unplanned sexual activity —

Get hurt or injured

Hl Frequent
binge drinkers
Have sex without protection _
ME Infrequent
binge drinkers
HM Non-binge drinkers
Get into trouble with police FE

0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of students reporting a problem

@ FIGURE 10.3 Troublesome behaviours increase with binge drinking Note that all binge drinkers
report more problems than non-binge drinkers
Sauron: Adapted from a table in Weerailar ot al. (2002) Weerailer H., Loe, JE. Kuo,M Sebrung, M Neaton, TF & Lee, 4. (2002). Trends in collage binge drinking
dufing & period of ncreased prevention ations. Jounal of Anerican Codege Health, 2002 203-217)

There are programmes that aim to reduce the the involvement of students themselves are key and are
number of binge drinkers in South Africa. These efforts the basis for the most effective strategies to reduce risky
mostly include awareness campaigns and educational behaviour both in the United States (Miller & Prentice,
programmes such as those run by Diageo South Africa 2016) and around the world (McAlaney, Bewick, &
and Aware.org, but also focuses on creating safe drinking Hughes, 2011) The social norms approach focuses on
spaces and alcohol free zones such as the Phuza Wize changing the culture of drinking in university from one
Campaign Education programmes about the hazards that strongly supports binge drinking to one in which
of binge drinking can be effectively delivered online binge drinking is something that popular people do not do.
(O'Rourke, Humphris, & Baldacchino, 2016, Weaver This approach is based on the idea that many university
et al., 2014) students think that their peers’ attitudes toward drinking
The U.S.-based National Institute on Alcohol Abuse are more permissive than they really are (McAlaney et al.,
and Alcoholism (2002, 2007, 2015) has offered several 2011, Miller & Prentice, 2016; NIAAA, 2007)
strategies that focus on all these issues. Evidence is What constitutes alcohol use disorder? Alcohol use
growing that programmes based on social norms and disorder is a drinking pattern that results in significant
and recurrent consequences that reflect loss of reliable
alcohol use disorder Drinking pattern that results in significant control over alcohol use. Alcohol use disorder is diagnosed
and recurrent consequences that reflect loss of reliable control whenever anyone meets any two of the 11 criteria listed
over alcohol use.
in @ TABLE 10.1 during a 12-month period.

318 Cuaprer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

In the past year, have you:

® Had times when you ended up drinking more, or longer, than you intended?
More than once wanted to cut down or stop drinking, or tried to, but couldn't?
Spent a lot of time drinking? Or being sick or getting over other after effects?
Wanted a drink so badly you couldn't think of anything else?
Found that drinking - or being sick from drinking — often interfered with taking care of your home or family? Or caused job
troubles? Or school problems?
Continued to drink even though it was causing trouble with your family or friends?
Given up or cut back on activities that were important or interesting to you, or gave you pleasure, in order to drink?
® More than once got into situations while or after drinking that increased your chances of getting hurt (such as driving,
swimming, using machinery, walking in a dangerous area, or having unsafe sex)?
® Continued to drink even though it was making you feel depressed or anxious or adding to another health problem? Or
after having had a memory blackout?
® Had to drink much more than you once did to get the effect you want? Or found that your usual number of drinks had
much less effect than before?
® Found that when the effects of alcohol were wearing off, you had withdrawal symptoms, such as trouble sleeping,
shakiness, restlessness, nausea, sweating, a racing heart, or a seizure? Or sensed things that were not there?

Severity

The severity of the AUD is defined as:

® MildThe presence of 2-3 symptoms
® ModerateThe presence of 4-5 symptoms
® Severe The presence of 6 or more symptoms

Source. Based on NIH Publication 13-7999. (2016). Alcohol Use Disorder A Comparison Between DSM-IV and DSM-5. National
Institutes of Health (NIH), National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Available at pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/
dsmfactsheet/dsmfact.pdf

Neuroscience research has discovered that alcohol 12-step groups and programmes offered worldwide.
affects our brain, especially in disrupting the balance In South Africa, many private and government funded
in neurotransmitters (Bjork & Gilman, 2014; Lovinger treatment centres help people to stop abusing various
& Roberto, 2013) and impairing neuroplasticity drugs and alcohol. Behavioural treatments rely on
(Loheswaran et al., 2016). These neurotransmitters individual or group counselling to stop or reduce
include gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which drinking or drugging.
inhibits impulsiveness, glutamate, which excites the Three types of medications for use in treating alcohol
nervous system; norepinephrine, which is released use disorder are available globally, and approved for
in response to stress; and dopamine, serotonin, and use in South Africa as well as by the Medicines Control
opioid peptides, which are responsible for pleasurable Council (MCC)
feelings. Excessive long-term drinking can cause the
body to crave alcohol to restore good feelings or to e Disulfiram (Antabuse) is used to block alcohol
avoid negative feelings. In addition, other factors come metabolism, and causes very unpleasant symptoms
into play. genetics, high stress, anxiety, or emotional such as nausea to help people stop drinking. Disulfiram
pain, close friends or partners who drink excessively, has been used for nearly a century, but some people
and sociocultural factors that glorify alcohol. stop taking it to stop the unpleasant effects.
Treatment for alcohol use disorder focuses on three e Naltrexone reduces the pleasure received from
goals (NIAAA, 2014). stabilisation and reduction of drinking and reduces the cravings that compel chronic
substance consumption, treatment of coexisting problems, drinking by blocking the endorphin receptors in the
and arrangement of appropriate social interventions. brain Research evidence is mostly positive on the
Three main options for treatment are available: mutual- effectiveness of naltrexone, especially when combined
support groups, behavioural treatments, and medications. with other treatments.
Mutual-support groups are the most widely known e Acamprosate (Campral) reduces the unpleasant
and include Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and other symptoms experienced from alcohol withdrawal by

10.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH 319

Nutrition A Eating a healthy diet is an important part of preventing disease

Once on a holiday, one of the authors of this book, John

The guidelines encourage people to eat a healthy
Cavanaugh, took this photo outside a restaurant in
Megalochori, Greece. It captures the essence of how you plate of food at each meal, and the contents of that
should approach diet as part of healthy living.
plate be appropriately balanced Most important, we
should choose foods that limit the intake of added sugar,
The photo may remind you of disagreements with
saturated fats, sodium, and alcohol. And we need to keep
parents (or now with your own children) about food. As
our target calorie intake in mind. The full report contains
an adult yourself, you may now realise those beans and
much more detail about the specific foods that are best
other despised foods your parents urged you to eat really
for you.
are healthy.
Experts agree nutrition directly affects one’s mental, Of course, most people do not eat perfectly all the
time From time to time, each of us craves something
emotional, and physical functioning (Hammar & Ostgren,
— maybe a rich and creamy ice cream or our favourite
2013; McKee & Schiiz, 2015) Diet has been linked to
slab of chocolate. If you feel even a tiny bit guilty after
cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, anaemia, and
digestive disorders To stay maximally healthy, though,
you enjoy that splurge, you are among the people who
have taken to heart (literally) the link between diet
we must recognise that nutritional requirements and
and cardiovascular disease. The South African Heart
eating habits change across the life span. This change is
due mainly to differences in metabolism, or how much Association gives guidelines for the prevention of
cardiovascular disease, and makes it clear that foods
energy the body needs. Body metabolism and the digestive
high in saturated fat (such as our beloved ice cream)
process slow down with age (Janssen, 2005)
should be replaced with foods low in fat (such as fat-free
According to the Food Based Dietary Guidelines of
South Africa (Vorster, Badham, & Venter, 2013), our
frozen yogurt). In particular, saturated fatty acids should
diet should consist of a variety of nutrient-dense foods account for less than 10% of our total energy intake.
and beverages across the basic food groups. The general Check out their website (www.saheart.org/) for the latest
guidelines for adults can be seen in @ FIGURE 10.4. in advice on eating a heart-healthy diet
Many of the South African Heart Association's various
guidelines are standard guidelines enforced globally
metabolism How much energy the body needs.
They aim to lower the risk of cardiovascular disease

320 Cuaprer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Eat dry beans,

spit peas, lentils and soya regularly.
Make starchy foods part of most meals.

Have milk, maas or yoghurt ewery day.

Eat plenty of vegetables

and
truit every day.

@ FIGURE 10.4 The revised general food-based dietary guidelines for South Africans
Sourte: Veter, H Badwwm, J.8 Verses, C S. (2013). An introduction
to the revised food-teaed dalary guidelines for South Africa South Aftican Journal
of Olwon! Netrition, 2631, 51-5064

To achieve this goal, it is important to understand an If diet and exercise are not effective in lowering
important difference between two different types of cholesterol, numerous medications exist for treating
lipoproteins reflected in different types of cholesterol. cholesterol problems The most popular of these drugs
Lipoproteins are fatty chemicals attached to proteins are from a family of medications called statins (for
carried in the blood. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) example, atorvastatin, fluvastatin) These medications
cause fatty deposits to accumulate in arteries, impeding lower LDL and moderately increase HDL. Before
blood flow, whereas high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) prescribing statins, healthcare professionals also assess
help keep arteries clear and break down LDLs. It is not so a person's risk of cardiovascular disease from family
much the overall cholesterol number but the ratio of LDLs history and lifestyle, among other factors If statins
to HDLs that matters most in cholesterol screening. High are prescribed, their potential side effects on liver
levels of LDLs are a risk factor in cardiovascular disease, functioning should be monitored, and patients should
and high levels of HDLs are considered a protective consult with their physicians on a regular basis.
factor Reducing LDL levels is effective in diminishing Obesity is a serious and growing health problem related
the risk of cardiovascular disease in adults of all ages; in to diet. One good way to assess your own status is to
healthy adults, a high level of LDL (over 160 milligrams compute your body mass index. Body mass index (BMI)
per decilitre (mg/dL)) is associated with higher risk for
cardiovascular disease (Mayo Clinic, 2016) In contrast,
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) Chemicals that cause fatty
higher levels of HDL are good (in healthy adults, levels deposits to accumulate in arteries, impeding blood flow.
at least above 40 mg/dL for men and 50 mg/dL for
high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) Chemicals that help keep
women) LDL levels can be lowered and HDL levels can
arteries clear and break down LDLs.
be raised through various interventions such as exercise
and a high-fibre diet. Weight control is also an important body mass index (BMI) Ratio of body weight and height related
to total body fat.
component.

10.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH 321

Disease Risk* Relative to Normal Weight and

Waist Circumference
Men 102 cm Men
> 102 cm
(40 in) or less (40 in)
BMI Women 88cm Women> 88cm
(kg/m?) —(35 in) or less (35 in)

z
nt
on
a
Extreme
obesity ra
35.0-39.9

Seem
raat

toh
dinmalty 4 Overcrowded clinics are synonymous with primary healthcare
settings, especially in the South African context.
* Disease risk for type 2 diabetes, hypertension,
and CVD.
T increased waist circumference
can also be a marker
for increased risk even in persons of normal weight.
Educational level also matters. The risk of dying
@ FIGURE 105 Classification of overweight and obesity by BMI,
increases as educational level decreases (Centers for
waist circurnference, and associated disease risks. Disease Control and Prevention, 2016e; Huisman
Source: ware. .inibi nih. gowhealipsbiic Maryobestyiese_wi/bii_dra Noy et al., 2013). Quantity and quality of care as well as
outcomes are also poorer with lower educational levels
when looking at specific conditions such as rheumatoid
Obesity is a major health concern in South Africa. A arthritis (McCollum & Pincus, 2009)
survey conducted in 2016 revealed that 41% of women Does socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or education
and 11% of men were obese (Statistics South Africa, cause good (or poor) health? Not exactly As we discussed
2016). The South African government aims to reduce in Chapter 1, correlation research does not address cause
the prevalence of obesity by 10% in 2020 (Department and effect. In this case, higher educational level is also
of Health, 2016). associated with higher income and with more awareness
Based on these data, you may want to lower your BMI of dietary and lifestyle influences on health. Thus, more
if it’s above 25. But be careful - lowering your BMI too highly educated people are in a better position to afford
much (below 18.5) may not be healthy either. Very low healthcare and to know about the kinds of foods and
BMIs may indicate malnutrition, which is also related to lifestyle that affect health. The discussion of these issues
increased mortality. continues in the “What do you think?’ feature

322 Cuarptrer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Test yourself 10.2

Recall 8. The three most important social influences on

health are socioeconomic status, ;
1. Treatment for alcohol use disorder focuses
and education.
on three goals: stabilisation and reduction of
substance consumption,
oo Interpret
arrangement of appropriate social interventions.
¢ How would you design a healthcare system that
2. Physical functioning generally peaks during
provides strong incentives for young adults
leading healthy lifestyles?
3. In less than a year after stopping smoking, the
regain their normal ability to move Apply
mucus out. e In your job as a nutritionist, you have been asked
4. is defined for men as consuming to design a comprehensive educational campaign
five or more drinks in a row and for women as to promote healthy lifestyles. What information
consuming four or more drinks in a row within would you include?
the past two weeks. ¢ Asa nurse, what information besides basic health
status would you want to know from a new
5. is a drinking pattern that results patient?
in significant and recurrent consequences that
reflect loss of reliable control over alcohol use. Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.
6. The neurotransmitter that inhibits impulsiveness
is
7. There are two types of cholesterol. High levels of
are a risk factor in cardiovascular
disease, and high levels of are
considered a protective factor.

10.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH 323

© Describe intelligence in adulthood.

© Explain fluid and crystallised intelligence, and how they change.

e Discuss how neuroscience research has furthered our understanding of intelligence in adulthood.

® Describe postformal thought, and how it differs from formal operations.

® Explain how emotion and logic become integrated in adulthood, and how emotional intelligence and
impression formation demonstrate this integration.

Susan, a 33-year-old woman recently retrenched his theory of successful intelligence (also discussed in
from her job as a data capturer, nervously slides Chapter 6). Based on the life-span perspective (described
into a seat on her first day of classes at university. in Chapter 1), Baltes and colleagues (Baltes et al.,
She thinks to herself, ‘I'm worried that | won't be 2006) introduced three other concepts as being vital to
able to compete with these younger students - intellectual development in adults: multidirectionality,
| may not be smart enough,’ she sighs. ‘Guess interindividual variability, and plasticity.
we'll find out soon enough, huh?’ Over time, the various abilities underlying adults’
intelligence show multidirectionality: some aspects of
Many returning adult students such as Susan worry intelligence improve and other aspects decline during
that they may not be ‘smart enough’ to keep up with adulthood. Closely related to this is interindividual
18- or 19-year-olds. Are these fears realistic? We will see variability: these patterns of change also vary from one
how the answer to this question depends on the types of person to another Finally, people's abilities reflect plasticity:
intellectual skills being used. they are not fixed, but can be modified under the right
conditions at just about any point in adulthood. Because
How should we view intelligence in most research on plasticity has focused on older adults,
we return to this topic in Chapter 14. In general, Baltes
adults? and colleagues emphasise that intelligence has many
Take a sheet of paper and write down all the abilities that components and that these components show varying
you think reflect intelligence in adults. It's a safe bet that development in different abilities and different people.
you listed more than one ability. You are not alone. Most Given that intelligence in adults is complex and
theories of intelligence are multidimensional — that is, multifaceted, how might we study it? Two common
they identify several types of intellectual abilities. ways are formal testing and assessing practical problem-
Sternberg (1985, 2008, Sternberg, Jarvin, & solving skills. Formal testing assesses a wide range of
Grigorenko, 2009) emphasised multidimensionality in abilities and involves tests from which we can compute
overall IQ scores such as those discussed in Chapter 6.
multidimensional Characteristic of theories of intelligence that Tests of practical problem-solving assess people's ability
identify several types of intellectual abilities.
to apply intellectual skills to everyday situations. Let's see
multidirectionality Developmental pattern in which some aspects how each approach describes intellectual development.
of intelligence improve and other aspects decline during adulthood.
The psychometric approach focuses on the
interindividual variability Patterns of change that vary from one interrelationships among intellectual abilities, so a major
person to another. goal has long been to describe the ways these relationships
plasticity Concept that intellectual abilities are not fixed but can are organised (Sternberg, 1985). This organisation of
be modified under the right conditions at just about any point in interrelated intellectual abilities is termed the structure of
adulthood. intelligence The most common way to describe the
structure of intelligence The organisation of interrelated structure of intelligence is to think of it as a five-level
intellectual abilities. hierarchy, depicted in @ FIGURE 10.6 (Cunningham, 1987)

324 CuHaprTrer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT’ PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

(e.9., verbal comprehension) (e.g., experiential evaluation)

Social
Vocabulary Similarities transtations Social situations

@ FIGURE 10.6 Secondary mental abilities reflect several primary mental abilities and their
respective measurements This figure shows those relations regarding crystallised intelligence

Each higher level of this hierarchy represents a higher technique, it is not an exact technique. Thus, estimates
level of organising the components of the level below of the exact number of factors vary from a few to over
The lowest level consists of individual test questions 100. Most researchers and theorists believe the number
- the specific items people answer on an intelligence to be relatively small. We examine two factors: primary
test. These items or questions can be organised into and secondary mental abilities.
intelligence tests, which constitute the second level.
The third level reflects interrelationships among scores
on intelligence tests that assess similar abilities. These Pri ' Labilit
clusters of abilities are called primary mental abilities.
Continuing to move up the hierarchy, the interrelationships Since the 1930s, researchers have agreed intellectual abilities
existing among the primary mental abilities produce can be studied as groups of related skills (such as memory
the secondary mental abilities at the fourth level. Finally, or spatial ability) organised into hypothetical constructs
general intelligence at the top refers to the interrelationships called primary mental abilities. In turn, related groups
among the secondary mental abilities. of primary mental abilities can be clustered into about six
Keep in mind that each time we move up the hierarchy broader skills termed secondary mental abilities.
we move away from people's actual performance. Each Roughly 25 primary mental abilities have been
level above the first represents a theoretical description of identified (Horn, 1982) Because it is difficult to study all
how things fit together Thus, there are no tests of primary of them, researchers focused on five representative ones:
abilities as such; primary abilities represent theoretical
© Number the basic skills underlying our mathematical
relationships among tests. In turn, these represent
reasoning
theoretical relationships among actual performances.
e Word fluency: how easily we produce verbal
So exactly how do researchers construct this
descriptions of things
theoretical hierarchy? The structure of intelligence is
© Verbal meaning: our vocabulary ability
uncovered through sophisticated statistical detective
e Inductive reasoning: our ability to extrapolate from
work using a technique called factor analysis. First,
particular facts to general concepts
researchers obtain people's performances on many
© Spatial orientation: our ability to reason in the three-
types of problems. Second, the results are examined
dimensional world.
to determine whether performance on one type of
problem, such as filling in missing letters in a word,
predicts performance on another type of problem, like
factor The interrelated abilities measured by two tests if the
unscrambling letters to form a word. If the performance performance on one test is highly related to the performance on
on one test is highly related to the performance on another, another.
the abilities measured by the two tests are interrelated and
primary mental abilities Groups of related intellectual skills
are called a factor. (such as memory or spatial ability).
Most psychometric theorists believe intelligence
consists of several factors. However, we should note secondary mental abilities Broader intellectual skills that
subsume and organise the primary abilities.
although factor analysis is a sophisticated statistical

103 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 325

Who was the investigator, and what was the aim

of the study?To provide a more thorough picture
of intellectual change, K. Warner Schaie began the
60
Seattle Longitudinal Study in 1956.
How did the investigator measure the topic Total Sample
of interest? Schaie used standardised tests of a
primary mental abilities to assess a wide range
of abilities such as logical reasoning and spatial
ability
Who were the participants in the study?
Over the course of the study, more than 5 000
individuals were tested at eight different times
(1956, 1963, 1970, 1977, 1984, 1991, 1998, and
2005) The participants were representative of
the upper 75% of the socioeconomic spectrum
and were recruited through a large health 40
maintenance organisation in Seattle Number
What was the design of the study? Schaie = Word fluency
invented a new type of research design — the
sequential design (see Chapter 1) Participants
were tested every seven years 32 39 «84606530 COT HBB
Were there ethical concerns with the study?
Because people's names must be retained for Age (years)
future contact, the researchers were careful about
keeping personal information secure @ FIGURE 107 Longitudinal estimates of age changes on observed measures of
What were the results? Among the many five primary mental abilities
important findings from the study are differential Souroe: Based on imtelectud development across adulthood by Weenar Swe, K. and Zanjari, FaltaA K.. in Handbook of Adult
changes in abilities over time and cohort effects Develoornent and Lewning, ed. by Hoare, C, o. 102

As you can see in @ FIGURE 10.7, scores

on tests of primary mental abilities improve
gradually until the late 30s or early 40s Small declines Cohort differences were also found @ FIGURE 10.8
begin in the 50s, increase as people age into their 60s, and shows that on some skills (for example, inductive reasoning
become increasingly large in the 70s (Schaie & Zanyani, ability) but not others, more recently born younger and
2006) middle-aged cohorts performed better than cohorts born

Even with a relatively small number of primary mental

abilities, it is still hard to discuss intelligence by focusing
As noted earlier, primary abilities are themselves
on separate abilities. As a result, theories of intelligence
organised into clusters of secondary mental abilities
emphasise clusters of related primary mental abilities as
a framework for describing the structure of intelligence A summary of the major secondary mental abilities
Because they are one step removed from primary mental is presented in @ TABLE 10.2. Two secondary mental
abilities, secondary mental abilities are not measured abilities have received a great deal of attention in
directly. adult developmental research fluid intelligence and
crystallised intelligence (Horn, 1982).
The ‘Spotlight on research’ feature describes the
definitive developmental study of primary mental abilities. Fluid intelligence consists of the abilities that make
you a flexible and adaptive thinker, allow you to make
inferences, and enable you to understand the relations
fluid intelligence Abilities that make you a flexible and adaptive among concepts. It includes the abilities you need to
thinker, allow you to make inferences, and enable you to understand and respond to any situation, but especially
understand the relations among concepts.
new ones. inductive reasoning, integration, abstract

326 CuHapTer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

others showed declines in some abilities

Cumulative

but not others, and some people

showed little change in most abilities

agua ee
over a 14-year period.
What did the investigator conclude?
o

Three points are clear First, intellectual

development during adulthood ts

ane
marked by a gradual levelling off of
gains between young adulthood and
il
NW| middie age This ts followed by a period
of relative stability and then a time of
gradual decline in most abilities Second,
| these trends vary from one cohort to
another Third, individual patterns of
1889 1896 1903 1907 1910 1917 1924 1931 1938 1945 1952 1959 1966 1973 change vary considerably from person to
Cohort (year of birth) person,
What converging evidence would
strengthen these conclusions?
@ FIGURE 10.8 Cohort gradients showing cumulative cohort difference on five primary mental Although Schaie's study ts one of the
abilities for cohorts born in 1889 to 1973 most comprehensive ever conducted,
Source: Based of ntefectual development across adulthood by Warner Schaia, K., and Zatjare, Falta AK. in Handbook of Adut Develgoren any Lasrng, it is limited. Studying people who
3. by Moara,C p 902
live in different locations around the
world would provide evidence as to
earlier These cohort effects probably reflect differences in whether the results are limited geographically Additional cross-
educational experiences cultural evidence comparing people with different economic
Schaie uncovered many individual differences as well Some backgrounds and different access to healthcare would also
people showed developmental patterns closely approximating the provide insight into the effects of these vanables on intellectual
overall trends, but others showed unusual patterns. For example, development.

thinking, and the like (Horn, 1982). An example of a Who wants to be a millionaire? and Pointless) are based on
question that requires fluid abilities is the following: contestants’ accumulated crystallised intelligence.
what letter comes next in the series d f1 m r x e?' Developmentally, fluid and crystallised intelligence
Crystallised intelligence is the knowledge you have follow two different paths, as you can see in @ FIGURE 10.9.
acquired through life experience and education in a Notice that fluid intelligence declines throughout
particular culture. Crystallised intelligence includes your adulthood, whereas crystallised intelligence improves.
breadth of knowledge, comprehension of communication, Although we do not yet fully understand why fluid
judgement, and sophistication with information (Horn, intelligence declines, it likely is related to underlying
1982). Many popular television game shows (such as changes in the brain (see Chapter 2). In contrast, the
increase in crystallised intelligence (at least until late life)
indicates people continue adding knowledge every day.
'The next letter is m. The rule is to increase the difference between
adjacent letters in the series by one each time and use a continuous crystallised intelligence The knowledge you have acquired
circle of the alphabet for counting. Thus, f is two letters from d, i is through life experience and education in a particular culture.
three letters fromf, and ¢ is seven letters from x.

10.3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 327

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lowsing All Rights Reserved May set be coped, acommed, or dupicred m whole of im part. Dur to clectrommc mghes, some thand party cosscat aery be sappeesend fern te: <fiock ancive of hapecr’s)
Echtomad seview bee doomed thet sey wapprowed comacmt dors ct suskmadly affect the overall komang cupenence. Congage Leateng rowrves the ngbt @ acmove aiitaeal coment af any Gree if efeegent rghe wncboes MngeeN &
Descriptions of major secondary mental abilities
Crystallised intelligence (Gc)
Crystallised intelligence reflects the breadth of knowledge and experience, understanding communications and social
conventions, judgement, and reason. The components of Gc include the primary abilities of verbal comprehension, concept
formation, logical reasoning, and general reasoning, among others. Tests of Gc include vocabulary (What does timid mean?)
and analogies (Plato is to Kant as Shakespeare is to___), among others. Gc is a rough estimate of the knowledge and
sophistication that underlies the intelligence of a culture.
Fluid intelligence (Gf)
Fluid intelligence reflects the abilities to see relationships among patterns, draw inferences from relationships, and
comprehend the implications of relationships. The primary abilities underlying Gf include inductive reasoning, figural
flexibility, and integration, among others. Tests of Gf include letter series (what comes next in the series d fi mr x e?),
matrices (identify the relationships among elements in a 2X2 matrix), and shapes (from among a set of overlapping circles,
squares, and triangles, choose a figure that enables you to place a dot inside a circle and triangle but outside of a square). Gf
provides a rough estimate of a person's problem-solving and abstracting ability. It does not reflect cultural learning.
Visual organisation (Gv)
Visual organisation reflects the underlying primary abilities: visualisation, spatial orientation, speed and flexibility of closure,
among others. Gv is tested through holistic closure (identify a figure that has missing parts), form board (put cutout parts
together to create and match a specific figure), and embedded figures (find the duck in a complex visual image). Gv differs
from Gf in that Gv reflects relationships among visual patterns that are obvious and not inferred (which would reflect Gf).
Auditory organisation (Ga)
Auditory organisation reflects underlying primary abilities such as time tracking, auditory cognition of relations, and speech
perception when the speech is degraded or distorted, among others. Tests of Ga include repeated tones (identify the first
occurrence of a tone that is played several times), tonal series (indicate which tone comes next in a specific series of tones),
and word identification in noise (identify a specific word when it is embedded in a noisy background environment), among
others.
Short-term acquisition and retrieval (Gstar)
This ability reflects the ability to be aware of and retain information long enough to do something with it. The underlying
primary abilities all reflect aspects of short-term memory. Tests of Gstar include span memory (repeat increasingly long lists
of numbers or words), associative memory (remember word pairs of related words), among others.
Long-term storage and retrieval
This type of intelligence reflects the ability to store information and retrieve information that was acquired in the distant past.

Source: Horn, J L. (1982) The aging of human abilities In B. B Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of Developmental Psychology
(pp 847-870). Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall Reprinted with permission

= Tests of crystalised intelligence ——— General

IQ tests
or Tests of fluid intelligence
High

14-17 18-20 21-28 =. 29-39 40-61

Age (years)

@ FIGURE 10.9 Note the opposite developmental patterns for fluid and
crystallised intelligence.
Source: Based on Orgartination of data on life-span development of human abilities by Hom, J. 0. im Goulet, LR. and
Bates, PB (Eda), Litt-Spat Deveionmental Psychakgy: Research and Theary, 2 463.

328 CuHarpTerR 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

vary considerably in how much they read, individual

differences are likely to increase. related to specific combinations of brain structures (Di
Domenico et al., 2015; Haier et al., 2010; Kievit et al.,
N , basl teint 2016; Pineda-Pardo et al., 2016).
A second theory of intelligence based on
Considerable research shows specific areas in the neuroscience evidence is based on how efficiently
brain are associated with intellectual abilities, and the brain works (Brancucci, 2012; Di Domenico et al.,
developmental changes in these areas are related to 2015; Kievit et al., 2016; Langer et al., 2012) The
changes in performance. neural efficiency hypothesis states intelligent people
Research now shows that the prefrontal cortex, process information more efficiently, showing weaker
along with the parietal lobe (an area of the brain at the neural activations in a smaller number of areas than
top of the head), plays an important role in general less intelligent people. Research evidence is mounting
intellectual abilities. Based on 37 studies using various that this idea holds merit, and with greater intelligence
types of neuroimaging techniques, Jung and Haier does come demonstrably increased efficiency in neural
(2007) proposed the parieto-frontal integration theory. processing (for example, Kievit et al., 2016; Langer
The parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) et al., 2012, Lipp et al., 2012; Pineda-Pardo et al., 2016).
proposes that intelligence comes from a distributed and However, how this neural efficiency develops is not yet
integrated network of neurons in the parietal and frontal known, nor are its developmental pathways understood.
areas of the brain. @ FIGURE 10.10 shows these key It is clear neuroscience and related research on
brain areas. In general, P-FIT accounts for individual intelligence will continue to provide many insights
differences in intelligence as having their origins in into the bases for both the development of fluid and
individual differences in brain structure and function. crystallised intelligence, as well as understanding
For example, research indicates that the P-FIT predicts individual differences in each. As neuroimaging and
fluid intelligence (Nikolaidis et al., 2017; Pineda-Pardo other techniques continue to improve, it is likely that our
et al., 2016). understanding of both the brain structure-intelligence
In general, P-FIT accounts for individual differences relations as well as their development will improve.
in intelligence as having their origins in individual
differences in brain structure and function. The P-FIT
model has been tested in several studies. Results parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) Theory that proposes
indicate support for the theory when measures of that intelligence comes from a distributed and integrated network
of neurons in the parietal and frontal lobes of the brain.
fluid and crystallised intelligence are related to brain
structures (Basten, Hilger, & Fiebach, 2015, Brancucci, neural efficiency hypothesis States intelligent people process
2012; Pineda-Pardo et al., 2016) It is also clear that information more efficiently, showing weaker neural activations
in a smaller number of areas than less intelligent people.
performance on measures of specific abilities is likely

10,3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 329

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lenening All Rights Reserved: May not be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some thend pany costent muy he suppeensed tern dye eflioek andl eCTuapter(+)
Fadtomed eevhew hon deemed thet any wappremed content dacs set rusterially affect the overall kaming expenence. Cengage Learung rescevex the ngbt to nemowe additaveal contort at ary tire if submeapaenl rigivie weatrictioms nepeine i.
Going beyond formal operations: Thinking One of the best is the description of the development
in
adulthood of reflective judgement, a way that adults reason
through dilemmas involving current affairs, religion,
Suppose you are faced with the following dilemma: science, personal relationships, and the like. Based on
You are a member of your college's or university's decades of longitudinal and cross-sectional research,
student council and are currently hearing a case King and Kitchener (2002; 2015) refined descriptions
involving plagiarism. The university policy states and identified a systematic progression of reflective
plagiarism is a serious offence resulting in expulsion. judgement in young adulthood. A summary of these
The student accused of plagiarising a paper admits stages is shown in @e TABLE 10.3.
copying from Wikipedia but says she has never The first three stages in the model represent
been told she needed to use a formal citation and prereflective thought. People in these stages typically
quotation marks. Do you vote to expel the student? do not acknowledge and may not even perceive that
When this and similar problems are presented to older knowledge is uncertain. Consequently, they do not
adolescents and young adults, interesting differences understand some problems exist when there is not a
emerge. Adolescents tend to approach the problem in clear and absolutely correct answer. A student pressuring
formal-operational terms and point out the university her lecturer for the ‘right’ theory to explain human
policy is clear and the student ignored it, concluding the development reflects this stage. She is also likely to
student should be expelled. Formal-operational thinkers hold firm positions on controversial issues and does so
are certain such solutions are right because they are based without acknowledging other people's ability to reach a
on their own experience and are logically driven. different (but nevertheless equally logical) position.
But many adults are reluctant to draw conclusions About halfway through the developmental
based on the limited information in the problem, progression, students think differently. In Stages 4 and 5,
especially when the problem can be interpreted in students are likely to say nothing can be known for certain
different ways (Commons, 2016) They point out there and to change their conclusions based on the situation
is much about the student we don't know: has she ever and the evidence. At this point, students argue knowledge
been taught the proper procedure for using sources? is quite subjective They are also less persuasive with their
Was the lecturer or tutor clear about what plagiarism is? positions on controversial issues. “Each person is entitled
For adults, the problem is more ambiguous. Adults may to his or her own view, | cannot force my opinions on
eventually decide the student 1s (or 1s not) expelled, but anyone else. King and Kitchener refer to thinking in these
they do so only after considering aspects of the situation stages as quasi-reflective’ thinking.
that go well beyond the information given in the problem. As they continue their development into Stages 6 and
Based on numerous investigations, researchers 7, individuals begin to show true reflective judgement,
concluded this different type of thinking represents understanding that people construct knowledge using
a qualitative change beyond formal operations (King evidence and argument after careful analysis of the problem
& Kitchener, 2015; Lemieux, 2012; Sinnott, 2014). or situation. They once again hold firm convictions but
Postformal thought is characterised by recognition reach them only after careful consideration of several
that truth (the correct answer) may vary from situation points of view. They also realise they must continually
to situation, solutions must be realistic to be reasonable, re-evaluate their beliefs in view of new evidence.
ambiguity and contradiction are the rule rather than the Even though people are able to think at complex
exception, and emotion and subjective factors usually levels, do they? Not usually (King & Kitchener, 2004,
play a role in thinking In general, the research evidence 2015). Why? Mostly because the environment does
indicates postformal thinking has its origins in young not provide the supports necessary for using one’s
adulthood (King & Kitchener, 2015; Sinnott, 2014). highest-level thinking, especially for issues concerning
Several research-based descriptions of the knowledge and experience you already have. People may
development of thinking in adulthood have been offered. not always purchase the product with the least impact on
the environment, such as a fully electric car, even though
postformal thought Thinking characterised by recognising that philosophically they are strong environmentalists,
the correct answer varies from one situation to another, that because recharging stations are currently not widely
solutions should be realistic, that ambiguity and contradiction are
typical, and that subjective factors play a role in thinking. available. However, if pushed and if given the necessary
supports (for example, easily available charging stations),
reflective judgement Way in which adults reason through real people demonstrate a level of thinking and performance
life dilemmas.
far higher than they typically show on a daily basis.

330 Cuarter 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Belief that ‘knowledge is gained through the word of an authority figure or through first hand observation, rather than,
for example, through the evaluation of evidence. [People who hold these assumptions] believe that what they know is
absolutely correct, and that they know with complete certainty. People who hold these assumptions treat all problems
as though they were well-structured’ (King & Kitchener, 2004, p. 39). Example statements typical of Stages 1-3: ‘I know it
because | see it’ ‘| read it on a website, it must be true’

Quasi-reflective reasoning (Stages 4 and 5)

Recognition ‘that knowledge - or more accurately, knowledge claims — contain elements of uncertainty, which [people
who hold these assumptions] attribute to missing information or to methods of obtaining the evidence. Although they use
evidence, they do not understand how evidence entails a conclusion (especially in light of the acknowledged uncertainty),
and thus tend to view judgements as highly idiosyncratic’ (King & Kitchener, 2004, p. 40). Example statement typical of
stages 4 and 5: ‘I would believe in climate change if | could see the proof. How can you be sure the scientists aren't just
making up the data?’

Reflective reasoning (Stages 6 and 7)

People who hold these assumptions accept ‘that knowledge claims cannot be made with certainty, but [they] are not
immobilised by it; rather, [they] make judgements that are ‘most reasonable’ and about which they are ‘relatively certain’,
based on their evaluation of available data. They believe they must actively construct their decisions, and that knowledge
claims must be evaluated in relationship to the context in which they were generated to determine their validity. They also
readily admit their willingness to re-evaluate the adequacy of their judgements as new data or new methodologies become
available’ (King & Kitchener, 2004, p. 40). Example statement typical of stages 6 and 7: ‘It is difficult to be certain about
things in life, but you can draw your own conclusions about them based on how well an argument is put together based on
the data used to support it’!

Integrating emotion and logic in emerging tolerating contradiction and ambiguity. Such shifts
andyoungadulthood = mean one’ sense of self also undergoes a fundamental
change
You may have noticed that a characteristic of postformal A good example of this developmental shift is the
thinking is the movement from thinking ‘I’m right difference between how late adolescents or emerging
because I've experienced it’ to thinking ‘I’m not adults view an emotionally charged issue — such as
sure whos right because your experience is different unethical behaviour at work —- compared to the views
from mine’ Problem situations that seemed fairly of middle-aged adults. Emerging adults may view
straightforward in adolescence appear more complicated such behaviour as completely inexcusable, with firing
to young adults The ‘right thing to do’ is much tougher of the employee an inescapable outcome. Middle-aged
to figure out. adults may take contextual factors into account and
In addition to an increased understanding there consider what factors may have forced the person
is more than one ‘right’ answer, adult thinking is to engage in the behaviour. Some might argue this
characterised by the integration of emotion with logic is because the topic is too emotionally charged for
(Labouvie-Vief, 2015) Labouvie-Vief (2015; Labouvie- adolescents to deal with intellectually, whereas young
Vief, Griihn, and Mouras, 2009) describes this emotional adults are better able to incorporate emotion into
development as paralleling intellectual development, their thinking
demonstrating both gains and losses with increasing As people grow older, two things happen in terms
age These parallel processes create tension, resulting in of the integration of emotion and thought (Labouvie-
the cognitive-emotional integration and interplay that Vief, 2015) First, the rich emotional experience
middle-aged and older adults use when confronted with people have accumulated can be brought to bear on
real-life problems. tasks that are not too difficult in terms of cognitive
As they mature, adults tend to make decisions and demands, meaning that in these situations older
analyse problems not so much on logical grounds as adults have an easier time than younger adults at
on pragmatic and emotional grounds. Rules and norms integrating emotions and thought. In contrast, when
are viewed as relative, not absolute. Mature thinkers the demands of the task are great, the arousal that
realise thinking is an inherently social enterprise that is created narrows their ability to bring emotions to
demands making compromises with other people and bear.

103 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 331

Why are formal operations inadequate for

integrating emotion and thought?

Emotional intelligence
The increased integration of emotion and thought
across emerging and young adulthood provides a way
of examining how cognitive abilities operate in social
situations. The basic goal of the social cognition approach
is to understand how people make sense of themselves,
others, and events in everyday life (Fiske & Taylor, 2013;
Frith & Frith, 2012, Kornadt et al., 2018; Weiss, 2016).
A key ability in social contexts is emotional intelligence
(Goleman, 1995; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Emotional
intelligence (EI) refers to people’ ability to recognise their own
A Blogging has become a common way of documenting the and others’ emotions, to correctly identify and appropriately
integration of thought and emotion tell the difference between emotions, and use this information
to guide their thinking and behaviour Emotional intelligence
Neuroimaging evidence consists of two aspects. First, EI can be viewed as a trait
We noted earlier that important changes occur in the that reflects a person's self-perceived dispositions and
brain beginning in emerging adulthood. Evidence from abilities. Second, EI can be viewed as an ability that reflects
neuroimaging research indicates emotion and logic the person's success at processing emotional information
processing 1s indeed integrated in adults (Gu et al., 2013). and using it appropriately in social contexts. EI has been
This integration occurs in the prefrontal cortex and the applied to a wide variety of situations, from everyday social
anterior insula (an area of the brain deep inside the cortex). cognition and problem solving, to bullying, to business, to
Additional research indicates the amygdala is also involved leadership. Although still controversial (Hunt & Fitzgerald,
in processing emotion, and this information is also 2013, 2014), El has been mapped onto brain structures
integrated with thought. (Barbey et al., 2014; Operskalski et al., 2015).
Evidence of certain neural pathways in the brain Research indicates that emotional intelligence
associated with cognition-emotion integration can be increases with age (Chen, Peng, & Fang, 2016; Mankus,
used as a baseline for understanding what happens when Boden, & Thompson, 2016), though there is some
the neural connections are altered or absent. Evidence is evidence that the specific ability to perceive others’
now clear that these interconnections are different in some emotions in the work context declines late in life
forms of mental disorders (Anticevic, Repovs, & Barch, (Doerwald et al., 2016). An important finding is that older
2012; Hamilton, Hiatt Racer, & Newman, 2015). This adults’ increased emotional intelligence may be a source
means intellectual and emotion processing share common of their higher subjective well-being (Chen et al., 2016).
brain pathways in healthy adults, but various other EI may well be an underlying factor in the social
pathways in adults who experience mental disorders. cognitive situations, one of which, impression formation,
The integration of emotion with logic that happens we will now consider. Keep in mind that variations in a
in adulthood provides the basis for decision making person's ability to sort out the emotional information
in the personal and sometimes difficult aspects of love available in any given social situation may play an
important role in how he or she behaves.
emotional intelligence (El) The ability to recognise their own
and others’ emotions, to correctly identify and appropriately tell
the difference between emotions, and use this information to Impression formation
guide their thinking and behaviour. When people meet each other, they tend to immediately
impression formation The way we form and revise first come to conclusions about them on many dimensions.
impressions about others. Researchers (for example, Adams et al., 2012;

332 Cuarren 10 BUCOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lenening. All Rights Kexerved May met be copied, scammed, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectroemc rights, some thend party content mury he suppeesmed feorn tre eflnek nadie eC Teaptoris)
Eabtored review hoe deened that aay wuppremed coment dace aot mustonadly affect the overall kammg cxpenence. Cengage Learsing reserves the night to remnowe additeonal crertertt af ery torn if sedmeuparenl rigivis peedrietoome recpauny
Kotter-Griihn, 2016; Leshikar, Cassidy, & Gutchess, of honesty The other group is presented with negative
2016) examine age differences in social judgements information first, such as incidents of dishonest behaviour
by examining impression formation. Impression Each group then subsequently gets the opposite information
formation is the way we form and revise first impressions about the person (for example, the group that got positive
about others Researchers examine how people use information first then gets negative information).
diagnostic trait information (aspects about people that What happens to people's first impressions as a
appear critical or unique) in making initial impressions function of age is a well-established finding. As you can
of an individual, and how this process varies with age. see from @ FIGURE 10.11, in a study that helped create
A common way of studying impression formation is this area of research focus, Hess and Pullen (1994) found
to have two groups of adults presented with information all study participants modified their impressions. When
about a person, either through descriptions or inferences new negative information was presented after the initial
One group gets positive information first, such as evidence positive portrayal of the target person, older adults

Positive initial portrayal

of target
terreno iran |
terreno iran |
oa
ow
Mean trait ratings
>
w
nN
_

bas adults

Negative initial portrayal

of target

I Murnonpoate man |
I Murnonpoate man |
>
Mean trait ratings
w
nN

0 | 7

ga adults

@ FIGURE 10 11 Mean trait ratings before and after presentation of new

negative or positive information.
Source: A modified gagh fram Heaa, TM & Puan, S M (994) Adult age ditlerances in inpresaion change grocessen
Psychology and Aging, 9, p. 239.

103 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 333

Copyraght 3019 Cengage Learn. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copsed, scammed, ce duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosmc nights, some thend party comtest may he suppecesed form the ciiook and/ce of hapter(s).
Edttomad sewew bon deemed that any suppromed creme! dacs sot matcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learning reserves the night to remove additiosal coetent af any tame if subsequent nghe sednctioes noqene at.
modified their impression of the target from positive to Why do younger and older adults differ? Hess
negative. Interestingly, however, they modified their first and Pullen suggest older adults may rely more on life
impression less when the negative portrayal was followed experiences and social rules of behaviour when making
by positive information. their interpretations, whereas younger adults may be
In contrast, younger adults did not show this pattern more concerned with situational consistency of the new
Instead, they were more concerned with making sure information presented.
the new information was consistent with their initial Given the consistency of these patterns over many
impression. To do so, they modified their impressions studies, knowing how to create positive (or negative)
to correspond with the new information regardless impressions about people, such as in political campaigns,
of whether it was positive or negative. Younger adults, job interviews, or dating, requires understanding of the
then, make their impression based on the most recent order in which certain personal characteristics should be
information they have presented.

Test yourself 10.3

Recall Interpret
1. The proposes that intelligence © Many young adult university students seemingly
comes from a distributed and integrated network get more confused about what field they want to
of neurons in the parietal and frontal areas of the major in and less certain about what they know
brain as they progress through university. From a
cognitive-developmental approach, why does this
2. Evidence from neuroimaging research indicates
happen?
that emotion and logic processing is integrated
e Political movements often are led by a
in the and the anterior insula.
combination of late adolescents/young adults
3. Nikita is skilled at recognising what other people and older adults. From a cognitive development
are feeling, and this skill guides her behaviour. perspective, why would this tend to be the case?
She is good at using her
4. Intellectual abilities can be studied as groups of
Apply
related skills (such as memory or spatial ability)
e Two friends explained their decision to support
organised into hypothetical constructs called different political parties during the last election
in South Africa. Basani said that she had an
intuition that her party’s statements were based on
5. Saskia'’s ability to infer and to understand the facts and were absolutely trustworthy; Amukelo
relations among concepts may be an indication said that her party’s statements always had to be
of her . Her father knows a lot put into a specific context in order to be analysed.
about the local music scene, and can answer Based on the reflective judgement model, what
any questions about singers and trends. He has levels of thinking do these friends demonstrate?
greater , which he acquired through How does experience on the job relate to the
his work in the music industry. stages of reflective judgement?
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.

ET] Who do you want to be? Personality in young adulthood

Learning objectives

® Explain how adults create scenarios and life stories.

® Describe possible selves, and whether they show differences during adulthood.

e Discuss personal control beliefs.

334 Cuaprer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learmung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copacd, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest muy he wappeesscd from the cfbook andive of hapter|s).
Exttonal seview bon deaned thot any wappromed coment dacs sot matcrially affect the overall keammng expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night to remove additeoeal content af arty Gime if sudmequent night scetnctioes noqaar it
Felicia is a 19-year-old first year student at and will be able to apply all of the knowledge and skills
university She expects her study of early you have learned. In short, a scenario is a game plan for
childhood education to be difficult but how your life will play out in the future.
rewarding. She figures that along the way, she Felicia, the first year human development student,
will meet a great guy and marry him soon after has a fairly typical scenario. She plans on completing
graduation. They will have two children before a degree in early childhood education, marrying after
she turns 30. Felicia sees herself getting a good graduation, and having two children by age 30. Tagging
job teaching preschool children and someday future events with a particular time or age by which they
owning her own day-care centre. are to be completed creates a social clock. This personal
timetable gives people a way to track progress through
Maya Angelou (1969) perhaps said it best: “There is no adulthood, and it may use biological markers of time
agony like bearing an untold story inside of you. True (such as menopause), social aspects of time (such as
to her conviction, she spent a lifetime writing her story marriage), and historical time (such as the year 2025)
in numerous books, poems, and other literary works (Hagestad & Neugarten, 1985).
She described an incredible developmental path of Felicia will use her scenario to evaluate progress
oppression, hatred, and hurt that ultimately resulted in toward her personal goals. With each new event, she will
self-awareness, understanding, and compassion. check where she is against where her scenario says she
In Chapter 9, we saw how children and adolescents should be. If she is ahead of her plan, she may be proud
begin creating their stories by answering the question, of having made it If she is lagging behind, she may
What do you want to be when you grow up? As a young scold herself for being slow. But if she criticises herself
adult, Felicia has arrived at the ‘grown-up’ part and too much, she may change her scenario altogether. For
is experimenting with some idealistic answers to the example, if she does not go to university, she may decide
question Are Felicia’s answers typical of most emerging to change her career goals entirely. instead of owning
adults? her own day care centre, she may aim to be a manager in
In this section, we examine how the search for a clothing or grocery store.
identity gets transformed through the cognitive, social, How Felicia and the rest of us actually create the stories
and personal reality of adulthood. As a result, people about ourselves is a fascinating process of integrating
create life scenarios and life stories, possible selves, thought and emotion, along with the lived experiences
self-concept, and personal control beliefs. Let’s begin we have. Let's see in more detail how this happens by
by considering how Felicia and the rest of us construct examining the best known explanation of the process.
images of our adult lives.
McAdams's life-story model
fiestas McAdams (2001, 2015) argues a person's sense of
identity cannot be understood using the language of
Figuring out what (and whom) you want to be as an
dispositional traits or personal concerns. Identity is not
adult takes a great deal of thought, hard work, and
just a collection of traits, nor is it a collection of plans,
time. Based on personal experience and input from
strategies, or goals Instead, it is based on a story of
other people, young adults create a life-span construct
that represents a unified sense of the past, present, and how the person came into being, where the person has
future. Several factors influence the development of a
been, where he or she is going, and who he or she will
life-span construct; identity, values, and society are only become, much like Felicia’s story. McAdams argues that
a few Together they not only shape the creation of the people create a life story that is an internalised narrative
life-span construct but also influence how it is played with a beginning, middle, and an anticipated ending. The
out and whether it remains stable (Fraley & Roberts,
life story is created and revised throughout adulthood as
2005). The life-span construct represents a link between
life-span construct Unified sense of the past, present, and future
Erikson’s notion of identity, which is a major focus based on personal experience and input from other people.
during adolescence, and our adult view of ourselves.
scenario Manifestation of the life-span construct through
The first way the life-span construct is manifested
expectations about the future.
is through the scenario, which consists of expectations
about the future. The scenario takes aspects of a person's social dock Tagging future events with a particular time or age by
which they are to be completed.
identity that are particularly important now and projects
them into a plan for the future. For example, you may life story An internalised narrative with a beginning, middle, and
find yourself thinking about the day you will graduate an anticipated ending.

10.4 WHO DO YOU WANT TO BE? PERSONALITY IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD 335

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
people change and the changing environment places to be strongly influenced by culture. At times, the
different demands on them. reformulation may be at a conscious level, such as when
McAdams’s research indicates that people in Western people make explicit decisions about changing careers.
societies begin forming their life story during late At other times, the revision process is unconscious and
adolescence and emerging adulthood, but its roots lie implicit, growing out of everyday activities. The goal is
in one’s earliest attachments in infancy. As in Erikson’s to create a life story that is coherent, credible, open to
theory, adolescence marks the full initiation into forming new possibilities, richly differentiated, reconciling of
an identity, and thus, a coherent life story begins. In opposite aspects of oneself, and integrated within one's
emerging adulthood it is continued and refined through sociocultural context.
intimacy, and from midlife and beyond, it is reworked in
the wake of major and minor life changes.
Central to these life stories is the changing personal Possible selves
identity reflected in the emotions conveyed in the When we are asked questions like, “What do you think
story (from tragedy to optimism or through comic and you'll be like a few years from now?’ it requires us to
romantic descriptions) In addition, motivations change imagine ourselves in the future. When we speculate like
and are reflected in the person repeatedly trying to attain this, we create a possible self (Markus & Nurius, 1986).
his or her goals over time. The two most common goal Possible selves represent what we could become, what we
themes are agency (reflecting power, achievement, and would like to become, and what we are afraid of becoming.
autonomy) and communion (reflecting love, intimacy, What we could or would like to become often reflects
and a sense of belonging) Finally, life stories indicate personal goals; we may see ourselves as leaders, as rich
one’s beliefs and values, or the ideology a person uses to and famous, or in great physical shape. What we are
set the context for his or her actions. afraid of becoming may show up in our fear of being
Every life story contains episodes that provide insight alone, or overweight, or unsuccessful. Our possible
into perceived change and continuity in life. People selves are powerful motivators (Ko, Mejia, & Hooker,
prove to themselves and others they have either changed 2014). How we behave is largely an effort to achieve
or remained the same by pointing to specific events or avoid these various possible selves and protect the
supporting the appropriate claim The main characters, current view of self (Baumeister, 2010).
representing the roles we play in our lives, represent In a rare set of similar studies conducted across
idealisations of the self, such as ‘the dutiful mother’ or time and research teams by Cross and Markus (1991)
‘the reliable worker’ Integrating these various aspects and Hooker and colleagues (Frazier et al., 2000; Frazier
of the self into a coherent whole begins in emerging et al., 2002, Hooker, 1999, Hooker et al., 1996; Morfei
adulthood, and continues to be a major challenge of et al., 2001), people across the adult life span were
midlife and later adulthood. Finally, all life stories need asked to describe their hoped-for and feared possible
an ending so the self can leave a legacy that creates selves. The responses were grouped into categories (for
new beginnings As we will see in Chapters 13 and 15, example, family, personal, material, relationships, and
life stories in middle-aged and older adults have a clear occupation).
quality of ‘giving birth to’ a new generation. Several interesting age differences emerged. In
One of the more popular methods for examining the terms of hoped-for selves, young adults listed family
development of life stories is through autobiographical concerns — for instance, marrying the right person — as
memory (Dunlop, Guo, & McAdams, 2016; Lilgendahl most important. In contrast, adults in their 30s listed
& McAdams, 2011; McLean, 2016; McLean & Pasupathi, family concerns last. Their main issues involved personal
2012). When people tell their life stories to others, the stories concerns, such as being a more loving and caring
are a joint product of the speaker and the audience, which person. By ages 40 to 59, family issues again became
includes other key people in a person's life, such as family most common — such as being a parent who can ‘let go’
(Pasupathi, 2013; McLean, 2016). This co-construction of of the children. Reaching and maintaining satisfactory
identity is a good example of conversational remembering, performance in one’s occupational career as well as
much like collaborative cognition discussed in Chapter 8. accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of
Overall, McAdams (2001, 2015) believes the model middle age were important to this age group.
for change in identity over time 1s a process of fashioning For adults over 60, researchers find personal issues
and refashioning one’s life story. This process appears are most prominent — like being active and healthy for
at least another decade. The greatest amount of change
possible selves Representations of what we could become, what occurred in the health domain, which predominated the
we would like to become, and what we are afraid of becoming.
hoped-for and feared-for selves. The health domain is

336 Cuarter 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Copyraght
2009 Congape Loesing All Right: Reserved May act be copand scammed ot daplceed im whole of im part Der to clecrorsc raphe, scene Gand party comacet cary be aappemand Sees ta: cfiook andive oC heapacs)
Exhterad scvarw bes doomed tut sey eappremed comacst dors set exsxmodly affect he overall borane ctpemencs. Canpages Lowtang soerves Se nett wm somes addmaceal omen of ay Cone of feet rye eos Qe
the most sensitive and central to the self in the context of 2010) Successful people such as Stefani Joanne Angelina
ageing and people's possible self with regard to health is Germanotta (better known as Lady Gaga), Sol Kerzner or
quite resilient in the face of health challenges in later life. Patrice Motsepe need to exude a high sense of personal
Overall, young adults have multiple possible selves control to demonstrate that they are in charge.
and believe they can actually become the hoped-for Personal control is an important concept that can
self and successfully avoid the feared self. Their outlook be applied broadly to several domains, including social
tends to be quite positive (Remedios, Chasteen, & Packer, networks, health, and careers (Fung & Siu, 2010). It is
2010) Life experience may dampen this outlook. By old related to the nearly universal desire to make a difference
age, both the number of possible selves and the strength in the world through one’s life (Dowd, 2012).
of belief have decreased. Older adults are more likely to Personal control beliefs are important not only
believe neither the hoped-for nor the feared-for self is in personality development but also (as we will see
under their personal control. These findings may reflect in Chapter 14) in memory performance in late life
differences with age in personal motivation, beliefs in Research indicates that people experience four types of
personal control, and the need to explore new options. personal control (Tiffany & Tiffany, 1996): control from
within oneself, control over oneself, control over the
environment, and control from the environment.
Despite its importance, we do not have a clear picture
How might the development of possible selves
of the developmental course of personal control beliefs.
be related to cognitive development?
Evidence from both cross-sectional and longitudinal
studies (Lang & Heckhausen, 2006) is contradictory.
The emergence of online social media has created Some data indicate that younger adults are less likely to
new opportunities for young adults to create possible hold internal control beliefs (in other words, believe they
selves (Lefkowitz, Vukman, & Loken, 2012). Such media are in control of outcomes) than are older adults. Other
present different ways for them to speculate about research finds the opposite.
themselves to others. The contradiction may come from the complex
The connection between possible selves and how we nature of personal control beliefs in the context of the
construct meaning in our lives is important. The link is situation (Vazire & Doris, 2009) These beliefs vary
through the process of setting personal goals that come depending on which domain, such as intelligence or
from the possible selves we envision. health, is being assessed. Indeed, other research shows
that perceived control over one’s development declines
with age, whereas perceived control over marital
Personal control beliefs 4... happiness increases (Brandtstadter, 1989) In addition,
Do you feel you have control over your life? Personal younger adults are more satisfied when attributing
control beliefs reflect the degree to which you believe your success in achieving a goal to their own efforts, whereas
performance in a situation depends on something you do. For older adults are more satisfied when they attribute such
example, suppose you are not offered a job when you think success to their ability (Lang & Heckhausen, 2001, 2006).
you should have been. Was it your fault? Or was it because Clearly, people of all ages and cultures try to influence
the company was too short-sighted to recognise your true their environment regardless of whether they believe
talent? The option you select provides insight into a general they will be successful.
tendency. Do you generally believe that outcomes depend Heckhausen and Wrosch (Haase, Heckhausen, &
on the things you do? Or are they due to factors outside Wrosch, 2013, Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010)
yourself, such as luck or the power of others? pulled together the various perspectives on control
Answering these questions requires the integration of beliefs and proposed a motivational theory of life-span
several different sources of information, along with one's development to describe how people optimise primary
emotions. As a result of this integration, one draws various and secondary control Primary control is behaviour
conclusions about how much control one has in any aimed at affecting the individual’s external world, working
specific situation. A high sense of personal control implies a second job to increase one’s earnings is an example One's
a belief that performance is up to you, whereas a low sense
of personal control implies that your performance is under
personal control beliefs The degree to which you believe your
the influence of forces other than your own. performance in a situation depends on something you do.
Personal control is an extremely important idea in
a variety of settings and cultures because of the way it primary control Behaviour aimed at affecting the individual's
external world.
guides behaviour (Brandtstadter, 1997, 1999; Fung & Siu,

10.4 WHO DO YOU WANT TO BE? PERSONALITY IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD 337

Primary
control striving

Primary
control
capacity
Secondary
control striving

Childhood Midlife Old age

@ FIGURE 10.12 Hypothetical life-span trajectories for primary control potential and
primary and secondary control striving

Test yourself 10.4

Recall Interpret
1. Navin is about to turn 30 and is not dating ¢ How might people's scenarios, life stories, and
anyone. He always believed that he would be other aspects of personality vary as a function of
married with one child by 30, so he is upset. cognitive developmental level and self-definition
The events in his life have not conformed to his as an adult?
¢ How do possible selves reflect people's life
experiences?
2. People create by projecting
themselves into the future and thinking about Apply
what they would like to become, what they could
become, and what they are afraid of becoming. e In the context of a bad economy, how could you
determine whether your performance on job
3. reflect the degree to which you interviews is under your control?
believe your performance in a situation depends ¢ How has your view of your possible selves
on something you do. influenced your choice of career?

4. is behaviour or cognition aimed at Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
affecting the individual's internal world. end of the chapter.

338 Cuaprer 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
10.1 Emerging adulthood and non-communicable ~ is disproportionately high,
especially during the 20s, compared to other settings,
What role transitions mark entry into adulthood? like the United States. Poor socioeconomic groups have
© The most widely used criteria for deciding whether a less access to good healthcare, and poverty 1s also a major
person has reached adulthood are role transitions, which barrier to good health.
involve assuming new responsibilities and duties. © Smoking is a major contributor to health problems. One
© Some societies use rituals, called rites of passage, to mark Is never too old to stop smoking. Smoking causes several
this transition clearly However, such rituals are largely forms of cancer and 1s a primary cause of respiratory and
absent in Western culture. cardiovascular disease Although it 1s difficult, stopping
smoking has many health benefits.
What evidence from neuroscience helps us © For most people, drinking alcohol poses few health risks.
understand behavioural development in young Binge drinking has numerous negative effects, but peaks
adulthood? in emerging adulthood. Campus sexual assault is related
© The prefrontal cortex fully develops during young adulthood to alcohol use. Several treatment approaches are available
and forms key connections with other areas of the brain. for people with alcohol use disorder
e Edgework may reflect aspects of this continued © Nutritional needs change somewhat during adulthood,
neurological development. mostly due to changes in metabolism. Some nutrient
© Young adults make the transition to Erikson’s struggle of needs, such as carbohydrates, change The ratio of LDLs
intimacy and isolation. to HDLs 1n serum cholesterol, which can be controlled
through diet or medication in most people, is an
How do going to college or university, obtaining important risk factor in cardiovascular disease
career training, and entering the workforce reflect
the transition to adulthood? How does young adults’ health differ as a function of
e High school graduates typically seek to continue their socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and education?
education at untversity or college level. College students ¢ The three most important social factors in health are
experience transitions in thinking. Returning adults socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and education. Poverty
or mature students tend to be more focused on their is the most important factor in limiting access to quality
academic programme, but face challenges balancing healthcare
education, career, and family. e Higher education ts associated with better health via
© Many emerging adults obtain career or job training as a way better access to healthcare and more knowledge about
to further education without obtaining a college degree proper diet and lifestyle
© Joining the workforce 1s a major step toward financial
independence, which 1n turn 1s a major marker of 10.3 Cognitive development
achieving adulthood.
What ts intelligence in adulthood?
10.2 Physical development and health © Most modern theories of intelligence are multidimensional.
Research reveals inter-individual variability and plasticity
In what respects are young adults at their physical © Intellectual abilities are organised into factors of
peak? interrelated abilities that form the structure of intelligence
© Young adulthood 1s the time when certain physical abilities
peak: strength, muscle development, coordination, What are primary and secondary mental abilities?
dexterity, and sensory acuity. Most of these abilities begin How do they change?
to decline in middle age. © Intellectual abilities can be studied as groups of related
skills known as primary mental abilities.
How do smoking, alcohol, and nutrition affect young © Clusters of related primary abilities are called secondary
adults’ health? mental abilities. Secondary mental abilities are not
© Young adults are at the peak of health In South measured directly.
Africa, death from disease - both communicable

SUMMARY 339

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party contest mary he suppressed thom the cock andice cChapter|s).
Edtorad seview bos deaned that any wappromed comient docs sot sustcmally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareimg reserves the ngbt to mmove additeceal coment at any Gre if subsequent nett sextnictoes nopeine it.
© These abilities develop differently and change in ¢ Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognise
succeeding cohorts. More recent cohorts perform better and correctly identify one’s own and other's emotion, and
on some skills, such as inductive reasoning, but older to use this information to guide thinking and behaviour.
cohorts perform better on number skills. Emotional intelligence increases with age and likely
underlies many social cognitive situations.
What are fluid and crystallised intelligence? How do © Impression formation 1s the way we form and revise first
they change? impressions. How this process influences judgements
e Fluid intelligence consists of abilities that make people about people differs with age
flexible and adaptive thinkers Fluid abilities generally
decline during adulthood. 10.4 Who do you want to be? Personality in
e Crystallised intelligence reflects knowledge that people young adulthood
acquire through life experience and education in a
particular culture. Crystallised abilities improve until late What is the life-span construct? How do adults
life. create scenarios and life stories?
© Young adults create a life-span construct that represents
How has neuroscience research furthered our a unified sense of the past, present, and future This 1s
understanding of intelligence in adulthood? manifested in two ways: through a scenario that maps the
© Neuroscience research has begun mapping specific areas future based on a social clock and in the life story, which
in the brain that relate to intelligence One prominent creates an autobiography.
theory based on this work is the parieto-frontal
integration theory (P-FIT) What are possible selves? Do they show differences
during adulthood?
What ts postformal thought? How does it differ from e People create possible selves by projecting themselves
formal operations? into the future and thinking about what they would like
e Postformal thought is characterised by the recognition to become, what they could become, and what they are
that truth may vary from one situation to another, afraid of becoming.
that solutions must be realistic, that ambiguity and e Age differences in these projections depend on the
contradiction are the rule, and that emotion and dimension examined. In hoped-for selves, 18- to 24-year-
subjectivity play a role in thinking. One example of olds and 40- to 59-year-olds report family issues as most
postformal thought ts reflective judgement. important, whereas 25- to 39-year-olds and older adults
consider personal issues to be most important. However,
How do emotion and logic become integrated in all groups include physical aspects as part of their most
adulthood? How do emotional intelligence and feared selves.
impression formation demonstrate this integration?
e Cognition (logic) and emotion become integrated What are personal control beliefs?
during young adulthood and middle age. This means © Personal control 1s an important concept with broad
that the way people approach and solve practical applicability However, the developmental trends
problems in life differs from adolescence through are complex because personal control beliefs vary
middle age. considerably from one domain to another

340 CuHarpTerR 10 BECOMING AN ADULT PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD

SUMMARY 341

11.1 Relationship types and

issues 343
Friendships 343
Love relationships 345
Spotlight on research: Patterns
and universals of romantic
attachment around the
world 349
Violence in relationships 350

11.2 Lifestyles and

relationships 352
Singlehood 353
Cohabitation 353
LGBTQ relationships 354
Marriage 355
Real people: Applying human
development: James
Obergefell and John Arthur
make history 356
11.3 Family dynamics and the life
course 359
The parental role 359
What do you think? Paid
maternity/paternity leave 361
Diverse family forms 362

11.4 Divorce and remarriage 364

Divorce 365
Remarriage 367

Summary 368

Key terms 369

All Rights Reserved Say met be comand, wcsemcd.

co dhuplnctert as whaleox imi part. Ove to clectrore nghes, soesetend party <Sost
ad content dae at taterally affect the overail huming mary ent
be appressed Som tw efhock anti hw eChaaptens
cxpenene Cengage Learning reserves the right 40 newsrwe additional crevier
af asvy
st tiene if animes
go through life alone — no family, relationships form the basis of
ait yourself years from now.
no friends (even on Facebook), no our lifestyle, we examine these
Your children are grown and have
followers of your Twitter postings. You lifestyle influences next. In the
children of their own In honour of
think of all the wonderful experiences third section, we consider what It Is
your 80th birthday, they have all come
you would have missed in early and like to be a parent. Finally, we see
together, along with your friends,
middle adulthood — never knowing what happens when marriages or
to celebrate Their present to you
what friendship is all about, never partnerships end Throughout this
is a video made from hundreds of
being in love, never dreaming about chapter, the emphasis is on aspects
photographs and dozens of videos
children and becoming a parent. of relationships that nearly everyone
created over the decades of your
That is what we'll explore experiences during young adulthood
life As you watch tt, you realise how
in this chapter — the ways in and middle age In Chapter 13, we
lucky you've been to have so many
which we share our lives with examine aspects of relationships
wonderful people in your life Your
others First, we consider what specific to middle-aged adults In
relationships have made your adult
makes good friendships and love Chapter 14, we do the same for
life fun and worthwhile As you watch,
relationships. Because these relationships in later life
you wonder what it must be like to

ETE] Relationship types and issues

Learning objectives

® Identify the roles that friends play across adulthood, and discuss how they develop.

e Describe the characteristics of love relationships, and how they vary across cultures.

© Examine the nature of violence in some relationships.

Kagiso and Mpho have known each other often the people to whom we are closest, and they are
all their lives They grew up together in there when we need someone to lean on.
Johannesburg, attended the same schools, What is an adult friend? Someone who is there
and even married sisters. Their business when you need to share? Someone who is not
careers took them in different directions, but afraid to tell you the truth? Someone you have fun
they and their families always got together on with? Friends, of course, are all of these and more.
major holidays. Now as older men, they feel Researchers define friendship as a mutual relationship
a special bond; many of their other friends in which those involved influence one another’s
have died. behaviours and beliefs, and define the quality of
the friendship as the satisfaction derived from the
Having other people in our lives we can count on relationship (Blieszner, 2014, Blieszner & Roberto,
is essential to our well-being. Just imagine how 2012, Hall, 2016)
difficult life would be if you were totally alone, The role and influence of friends for young adults
without even a Facebook ‘friend’ to communicate is extremely important from the late teens through
with. In this section, we consider the different types the 20s, and friends continue to be a source of support
of relationships we have with other people, and learn across adulthood (Arnett, 2013; Nehamas, 2016).
how these relationships help and sometimes hurt us. Friendships are predominantly based on feelings
and grounded in reciprocity and choice Friendships
are different from love relationships mainly because
Kagiso and Mpho remind us that some of the most friendships are less emotionally intense and usually
important people in our lives are our friends. They are do not involve sex (Nehamas, 2016) Having good

‘opyraght
2019 Cengage Leseming. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some thind party content mory he suppressed thorn the cock andice cChapter{s).
seview hon decned that any wappromed coment docs act muatcrally affect
the overall kammng expenence. Congage Leating reecrves the ngbt wo remove additeoeal coment af any tne if ubeequent mgt reetnctooes neqanre a.
friendships boosts self-esteem, especially early in Coan and colleagues (Beckes & Coan, 2013; Beckes,
emerging adulthood (Miething et al., 2016), and happiness Coan, & Hasselmo, 2013; Coan, 2008, Coan & Sbarra,
across adulthood (Adams & Taylor, 2015, Demir et al., 2015) propose Social Baseline Theory, a perspective
2015; Fiori & Denckla, 2015). Friendships also help us that integrates the study of social relationships with
become socialised into new roles throughout adulthood. principles of attachment, behavioural ecology, cognitive
neuroscience, and perception science. Social Baseline
Theory suggests the human brain expects access to social
Friendship in adulthood relationships that reduce risk and diminish the level of
From a developmental perspective, adult friendships effort needed to meet a variety of goals by incorporating
can be viewed as having identifiable stages (Levinger, relational partners into neural representations of the self.
1980, 1983): Acquaintanceship, Build-up, Continuation, When people are faced with threatening situations,
Deterioration, and Ending. This ABCDE model their brains process the situation differently when faced
describes the stages of friendships and how they change. alone compared to with a close friend. Specifically,
Whether a friendship develops from Acquaintanceship neuroimaging definitively shows the parts of the brain
to Build-up depends on where the individuals fall on operate that respond to threat when the person is facing
several dimensions, such as the basis of the attraction, a threat alone However, the same parts of the brain do
what each person knows about the other, how good the not operate when facing the same threat with a close
communication is between the partners, the perceived friend. A close friendship literally changes the way the
importance of the friendship, and so on. Although brain functions, resulting in our perception of feeling
many friendships reach the Deterioration stage, whether safer and the trials we face being more manageable with
a friendship ultimately ends depends heavily on the friends than without them.
availability of alternative relationships. If potential Three broad themes characterise both traditional
friends appear, old friendships may end. Or they may (for example, face-to-face) and new forms (for example,
continue even though they are no longer considered online) of adult friendships (de Vries, 1996, Ridings &
important by either person. Gefen, 2004):
Longitudinal research shows how friendships change
e The affective or emotional basis of friendship refers
across adulthood, some in ways that are predictable
to self-disclosure and expressions of intimacy,
and others not. As you probably have experienced, life
appreciation, affection, and support. All of these are
transitions (for example, going away to university, getting
based on trust, loyalty, and commitment.
married) usually result in fewer friends and less contact
© The shared or communal nature of friendship reflects
with the friends you keep (Blieszner, 2014; Blieszner &
how friends participate in or support activities of
Roberto, 2012). People tend to have more friends and
mutual interest.
acquaintances during young adulthood than at any
e The sociability and compatibility dimension represents
subsequent period (Demir et al., 2015). Friendships
how our friends keep us entertained and are sources of
are important throughout adulthood, in part because a
amusement, fun, and recreation
persons life satisfaction is strongly related to the quantity
and quality of contact with friends. University students In the case of online friendships (for example, through
with strong friendship networks adjust better to stressful social media), trust develops on the basis of four sources:
life events whether those networks are face-to-face (for (1) reputation; (2) performance, or what users do online;
example, Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002) or through (3) precommitment, through personal self-disclosure;
online social networks (Antheunis, 2016; DeAndrea and (4) situational factors, especially the premium
et al., 2012) placed on intimacy and the relationship (Hakansson
The importance of maintaining contact with friends & Witmer, 2015; Henderson & Gilding, 2004) Online
applies across ethnic lines as well. People who have social network friendships develop similarly to face-
friendships that cross ethnic groups have more positive to-face friendships, in that the more time people spend
attitudes toward people with different backgrounds online with friends the more likely they are to self-
(Aberson, Shoemaker, & Tomolillo, 2004), including disclose (Chang & Hsiao, 2014). Online environments
Facebook networks (Schwab & Greitemeyer, 2015). So, are more conducive to people who are lonely (Blachnio
regardless of one’s background, friendships play a major et al., 2016) A study of Facebook users in Australia
role in determining how much we enjoy life showed that they were extremely positive about their
Why does friendship have such positive benefits for online friendship activity (Young, 2013). However,
us? Although scientists do not know for certain, they they mentioned that the risk of ‘de-friending’ is a real
are gaining insights through neuroscience research. phenomenon, so that the psychological consequences

344 Cuaprer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcammed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some therd party contest mary he suppeessed thom the cftook andive eChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
can be both positive (gaining new friends and a social No clear pattern of emotional closeness emerges when
network) and negative (dealing with the hurt of being viewing sibling relationships on the basis of gender.
de-friended).
Facebook relationships may also have an effect on Men's, women’s, and cross-sex friendships
close and distant relationships. A South African study Men's and women’s friendships tend to differ in adulthood,
investigated the role that Facebook use plays in the which reflects continuity in the learned behaviours from
creation or maintenance of social capital (resources
childhood (Blieszner & Roberto, 2012, Levine, 2009).
accumulated from various relationships) among Four characteristics of same-sex friends do not appear
university students The study suggested a strong to differ between men and women and are similar across
association between the intensity of Facebook use and cultures and age groups: geographic proximity, similarity
perceived bridging (with relatively distant relationships), of interests and values, inclusion, and symmetrical
bonding (with family members, close friends, and
reciprocity (Hall, 2016). Three characteristics that
other close relations) and maintained social capital distinguish female same-sex friendships from males’
(maintained connections to social networks) (Johnston
same-sex friendships are communion and self-
et al., (2013) This study suggests that the intensity of disclosure, greater effort and expectations from friends in
Facebook use plays a significant role in maintaining general, and a greater degree of corumination (extensively
social networks. discussing and re-visiting problems, and focusing on
negative feelings) (Hall, 2016). In contrast, men tend to
base friendships on shared activities or interests.
What about friendships between men and women?
These friendships are mainly a product of the 20th
century (Hart, Adams, & Tullett, 2016), and have a
beneficial effect, especially for men (Piquet, 2007)
Cross-sex friendships help men have lower levels of
dating anxiety and higher capacity for intimacy These
patterns hold across ethnic groups, too Cross-sex
friendships can also prove troublesome because of
misperceptions. Misperception about one’s own or one's
partner's sexual attractiveness to others is common and
can be the basis for relationship difficulties (Hart et al.,
2016, Haselton & Galperin, 2013) Some research shows
men overestimate and women underestimate their
friends’ sexual interest in them (Koenig, Kirkpatrick, &
Ketelaar, 2007) Maintaining cross-sex friendships once
individuals enter into exclusive dating relationships,
marriage, or committed relationships is difficult, and
often results in one partner feeling jealous (Hart et al.,
2016; Haselton & Galperin, 2013)

lationshi

A Despite concerns, social networking websites such as Facebook

Love is one of those things we feel but cannot fully
have not reduced the quality of friendships describe. (Test yourself Can you explain fully what
you mean when you look at someone special and say, ‘I
love you’?) One way researchers try to understand love
A special type of friendship exists with one's siblings, is to think about what components are essential. In an
who are the friends people typically have the longest and interesting series of studies, Sternberg (2006) found
that share the closest bonds. The importance of these love has three basic components: (1) passion, an intense
relationships varies with age (Carr & Moorman, 2011, physiological desire for someone, (2) intimacy, the
Merz & De Jong Gierveld, 2016; Moorman & Greenfield, feeling that you can share all your thoughts and actions
2010) The centrality of siblings depends on several with another, and (3) commitment, the willingness to
things, such as proximity, health, prior relationship, stay with a person through good and bad times. Ideally,
and degree of relatedness (full, step-, or half-siblings) a true love relationship has all three components; when

11.1 RELATIONSHIP TYPES AND ISSUES 345

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
couples have equivalent amounts and types of love, they Falling in love
tend to be happier, even as the balance among these In his book The Prophet, Kahlil Gibran (1923) points
components shifts over time. out that love is two-sided: just as it can give you great
ecstasy, so can it cause you great pain. Yet most of us are
Love through adulthood willing to take the risk.
The different combinations of love help us understand As you may have experienced, taking the risk is
how relationships develop (Sternberg, 2006) Research fun (at times) and difficult (at other times) Making a
shows the development of romantic relationships in connection can be ritualised, as when people use pickup
emerging adulthood is a complex process influenced lines in a bar, or it can happen almost by accident,
by relationships in childhood and adolescence as when two people literally run into each other in a
(Collins & van Dulmen, 2006, Oudekerk et al., 2015). crowded corridor The question that confronts us is
Early in a romantic relationship, passion is usually “How do people fall in love?’ Do birds of a feather flock
high whereas intimacy and commitment tend to be together? Or do opposites attract?
low. This is infatuation: an intense, physically based The best explanation of the process is the theory of
relationship when the two people have a high risk of assortative mating, which states people find partners
misunderstanding and jealousy. Indeed, it is sometimes based on their similarity to each other Assortative mating
difficult to establish the boundaries between casual sex occurs along many dimensions, including education,
and hook-ups and dating in young adulthood (Giordano religious beliefs, physical traits, age, socioeconomic
et al., 2012) status, intelligence, and political ideology, among
Infatuation is short-lived. As passion fades, either a others (Horwitz et al., 2016). Such nonrandom mating
relationship acquires emotional intimacy or it is likely to occurs most often in Western societies that allow
end. Trust, honesty, openness, and acceptance must be a people to have more control over their own dating and
part of any strong relationship When they are present, pairing behaviours Common activities are one basis
romantic love develops. for identifying potential mates, except, that is, in speed
Although it may not be the basis for best-selling dating situations. In that case, it comes down to physical
romance novels or movies, this pattern is a good thing. attractiveness (Luo & Zhang, 2009)
Research shows people who select a partner for a more People meet people in all sorts of places, both face-
permanent relationship (for example, marriage) during to-face and virtually Does how people meet influence
the height of infatuation are likely to support the notion the likelihood they will ‘click’ on particular dimensions
of ‘love at first sight’ and are more likely to divorce and form a couple? Kalmijn and Flap (2001) found that
(Hansen, 2006). If the couple spends more time and it does Using data from more than 1 500 couples, they
works at their relationship, they may become committed found meeting at school, for example, was most likely
to each other By spending much of their time together, to result in homogamy - the degree to which people are
making decisions together, caring for each other, sharing similar. Not surprisingly, the pool of available people to
possessions, and developing ways to settle conflicts, they meet is strongly shaped by the opportunities available. In
increase the chances that their relationship will last. Such turn, this limits the type of people one is likely to meet.
couples usually show outward signs of commitment, Speed dating provides a way to meet several people
such as wearing a lover's ring, having children together, in a short period of time Speed dating is practised most
or simply sharing the mundane details of daily life, from by young adults (Fein & Schneider, 2013; Whitty &
making toast at breakfast to following before-bed rituals. Buchanan, 2009). The rules governing partner selection
Campbell and Kaufman (2015) surveyed 1 529 during a speed dating session seem quite similar to
people across the United States in order to better traditional dating: physically attractive people, outgoing
understand the connections among love, personality, and self-assured people, and moderately self-focused
and creativity. They found that as time goes on, physical people are selected more often and their dates are rated
intimacy and passion decrease but emotional intimacy as smoother (Herrenbrueck et al., 2016)
and commitment increase This and related research The popularity of online dating means that an
indicate that good relationships tend to deepen as time increasing number of people meet this way (Fein &
goes on, even if intense physical passion decreases. Schneider, 2013; Lomanowska & Guitton, 2016, Whitty
& Buchanan, 2009). Surveys indicate nearly 1 in every
5 couples in the United States meet online (compared
assortative mating Theory stating that people find partners with 1 in 10 in Australia, and 1 in 20 in Spain and the
based on their similarity to each other.
United Kingdom, Dutton et al., 2009) In South Africa,

346 Cuaprer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
online dating has become much more mainstream in the orderings and preferences were compared, two main
process of finding romantic relationships. Estimates vary dimensions emerged.
as to how many South Africans are using online dating In the first main dimension, the characteristics of
services (websites and apps) one estimate suggests a desirable mate changed because of cultural values
that roughly 10% of South African internet users are — that is, whether the respondents’ country has more
exploring online dating (Katz, n.d.) while another traditional values or Western-industrial values In
suggest the higher figure of 30% (“The ugly truth about traditional cultures, men place a high value on a woman's
Tinder’, 2017). chastity, desire for home and children, and ability to be a
Emerging research indicates virtual dating sites offer good cook and housekeeper. Women place a high value
both problems and possibilities, especially in terms of on a man being ambitious and industrious, being a good
the accuracy of personal descriptions. As in the offline financial prospect, and holding favourable social status.
world, physical attractiveness strongly influences initial China, India, Iran, and Nigeria represent the traditional
selections online (Sritharan et al., 2010), especially on end of this dimension
sites such as Tinder and Grindr (Sumter, Vandenbosch, In contrast, people in Western-industrial cultures value
& Ligtenberg, 2017). Over a third of couples who these qualities to a much lesser extent. The Netherlands,
marry first met online, often via online dating sites Great Britain, Finland, and Sweden represent this end
(Johnson, 2016). of the dimension, people in these countries place more
One increasing trend among emerging adults is value on Western ideals. In some South African cultures,
the hookup culture of casual sex, often without even as well as in Estonia and Columbia, for example, a high
knowing the name of one’s sexual partner (Garcia value is placed on good housekeeping in a potential mate.
et al., 2013; Kratzer & Stevens Aubrey, 2016) Research In contrast the United States (mainland), Canada, and
indicates both men and women are interested in having all Western European countries (except Spain) place a
hookup sex but also prefer a more romantic relationship relatively low value on housekeeping.
over the long run. However, the perception that there The second main dimension reflects the relative
are no strings attached to hookup sex appear wrong, as importance of education, intelligence, and social
nearly three-fourths of both men and women eventually refinement — as opposed to a pleasing disposition -
expressed some level of regret at having hookup sex. in choosing a mate. For example, people in Spain,
Colombia, and Greece highly value education,
intelligence, and social refinement. In contrast, people in
Indonesia place a greater emphasis on having a pleasing
disposition. Note that this dimension emphasises the
same characteristics for both men and women.
Chastity proved to be the characteristic showing
the most variability across cultures, being highly
desired in some cultures but mattering little in others.
It is interesting that in their respective search for mates,
men around the world value physical attractiveness
in women, whereas women around the world look for
men capable of being good providers. But men and
women around the world agree that love and mutual
A These Egyptian women, performing traditional cultural tasks, are attraction are most important, and nearly all cultures
more likely to be desired as mates.
rate dependability, emotional stability, kindness, and
understanding as important factors. Attraction, it seems,
How do couple-forming behaviours compare cross- has some characteristics that transcend culture.
culturally? A few studies have examined the factors Overall, Buss and his colleagues concluded that
that attract people to each other in different cultures. mate selection is a complex process no matter where
In one now classic study, Buss and a large team of you live. However, each culture has a describable set of
researchers (1990) identified the effects of culture and high-priority traits that men and women look for in the
gender on heterosexual mate preferences in 37 cultures perfect mate. The study also shows that socialisation
worldwide Men and women in each culture displayed within a culture plays a key role in being attractive to the
unique orderings of their preferences concerning opposite sex — characteristics that are highly desirable in
the ideal characteristics of a mate When all of the one culture may not be so desirable in another.

11.1 RELATIONSHIP TYPES AND ISSUES 347

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learmung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copacd, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest muy he wappeesscd from the cfbook andive of hapter|s).
Exttonad seview bon dened thot any wappromed coment dacs sot matcrially affect the overall kamng expenence. Cengage Leartung reserves the night $0 remove additional crerient af ary imme if sudmequent right aextnctooes neqasre it.
As described in the ‘Spotlight on research’ feature, is tough. Many things must work just right timing,
Schmitt and his team of colleagues (2004) studied meeting the right person, luck, and effort are just a few
62 cultural regions They showed secure romantic of the factors that shape the course of a relationship.
attachment was the norm in nearly 80% of cultures and Centuries of romance stories describe this magical
‘preoccupied’ romantic attachment was particularly process and show it as one of life's great mysteries.
common in East Asian cultures. In general, multicultural From our discussion here, you know that who
studies show there are global patterns in mate selection chooses whom (and whether the feelings will be mutual)
and romantic relationships. The romantic attachment results from the interaction of developmental forces
profiles of individual nations were correlated with described in the biopsychosocial model presented in
sociocultural indicators in ways that supported Chapter 1. Neuroscience research is revealing how.
evolutionary theories of romantic attachment and basic Love is one of three separate, interrelated emotion
human mating strategies. systems (the sex drive and attachment are the other
Culture and evolution are powerful forces shaping two, Fisher, 2016; Pfaff & Fisher, 2012; see also Helen
mate selection choices (Buss, 2016). Specifically, Buss Fisher’s series of TED Talks). The brain circuitry
(2016) argues that mate selection serves many deeply involved in romantic love, maternal love, and long-term
held, and deeply programmed, human needs. The kinds attachment overlap (Fisher, 2016; Stein & Vythilingum,
of partners we choose are driven by certain hardwired 2009). In terms of love, neurochemicals related to the
biological and psychological needs and desires that play amphetamines come into play early in the process,
out in many ways. providing a biological explanation for the exhilaration
Love styles within European cultures also predict of falling madly in love. Aron and colleagues (2005)
relationship satisfaction (Rohmann, Fihrer, & Bierhoff, reported that couples who were in the early stages of
2016) Cultural norms are sometimes highly resistant romantic love showed high levels of activity in the
to change. Loyalty of the individual to the family is an dopamine system, which is involved in all of the basic
important value in India, so despite many changes in biological drives. Once the relationship settles into what
mate selection, about 95% of marriages in India are some people might call long-term commitment and
carefully arranged to ensure an appropriate mate is tranquillity, the brain processes switch neurochemically
selected (Dommaraju, 2010). to substances related to morphine, a powerful narcotic.
Similarly, Islamic societies use matchmaking as a way People with a predilection to fall in love also tend to
to preserve family consistency and continuity and to show left hemisphere chemical dominance and several
ensure that couples follow the prohibition on premarital changes in neurochemical processing (Fisher, 2016;
relationships between men and women (Adler, 2001) Kurup & Kurup, 2003)
Matchmaking in these societies occurs both through Additional research indicates that the hormone
family connections and personal advertisements in oxytocin may play an important role in attachment. In
newspapers To keep up with the internet age, Muslim men, it enhances their partner's attractiveness compared
matchmaking has gone online too (Lo & Aziz, 2009), to other females (Scheele et al., 2013); while in women, it
increasing the pressure for the individuals to make their enhances their orgasms, among other things (Cacioppo
own decisions (Ahmad, 2012) As urbanisation and & Cacioppo, 2013), which has earned it the nickname
globalisation effects continue, pressures to move toward of the ‘cuddle hormone’ (Lee et al., 2009). Love really
individual selection and commitment and away from affects your brain in unexpected ways!
traditional matchmaking continues to increase in many And that’s not all The interactions among
societies (Abela & Walker, 2014). psychological aspects, neurological aspects, and
hormonal aspects of romantic love help explain why
couples tend to have exclusive relationships with
CORRE EEE E RENE EERO EEE ESHER EEE EERE OEE EH ESET EEE EEE E EEE EE ESET EEE EEE ROD each other. For women (but not men), blood levels of
What are the effects of increasing interactions serotonin increase during periods of romantic love
among cultures on mate selection? (Langeslag, van der Veen, & Fekkes, 2012) In addition,
the stronger the romantic bond with their boyfriend, the
less likely they are to be able to identify the body odour
Developmental forces, neuroscience, and love of a different male friend (Lundstrém & Jones-Gotman,
relationships 2009). That means that women’s attention is deflected
As you no doubt know from your own experience, finding from other potential male partners the more they are
a suitable relationship, especially a love relationship, romantically involved with one specific male.

348 Cuaprer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

=
of self-esteem, personality traits, and
sociocultural correlates of romantic 3 15
attachment (for example, fertility =
rate, national profiles of individualism 1.0
versus collectivism) :
Who were the participants in the 05
| l,
—_

study?A total of 17 804 people (7 432 i 0.0

men and 10 372 women) from 62
cultural regions around the world 05
took part in the study Such large -
and diverse samples are unusual in
Africa

Oceania

East Asia

developmental research
SoutheastAsia
Middle East
Eastem Europe
South America

Westem Europe

Southern Europe
North America

What was the design of the

study? Data for this cross-sectional,
nonexperimental study were
gathered by research teams in each
country The principal researchers
asked the research collaborators to
administer a nine-page survey to the @ FIGURE 11 1 In research across 10 global regions, note that only in East Asian cultures were
participants that took 20 minutes to the ‘model of others’ scores higher than the ‘model of self’ scores
complete Sourew: Data from Scwnim et a. 2004)

11.1 RELATIONSHIP TYPES AND ISSUES 349

ilies cameras
Up to this point, we have been considering relationships
that are healthy and positive. Sadly, this is not always
the case Sometimes relationships become violent; one
person becomes aggressive toward the partner, creating an
abusive relationship Such relationships have received
increasing attention since 1998, when South Africa
introduced the Domestic Violence Act 116 of 1998. The
purpose of the act is to afford women, in particular,
protection from domestic violence. The act extends
to include married women and their children, as well
as unmarried women in less formalised relationships
or living with their partners, people in same-sex
relationships, mothers and their sons, and other people
who share a living space
In South Africa, gender-based violence is both
common and widespread. Domestic violence against
women occurs across all socio-economic classes, races,
ages and religions It is estimated that one in every
five women in South Africa has experienced physical
violence by a partner, while 6% of women over the 4 Many communities have established shelters for women who
have experienced abuse in relationships.
age of 18 has experienced sexual violence by a partner
(Statistics South Africa, 2016).
What range of aggressive behaviour occurs in abusive The second point, depicted in the table, is the
relationships? What causes such abuse? Based on suspected underlying causes of aggressive behaviours
differ as the type of aggressive behaviours change (O'Leary,
abusive relationship Relationships in which one person becomes 1993, Sugimoto-Matsuda & Guerrero, 2016) Although
aggressive toward the partner.
anger and hostility in the perpetrator are associated with

350 Cuaprer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Need to control"

vy
Misuse of power

v
Jea lousy"

VIiVIi¥
Marital discord
Accept violence as a means of control
Modelling of physical aggression

viv
Abused as a child
Aggressive personality styles

viv
Alcohol abuse
Personality disorders §=——_________
Emotional lability §=——————_>
Poor self-esteem = =———_>
Contributing factors
Job stresses
Unemployment

NOTE. Need to control and other variables on the left are associated with all forms of aggression, acceptance of violence and
other variables in the middle are associated with physical aggression, severe aggression, and murder Personality disorders
and the variables on the right are associated with severe aggression and murder
“More relevant for males than for females
Source. O'Leary, K.D (1993). Through a psychological lens: Personality traits, personality disorders, and levels of violence In
R. J. Gelles & D. R Loseke (Eds.), Current Controversies on Family Violence (pp 7-30) Copyright © 1993 by Sage Publications.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher

various forms of physical abuse, especially in young virginity, male status, and family honour. A common
adulthood, the exact nature of this relationship remains cause of women’s murders in Arab countries is brothers
difficult to establish (Giordano et al., 2016). or other male relatives performing so-called honour
Heterosexual men and members of the LGBTQ killings, murdering the victim because she violated
community are also the victims of violence from the family’s honour (Ghanim, 2015) Intimate partner
intimate partners, though at a reporting rate lower violence is prevalent in China (43% lifetime risk in one
than that of women (Rape, Abuse and Incest National study) and has strong associations with male patriarchal
Network, 2016) All victims need to be supported and values, male unemployment, and conflict resolutions
given avenues that provide safe ways for them to report (Xu et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2016).
assaults In South Africa, the high rate of abuse against women
Culture is also an important contextual factor in is associated with a number of factors, including poverty
understanding partner abuse In particular, violence and alcohol abuse (Statistics South Africa, 2016) These
against women worldwide reflects cultural traditions, are systemic issues and it is difficult to change a long-
beliefs, and values of patriarchal societies. This can existing system. Education may provide help: when
be seen in the commonplace violent practices against women are more educated, they are less likely to be
women that include sexual slavery, female genital abused (Statistics South Africa, 2016).
cutting, intimate partner violence, and ‘honour’ killing Alarmed by the seriousness of abuse, many
(Ghanim, 2015, World Health Organization, 2013) communities have established shelters for people who
Additionally, international data indicate rates of experience abuse. However, the legal system in many
abuse are higher in cultures that emphasise female purity, localities is still not set up to deal with domestic violence;

11.1 RELATIONSHIP TYPES AND ISSUES 351

Test yourself 11.1

Recall commitment and tranquillity, the brain processes

switch neurochemically to substances related to
1. Adult friendships can be viewed as having five morphine.
identifiable stages: Acquaintanceship, Build-up,
Deterioration, and Ending. 6. The purpose of the of 1998 is to
2. People who have friendships that cross ethnic afford women, in particular, protection from
groups have more attitudes toward domestic violence.
people with different backgrounds.
Interpret
3. Female same-sex friendships tend to have a
greater degree of (extensively e Why, according to Erikson, is intimacy
discussing and re-visiting problems), and (discussed in Chapter 9) a necessary prerequisite
focusing on negative feelings than male same sex for adult relationships? What aspects of
friendships do. relationships discussed here support (or refute)
this view?
4. The theory of suggests that people
find partners based on their similarity to each Apply
other. © Based on Schmitt and colleagues’ (2004) research,
5. Couples in the early stages of romantic love what attachment pattern would Korean women
showed high levels of activity in the likely have regarding romantic attachment?
system, and when the relationship settles Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
into what some people might call long-term end of the chapter.

EEF) Lifestyles and relationships

Learning objectives

© Describe the challenges and advantages of being single.

© Explain why people cohabit.

© Discuss the characteristics of LGBTQ relationships.

e Describe marriage across adulthood.

Rajesh and Lekeshia are on cloud nine. They leisure activities. Rajesh and Lekeshia wonder
got married one month ago and have recently what lies ahead in their marriage.
returned from their honeymoon. Everyone who
sees them can tell that they love each other a Developing relationships is only part of the picture in
great deal. They are highly compatible and understanding how adults live their lives with other
have much in common, sharing most of their people Putting relationships such as Rajesh and

352 Cuaprer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Leareung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copaed, scammed, or duplicated. m whole
ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some therd party costest may he wappecescd from the cibook andive of hapter|s).
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed cresiont dacs sot muztcnally affect
the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night to remove additional coesient
af any tame if subsequent neh sextnctoes noqene ot
Lekeshia's in context is important for us to understand percentage of millennials who will remain single until
how relationships come into existence and how they at least age 40 may be as high as 30%, higher than any
change over time In the following sections, we explore previous generation. However, millennials are also likely
relationship lifestyles singlehood, cohabitation, same- to decide to live with a partner and ignore the legality of
sex couples, and marriage marriage.
Globally, the meanings and implications of
remaining single are often tied to strongly held cultural
Singlehood and religious beliefs Muslim women who remain single
Adult men and women are single - defined as not living in Malaysia speak in terms of jodoh (the soul mate one
with an intimate partner — at multiple points in their finds through fate at a time appointed by God) as a
lives: before marriage or other long-term commitment, reason, they believe God simply has not decided to have
following divorce, and in widowhood are common them meet their mate at this time (Ibrahim & Hassan,
examples. In this section, we focus most on young adult 2009). But because the role of Malaysian women is to
singles, elsewhere we return to singlehood in the context marry, they also understand their marginalised position
of divorce or the death of a spouse/partner. in society through their singlehood. In Southeast Asia,
What's it like to be a single young adult? It’s tougher the number of single adults has increased steadily
than you might think. Several researchers (for example, as education levels have risen over the past several
Budgeon, 2016; Casper et al., 2016; DePaulo, 2006) decades (Hull, 2009) However, family systems in these
point out numerous stereotypes and biases against single cultures have not yet adapted to these changing lifestyle
people, especially women. For example, married people patterns (Jones, 2010). An important distinction is
are perceived as kinder and more giving, and public policy between adults who are temporarily single (i.e., those
also tends to favour married individuals. Additionally, who are single only until they find a suitable marriage
research indicates that estate agents and certain housing partner) and those who choose to remain single. For
programmes prefer married couples over singles most singles, the decision to never marry is a gradual
(Goodsell, 2013; Morris, Sinclair, & DePaulo, 2007). one. This transition is represented by a change in self-
Many women and men remain single as young attributed status that occurs over time and is associated
adults to focus on establishing their careers rather than with a cultural timetable for marriage. It marks the
marriage or relationships that most do later. Others experience of “becoming single’ that occurs when an
report they simply did not meet ‘the right person’ or individual identifies more with singlehood than with
prefer singlehood, a factor especially important among marriage (Davies, 2003). Choosing to remain single
strongly religious groups (Engelberg, 2016; Ibrahim can also reflect an economic-based decision, especially
& Hassan, 2009) However, the pressure to marry is for millennials, who are less likely to think they are
especially strong for women (Budgeon, 2016). better off than their own parents, than their parents and
Men remain single a bit longer in young adulthood grandparents thought at the same age (Kalish, 2016)
because they marry about two years later on average than
women (Census Bureau, 2016) Fewer men than women Cohabitati
remain unmarried throughout adulthood, though,
mainly because men find partners more easily as they Being unmarried does not necessarily mean living
select from a larger age range of unmarried women. alone People in committed, intimate, sexual relationships
In South Africa, ethnicity plays a part in who marries but who are not married may decide living together,
whom. South Africa is traditionally highly divided along or cohabitation, provides a way to share daily life.
racial lines. However, this is slowly changing in terms of Cohabitation is becoming an increasingly popular
marriage Marriages between people of the same racial lifestyle choice in South Africa and elsewhere, especially
group are still in the majority, but a study conducted among millennials and older adults.
at North-West University has shown that ‘out-group’ According to the 1996 census, 1.2 million South
marriages have increased since 1996 (Jacobson, Africans described themselves as living with a partner.
Amoateng, & Heaton, 2004) The study suggested that This figure almost doubled in the 2001 census, when
this change is a result of the opening up of residential nearly 2.4 million individuals were living in such
areas, educational contexts, and places of worship to unions. Cohabitation rates have risen in South Africa as
people of all races. marriage rates have declined (Posel & Rudwick, 2012).
The millennial generation is also changing the
assumptions about singlehood. The Urban Institute cohabitation People in committed, intimate, sexual relationships
who live together but are not married.
(Martin, Astone, & Peters, 2014) projects that the

112 LIFESTYLES AND RELATIONSHIPS 353

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Cohabitation, rather than replacing marriage, is becoming
an accepted life stage, as many marriages are preceded by
this type of living arrangement. The current generation of adults in the LGBTQ
The global picture differs by culture (Popenoe, 2009; community have largely experienced various forms of
Therborn, 2010). In most European, South American,
oppression and discrimination throughout their adult
lives (Robinson- Wood & Weber, 2016). This is especially
and Caribbean countries, cohabitation is a common
true for those who also have low income and for people
alternative to marriage for young adults. Cohabitation
is extremely common in the Netherlands, Norway, and of colour. However, social attitudes toward the LGBTQ
community have changed and continue to change,
Sweden, where this lifestyle is part of the culture, 99%
of married couples in Sweden lived together before they especially in view of the legal support for same-sex
married and nearly one in four couples are not legally marriage (King, 2016).
married. Decisions to marry in these countries are For the most part, the relationships of gay and lesbian
typically made to legalise the relationship after children couples have many similarities to those of heterosexual
are born — in contrast to Americans, who marry to couples (Kurdek, 2004). Most gay and lesbian couples
confirm their love and commitment to each other are in dual-earner relationships, much like the majority
Interestingly, having cohabitated does not seem of married heterosexual couples, and are likely to share
to make marriages any better. In fact, under certain household chores. However, gay and lesbian couples
circumstances it may do more harm than good, resulting differ from heterosexual couples in the degree to which
in lower quality marriages (Johnson, 2016). These
both partners are similar on demographic characteristics
findings reflect two underlying issues that can cause such as race, age, and education. Gay and lesbian couples
problems (Johnson, 2016): couples who have children tend to be less similar, except regarding education
(Ciscato, Galichon, & Gousse, 2015)
while cohabiting and couples who are using cohabitation
to test their relationship and keep separate finances King (2016) argues that the experiences of older
(Addo, 2017). lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults cannot be put into
Essentially, the happiest cohabiting couples are those need categories, even generational ones Rather, King
who look very much like happily married couples emphasises that the LGB community is at least as
they share financial responsibilities and child care. diverse as the heterosexual community, and needs to be
Longitudinal studies find few differences in couples’ understood as such.
behaviour after living together for many years regardless With the advent of legalised same-sex marriage,
of whether they married without cohabiting, cohabited numerous issues that heterosexual married couples
then married, or simply cohabited (Stafford, Kline, & have long taken for granted are being confronted in the
Rankin, 2004). Additionally, many countries extend the
LGBTQ community, including end-of-life issues and
same rights and benefits to cohabiting couples as they do legal matters regarding caregiving (Godfrey, 2016, Orel
& Coon, 2016). Changes to South African laws will
to married couples, and have done so for many years.
In South Africa, there is no legal recognition or continue as reforms and revisions continue to keep pace
protection of domestic partnerships such as cohabitation. with change
The only way to protect oneself under South African When compared to LGB individuals living with
law is to enter into a cohabitation agreement. However, partners, LGB individuals living alone or with others
in the absence of any legal recognition of this type of (but not in a relationship with them) reported higher
degrees of loneliness (Kim & Fredriksen-Goldsen, 2016).
union, cohabitants, especially women, and their children
are often faced with several socio-cultural and economic This finding is similar to the finding in heterosexual
disadvantages (Manning, 2002, Mokomane, 2004). This
individuals in similar living arrangements, and highlights
situation is similar in other sub-Saharan countries, such the fact that there are many similarities in personal
as Botswana, where cohabiting women do not have legal outcomes across various gender identity groups.
protection to enforce their property, inheritance, and Little research has been conducted examining the
maintenance rights if the relationship comes to an end development of transgender and gender nonconforming
(TGNC) individuals across adulthood (Witten, 2016).
(Mokomane, 2004).
One detailed examination of experiences of TGNC
adults found that many barriers to accessing key services
SERRE EEE EEE E Ree eee EERE EERE EERE eR ESSE EEE EEE EERE REESE EEE EE EEE REED
such as healthcare and social services exist, largely due
to anti-TGNC prejudice, discrimination, and lack of
Why might there be large differences in
appropriate and adequate training of professionals
cohabitation rates among countries?
(Porter et al., 2016) Additionally, research indicates

354 Cuaprer Il BEING WITH OTHERS. RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learmng All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanned, oe duplicated. m whale oc in part. Dur to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mary be suppressed toon the cffiock andive oChapter(s)
Edtomad seview bon deaned that any wappremed coment dacs sot muzicmally affect
the overall lamang expenence. Congage Learning reserves the ngbt to comove additeveal coment at any orne if subsequent mgt sextnctoes cogent
that transgender older adults experience social isolation What is a successful marriage and what
more than most other groups (Harley, Gassaway, & predicts it?
Dunkley, 2016) However, relationship stress patterns
You undoubtedly know couples who appear to have a
and outcomes parallel that seen in other types of couple successful marriage But what does that mean, really?
relationships (Randall & Bodenmann, 2017).
Minnotte (2010) differentiates marital success, an
As we explore marriage in the next section, keep umbrella term referring to any marital outcome (such as
in mind that although most of the research has been divorce rate), marital quality, a subjective evaluation
conducted with heterosexual couples, key findings of the couple's relationship on a number of different
regarding what matters most in relationship satisfaction, dimensions, marital adjustment, the degree spouses
decisions about parenting, and caring for a spouse/ accommodate each other over a certain period of time,
partner hold for LGBTQ individuals who are married or
and marital satisfaction, a global assessment of one’s
in long-term committed relationships marriage Each of these provides a unique insight into
the workings of a marriage.
Marriage Marriages, like other relationships, differ from one
another, but some important predictors of future success
Most adults want their love relationships to result in
marriage. South African law allows for three types of can be identified. One key factor is age In general, the
younger the partners are, the lower the odds the marriage
marriage contracts with specific requirements and
procedures associated to each type A civil marriage can
will last —- especially when the people are in their teens
or early 20s (Census Bureau, 2013) Other reasons that
be regarded as a ‘traditional’ form of marriage and is
still the most common type of marriage entered into. A increase or decrease the likelihood a marriage will last
customary marriage is defined as a marriage ‘negotiated, include financial security and pregnancy at the time of the
marriage.
celebrated or concluded according to any of the systems
of indigenous African customary law which exist in A second important predictor of successful marriage
South Africa (Department of Home Affairs, 2018). A
is homogamy, or the similarity of values and interests a
civil union refers to marriage between two people of the couple shares. As we saw in relation to choosing a mate,
same gender. the extent the partners share similar age, values, goals,
In several of South Africa's traditional cultures, men
may marry more than one wife - this is called polygamy.
marital success Umbrella term referring to any marital outcome.
Polygamy is only allowed as a customary marriage, not
as a civil marriage or a civil union marital quality Subjective evaluation of the couple's relationship
Although most adults may want their relationships on a number of different dimensions.
to result in marriage, registered civil and customary marital adjustment Degree to which a husband and wife
marriages have continued to decline since 2008 accommodate to each other over a certain period of time.
(Statistics South Africa, 2017a). @ FIGURE 11.2 gives marital satisfaction Global assessment of one’s marriage.
the median ages of brides and grooms in all three forms
homogamy Similarity of values and interests.
of South African marriage.

= Median age of bridegrooms at

40 the time of civil marriage

= Median age of brides at the

time of civil marriage
. == Median age of bridegrooms at
the time of customary marriage
30 OOOO—_O
~~= Median age of brides at the
time of customary marriage
25 —<— Median age of bridegrooms
at
the time of civil union
20 —— Median age of bride at the time
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 of civil union

@ FIGURE 11.2 The median age at first marriage has been relatively stable between 2011 and 2015 in
South Africa.
Soures: Data from Statics South Alica (2016) Marriages and divevces 2015 Sutisnca! solasse POSO7. Pretoria: Statistica South Africa.

112 LIFESTYLES AND RELATIONSHIPS 355

attitudes (especially the desire for children), a fair exchange, or equity, in all the dimensions of the
socioeconomic status, certain behaviours (such as relationship. Problems achieving equity arise because of
drinking alcohol), and ethnic background increases the competing demands of work and family, an issue we
the likelihood their relationship will succeed (Kippen, take up again in Chapter 12.
Chapman, & Yu, 2009) Cross-cultural research supports these factors.
A third factor in predicting marital success is a Couples in the United States and Iran, for example,
feeling that the relationship is equal. According to (Asoodeh et al., 2010, Hall, 2006) say that trust,
exchange theory, marriage is based on each partner consulting each other, honesty, making joint decisions,
contributing something to the relationship the other and commitment make the difference between a
would be hard-pressed to provide. Satisfying and happy successful marriage and an unsuccessful marriage.
marriages result when both partners perceive there is Couples for whom religion is important also point to
commonly held faith as a key factor.
exchange theory Relationship, such as marriage, based on each So what really matters in predicting whether a
partner contributing something to the relationship that the other relationship is likely to be successful? Dey and Ghosh
would be hard-pressed to provide.
(2016)’s findings point to several key predictors respect

356 Cuaprer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Do married couples stay happy?

Few sights are happier than a couple on their wedding
day. Newlyweds, like Rajesh and Lekeshia in the opening
Cet) stressors

story, are at the peak of marital bliss. The beliefs people @ FIGURE 11.3 The vulnerability-stress—adaptation model shows
bring into a marriage influence how satisfied they how adapting to vulnerabilities and stress can result in either adaptation
will be as the marriage develops But as you may have or dissolution of the marriage
experienced, feelings change over time, sometimes Source: From Keegeng mariages healtiry and wiry 2's so Gificul’, by B.A Kamey

getting better and stronger, sometimes not.

Research shows for most couples, overall marital
satisfaction is highest at the beginning of the marriage, Setting the stage: The early years of marriage
falls until the children begin leaving home, and stabilises Marriages are most intense in their early days. Early
or continues to decline in later life. This pattern on, husbands and wives share many activities and
applies to both married and never-married cohabiting are open to new experiences together, so bliss results
couples with children (Kulik, 2016). However, there (Olson & McCubbin, 1983). But bliss doesn’t come
is considerable variability across couples. For some from avoiding tough issues. Discussing financial
couples, satisfaction declines only slightly, while for matters honestly is vital, since many newly married
others it rebounds in late life, while for still others it couples experience their first serious marital stresses
declines more precipitously and the couple becomes, in around money issues (Parkman, 2007) The way that
essence, emotionally divorced (Proulx, 2016) tough issues early in the marriage are handled sets the
The pattern of a particular marriage over the years stage for the years ahead.
is determined by the nature of the dependence of each Early in a marriage, couples tend to have global
spouse on the other. When dependence is mutual and adoration for their spouse regarding the spouse’s
about equal, and both people hold similar values that qualities (Karney, 2010; Seychell, 2016) For wives, but
form the basis for their commitment to each other, the not for husbands, more accurate specific perceptions of
marriage is strong and close (Givertz, Segrin, & Hanzal, what their spouses are really like were associated with
2009). When the dependence of one partner is much more supportive behaviours, feelings of control in the
higher than that of the other, however, the marriage is marriage, and a decreased risk of divorce. Couples who
likely to be characterised by stress and conflict. Learning are happiest in the early stage of their marriage focus on
how to deal with these changes is the secret to long and the good aspects, not the annoyances; nit-picking and
happy marriages. nagging do not bode well for long-term wedded bliss
The fact that marital satisfaction has a general (Seychell, 2016).
downward trend but varies widely across couples led As time goes on and stresses increase, marital
Karney and Bradbury (1995) to propose a vulnerability- satisfaction declines (Kulik, 2016). For many couples,
stress—adaptation model of marriage, depicted in the primary reason for this drop is having children It's
e@ FIGURE 11.3 The vulnerability-stress-adaptation not just a matter of having a child. The temperament
model sees marital quality as a dynamic process resulting of the child matters, with fussier babies creating more
from the couple’ ability to handle stressful events in the marital problems (Greving, 2007, Meijer & van den
context of their particular vulnerabilities and resources.
As a couple's ability to adapt to stressful situations gets
better over time, the quality of the marriage will probably vulnerability-stress—adaptation model Model that proposes that
improve. How well couples adapt to various stresses on the marital quality is a dynamic process resulting from the couple's
relationship determines whether the marriage continues ability to handle stressful events in the context of their particular
or they get divorced. Let's see how this works over time. vulnerabilities and resources.

112 LIFESTYLES AND RELATIONSHIPS 357

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Wittenboer, 2007). Parenthood also means having Keeping marriages happy
substantially less time to devote to the marriage. Although no two marriages are exactly the same, couples
However, using the birth of a child as the must be flexible and adaptable Couples who have
explanation for the drop in marital satisfaction is been happily married for many years show an ability
much too simplistic, because child-free couples also to ‘roll with the punches’ and to adapt to changing
experience a decline in marital satisfaction (Kulik, circumstances in the relationship. For example, a serious
2016). Longitudinal research indicates disillusionment problem of one spouse may not be detrimental to the
- as demonstrated by a decline in feeling in love, in relationship and may even make the bond stronger if the
demonstrations of affection, and in the feeling that couple use good stress- and conflict-reduction strategies.
one’s spouse is responsive, as well as an increase Successful couples also find a way to keep the romance
in feelings of ambivalence — and other personality in the relationship, a very important determinant of
characteristics such as narcissism are key predictors of marital satisfaction over the long run. Being motivated
marital dissatisfaction (Lavner et al., 2016). to meet a partner's sexual needs seems to be a key factor
(Birnbaum et al., 2016; Muise et al., 2013).
Sharing religious beliefs and spirituality with one’s
spouse is another good way to ensure higher quality
marriages, and that’s especially the case among couples in
lower socioeconomic groups (Lichter & Carmalt, 2009).
It appears that this effect goes beyond merely doing an
activity together, as religion and spirituality may provide
a framework for conflict resolution and a way to put one’s
marriage in a bigger, more significant context.
But when you get down to basics, it’s how well couples
communicate their thoughts, actions, and feelings to
each other and show intimacy and support each other
that largely determines the level of conflict couples
experience and, by extension, how happy they are likely
to be over the long term (Patrick et al., 2007) This 1s
A Young married military couples face special types of stress on
their relationship
especially important with regard to high-stress areas
such as children and work and after long separations
such as military deployments (Wadsworth, Hughes-
During the early years of their marriage, many Kirchubel, & Riggs, 2014)
couples may spend significant amounts of time apart,
especially those who are in the military (Fincham
Think about it
& Beach, 2010). Spouses who serve in combat areas
on active duty assignment and who suffer from post- What types of interventions would help keep
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are particularly married couples happier?
vulnerable, as they are at greater risk for other spouse-
directed aggression.
So what are the best ways to ‘stack the deck’ in favour
What the nondeployed spouse believes turns out to
of a long, happy marriage? Based on research, here are
be important. If the nondeployed spouse believes the
the best:
deployment will have negative effects on the marriage,
then problems are much more likely. In contrast, if the e Make time for your relationship.
nondeployed spouse believes such challenges make e Express your love to your spouse.
the relationship stronger, then they typically can do so e Be there in times of need.
(Lewis, Lamson, & White, 2016, Renshaw, Rodrigues, e Communicate constructively and positively about
& Jones, 2008). Research indicates the effects of problems in the relationship.
deployment may be greater on wives than on husbands; e Be interested in your spouse's life.
divorce rates for women service members who are e Confide in your spouse.
deployed is higher than for their male counterparts e Forgive minor offences and try to understand major
(Karney & Crown, 2007). ones.

358 CHaprer Il BEING WITH OTHERS. RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Recall ability to handle stressful events in the

context of their particular vulnerabilities and
1. The meanings and implications of remaining resources.
single are often tied to strongly held
beliefs.
Interpret
2. People in committed, intimate, sexual
e What sociocultural forces affect decisions to
relationships who live together but are not
marry rather than to cohabit indefinitely?
married are
3. In South Africa, there is no legal recognition Apply
or protection of domestic partnerships such as e Pravesh and Miriam are engaged to be
cohabitation. The only way to protect oneself married. Pravesh works long hours as a store
under South African law is to enter into a manager at a local coffee shop, while Miriam
works regular hours as an administrative
4. The degree to which a husband and wife assistant for a large communications company.
accommodate to each other over a certain period Based on your understanding of the factors
of time is called that affect marital success, what other
characteristics would you want to know about
5. In the U.S., the decision made it Pravesh and Miriam before evaluating the
illegal for same-sex couples to be denied the likely success of their marriage?
right to get married.
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
6. The model sees marital quality as end of the chapter.
a dynamic process resulting from the couple's

EEE] Family dynamics and the life course

SRNR ENE E REET EE EEE EERE EERE ETHER TEESE EEE EEE ROO E EEE EES TEETH EEE EERE EERO E EEE EEE

Learning objectives

® Describe what it is like to be a parent.

® Identify the diverse forms of parenting.

Hanco, 32, and Delia, 33, just had their first everything. New parents are often overwhelmed with
child, Nadia, after several years of trying. the responsibility.
They‘ve heard that having children in their 30s In this section, we consider the dynamics of families,
can have advantages, but Hanco and Delia from deciding whether to have children through caring
wonder whether people are just saying that for ageing parents and grandparenthood. As we do so,
to be nice to them They are also concerned we must recognise the concept of ‘family’ is undergoing
about the financial obligations they are likely change
to face.

Hanco and Delia are increasingly typical of first- The

parentalrole
time parents, as more people than ever delay having The birth of a child transforms a couple (or a single
children. As all parents discover, having a child changes parent) into a family. The most common form of family

113 FAMILY DYNAMICS AND THE LIFE COURSE 359

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Leareung. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copaed, scammed, or duplicated. m whole
ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some therd party costest may he wappecescd from the cibook andive of hapter|s).
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed cresiont dacs sot muztcnally affect
the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night to remove additional coesient
af any tame if subsequent neh sextnctoes noqene ot
in most Western socteties 1s the nuclear family, consisting For many reasons, including personal choice, financial
only of parent(s) and child(ren). However, the most instability, and infertility, an increasing number of couples
common family form globally is the extended family, in are child-free. Social attitudes in many countries (Austria,
which grandparents and other relatives live with parents Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Netherlands, and
and children. Let’s see how adding children to either United States) are improving toward child-free couples
family form matters. (Blackstone & Stewart, 2016; Gubernskaya, 2010).
Couples without children have some advantages:
Deciding whether to have children higher marital satisfaction, more freedom, and higher
One of the biggest decisions couples (and many singles) standards of living on average. Yet, they also must deal
make is whether to have children. You would think that with societal expectations regarding having children
potential parents must weigh the many benefits of child and may feel defensive about their decision not to be
rearing — such as feeling personal satisfaction, fulfilling a parent. A major international study of older adult
personal needs, continuing the family line, and enjoying couples without children in Australia, Finland, Germany,
companionship - with the many drawbacks, including Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the
expense and lifestyle changes, especially the balance United States revealed highly similar patterns across all
between work and family. But you would be wrong — this countries except Japan (Koropeckyj-Cox & Call, 2007).
is not what most people actually do. In Japan, the cultural norm of children caring for older
Rijken (2009; Rijken & Knijn, 2009) reports potential parents created difficulties for childless older couples.
parents actually don’t think deliberately or deeply about The factors that influence the decision to be child-
when to have a child, and those who are career-oriented free appear to differ for women and men (Waren &
or like their freedom do not often deliberately postpone Pals, 2013). For women, higher levels of education and
parenthood because of those factors. Rather, thoughts economic factors increase the chances of remaining
about having children are implicit and do not cross child-free, whereas holding traditional sex role beliefs
their minds until they are ready to begin thinking about decrease the chances of that decision. For men, though,
having children neither education nor economic factors predict deciding
Whether the pregnancy is planned or not, a couple's to remain child-free, but traditional sex role beliefs lower
first pregnancy is a milestone event in a relationship, the chances of that decision.
with both benefits and stresses (Lavner & Bradbury, The median age of women having children in South
2017; Meijer & van den Wittenboer, 2007) Parents Africa ranges between 26 and 28 years (Statistics South
largely agree children add affection, improve family Africa, 2017e). Being older at the birth of one’s first child
ties, and give parents a feeling of immortality and sense is advantageous. Older mothers, like Delia in the opening
of accomplishment Most parents willingly sacrifice a story, are more at ease being parents, spend more time
great deal for their children and hope they grow up to with their babies, and are more affectionate, sensitive, and
be happy and successful In this way, children bring supportive to them. In addition, there is a higher maternal
happiness to their parents’ relationship. investment in middle childhood and less child-perceived
However, finances are of great concern to most conflict in adolescence (Camberis et al., 2016; Schlomer &
parents because children are expensive. How expensive Belsky, 2012). The age of the father also makes a difference
is the cost of raising a child in South Africa from birth in how he interacts with children (Palkovitz & Palm,
to university? Research indicates that by the time a child 2009) Compared to men who become fathers in their 20s,
reaches 23 years it could cost parents in South Africa men such as Hanco who become fathers in their 30s are
over R20 700 000 (not taking inflation or growth into generally more invested in their paternal role and spend
consideration) (Business Tech, 2017a). These costs do
up to three times as much time caring for their preschool
not differ significantly between two-parent and single- children as younger fathers do. Father involvement has
parent households but clearly are a bigger financial increased significantly, due in part to social attitudes
burden for single parents. Costs vary substantially across that support it (Fogarty & Evans, 2010). Research clearly
levels of household income. shows that being a father is an important aspect of men’s
lives across adulthood (Marsiglio & Roy, 2013).
Parenting skills do not come naturally - they must
nuclear family Most common form of family in Western societies, be acquired. Having a child changes all aspects of
consisting only of parent(s) and child(ren).
couples’ lives. As we have seen, children put a great
extended family Most common form of family around the world; deal of stress on a relationship. Both motherhood and
one in which grandparents and other relatives live with parents fatherhood require major commitment and cooperation.
and children.
Parenting is full of rewards, but it also takes a great

360 Cuapter 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Ethnic diversity and parenting

Parenting-child behaviour outcomes in South Africa
are inconsistent with international research in terms
of parenting styles, gender and ethnicity (Roman,
Makwakwa, & Lacante, 2016). A study compared
remembered parenting styles of mothers and fathers in
black, coloured and white ethnic groups. It found that
parenting styles of mothers and fathers between and
within the different ethnic groups were perceived to be
significantly different, particularly in relation to fathers.
Mothers across the ethnic groups were perceived as more
involved and having stronger relationships with their
children. Authoritative parenting styles were found to be
more prevalent in the mother-child relationship. White
fathers were found to have a more authoritative parenting
style than black African fathers. Historically and
culturally, this could be due to black African fathers being
less involved with their children, as a result of fathers
working away from their families. Similar studies in the
& Having a child later in adulthood has many benefits U.S.A., U.K. and Germany found that gender ideologies

WHAT DO YOU THInk? Many advocates and employees

agree that paid leave for family reasons
is Important Many businesses do as
Paid maternity/paternity leave well As we have seen, the evidence
IS strong that being able to care for
one's family or oneself improves well-
Does your employer provide paid time leave for four months, but she Is being, and helps the employee be more
off if you have a new child? One of the allowed to claim from UIF for 17 weeks productive
biggest needs for most employees However, the Labour Laws Amendment What provision do you think the
Is access to these types of benefits, Bill, passed in 2017, proposes that new law should make for new parents?
especially employees in smaller parents (mothers and fathers) should Do you believe the South African
organisations or employers that do not be entitled to 10 days of paid leave provision for paid family leave in
provide paid time off In addition, gay and lesbian parents, terms of a new born Is acceptable?
In South Africa, the Basic parents whose baby was born to a Why or why not?
Conditions of Employment Act 75 of surrogate, and adoptive parents will
1997, allows a mother unpaid maternity - also be granted parental leave.

113 FAMILY DYNAMICS AND THE LIFE COURSE 361

Copyeaght 2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved May mot be copsed, scanned, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Due to electronic nghts, some thind party costest mury be suppressed trom the cfiock ancice oC hapter|s)
Exttomad sevieew bos deaned thot any wappremed comicnt dacs sot susticmadly affect the overall keamng expenence. Congage Learceamg reserves the ngbt to comowe additaceal coerierst af any Grne if subsequent ght eetnctoes oqene at
could account for less warmth between black fathers and emotionally if their mothers, rather than fathers, are a
their children than in white groups. In addition, a more minority (Schlabach, 2013).
Westernised approach to parenting (including more It is clear that ethnic groups vary a great deal in how
paternal involvement and a more authoritative parenting they approach the issue of parenting and what values are
style) can be seen in the parenting style of white parents. most important. Considered together, there is no one
Raising multi-ethnic children presents challenges parenting standard that applies equally to all groups.
not experienced by parents of same-race children.
For example, parents of biracial children report
feeling discrimination and being targets of prejudicial
behaviour from others (Hubbard, 2010; Kilson & Ladd, The traditional family form of two married parents
2009). These parents also worry that their children may with their biological parents does not reflect the wide
be rejected by members of both racial communities. diversity of family forms in South African society. You
Perhaps that is why parents of multiracial children tend likely are in or know people who live in one of these
to provide more economic and cultural resources to forms. Let's take a closer look.
their children than parents of single-race children do
(Cheng & Powell, 2007). Single parents
An estimated 35% of children in South Africa are living
with both their biological mother and father. Approximately
40% live with their mother only, 2.8% with their father
only, and another 22.6% are not living with either one of
their biological parents (Holborn & Eddy, 2011). Single
parents, regardless of gender, face considerable obstacles.
Financially, they are usually less well-off than their married
counterparts, especially single mothers. Having only one
source of income puts additional pressure on single parents
to provide all of the necessities. Integrating the roles of work
and parenthood are difficult enough for two people; for
the single parent, the hardships are increased. Financially,
single mothers are hardest hit, mainly because women are
generally paid less than men and because single mothers
may not be able to afford child care that allows for the work
schedule flexibility needed for higher-paying jobs.
Many divorced single parents report complex feelings
toward their children, such as frustration, failure, guilt,
and a need to be overindulgent (Amato & Boyd, 2014),
Loneliness when children grow up and leave or are
visiting the noncustodial parent can be especially difficult
& Multi-ethnic families in South Africa are increasing in number
to deal with (Langlais, Anderson, & Greene, 2016).

In multi-ethnic families, you might think that the

parent from a minority group takes primary responsibility
for guiding that aspect of the child’s ethnic identity.
However, it is the mothers who are key in most respects
(Schlabach, 2013). A study of children of European
mothers and Maori fathers in New Zealand showed
that the mothers played a major role in establishing
the child’s Maori identity (Kukutai, 2007). Similarly,
European American mothers of biracial children whose
fathers were African American tended to raise them
as African American in terms of public ethnic identity
(O'Donoghue, 2005). In general, multiracial adolescents
experience more negative outcomes socially and A Being a single parent presents many challenges, but also satisfaction

362 Cuaprrer
Il BEInG WITH OTHERS. RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyraght 2009 Cengage Lesreing. All Rights Reserved May set be coped, commed, of dupicored m whole of im part. Dur to clectrommc mghes, soese thand party cosscat aexy be eappeeeend een de clock ancioe
of Deapeerls)
Echtomad nevaew hee doomed thet sey wapprewed comet dors act susxmally affect
the overall komung cipenence. Congage Leaeang ourves the night w move adtmaoeal Comat af any Gree if efeegemt Pghe AK boes me
One particular concern for many divorced single wish to locate and meet their birth parents. Such searches
parents is dating Several common questions asked can strain the relationships between these children and
by single parents involve dating: ‘How do I become their adoptive parents who may interpret these actions as
available again®’ “How will my children react?’ “How do a form of rejection (Curtis & Pearson, 2010).
I cope with my own sexual needs?’ They have reason Families with children adopted from another
to be concerned. Research indicates that single parents culture pose challenges of how to establish and
tend to report that children may interfere with dating maintain connection with the child’s culture of origin
and romance (Sommer et al., 2013) They report feeling (Yngvesson, 2010). Research in the Netherlands found
insecure about sexuality and wondering how they children adopted from Columbia, Sri Lanka, and Korea
should behave around their children in terms of having into Dutch homes struggled with looking different,
partners stay overnight (Langlais et al., 2016; Lampkin- and many expressed desires to be white (Juffer, 2006).
Hunter, 2010). Canadian parents who adopted children from China
took several different approaches to introducing their
children to Chinese culture, from not at all (‘my child
Step-, foster-, adoptive, and same-sex couple is simply Canadian’) to deliberately blending both
parenting cultures, to leaving it up to the child (Bian, Blachford,
In general, there are few differences among parents & Durst, 2015).
who have their own biological children or who become Foster parents have the most tenuous relationship
parents in some other way, but there are some unique with their children because the bond can be broken
challenges (Doss & Rhoades, 2017; Ganong & Coleman, for any number of reasons having nothing to do with
2017) the quality of the care being provided Dealing with
A big issue for foster parents, adoptive parents, attachment is difficult. Foster parents want to provide
and step-parents is how strongly the child will bond secure homes, but they may not have the children long
with them Although infants less than one year old enough to establish continuity Furthermore, because
will probably bond well, children who are old enough many children in foster care have been unable to form
to have formed attachments with their biological attachments at all, they are less likely to form ones
parents may have competing loyalties. For example, that will inevitably be broken. Despite the challenges,
some stepchildren remain strongly attached to the placement in good foster care results in the development
parent who does not have custody and actively resist of attachment between foster parents and children who
attempts to integrate them into the new family (“My were placed out of institutional settings (Alper & Howe,
real mother wouldn't make me do that’), or they may 2015; Smyke et al., 2010).
exhibit behavioural problems. As a result, the dynamics Finally, many gay men and lesbian women also want
in blended families can best be understood as a complex to be parents. Although changes in laws regarding same-
system (Dupuis, 2010). Step-parents must often deal sex couples and parenting have changed in important
with continued visitation by the parent who does not ways, barriers remain (Frank, 2016). Some have
have custody, which may worsen any difficulties. These biological children themselves, whereas others choose
problems are a major reason that second marriages adoption or foster parenting.
are at high risk of dissolution, as discussed later in this Research indicates that children brought up by gay
chapter. They are also a major reason why behavioural or lesbian parents do not experience any more problems
and emotional problems are more common among than children reared by heterosexual parents and are
stepchildren (Ganong & Coleman, 2017) as psychologically healthy as children of heterosexual
Still, many step-parents and stepchildren ultimately parents (Bos et al., 2016, Frank, 2016) Substantial
develop good relationships with each other (Coleman, evidence exists that children raised by gay or lesbian
Ganong, & Russell, 2013). Step-parents must be sensitive parents do not develop sexual identity problems or
to the relationship between the stepchild and his or her any other problems any more than children raised by
biological parent. Allowing stepchildren to develop a heterosexual parents (Goldberg, 2009) Children of gay
relationship with the step-parent at their own pace also and lesbian parents are no more likely than children of
helps. What style of step-parenting ultimately develops heterosexual parents to identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual,
is influenced by the expectations of the step-parent, transgendered, or questioning.
stepchild, spouse, and biological parent (Ganong & The evidence is clear that children raised by gay
Coleman, 2017) or lesbian parents suffer no negative consequences
Adoptive parents also contend with attachment to compared with children raised by heterosexual
birth parents, but in different ways. Adopted children may parents. Children of lesbian couples and heterosexual

113 FAMILY DYNAMICS AND THE LIFE COURSE 363

Test yourself 11.3

Recall Interpret
1. For women, higher levels of © What difference would it make to view children
increase the chances of remaining child-free. as a financial asset (i.e., a source of income) as
opposed to a financial burden (i.e., mainly an
2. Parents of multiracial children tend to provide
expense)? Which of these attitudes characterises
more resources to their children
most Western societies? Give an example of the
than parents of single-race children do.
other type.
3. Infants less than old will probably
bond well with foster parents, adoptive parents, Apply
and step-parents. © Would northern European cultures be likely to
demonstrate authoritative parenting styles? Why
4. Children brought up by do or why not?
not experience any more problems than
children reared by heterosexual parents and Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
are as psychologically healthy as children of end of the chapter.
heterosexual parents.

EEE] Divorce and remarriage

Learning objectives

® Identify who gets divorced, and discuss how divorce affects parental relationships with children.

e Describe what remarriages are, and discuss how they are similar to and different from first marriages.

Khosi and Dineo, both in their late 40s, Despite what Khosi and Dineo promised on their
thought that their marriage would last forever. wedding day, their marriage did not last until death
However, they weren't so lucky and have just parted them; they dissolved their marriage through
been divorced. Although two of their children divorce Even though divorce is stressful and difficult,
are married, their youngest daughter is still at thousands of people each year choose to try again.
university. The financial pressures Dineo feels Most enter their second (or third or fourth) marriage
now that she’s on her own are beginning to take with renewed expectations of success. Are these new
their toll. She wonders whether her financial dreams realistic? As we'll see, it depends on many
situation is similar to that of other recently things, among the most important is whether children
divorced women. are involved.

364 Cuaprer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
Divorce wife talking excitedly about a project she had just been
given at work and her husband showing disinterest. Such
Most couples enter marriage with the idea their ‘unrequited’ interest and excitement in discussions likely
relationship will be permanent. Rather than growing carries over to the rest of the relationship.
together, though, many couples grow apart. Gottman’s and other similar research (for example,
Baucom et al., 2015) is important because it clearly shows
Who gets divorced and why? how couples show emotion is critical to marital success.
You or someone you know has experienced divorce Couples who divorce earlier typically do so because
No wonder. Divorce is common in South Africa, and of high levels of negative feelings such as contempt,
although there are no comprehensive statistics on how criticism, defensiveness, and being ignored experienced
many marriages end in divorce, data shows that 44% of as a result of intense marital conflict But for many
divorces in 2016 were for marriages that lasted for less couples, such intense conflict is generally absent. But the
than 10 years (Statistics South Africa, 2015) Of these mere absence of conflict does not mean the marriage is
marriages Indian/Asian couples had the lowest risk full of positive feelings. Although the absence of intense
(22,4%), and black couples the highest (31.7%) About conflict makes it easier to stay in a marriage longer, the
55% of the divorced couples had children younger than lack of positive emotions eventually takes its toll and
18 years (Statistics South Africa, 2017a). results in later divorce For a marriage to last, people
Research indicates that men and women tend to need to be told regularly they are loved and that what
agree on the reasons for divorce (Braver & Lamb, they do and feel really matters to their partner.
2013). Infidelity is the most commonly reported cause, We must be cautious about applying Gottman’s
followed by incompatibility, drinking or drug use, and model to all married couples. Kim, Capaldi, and Crosby
growing apart An individual couple's specific reasons (2007) reported that in lower-income high-risk couples,
for divorcing vary with gender, social class, and life- the variables Gottman says predict early divorce did
course variables. Former husbands and wives are more not hold for that sample. The priority given to couples’
likely to blame their ex-spouses than themselves for the communication as the source of marital satisfaction is
problems that led to the divorce. Former husbands and not always apparent (Lavner, Karney, & Bradbury, 2016).
wives agree, however, that the women were more likely For older, long-term married couples, the perception of
to have initiated the divorce. the spouse's support is the most important predictor of
Why people divorce has been the focus of much remaining married (Landis et al., 2013).
research. Divorce touches every aspect of relationships: High divorce rates across the world have led to many
emotional, psychological, social, economic, and more approaches to increase the likelihood that marriages
(Coates, 2017). Still, we can gain insight into who is will last. One approach to keeping couples together,
most likely to divorce, and why they do. termed covenant marriage, makes divorce much harder
A great deal of attention has been devoted to the to obtain Covenant marriage expands the marriage
notion that success or failure depends critically on how contract to a lifelong commitment between the partners
couples handle conflict. Although conflict management within a supportive community. This approach is a
is important, it has become clear from research in religious-centred view founded on the idea that if
couples therapy that the reasons couples split are getting married and getting divorced were grounded
complex (Kayser, 2010) in religious and cultural values and divorce was made
Gottman and Levenson (2000, Gottman & Silver, more difficult, couples would be more likely to stay
2015) developed two models that predicted divorce early together (Felkey, 2018). The couple wanting to celebrate
(within the first 7 years of marriage), and later (when a covenant marriage agrees to participate in mandatory
the first child reaches age 14), with 93% accuracy over premarital counselling and, should problems arise later,
the 14-year period of their study Negative emotions the grounds for divorce become very limited (White,
displayed during conflict between the couple predicted 2010)
early divorce, but not later divorce. In general, this reflects Other approaches to decreasing the likelihood of
a destructive interaction pattern of demand-withdraw divorce focus on teaching couples the skills necessary
(Baucom et al., 2015, Christensen, 1990) in which, during for maintaining strong relationships, such as good
conflict, one partner places a demand on the other, who communication skills and joint problem-solving strategies.
then withdraws either emotionally or physically In
contrast, the lack of positive emotions in a discussion covenant marriage Expands the marriage contract to a
of events-of-the-day and during conflict predicted later lifelong commitment between the partners within a supportive
community.
divorce, but not early divorce. An example would be a

a1 4 DivorCE AND REMARRIAGE 365

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Research related to these initiatives has focused on the mothers tend to obtain custody but often do not obtain
positive aspects of marriage and on the need to do a better sufficient financial resources to support the children.
job with marriage education (Fincham & Beach, 2010). This puts an extreme financial burden on divorced
Will they succeed in helping couples stay married longer? mothers, whose standard of living is typically reduced.
That remains to be seen. In contrast, divorced fathers often pay a higher
psychological price. Although many fathers would like
Effects of divorce on the couple to remain active in their children’s lives, few actually do.
Parenting plans created during the divorce proceedings
Divorce takes a high toll on the couple Research in
outline access to the child and may limit fathers’ contact
the United States and Spain shows great similarity in
with their children. In addition, when mothers who
how both partners in a failed marriage feel: deeply
have custody remarry, visits from fathers usually decline
disappointed, misunderstood, and rejected (Doohan,
(Anderson & Greene, 2013)
Carrére, & Riggs, 2010; Yarnoz-Yaben, 2010). Unlike
the situation of a spouse dying, divorce often means that
one’s ex-spouse is present to provide a reminder of the Divorce and relationships with adult children
unpleasant aspects of the relationship and, in some cases, We saw in Chapter 5 that young children can be
feelings of personal failure. As a result, divorced people seriously affected by their parents’ divorce. But what
are typically unhappy in general, at least for a while. happens when the parents of adult children divorce? Are
Divorced people suffer negative health consequences adult children affected, too? It certainly looks that way.
as well (Lamela, Figueiredo, & Bastos, 2014). Especially Young adults whose parents divorce experience a great
because of the financial effects of divorce, the effects deal of emotional vulnerability and stress (Cooney &
can even be seen in future generations due to long-term Uhlenberg, 1990) One young man put it this way:
negative consequences on education and on quality of
parenting (Amato & Cheadle, 2005, Friesen et al., 2017)
The difficult thing was that it was a time where, you
know, [you're] making the transition from high school
Divorced people sometimes find the transition
to college your high school friends are dispersed
difficult, researchers refer to these problems as ‘divorce they're all over the place. It's normally a very
hangover’ (Walther, 1991) Divorce hangover reflects difficult transition [college], new atmosphere, new
divorced partners’ inability to let go, develop new workload, meeting new people You've got to start
friendships, or reorient themselves as single parents. deciding what you want to do, you've got to sort of start
Forgiving the ex-spouse is also important for eventual getting more independent, and so forth. And then at
adjustment postdivorce (Rye et al., 2004, Sbarra, the same time you find out about a divorce You know,
2015). Both low preoccupation and forgiveness may be it’s just that much more adjustment you have to make.
indicators ex-spouses are able to move on with their lives. (Cooney et al., 1986)
Divorce in middle age has some special characteristics.
The effects of experiencing the divorce of one’s parents
If women initiate the divorce, they report self-focused
while growing up can be quite long-lasting. University-age
growth and optimism. If they did not initiate the divorce,
students report poorer relationships with their parents if
they tend to ruminate and feel vulnerable. Many middle-
their parents are divorced (Yu et al., 2010) Parental divorce
aged women who divorce also face significant financial
also affects young adults’ views on intimate relationships
challenges if their primary source of income was the
and marriage, often having negative effects on them
ex-husband's earnings (Sakraida, 2005).
(Ottaway, 2010) Wallerstein and Lewis (2004) report the
We must not overlook the financial problems that
findings from a 25-year follow-up study of individuals
many divorced women face (Braver & Lamb, 2013).
whose parents divorced when they were between 3 and 18
These problems are especially keen for the middle-aged
years old. Results show an unexpected gulf between growing
divorcee who may have spent years as a homemaker and
up in married versus divorced families, as well as the
has few marketable job skills For her, divorce presents
difficulties that children of divorce encounter in achieving
an especially difficult financial hardship, which is
love, sexual intimacy, and commitment to marriage and
intensified if she has children in school and the father
parenthood. Even when the length of time spent in the
provides little support.
married two-parent family was taken into account, negative
effects of divorce on adult children were still found in a large
Relationships with young children Dutch study (Kalmijn, 2013). The ‘marriage protection’
When it involves children, divorce becomes a factor outweighed biological relatedness, especially for
complicated matter, especially when viewed from a global fathers. There is no doubt that divorce has significant effects
perspective (Amato & Boyd, 2014). In most countries, regardless of when it occurs in a child’ life.

366 CuapPrTer 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcammed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some therd party contest mary he suppeessed thom the cftook andive eChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
Remarriage financial difficulties The effect of remarriage on children
is complicated, at least for emerging adults (Collardeau
The trauma of divorce does not always deter people & Ehrenberg, 2016; Gold, 2016). Parental divorce can
from beginning new relationships that often lead to have long-term consequences on children’s attitudes
another marriage. As you can see in @ FIGURE 11.4, toward marriage and divorce The extent to which
though, rates of remarriage differ dramatically by age parental conflict was openly present and the religious
(Livingston, 2014) Additionally, the likelihood of ever affiliation of emerging adults influences their attitudes.
remarrying has dropped in nearly all age groups since For instance, those who were exposed to high levels of
the mid-20th century For example, for those under
parental conflict have more positive views of divorce.
age 35, remarriage declined from 72% in 1960 to 42% Remarriages tend to be less stable than first marriages,
in 2013, from 76% to 57% in those 35 to 44, and from and have become less so since the 1990s (Council on
69% to 63% in those 45 to 54. Interestingly, for those in Contemporary Families, 2015) These differences do
older age groups, the trend is reversed. for those 55 to not reflect relationship quality, which is equivalent.
64, remarriage increased from 55% to 67% and for those Rather, pressures from complex family relationships,
over 65, it increased from 34% to 50% lower commitment, and financial pressures take a higher
toll on remarriages Nevertheless, couples who are
very committed to, and work diligently at making the
Remarriage
by age remarriage strong, are usually successful.
% of the previously married who ever remarried
1 2 ee 25
25-3) TT 43 Test yourself 11.4
25-44 ES 57
1S 54 63 Recall
i a en ae er 87
65 and dcr a 50 1. The most commonly reported cause of divorce
Note: Previously married are those eligible for remarriage. is followed by incompatibility,
drinking or drug use, and growing apart.
@ FIGURE 11.4 Remarriage as a function of age
2. For a marriage to last, people need to be told
Source: Pew Research Conner (2014) Retrieved from www pewsccalirands crg/2004/ 11/14/
foutin-ten-couples are-aaying-ido-agaryst_2014 11-14_renmarriage-06/ regularly and that what they do and
feel really matters to their partner.

Overall, women are less likely to remarry than are 3. Even many years later, divorced ____ may not
men, but this gender gap is closing, mainly because men experience positive relationships with their adult
are less likely in general to remarry now than in the past children.
(Livingston, 2014). Finally, the age difference between
spouses is likely to be greater in remarriage. Among Interpret
wives in a first marriage only 14% are at least 6 years
younger than their spouse, but for remarried women e The divorce rates have greatly increased over the
that increases to 31%. past few decades, while the rate of marriage has
Cultural differences are apparent in the ability of declined. Why?
women, in particular, to remarry; in Namibia widows are
constrained in their options and typically must depend
Apply
on others (Thomas, 2008) Among older adults, adult e Rulani and Maria are engaged to be married.
children may voice strong opposition to their parent Rulani works long hours as the manager of a
remarrying that can put sufficient pressure on the parent local coffee shop, while Maria works regular
that they remain single. hours as an administrative assistant at a large
Adapting to new relationships in remarriage is communications company. Based on what you
stressful. Partners may have unresolved issues from the know about why couples get divorced, what
previous marriage that may interfere with satisfaction factors may increase the likelihood that Rulani
with the new marriage (Faber, 2004; Gold, 2016; Martin- and Maria's marriage will fail?
Uzzi & Duval-Tsioles, 2013) The challenges can include Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
antagonism toward ex-spouses that interferes with child end of the chapter.
custody, differing loyalties among stepchildren, and

11 4 Divorce
FORCE ANDAND REMARRIAGE
REMARRIAGE 367

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
11.1 Relationship types and issues ¢ Three primary reasons for cohabiting are convenience
(for example, to share expenses), trial marriage, or
What role do friends play across adulthood? How do substitute marriage Cultural differences abound; in
they develop? some cultures, cohabitation 1s a viable alternative to
e People tend to have more friendships during young marriage.
adulthood than during any other period. Face-to-face
and virtual friendships are based on the same principles: What are LGBTQ relationships like?
affective or emotional self-disclosure, sharing activities © LGBTQ couples are similar to married heterosexual
of mutual interest, and as sources of fun. couples in terms of relationship issues. Lesbian couples
e Men have fewer close friends and base them on shared tend to be more egalitarian. The option to marry is
activities. Women have more close friends and base them changing the nature of LGBTQ relationships.
on emotional sharing. Cross-gender friendships may
create challenges due to misperceptions. What is marriage like across adulthood?
e The most important factors in creating stable
What characterises love relationships? How do they marriages are maturity, similarity (called homogamy),
vary across cultures? and conflict resolution skills Exchange theory 1s an
© Passion, intimacy, and commitment are the key important explanation of how people contribute to
components of love. their relationships.
e The theory of assortative mating does the best job e Exchange theory argues that happy marriages result
explaining the process of forming love relationships. when both partners perceive they contribute roughly
© Selecting a mate works best when there are shared equally
values, goals, and interests. There are cross-cultural e For couples with children, marital satisfaction tends
differences in which specific aspects of these are most to decline until the children leave home, although
important. individual differences are apparent, especially in long-
© Neuroscience research shows a great deal of brain activity term marriages.
and related neurochemical activity when people are in e Marriages are most intense during the early years. Most
love long-term marriages tend to be happy, and partners in
them express fewer negative emotions. Sharing values
What ts the nature of violence in some relationships? and beliefs helps sustain marriages.
© Levels of aggressive behaviour range from verbal
aggression to physical aggression to murdering one’s 11.3 Family dynamics and the life course
partner People remain in abusive relationships for many
reasons, including cultural factors, low self-esteem, and What is it like to be a parent?
the belief they cannot leave © Most couples choose to have children, although for many
different reasons The timing of parenthood determines
11.2 Lifestyles and relationships in part how involved parents are in their families as
opposed to their careers. Couples without children can
What are the challenges and advantages of being be happier
single? e Being older at the birth of one’s first child is an advantage.
e Most adults in their 20s are single. People remain single
for many reasons; gender differences exist. Ethnic What diverse forms of parenting are there?
differences in rates of singlehood reflect differences in e Single parents face many problems, especially if they are
age at marriage and social factors. women and are divorced. The main problem is reduced
e Singles recognise the pluses and minuses in the lifestyle. financial resources.
There are health and longevity consequences from e A major issue for adoptive parents, foster parents,
remaining single for men but not for women. and step-parents 1s how strongly the child will bond
with them. Each of these relationships has special
Why do people cohabit? characteristics Same-sex couple parents still face
© Cohabitation is on the increase globally. discrimination, and are good parents.

368 Cuaprter 11 BEING WITH OTHERS RELATIONSHIPS IN YOUNG AND MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

(Copyright
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, ucarmed, or duplicated im whole
or in part. Dur so clectromnc nghes, some therd pany comtcst muy he suppecesed fom the cftook ander oC haptcr|+)
Edtonad seview ton doomed that ary euppromed comcm! dacs sot mumcmally affect the overall kamnmy cepenceee. Congage Learning reucrves the night w remove addmosal comicen af any tome of suteequeet ngh scanctons noqeaw &
11.4 Divorce and remarriage Women clearly have a harder time in the long run, often
for financial reasons. Difficulties between divorced
Why do couples divorce? partners usually involve visitation and child support.
e Reasons for divorce include a lack of the qualities that
make a strong marriage. Also, societal attitudes against Why do people remarry?
divorce have eased and expectations about marnage have © Most divorced couples remarry. Second marriages
increased. are especially vulnerable to stress if stepchildren are
© Recovery from divorce is different for men and women. involved. Remarriage in later life tends to be happy, but
Men tend to have a tougher time in the short run. may be resisted by adult children.

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

assortative mating (346) homogamy (355) answers
abusive relationship (350) exchange theory (356)
cohabitation (353) vulnerability-stress- 11.1 1. Continuation 2. positive 3. corumination
marital success (355) adaptation model (357) 4. assortative mating 5.dopamine 6. Domestic
marital quality (355) nuclear family (360) Violence Act
marital adjustment (355) extended family (360) 11.2 1. cultural and religious 2. cohabiting
marital satisfaction (355) covenant marriage (365) 3. cohabitation agreement 4 marital
adjustment 5. Obergefell v. Hodges
6. vulnerability-stress—adaptation

11.3 1. education and economic factors 2. economic and

cultural 3. one year 4. gay or lesbian parents

11.4 1. Infidelity 2. that they are loved 3. fathers

SUMMARY 369

12.1 Occupational selection and

development 371
The meaning of work 371
Occupational choice revisited 372
Occupational development 375
Job satisfaction 377

12.2 Gender, ethnicity, and

discrimination issues 380
Gender differences in
occupational selection 381
Women and occupational
development 383
Previously disadvantaged
employees and occupational
development 383
Bias and discrimination 384
What do you think? Helping
women lean in 385

12.3 Occupational transitions 387

Retraining workers 388
Occupational insecurity 388
Coping with unemployment 389
Real people: Applying human
development. The politics of
unemployment 390

12.4 Work and family 391

The dependent care dilemma 392
Juggling multiple roles 393

12.5 Taking time to relax: Leisure

activities 396
Types of leisure activities 396
Developmental changes in
leisure 397
Consequences of leisure
activities 397
Spotlight on research. Long-term
effects of leisure activities 398

Summary 399

Key terms 401

All Rights Reserved May mot be copend, scammed, of duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectroemc nights, some therd party costest wory be suppeesecd form dhe cibook andive cl hapter|s
» met muxtcnially affect the overall kearnmg expenence. Cengage Leareing rescrwex the mgbt to remove additwoeal content af any tine of subsequent rights seetnctoes neqenee i.
gig economy, based on short-term way. South Africa ts likely to follow
you were young, you were
contracts rather than on long-term this pattern (Business Tech, 2017b).
undoubtedly asked, ‘What do you
employment, ts the fastest growing As a result, our understanding of
want to be when you grow up?’ Now
sector of the labour force (Intuit, 2016; what work is, what it means, and how
that we are ‘grown up’, the question
Irwin, 2016) Employment as a series people engage in it is undergoing
has changed to ‘What do you do?’
of short-term jobs largely eliminates fundamental change. We consider
Work ts a central aspect of life and
the traditional employer-employee the complexities of the world of
a defining characteristic of who we
relationship, and mostly eliminates work throughout this chapter as
are. For some, work ss life, for all, our
the availability of key benefits such as we confront the reality of rapidly
work ts a prime source of identity in
employer-paid healthcare, paid family changing occupational conditions
adulthood
leave, and retirement savings plans and opportunities, and how those
The world of work has changed
to workers. Intuit (2016) predicts that are shaping adult development and
dramatically over the past few
by 2020, 40% of all American workers ageing, and raising issues about
decades in large part due to the
will be in the gig economy and not basic assumptions people have
continuing replacement of jobs
employed in a traditional long-term concerning retirement.
with technology The so-called

EF4] Occupational selection and development

Learning objectives

® Describe how people view work.

® Explain how people choose their occupations.

e Identify the factors that influence occupational development.

© Describe the relationship between job satisfaction and age.

Nomsa, a 23-year-old communications centres on the basis of their closeness to where they
student, wonders about careers Should work. People often choose where they live in terms of
she enter the television field as a behind- where they work.
the-scenes producer, or would she be better
suited as a public relations spokesperson?
She thinks her outgoing personality is a factor
The meaning of work
she should consider in making this decision. If we viewed the importance of work merely from an
economic perspective, we would deny the influence
Choosing one's work is serious business. Like Nomsa, of work on the development of human beings. It also
we try to select a field in which we are trained and has to be viewed in terms of its importance to the
maximises the chances that we can meet our goal gratification of various psychological needs. Studs
of doing meaningful work. You may be taking this Terkel, author of the fascinating classic book Working
course as part of your preparation for a career in (1974), writes work is ‘a search for daily meaning as
human development, social services, psychology, well as daily bread, for recognition as well as cash,
nursing, health, or other field, so in that sense it is for astonishment rather than torpor, in short, for a
career preparation. However, work is more than sort of life rather than a Monday through Friday sort
that. Work provides friends and often spouses or of dying’ (xiii). Kahlil Gibran (1923), in his mystical
partners. People arrange personal activities around book The Prophet, put it this way. “Work is love made
work schedules. Parents often choose child care visible’

371

Sopyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copied, xcammed, or duplicated im whole of in part. Dur so clectromnc nghes, some therd party comtest muy he suppecescd form the clock andive chapters}
aevew tos doomed that any euppromed cremcm! doc aot sastcmally affect the overall karumys cxpenceee. Congage Learnung reucrvex the night © romove addmosal comicmt af any me of abecquent neh aeanchoes noqeus &
The meaning most of us gain from working and university, focus on preparing people for particular
includes both the money that can be exchanged for occupations. Young adult university students as well as
life’s necessities (and perhaps a few luxuries) and the older returning students have formulated perspectives
possibility of personal growth (Lips-Wiersma, Wright, on the meanings they believe they will get from work.
& Dik, 2016, Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzesniewski, 2010). Hance (2000) organised these beliefs into three main
Schwartz (2015) says the belief that people only work categories. working to achieve social influence; working
for a salary is wrong; most people want to do something to achieve personal fulfilment, and working because of
meaningful. They want to do something with people economic reality. These categories reflect fairly well the
they respect and with people who respect them. To actual meanings that working adults report.
achieve that true goal, Schwartz says most people would Work plays a key role in providing meaning for
even be willing to make less money. people, so an important question is how people select
The end result is that the specific occupation a an occupation. Let's turn our attention to two theories
person holds appears to have no effect on his or her need explaining how and why people choose the occupations
to gain meaning from work. Finding meaning in one’s they do.
work can mean the difference between feeling work is
the source of one's life problems or a source of fulfilment
and contentment (Grawitch, Barber, & Justice, 2010)
People who work in the service industries tend to derive
meaning most from finding unity with others and
developing the inner self, whereas office workers place
more emphasis on expressing full potential.
Contemporary business theory supports the idea that
meaning matters. The concept called meaning-mission
fit explains how corporate executives with a better
alignment between their personal intentions and their
firm’s mission care more about their employees’ happiness,
job satisfaction, and emotional well-being (Abbott,
Gilbert, & Rosinski, 2013; Salomaa, 2014). Ensuring
such fit is a major focus of talent management efforts in
organisations.
Given the various meanings that people gain from
work, occupation is clearly a key element of a person's
sense of identity and self-efficacy (Lang & Lee, 2005).
This can be readily observed when adults introduce
themselves socially. You've probably noticed that when
people are asked to tell something about themselves,
they usually provide information about what they do for
a living. Occupation affects your life in many ways and
often influences where you live, what friends you make,
and even what clothes you wear. In short, the impact of
work cuts across all aspects of life. Work, then, is a major
social role and influence on adult life. Occupation is an
important anchor that complements the other major 4 Our daily commute makes us think about why we work

role of adulthood — love relationships.

As we will see, occupation is part of human 0 saat ot alias
development. Young children, in their pretend play, are
in the midst of the social preparation for work. Adults Decisions about what people want to do in the world
are always asking them, “What do you want to be when of work do not initially happen in adulthood. Even
you grow up?’ School curricula, especially in high school by adolescence, there is evidence that occupational
preferences are related to people's personalities. But what
are people preparing for? Certainly, much has been written
meaning-mission fit Alignment between people's personal about the rapidly changing nature of work and how people
intentions and their company’s mission.
cannot prepare for a stable career where a person works

372 Cuaprter 12 WORKING AND RELAXING

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Leemag. All Rights Reserved May mot be copsnd, scanned, of duplicated, m whole
of in part. Due to clectromic nghts, some tind party costest mary be suppeesand from the cftock andive oChapter(s}
Exitomed seview bow doomed thet any wappremed content docx act sxstemally affect
the overall keammg expenence. Congage Learemmg reserves the night to comowe additereal coment af ary Gene tf subsequent mgish sextrictions oxpaise it.
for the same organisation throughout his or her working that translates into the tendency for people to choose
life (Fouad et al., 2016; Savickas, 2013) occupations and careers they like.
Currently, it is more appropriate to consider careers Complementarily, social cognitive career theory
as something people construct themselves rather than proposes people's career choices are heavily influenced
enter (Di Fabio, 2016; Hartung & Santilli, 2017; Savickas, by their interests (Brown & Lent, 2016; Lent, 2013; Sheu
2013) Career construction theory suggests that people et al., 2010). As depicted in e FIGURE 12.1, SCCT has
build careers through their own actions that result from the two versions. The simplest includes four main factors. self-
combination of their own personal characteristics and the efficacy (your belief in your ability), outcome expectations
social context. What people ‘do’ in the world of work, then, (what you think will happen in a specific situation),
results from how they adapt to their environment. In turn, interests (what you like), and choice goals (what you want
this is a result of bio-psychosocial processes based on the to achieve). The more complex version also includes
collection of experiences they have during their life. supports (environmental things that help you) and barriers
In this regard, two specific theories about how people adapt (environmental things that block or frustrate you). Several
themselves to their environment have influenced research. studies show support for the six-variable version of the
First, Holland's (1997) personality-type theory proposes model (Brown & Lent, 2016; Sheu et al., 2010)
people choose occupations to optimise the fit between their Over four decades, Donald Super (1957, 1976, 1980;
individual traits (such as personality, intelligence, skills, and Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996) developed a theory of
abilities) and their occupational interests. Second, social occupational development based on self-concept, first
cognitive career theory (SCCT) proposes that career choice is introduced in Chapter 9. He proposed a progression
a result of the application of Bandura’s social cognitive theory, through five distinct stages during adulthood as a result
especially the concept of self-efficacy. of changes in individuals’ self-concept and adaptation
Holland categorises occupations by the interpersonal to an occupational role: implementation, establishment,
settings that people must function and their associated maintenance, deceleration, and retirement (see
lifestyles He identifies six personality types that @ FIGURE 12.2). People are located along a continuum
combine these factors: investigative, social, realistic, of vocational maturity through their working years,
artistic, conventional, and enterprising, that he believes
are optimally related to occupations. career construction theory Suggests that people build careers
How does Holland's theory help us understand the through their own actions, which result from the combination of
their own personal characteristics and the social context.
continued development of occupational interests in
adulthood? Nomsa, the student in the opening story, social cognitive career theory (SCCT) Proposes that career
found a good match between her outgoing nature and choice is a result of the application of Bandura’s social cognitive
theory, especially the concept of self-efficacy.
her major, communications. Indeed, students of all ages
prefer courses and subjects that fit well with their own vocational maturity How well people's occupational behaviour
and what is expected of them at different ages fit together.
personalities. You are likely to be one of them. Later on,
hanconne,
i

@ FIGURE 121 The fourvariable (paths 1-6) and six-variable (paths 1-13) versions of the Social
Cognitive Career Theory interest and choice models

12.1 OCCUPATIONAL SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT 373

the more their occupational behaviours fit with what is Super’s theory applies to people who enter and stay
expected of them at different ages, the more vocationally in a particular career their entire adult lives and to those
mature they are. who change occupations However, it is now typical for
Super proposed five developmental tasks. The first individuals to have a series of careers, so Super suggests
two (crystallisation and specification) occur primarily that we cycle and recycle through the tasks and stages
in adolescence. The remaining three (implementation, as we adapt to changes in ourselves and the workplace
stabilisation, and consolidation) occur over the course of (Super et al., 1996).
adulthood. Each of the tasks in adulthood has distinctive Super may be right A longitudinal study of 7 649
characteristics. individuals born in the United Kingdom showed that
These adult tasks overlap a sequence of developmental occupational aspirations at age 16 in science and health
stages, beginning at birth, that continues during fields predicted actual occupational attainments in
adulthood exploratory (age 15 to 24), establishment science, health professions, or engineering at age 33
(age 24 to 44), maintenance (age 45 to 64), and decline (Schoon, 2001) Adult occupational attainment was
(age 65 and beyond) These stages reflect the overall also related to belief in one’s ability, mathematical
occupational cycle from choosing what one wants to do test performance, several personality characteristics,
through achieving the maximum possible in a career to sociocultural background, and gender. These results point
the reduction in work in late adulthood. to the importance of viewing occupational development
as a true developmental process, as Super claimed, as
e The implementation task begins during the exploration
well as the importance of personal characteristics, as
phase. This vocational task generally begins in the
proposed in occupational selection theories.
early 20s, when people complete appropriate training
and take a series of temporary jobs to learn first-hand
about work roles and to try out possible career choices. Perspectives on theories of career
Internships, during college or university holidays, that development
many students use to gain experience are examples. How well do these theories work in actual practice,
e The stabilisation task is the first task during the particularly in the rapidly changing world in which we
establishment phase. This task begins in the mid-20s live and where people's careers are no longer stable?
with selecting a specific occupation during young Certainly, the relations among occupation, personality,
adulthood and securing a position or place within and demographic variables are complex (Brown &
an organisation. It generally includes the young Lent, 2016; Hartung & Santilli, 2017) This includes
adult adapting to the organisation’s requirements the context of employment: Super’s concept of career
and satisfactorily performing duties required in the development stages, for example, was developed in a
specific occupation selected. It continues until the context where unemployment was not as prevalent as
mid-30s as the person confirms the occupational it is in South Africa. Extensive unemployment makes
choice that was made it difficult to maintain a focus on Super’s life-stages
e The consolidation task is the next task, and is also of career development Although Super’s stages are
associated with the establishment phase The viewed as being flexible, the theory seems to imply
consolidation task begins in the mid-30s and continues that contextual factors only impact sporadically on
throughout the rest of the person’s working life as he career development. However, contextual factors have a
or she advances up the career ladder. During this continuous impact on individuals and people regularly
task, positive work attitudes and productive habits need to learn new skills. They may need to return to
are established along with favourable relations with earlier career development stages to compete in the
colleagues. Taking a position in a law firm and working labour market successfully. This particularly applies in
one’s way up to partner or beginning as a sales assistant South Africa where the world of work is not as stable and
in a shop at a mall and moving up to store manager are predictable as it was when Super first conceptualised
two examples. this developmental process (Stead & Watson, 1998)

374 CHAPTER 12) WORKING AND RELAXING

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
However, even given the lack of stable careers and the got the chance to pursue the level of education necessary
real need to change jobs frequently, there is still a strong to achieve the goal, or because they lack certain essential
tendency on people's part to find occupations in which skills and cannot acquire them. Still other people modify
they feel comfortable and they like (Brown & Lent, 2016; their goals because of age, race, or sex discrimination, a
Hartung & Santilli, 2017) point we consider later in this chapter.
SCCT has also been used as a framework for career Research shows that most people who know they
advisors and coaches to help people identify and select have both the talent and the opportunity to achieve their
both initial occupations and navigate later occupational occupational and career goals often achieve them. When
changes. The goal is to have people understand that the high school students identified as academically talented
world of work changes rapidly and that they need to were asked about their career expectations and outcomes,
develop coping and compensatory strategies to deal with it turned out that 10 and even 20 years later they had
that fact. been surprisingly accurate (Perrone et al., 2010).
Although people may have underlying tendencies In general, research shows young adults modify their
relating to certain types of occupations, unless they expectations at least once, usually on the basis of new
believe they could be successful in those occupations and information, especially about their academic ability.
careers they are unlikely to choose them. These beliefs The connection between adolescent expectations and
can be influenced by external factors. Occupational adult reality reinforces the developmental aspects of
prestige and gender-related factors need to be taken into occupations and careers.
account (Deng, Armstrong, & Rounds, 2007). Many writers believe occupational expectations
also vary by generation Nowhere has this belief been
0 sonal dev l stronger than in the supposed differences between the
baby boom generation (born between 1946 and 1964)
It is said that advancing through one’s career is not and the current millennial generation (born since 1983).
just a function of being smart and doing all of the What people in these generations, on average, expect
written requirements of a job. It also depends on the in occupations appears to be different (Stewart et al.,
socialisation that occurs through learning the unwritten 2017). Millennials are more likely to change jobs more
rules of an organisation, in combination with one’s own often than the older generations did, and are likely
expectations of what the career should involve. Mentors to view traditional organisations with more distrust
and coaches within the work environment also play an and cynicism. Experts recommend that measures
important role in this aspect. used to evaluate job performance need to reflect these
generational differences
Contrary to most stereotypes, millennials are no
more egotistical, and are just as happy and satisfied
How does one’s level of cognitive development as young adults in every generation since the 1970s
relate to one’s choice of occupation? (Trzesniewski & Donnellan, 2010). However, millennials
tend to have an inherent mistrust in organisations, prefer
a culture focused on employee development, create
Occupational expectations information through interactive social media, are more
Especially in adolescence, people begin to form opinions globally aware and comfortable working with people
about what work in a particular occupation will be from diverse socio-ethnic backgrounds, and do best
like, based on what they learn in school and from their in situations that value innovation through teamwork
parents, peers, other adults, and the media These (Dannar, 2013, Stewart et al., 2017)
expectations influence what they want to become and The importance of occupational expectations can
when they hope to get there. be seen clearly in the transition from school to the
In adulthood, personal experiences affect people's workplace (Moen, 2016a, 2016b; Moen & Roehling,
opinions of themselves as they continue to refine and 2005). The 21st-century workplace is not one where
update their occupational expectations and development hard work and long hours necessarily lead to a stable
(Fouad, 2007; Fouad et al., 2016). This usually involves career It can also be a place where you experience reality
trying to achieve an occupational goal, monitoring shock, a situation where what you learn in the classroom
progress toward it, and changing or even abandoning it as
necessary. Modifying the goal happens for many reasons, reality shock Situation in which what you learn in the classroom
such as realising that their interests have changed, the does not always transfer directly into the ‘real world’ and does not
represent all you need to know.
occupation was not a good fit for them, they never

12.1 OCCUPATIONAL SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT 375

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
does not always transfer directly into the ‘real world’ and them achieve focus and apply them appropriately (Hunt
does not represent all you need to know When reality & Weintraub, 2016). Mentoring and coaching are ways
shock sets in, things never seem to happen the way we that organisations invest in developing their talent and
expect. Reality shock happens to everyone. You can future leadership (Smits & Bowden, 2013). Although
imagine how a new teacher feels when her long hours mentors and coaches work with people at all career
preparing a lesson result in learners who seem bored and stages, mentoring is found most often with people new
unappreciative of her efforts. to a position, whereas coaching tends to focus on those
with more experience.
The mentor helps a young worker avoid trouble
and also provides invaluable information about the
unwritten rules governing day-to-day activities in the
workplace, and being sensitive to the employment
situation (Smith, Howard, & Harrington, 2005). A
good mentor makes sure the new person, or protégé,
is noticed and receives credit from supervisors for
good work. So, occupational success often depends
on the quality of the mentor-protégé relationship and
the protégé’s perceptions of its importance (Eddleston,
Baldridge, & Veiga, 2004).
Generally, the mentorship and the mentoring
relationship between the mentor and the mentee
move through several stages. The sequence of stages
& Reality shock typically hits younger workers soon after they begin and pace for each stage may vary from relationship
an occupation. to relationship but the stages are generally distinct.
During the exploration or initiation stage the mentor
Many professions, such as nursing and teaching, have and mentee tries to find out more about each other.
gone to great lengths to alleviate reality shock (Hinton They assess one another to determine a match. If
& Chirgwin, 2010; Shayshon & Popper-Giveon, 2016) they confirm that they are a good match and both
This problem is best addressed through internships parties feel comfortable, the most important stage,
and practical experiences under the careful guidance of negotiation, takes place. During this stage, both parties
experienced people in the field. to this relationship explicitly state their expectations
of the relationship as well as define each of the various
The role of mentors and coaches roles each will play. The mentoring relationship then
Entering an occupation involves more than the relatively begins. Both parties to this relationship will invest in
this relationship during the affirmation stage. It is a
short formal training a person receives. Instead, many
reciprocal relationship, involving give and take from
people are helped by a more experienced person who
makes a specific effort to do this, taking on the role of a both parties. In a formal mentorship programme, the
final stage includes a termination stage. Termination of
mentor or coach.
the relationship should preferably be by mutual consent.
A mentor is part teacher, sponsor, model, and
counsellor who facilitates on-the-job learning to help the Some parties choose to continue the relationship and
new hire do the work required in his or her present role and build on the foundational relationship in order to grow
further in future. Over time, the relationship could
to prepare for future career roles (Volpe et al., 2016). A
develop into a friendship.
developmental coach is an individual who helps a person
focus on their goals, motivations, and aspirations to help Bower (2009) suggests that growth can only be achieved
if the mentor provides sufficient support while challenging
the mentee to reach their potential. This is known as
mentor A person who is part teacher, sponsor, model, and the support-challenge-vision model of mentoring.
counsellor who facilitates on-the-job learning to help a new All three aspects of this model are important: without
employee do the work required in his or her present role and to support or challenge, the mentee will stagnate. With only
prepare for future roles.
support and no challenge, no growth will take place.
developmental coach An individual who helpsa person focus Instead the mentee will feel that mentoring is no longer
on their goals, motivations, and aspirations to help them achieve necessary, as the goal has been achieved. If the mentee is
focus and apply them appropriately.
challenged but not supported, the challenge may seem

376 Cuaprer 12 WORKING AND RELAXING

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening. All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, scared, of duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectrommc nights, some thend party costest muy be sappeexand deem dw eflioek anche oC Teapter(s)
Dabtored review how decred thet any suppremed coment dacs set muatemally affectthe overall kammg cxpenence. Congage Learaing reserves the night to remove additional coment af any Gane if submegpacrt righ wairictions pexyain
overwhelming and the mentee may give up. The mentor Job
satisfaction
should challenge the mentee to reach for higher levels of
What does it mean to be satisfied with one’s job or
achievement but provide sufficient levels of support.
occupation? Job satisfaction is the positive feeling
A mentor needs to understand the premise that
that results from an appraisal of one’s work. Research
people make sense of their world and their work as
indicates that job satisfaction is a multifaceted concept
they organise the information around them. Cognitive-
constructivism involves the processing of information but that certain characteristics - including hope,
where individuals, depending on their stage of cognitive resilience, optimism, and self-efficacy - predict both
development, construct their own understanding. This job performance and job satisfaction. This research has
includes active, social, and creative learning (Henniger, resulted in the creation of psychological capital theory,
2004). A mentor encourages active learning through the notion that having a positive outlook improves
engaging mentees in discussions around professional processes and outcomes (Luthans et al., 2007; Youssef-
Morgan & Luthans, 2013).
interests and ambitions, or by facilitating tasks or
problem-solving that involves the mentee physically and Satisfaction with some aspects of one’s job increases
intellectually. Social learning occurs through the social gradually with age, and successful ageing includes a
workplace component (Robson et al., 2006). Why is this?
interaction with the mentor.
Developmental coaching is a process that helps Is it because people sort themselves out and end up in
people make fundamental changes in their lives by occupations they like? Is it that they simply learn to lke
focusing on general skill development and performance the occupation they are in? What other factors matter?
improvement (Volpe et al., 2016). It tends not to focus How does job satisfaction evolve over young and
on specific aspects of a job. Rather, the intent is more middle adulthood? You may be pleased to learn research
general improvement of one’s overall career success. shows, given sufficient time, most people eventually find
Thus, coaching complements mentoring and helps a job where they are reasonably happy (Hom & Kinicki,
2001) Optimistically, this indicates there is a job out
people develop all of the key aspects of themselves.
Women and previously disadvantaged employees there, somewhere, where you will be happy. That's
have an especially important need for both mentors good, because research grounded in positive psychology
and coaches (Hunt & Weintraub, 2016, Ortiz-Walters theory indicates happiness fuels success (Achor, 2010).
& Gilson, 2013; Pratt, 2010; Williams, Phillips, & Hall, It's also true that job satisfaction does not increase
2014), When paired with mentors and coaches, women in all areas and job types with age Professionals who
benefit by having higher expectations; mentored women do office work show an increase in job satisfaction with
also have better perceived career development (Schulz age, whereas people who do physical work generally
& Enslin, 2014). It is also critical to adopt a culturally do not, and these findings apply to both men and
conscious model of mentoring and coaching in order women (Aasland, Rosta, & Nylenna, 2010) This is also
to enhance the advantages of developing mentees true across cultures. A study of Filipino and Taiwanese
from different cultures (Campinha-Bacote, 2010) workers in the long-term healthcare industry in
Culturally conscious mentoring and coaching involves Taiwan showed that workers with four or five years’
understanding how an organisation’s and employee's experience had lower job satisfaction than workers
cultures mutually affect employees. It involves explicitly with less experience, but job satisfaction among older
doctors in Norway increases over time (Aasland et al.,
building those assumptions, interrelationships, and
2010; Tu, 2006).
behaviours into the mentoring or coaching situation.
However, the changes in the labour market in terms
Despite the evidence that having a mentor or
of lower prospects of having a long career with one
coach has many positive effects on one’s occupational
organisation have begun to change the notion of job
development, there is an important note: the quality
satisfaction (Bidwell, 2013; B6ckerman et al., 2013)
of the mentor or coach really matters (Tong & Kram,
Specifically, the fact that companies may eliminate
2013; Volpe et al., 2016). Having a poor mentor
jobs and workers not based on performance, but on
or coach is worse than having no mentor at all.
stereotypes about older workers, for instance, makes
Consequently, people must be carefully matched. It
it more difficult for employees to develop a sense of
is in the best interest of the organisation to get the
match correct. How can prospective matches happen
job satisfaction Positive feeling that results from an appraisal of
more effectively? Some organisations have followed one’s work.
the example of dating and created speed mentoring
psychological capital theory Notion that having a positive
as a way to create better matches (Berk, 2010, Cook,
outlook improves processes and outcomes.
Bahn, & Menaker, 2010).

121 OCCUPATIONAL SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT 377

Cogyragta
2019 Compags Lewrmang All Raptes Reserved May aot be copacd. scammed of dupboect m whok
of in pan. Dur so clectoerc nphes some thd pany conics muy he mappecesed freer the eBook andive eChapter +)
fader are hoe doomed des any euppromed comen: das act mummodh atlas the overall kormmy cupencece. Congage Loartang route the npbt © romeve addémeoeal cence at ay teene of suteeguees rephee eeetncteoes rogue &
organisational commitment. This makes the relationship
between worker age and job satisfaction more
complicated (Abrams, Swift, & Drury, 2016; Bayl-Smith
& Griffin, 2014).
Another factor that complicates traditional relations
between job satisfaction and age relates to the worker's
responsibilities. The type of job one has and the kinds
of family responsibilities one has at different career
stages — as well as the flexibility of work options such as
working from home and family leave benefits - influence
the relationship between age and job satisfaction (Marsh
& Musson, 2008). For instance, family caregiving
responsibilities may collide with work demands, resulting
in lower job satisfaction, especially if the employer A High-stress jobs such as working in a public hospital's Emergency
has no flexible work options to accommodate the Response team often result in burnout.
employee's needs (Paulson et al., 2016) This suggests that
experience, changing context, and the stage of one’s career
development all influence job satisfaction over time. The
general increase in job satisfaction, then, may reflect the It is essential for companies to provide positive work
reality of workers figuring out how to manage their lives, environments to ensure the workforce remains stable
understanding the limited alternative options they have, and committed (Griffin et al., 2010). How can employers
or taking advantage of alternative work assignments, avoid alienating workers and improve organisational
such as working from home or flexible work hours. commitment? Research indicates that leaders who show
trust and ethics are key (Bachman, 2017, Bligh, 2017), as
Alienation and burnout is a perception among employees that the employer deals
with people fairly and impartially (Howard & Cordes,
All jobs create a certain level of stress. For most workers,
2010) It is also helpful to involve employees in the
such negatives are merely annoyances. But for others,
decision-making process, create flexible work schedules,
extremely stressful situations on the job may result in
and institute employee development and enhancement
alienation and burnout.
programmes.
When workers feel what they are doing is meaningless
Sometimes the pace and pressure of the occupation
and their efforts are devalued, or when they do not see the
becomes more than a person can bear, resulting in
connection between what they do and the final product,
burnout, a depletion of a person's energy and motivation,
a sense of alienation 1s likely to result. Terkel (1974)
the loss of occupational idealism, and the feeling that one is
reported employees are most likely to feel alienated when
being exploited. Burnout is a state of physical, emotional,
they perform routine, repetitive actions. Alienation can
and mental exhaustion that negatively affects self-esteem
also result from employees feeling abandoned by their
as a result of job stress (Shoji et al., 2016). Burnout is
employer, such as experiencing long periods without pay
most common among people in the helping professions —
increases. This is particularly relevant in South Africa,
such as police (McCarty & Skogan, 2013), teaching,
where strained economic conditions and dangerous
social work, healthcare (Bermejo-Toro, Prieto-Ursta, &
working environments often result in companies being
Hernandez, 2016, Shanafelt et al., 2016), and for those
unable to pay sufficient wages or provide increases, or
in the military (Simons et al., 2016). The tendency of
working conditions are unsafe or even life threatening.
organisations to keep employee numbers smaller during
This puts employees and unions in the position where
times of economic uncertainty adds to the workload
strike action seems like the only viable option to make
for people on the job, increasing the risk of burnout
themselves heard.
(Bosco, di Masi, & Manuti, 2013). In South Africa, it is
also noteworthy that these professions are not generally
alienation Situation in which workers feel that what they are doing the highest paid, and financial worries can further
is meaningless and their efforts are devalued, or when they do not
see the connection between what they do and the final product.
contribute to stress and burnout.
First responders (such as paramedics or fire fighters)
burnout The depiction of a person's energy and motivation, the and people in helping professions must constantly deal
loss of occupational idealism, and the feeling of being exploited.
with other people's complex problems, usually under

378 Cuarrer 12) WORKING AND RELAXING

“™p
< 0.001. 78

@ FIGURE 12.3 Model of the relations among passion, satisfaction at work, conflict, and
burnout. Harmonious passion predicts higher levels of satisfaction at work that predict lower
levels of burnout. In contrast, obsessive passion predicts higher levels of conflict, predicting
higher levels of burnout.
Souros: From "On the role of gasseor for work in butnout: A process model’ by A. J. Valeand Y Paquat, FL. Prdippe, asd J. Charest, in
ural
of Parsonalty, wol 76.

12.1 OCCUPATIONAL SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT 379

Recall 6. Vallerand proposed two kinds of passion:

and harmonious.
1. The meaning most of us gain from working
includes and the possibility of
Interpret
personal growth.
e What is the relation between occupational
2. Holland identifies six personality types that are
development and job satisfaction? Would these
optimally related to occupations: investigative,
relations be different in the case of a person
social, realistic, conventional, and
with a good match between personality and
enterprising.
occupation versus a person with a poor match?
3. Super proposed five distinct stages during e How could interventions that help people avoid
adulthood as a result of changes in individuals’ alienation be made culturally sensitive?
self-concept and adaptation to an occupational
role: implementation, establishment, Apply
maintenance, and retirement. e Ifyou were the director of the campus career
4. Thembi has just started working as a teacher. She services office, what would you do to provide
is exhausted every day, and when she gets home students with realistic and accurate information
from work, she has to take a quick nap before about potential careers?
she can start preparing for the next day. She feels e Ifyou were a company’s director of human
that her university degree and even the teaching resources, how would you design a new employee
practicals did little to prepare her for the crowded orientation programme?
classes, difficult management, and never-ending Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
admin. Thembi is experiencing end of the chapter.
5. Burnout is most common among people in the
such as police, teaching, social
work, and healthcare.

f°) Gender, ethnicity, and discrimination issues

Learning objectives

® Explain how women’s and men’s occupational selection differ, and how people are viewed when they enter
occupations not traditional for their gender.

© Describe the factors related to women's occupational development.

® Identify the types of bias and discrimination that hinder the occupational development, especially of women
and previously disadvantaged workers.

Tshiamo is a 35-year-old Tswana-speaking company. Tshiamo wonders whether she will

South African woman She is a manager at a ever be promoted
business consulting firm, and is concerned
because her career is not progressing as Occupational choice and development are not equally
rapidly as she hoped. Tshiamo works hard and available to all, as Tshiamo is experiencing. Gender,
receives excellent performance ratings every ethnicity, and age may create barriers to achieving one’s
year. She noticed that there are only a few occupational goals. Men and women in similar occupations
women in upper management positions in her may nonetheless have different life experiences and

380 CuHapTerR 12) WORKING AND RELAXING

(Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copscd, scammed, of duplicated. m whole
of in part. Dur to clectrommc nghts, some thend party costest mory be wappeesecd from dhe cfSook andice of hapter|s).
Edtomad seview boo deaned thot any wappromed coment docs sot musically affect the overall kam, expenence. Congage Leareung reserves the night to cemove additeoeal coesient at any Gre if subsequent neh sextrnicthoes nepeineit.
probably received different socialisation as children and and Gender Equality Bill in particular calls for a
adolescents that made it easier or difficult for them to set minimum of 50% representation and meaningful
their sights on a career. Bias and discrimination also create participation in decision-making structures. About 51%
barriers to occupational success. of the South African population is female, and about
37 3% of women above the age of 15 in South Africa
Gender diff , bias participate in the labour force. They represent about 44%
of the entire workforce (Statistics South Africa, 2017d)
The South African Constitution sets out gender equality For further information on employment in South Africa,
as a founding principle, and the Women Empowerment by gender and occupation, see @ FIGURE 12.4.

Hl Oct-Dec 2016 (Total 7031)

Jan-Mar 2017 (Total 7 182)
Hl Apr-Jun 2017 (Total 7076)
1) Jul-Sep 2017 (Total 7 124)
Il Oct-Dec 2017 (Total 7069)
Profession ——.

Craft and related trade , 4

g Plant and machine operator

Domestic worker
Skilled agriculture
Manager

Ele mentary
Ook
TetniGa

5
5
3

2500
Hl Oct-Dec
2016 (Total 9038)

2000 Jan-Mar
2017 (Total 9027)

1500 i Apr-Jun
2017 (Total 9017)

|
1000 _ Jul-Sep
2017 (Total 9063)

Hl Oct-Dec
2017 (Total 9099)

ti
:
Domestic worker +
Craft and related trade

2
@ FIGURE 12.4 Employment by gender and occupation — South Africa.
Sourte: Statistics South Africa (017). Quarterly Latour Force Survey Quarter 4: 2017 weve statasa. gov 2afpebicatora P02 11/P02 1 4tOuer te2017 pat

12.2 GENDER, ETHNICITY, AND DISCRIMINATION ISSUES

Copyragts00) Congages Lowemag All Raghes Roserved May act be copand, wommed of duplcred m wholk of im part. Dur to clectrormc mghes, scene hand party comacet gery be exppeesend form fe cook andive cf eapteri +)
Edsorad sverw bos doomed thos any wappromed comamt dacs act susxmolly affect the overall komnmg cxpenence. Congage Leaeeng romrves the night 2 como additaceal comict af any Gree of seheequent ogi setnchoes anger &
However, women remain relatively unrepresented in Structural barriers remain for women in South
positions of authority and power. Female representation Africa Let's take a look at both traditional and non-
is still below 50% in these kinds of positions. For traditional occupations for women.
example, in 2014, 32% of Supreme Court of Appeal What work people do has changed in many ways, not
judges were female, 31% of advocates were female, 30% least in terms of the gender breakdown of workers in specific
of ambassadors were female and 24% of heads of state- jobs or industries. A growing number of women work in
owned enterprises were female. Only one of the top 40 occupations that have been traditionally male-dominated,
JSE listed companies had a female CEO (Statistics South such as construction and engineering. Data for several
Africa, 2017). occupational industries can be seen in @ FIGURE 12.5.

Women
_— I Oct-Dec
2016 (Total 7032)
2000 Jan-Mar
2017 (Total 7 183)

1500 Hl Apr-Jun
2017 (Total 7078)
1000 1) JutSep
2017 (Total 7 125)
500 | I, Hl Oct-Dec
2017 (Total 7 070)

prerpepieype
| = Ill. TT a

a
:8

Men
pest HB Oct-Dec 2016 (Total 9038)
1600 Jan-Mar
2017 (Total 9029)

a Hl Apr-Jun 2017 (Total 9020)

ee BB Oct-Dec 2017 (Total 9 100)

prpapepeiye
:= lllin | oll | | lI . ai
Community and social

:
@ FIGURE 12.5 Employment by industry and gender — South Africa
Source: Statietca South Alfica. (2017) Quartady Labour Fare Survey Quarter 4: 2017) weve stateaa. gov 2a/pubbeatora/PO21
1 P02 114trOuaner201 2 pat

382 CuaprTer 12 WORKING AND RELAXING

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
However, despite the efforts to counteract gender Second, women may feel disconnected from the
stereotyping of occupations, male-dominated workplace. By midcareer, women may conclude they
occupations still tend to pay more than women- must leave these unsupportive organisations in order
dominated occupations (Price, 2016). Although the to achieve satisfaction, growth, and development at
definition of non-traditional varies across cultures, work and be rewarded for the relational skills they
women who choose non-traditional occupations and consider essential for success. As we see a bit later, it
are successful in them are generally viewed negatively as is controversial whether women leave their careers
compared with similarly successful men. or plateau before reaching their maximum potential
In patriarchal societies, both women and men gave level in the organisation because of lack of support,
higher ‘respectability’ ratings to males than females in discrimination, or personal choice.
the same occupation (Sharma & Sharma, 2012). In the
United States for example, research shows men prefer to Previously disadvantaged employees and
date women who are in traditional occupations (Kapoor
et al., 2010). Additionally, sexual objectification in the
occupational development ===
workplace, especially in non-traditional occupations, Unfortunately, little research has been conducted from
results in higher sexual harassment and worse work a developmental perspective related to occupational
performance (Gervais et al., 2016). selection and development for people who were
previously disadvantaged in South Africa Previously
disadvantaged individuals in South Africa include
Women and occupational development _
black, Indian, and coloured people, as well as Chinese
The characteristics and aspirations of women who South Africans, mixed-race individuals, women,
entered the workforce in the 1950s, the baby boomers youth, people with disabilities, and people residing in
(born between 1946 and 1964), generation X (born rural communities (Cottrell, 2005). In addition to this
between 1965 and 1982), and the millennials (born paucity of research, career psychology and approaches
since 1983) are significantly different (Wegman et al., to career counselling have mostly been derived from a
2016). The biggest difference across generations is the Westernised perspective. These approaches are based
progressive increase in opportunities for employment on the notion that people have a choice with regard to
choice. the career pathway they want to pursue. However, this
In the 21st century, women entrepreneurs are is not always true for the majority of South Africans,
starting small businesses but are disadvantaged in and these approaches are therefore not applicable to
gaining access to capital (McLymont, 2016) As the them Furthermore, in a multicultural society such as
millennial generation heads into the workforce, it South Africa, which has a number of different cultural
will be interesting to see whether their high degree of practices and values, political influences and social
technological sophistication and broader experience realities, it is essential to consider the influences of
and background in entrepreneurship will provide culture and context on occupational development.
more occupational and career options (Wegman et al., Government bias during the apartheid years resulted
2016). in the majority of the population having restricted
In the corporate world, unsupportive or insensitive access to career choices. The apartheid government used
work environments, organisational politics, and the political, economic, and social conditions to steer career
lack of occupational development opportunities are psychology in a way that was highly discriminatory
most important for women working full-time. Greater (Nicholas, Naidoo, & Pretorius, 2006). The construct of
empowerment of women is an essential element in career education was only known by a privileged minority
ensuring occupational development and remaining in and not accessible to the majority of people (Akhurst
their jobs (Cornwall, 2016). Female professionals leave & Mkhize, 2006). The end of apartheid represented the
their jobs for two main reasons. First, the organisations beginning of a new, more promising, future for South
where women work are felt to idealise and reward African citizens, especially the youth. However, for many
masculine values of working - individuality, self- learners, especially black youth, the experience of career
sufficiency, and individual contributions — while education is still limited. South Africa's democracy 1s
emphasising tangible outputs, competitiveness, and in its third decade of existence, but many youth from
rationality. Most women prefer organisations that previously disadvantaged communities still struggle with
highly value relationships, interdependence, and making career choices. This is especially true for learners
collaboration. attending low-income schools.

12.2 GENDER, ETHNICITY AND DISCRIMINATION ISSUES 383

gender discrimination Denying a job to someone solely on the

basis of whether the person is a man or a woman.
glass ceiling The level to which a woman may rise in an
organisation but beyond which they may not go.
ke
glass cliff A situation in which a woman's leadership position in
4 Women CEOs of major corporations, such as Priscillah Mabelane
an organisation is precarious.
at BP Southern Africa, are still few in number

384 CuaprTer 12 WORKING AND RELAXING

Equal pay for equal work A woman is also significantly disadvantaged when it
In addition to discrimination in hiring and promotion, comes to the division of labour at home if she is married
women are also subject to salary discrimination. to or living with a man (Shen, 2016). Despite decades of
According to Bosch (2015), the South African gender effort in getting men to do more of the housework and
pay gap is estimated, on average, to be 15-17% This child care tasks, little has changed in terms of the amount
implies that a South African woman would need to work of time men actually spend on these tasks. In effect, this
14 months to earn the salary that a man would earn in means women have two careers, one in the workplace
12 months. and the other at home Ifa university-educated woman
Many people have argued that there are legitimate stays at home to care for a child or parent, then her
reasons for the wage gap, such as women stepping return to the workforce will be at a lower salary than it
out of their careers to raise children, or their taking would have been otherwise.
lower paying jobs in the first place However, evidence Only through a concerted effort on the part of
of discrimination is apparent, for instance, research employers and policymakers can the gender-based pay
indicates that average earnings for individuals who gap be addressed. But more will be needed Besides
undergo gender reassignment from male to female fall by fairer pay rules and policies, we will also need a change
about one-third (National Women’s Law Center, 2016). in attitudes in the men who are the women’s spouses
In South Africa, the Employment Equity Act No 55 and partners. They will need to step up and do an equal
of 1998 set out the principle of equal pay for equal value. share of the work around the house and in child care.
However, it seems that gender-based pay inequity still Because unless both aspects are addressed, the pay gap
exists. According to the Global Gender Gap report of will never be closed.
2017, South Africa has shown an increase in the amount
of female legislators, senior officials and managers, but Sexual harassment
also a widening gender gap for wage equality for similar Suppose you have been working hard on an assignment
work and estimated earned income (World Economic for a course and think you've done a good job When
Forum, 2017) Between 2010 and 2015 the median you receive an ‘A for the paper, you are delighted. When
income for males were approximately 23% higher than for you discuss your assignment (and your excitement) with
their female counterparts (Statistics South Africa, 2015) your lecturer, you receive a big hug. How do you feel?

122 GENDER, ETHNICITY AND DISCRIMINATION ISSUES 385

Coprraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppressed trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affectthe overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
What if this situation involved a major project at work African Employment Equity Act No 55 of 1998 Section
and the hug came from your boss? Your coworker? What 6, prohibits unfair discrimination against an employee
if it were a kiss on your lips instead of a hug? on the arbitrary grounds of age. This means that people
Whether such behaviour is acceptable, or whether should be hired based on their ability, not their age, and
it constitutes sexual harassment, depends on many that employers cannot segregate or classify workers or
situational factors, including the setting, people involved, otherwise determine their status on the basis of age
and the relationship between them.
How many people have been sexually harassed?
That’s a hard question to answer for several reasons.
YH Ue
there is no universal definition of harassment, men and
women have different perceptions, and many victims
do not report it (Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission, 2016a) Even given these difficulties, global
research indicates between 40% and 50% of women
in the European Union, and 30% to 40% of women in
Asia-Pacific countries experience workplace sexual
harassment (International Labour Organization, 2013)
Unfortunately, there is no research or statistics available
reflecting the South African situation In general,
complaints are filed most often by women, but men can
also be targeted. For example, in America about 17% of
workplace cases are filed by men (Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission, 2016b). A survey in Hong
Kong revealed that 25% of workers interviewed had
experienced sexual harassment, nearly a third of which
were men, but only 6% of these men reported their 4 Employers cannot make a decision not to hire this woman solely
grievances (International Labour Office, 2013). on the basis of her age
What are the effects of being sexually harassed? As you
might expect, research evidence clearly shows negative Age discrimination is difficult to document, because
job-related, psychological, and physical health outcomes employers can use such things as earnings history or
(Holland & Cortina, 2016). These outcomes can affect other variables that appear to be a deciding factor. Or
people for many years after the harassment incident(s) they can attempt to get rid of older workers by using
What can be done to provide people with safe work retirement incentives. Or supervisors can let their
and learning environments, free from sexual harassment? stereotypes about ageing interfere with their assessment
Training in gender awareness is a common approach that of the quality of older workers’ performance. As noted
often works, especially given that gender differences exist by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
in perceptions of behaviour However, even very high (2016c), treating an older worker less favourably because
profile cases of sexual harassment, such as those involving of her or his age is illegal.
famous people (for example, Bill Cosby) or well-known Employment prospects for middle-aged people around
companies (for example, Fox News) show that much the world are lower than for their younger counterparts
remains to be done to eradicate sexual harassment. (Lahey, 2010; Vansteenkiste, Deschacht, & Sels, 2015).
For example, age discrimination toward those over age
Age discrimination 45 is common in Hong Kong (Cheung, Kam, & Ngan,
2011), resulting in longer periods of unemployment.
Another structural barrier to occupational development
is age discrimination, which involves denying a job or Such practices may save companies money in the short
promotion to someone solely on the basis of age The South run, but the loss of expertise and knowledge comes at a
high price. Indeed, an emerging model of employment
is boomerang employees, individuals who terminate
age discrimination Denying a job or a promotion to a person employment at one point in time but return to work in the
solely on the basis of age.
same organisation at a future time. Boomerang employees
boomerang employees Individuals who terminate employment sometimes return as employees on the company’s payroll
at one point in time but return to work in the same organisation but increasingly are returning as contract workers
at a future time.
who are not eligible for benefits, thereby meeting

386 CuaprTer 12 WORKING AND RELAXING

Test yourself 12.2

Recall 6. Abel took an early retirement package from

his company, but they soon contacted him and
1. Male-dominated occupations still tend to pay
asked him to return as a contract worker. Abel is
more than occupations.
regarded as a — he left but has now
2. Greater empowerment of women is an essential returned.
element in ensuring and remaining
in their jobs. Interpret
3. Most women prefer organisations that e What steps need to be taken to eliminate gender,
highly value relationships, and ethnic, and age bias in the workplace?
collaboration.
Apply
4. In South Africa, unemployment is high and the
ethnic groups who are most affected by it are © Suppose you are the CEO ofa large organisation
those and you need to make personnel reductions
through retrenchments. Many of your most
5. Tsholo has been working as a lawyer for 15 years expensive employees are over age 40. How can
at the same firm. Every time an opportunity you accomplish this without being accused of age
comes up for promotion, she applies, but sees the discrimination?
job go to a man. She fears that she has reached
the in her company — she doesn't Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
think she will be able to go any further in this end of the chapter.
company.

FFE] Occupational transitions

Learning objectives

® Explain why people change occupations.

® Discuss whether worrying about potential job loss is a major source of stress.

® Describe how job loss affects the amount of stress experienced.

Fanele has 32 years of service for an In the past, people like Fanele commonly chose an
automobile manufacturer making cars. occupation during young adulthood and stayed in it
Over the years, more and more assembly- throughout their working years. Today, however, not many
line jobs have been eliminated by new people have that option. Corporations have restructured
technology (including robots) and the export so often that employees now assume occupational changes
of manufacturing jobs to other countries. are part of the career process. Such corporate actions mean
Although Fanele has been assured his job is people's conceptions of work and career are changing and
safe, he isn’t so sure He worries he could be losing one’s job no longer has only negative meanings
laid off at any time (Biggs et al., 2017; Haworth & Lewis, 2005).

123 OCCUPATIONAL TRANSITIONS 387

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
Several factors have been identified as important in in order to make them easier and more convenient for
determining who will remain in an occupation and who people to access For people who were involuntarily
will change Some factors - such as whether the person separated from their employer, retrenchment packages
likes the occupation — lead to self-initiated occupation may provide a way to pay for these courses.
changes. Alternatively, mid-career individuals may choose
However, other factors — such as obsolete skills and to change fields altogether. In this case, people may go
larger economic trends —- may cause forced occupational back to studying, and earn a credential in a completely
changes. Continued improvement of robots has caused different field. Increasingly, middle-aged adults are
some motor and mining industry workers to lose their seeking coaches to help them navigate through the
jobs; corporations send jobs overseas to increase profits, decision to change careers (Stoltz, 2016)
and economic recessions usually result in large-scale The retraining of midcareer and older workers
layoffs and high levels of unemployment. highlights the need for lifelong learning as a way to
stay employable (Froehlich, Beausaert, & Segers, 2016).
If corporations are to meet the challenges of a global
economy, it is imperative they include retraining in their
When you are hired into a specific job, you are selected employee development programmes. Such programmes
because your employer believes you offer the best fit will improve people’s chances of advancement in their
between the abilities you already have and those needed chosen occupations and also assist people in making
to perform the job. As most people can tell you, though, successful transitions from one occupation to another.
the skills needed to perform a job usually change over
time Such changes may be based on the introduction
of new technology, additional responsibilities, or Occupational insecurity
promotion. Over the past few decades, changing economic
Unless a person’s skills are kept up-to-date, the realities (for example, increased competition in a
outcome is likely to be either job loss or a career plateau global economy), changing demographics, continued
(da Costa & Oliveira, 2016; Jiang, 2016) Career plateauing advancements in technology, and a global recession,
occurs when there is a lack of challenge in one’s job or forced many people out of their jobs. Internationally,
promotional opportunity in the organisation, or when heavy manufacturing and support businesses (such as the
a person decides not to seek advancement. Research in steel, oil, and automotive industries) and farming were
Canada (Foster, Lonial, & Shastri, 2011), Asia (Lee, the hardest-hit sectors during the 1970s and 1980s. The
2003), and Australia (Rose & Gordon, 2010) shows service sector (for example, financial services) was hard
feeling one’s career has plateaued usually results in less hit during the Great Recession, a period of international
organisational commitment, lower job satisfaction, and economic decline. No one is immune any more from
a greater tendency to leave. But attitudes can remain retrenchment. The Great Recession that began in 2008
positive if it is only the lack of challenge and not a lack put many middle- and upper-level corporate executives
of promotion opportunity responsible for the plateauing out of work worldwide; previously, recession-driven
(da Costa & Oliveira, 2016; Jiang, 2016) retrenchments hit lower-level employees harder.
In cases of job loss or a career plateau, retraining As a result, many people feel insecure about their
may be an appropriate response. Around the world, jobs much of the time. Economic downturns create
large numbers of employees participate each year in significant levels of stress, especially when such
programmes and courses offered by their employer or by downturns create massive job losses (Sinclair et al ,
a college or university and aimed at improving existing 2010) Continued shifts from in-person retail to online
skills or adding new job skills For midcareer employees, retail result in nearly constant retrenchment in retail
retraining might focus on how to advance in one’s jobs. The advent of driverless cars even threatens the
occupation or how to find new career opportunities — for jobs of taxi, Uber, and Taxify drivers.
example, through CV preparation and career counselling. Like Fanele, the motor worker in the opening
Increasingly, such programmes are offered online story, many worried workers have numerous years of
dedicated service to a company. Unfortunately, people
who worry about their jobs tend to have poorer physical
career plateauing Situation occurring when there is a lack
of challenge in the job or promotional opportunity in the and psychological well-being (Gonza & Burger, 2016,
organisation or when a person decides not to seek advancement. McKee-Ryan et al., 2005). Anxiety about one’s job may

388 CHAPTER 12) WORKING AND RELAXING

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
result in negative attitudes about one’s employer or choices for individuals People risk losing their homes to
even about work in general, and in turn may result in bank repossession, for instance, as well as encountering
diminished desire to be successful. Whether there is an difficulties with other everyday expenses
actual basis for people's feelings of job insecurity may In a comprehensive study of the effects of
not matter; sometimes what people think is true about unemployment, McKee-Ryan and colleagues (2005)
their work situation is more important than what is found several specific results from losing one’s job.
actually the case. Just the possibility of losing one’s job Unemployed workers had significantly lower mental
can negatively affect physical and psychological health. health, life satisfaction, marital or family satisfaction,
So how does the possibility of losing one's job affect and subjective physical health (how they perceive
employees? Mantler and colleagues (2005) examined their health to be) than their employed counterparts
coping strategies for comparable samples of retrenched With reemployment, these negative effects disappear.
and employed high-technology workers. They found @ FIGURE 12.6 shows physical and psychological health
that although unemployed participants reported higher following job displacement is influenced by several
levels of stress compared with employed participants, factors (McKee-Ryan et al., 2005).
employment uncertainty mediated the association The effects of job loss vary with age, gender, and
between employment status and perceived stress. That education (Norris, 2016) In the United States, middle-
is, people who believe their job is in danger - even if aged men are more vulnerable to negative effects than
it is not — show levels of stress similar to unemployed older or younger men - largely because they have greater
participants. financial responsibilities than the other two groups
This result is due to differences in coping strategies and they derive more of their identity from work — but
There are several ways people deal with stress, and two women report more negative effects over time (Bambra,
of the more common are emotion-focused coping and 2010; Norris, 2016). Research in Spain indicates gender
problem-focused coping Some people focus on how differences in responding to job loss are complexly related
the stressful situation makes them feel, so they cope by to family responsibilities and social class (Artazcoz et al.,
making themselves feel better about it. Others focus on 2004). Specifically, to the extent work is viewed as your
the problem itself and do something to solve it. People expected contribution to the family, losing one’s job has a
who used emotional avoidance as a strategy reported more substantial negative effect. Because this tends to be
higher levels of stress, particularly when they were fairly more the case for men than for women, it helps explain the
certain of the outcome. Thus, even people whose jobs gender differences. The higher one's education levels, the
aren't really in jeopardy can report high levels of stress if less stress one typically feels immediately after losing a job,
they tend to use emotion-focused coping strategies. probably because higher education level usually results in
faster re-employment (Mandemakers & Monden, 2013).
Coni itt Because unemployment rates are substantially
higher for black and coloured South Africans than for
Losing one’s job can have enormous personal impact Indian/Asian and white South Africans, the effects of
that can last a long time (Gonza & Burger, 2017; McKee- unemployment are experienced by a greater proportion
Ryan et al, 2005; Norris, 2016). When the overall of people in these groups (Statistics South Africa, 2015).
South African unemployment rates hit 31.20% in the Economic consequences of unemployment are often
first quarter of 2003, millions of people could relate. especially difficult.
Years later, the psychological impact remains (Gonza How long you are unemployed also affects how
& Burger, 2017), even for people who found other jobs people react. People who are unemployed for at least a
When unemployment lasts and re-employment does not year perceive their mental health significantly more
occur soon, unemployed people commonly experience negatively than either employed people or those who
a wide variety of negative effects (Norris, 2016) that have removed themselves from the labour force (for
range from a decline in immune system functioning example, have stopped looking for work). Suicide risk
(Cohen et al., 2007) to decreases in well-being (Gonza increases the longer unemployment lasts (Gunnell &
& Burger, 2017) Chang, 2016) Those who lost their jobs involuntarily feel
Coping with unemployment involves both financial a loss of control over their ‘work’ environment and feel
and personal issues. Unemployment compensation is less demand placed on them Importantly, a reasonable
typically much lower than one’s original salary, often amount of ‘demand’ is critical to maintaining good
resulting in severe financial hardship and difficult health, whereas too little demand lowers health.

12 3 OCCUPATIONAL TRANSITIONS 389

Psychological well-being

@ FIGURE 12.6 Psychological and physical well-being after losing one’s job is affected by many variables
Source: From “Paychological and phyecad well-being during unemployment: A metaanalytic study’ by E McKee-Ryan, 2.Seng C A Weber and A J. Kimchi, in Jounal of Anpied
Psychology, vol. 90

Applying human In areas of South Africa

development with high unemployment
and underemployment, one
of the most visible and
deadly problems has been
The politics of
a rapid increase in drug and
unemployment alcohol abuse, as well as
Millions of workers in violence This, along with
South Africa struggle other health, personal, and
daily with the cold mental effects of the actual
reality of employment or feared loss of one’s job
uncertainty, either because has brought issues once
they have already lost their associated with urban areas
jobs or are worried that into the suburbs and rural
they are about to lose them parts of the country.
Perhaps you, or someone you What to do about the
know, is in this situation As human cost of continuing
noted in the text, there are many economic modermisation will be one of
reasons for this, with the most the most important issues facing South
important ones being education (for Africa and other countries for the rest
example, the need for increased of the 21st century The solutions are
technical skills) and technology (for neither obvious nor easy Without them,
example, human jobs replaced by though, the human cost will continue to
A Displaced workers can feel forgotten and
robots) mount
can become a potent political force

390 CuaprTerR 12) WORKING AND RELAXING

Test yourself 12.3

Recall Interpret
1. Feeling that your career has plateaued usually e The trend toward multiple careers is likely
results in less organisational commitment, to continue and become the norm. What
and a greater tendency to leave. implications will this have for theories of career
development?
2. People who believe their job is in danger show
levels of stress similar to Apply
3. Unemployed workers had significantly lower © You have been asked to design a programme
mental health, life satisfaction, marital or to help employees cope with losing their job.
family satisfaction, and than their What key components would you include in this
employed counterparts. programme?

4. People who are unemployed for Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
perceive their mental health significantly more end of the chapter.
negatively than either employed people or those
who have removed themselves from the labour
force.

GPX] Work and family

Learning objectives

® Identify the issues faced by employed people who care for dependents.

® Describe how partners view the division of household chores.

e Discuss work-family conflict, and how it affects couples’ lives.

Anita, a 38-year-old sales assistant at a clothing with the demands of family. Over the past few
store, feels her husband, Prakash, doesn’t decades, the rapid increase in the number of families
do his share of the housework or child care where both parents are employed has fundamentally
Prakash says men don’t do housework and he’s changed how we view the relationship between work
really tired when he comes home from work. and family. This can even mean taking a young
Anita thinks this isn’t fair, especially because child to work as a way to deal with the pushes and
she works as many hours as her husband. pulls of being an employed parent In roughly half of
married-couple families, both spouses are employed
One of the most difficult challenges facing adults like (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016b) Why? Families
Anita is trying to balance the demands of occupation need the dual income to pay their bills and maintain a

12.4 WORK AND FAMILY 391

(Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved May mot be copsed, scammed,of duplicated. m whole
of in part. Dur to clectrommc nghts, some thend party costest mory he wappeexecd
from dhe cfSook andice of hapter|s)
Edtomad seview bos deaned that any wappremed comint dacs sot muztcmally affect
the overall lamang expenence. Congage Learning rencrves the ngbt to comove additeseal coment at any trne if subsequent mgt sextnctooes noqein of
moderate standard of living, especially given the care of an older parent or a child, women and men report
relatively flat incomes in South Africa. negative effects on their work, higher levels of stress,
We will see dual-earner couples with children experience and problems with coping (Neal & Hammer, 2007).
both benefits and disadvantages. The stresses of living in Roxburgh (2002) introduced the idea that parents of
this arrangement are substantial, and gender differences are families dealing with time pressures feel much more
clear — especially in the division of household chores. stress; and subsequent research clearly shows not only are
stress levels higher, but ‘fast-forward families’ also often
deal with negative impacts on career advancement and
physical and mental health consequences of this life style
Many employed adults must also provide care for
(Ochs & Kremer-Sadlik, 2013). Unsurprisingly, women’s
dependent children or parents. Deciding how to divide
careers are usually affected more negatively than mens.
the chores is a major source of stress, as we will see.
How can these negative effects be lessened? When
women’s partners provide good support and women have
Employed caregivers
average or high control over their jobs, employed mothers
Countless mothers in South Africa have no option but to are significantly less distressed than employed nonmothers
return to work after the birth of a child. However, many
or mothers without support (Cram, Alkadry, & Tower,
mothers grapple with the decision of whether they want 2016). One of the most important factors in this outcome
to return to work. Surveys of mothers with preschool is the realisation that it is impossible to ‘have it all for either
children reveal the motivation for returning to work mothers or fathers (Cram et al., 2016; LeanIn.org, 2016)
tends to be related to financial need and how attached
mothers are to their work.
A concern for many women is whether stepping out Dependent care and employer responses
of their occupations following childbirth will negatively Employed parents with small children or dependent
affect their career paths Indeed, evidence clearly spouses/partners, relatives, or parents are confronted
indicates it does (Evertsson, Grunow, & Aisenbrey 2016;
with the difficult prospect of leaving them in the care of
LeanIn.org, 2016). In women-friendly countries such as others. This is especially problematic when the usual care
Sweden, long leaves typically result in a negative effect arrangement is unavailable, such as due to weather-related
on upward career movement, but with shorter leaves in
closures of the care facility. A growing need in the workplace
Sweden and Germany no negative effects are observed.
is for backup care, which provides emergency care for
The increasing number of workers who must also
dependent children or adults so the employee does not need to
care for an ageing parent or partner is often overlooked.
lose a day of work. Does providing a workplace care centre
Providing this type of care takes a high toll through stress
or backup care make a difference in terms of an employee's
and has a generally negative impact on one’s career. South
feelings about work, absenteeism, and productivity?
Africa’s high rate of HIV infection means that many
There is no simple answer. Making a child care centre
people are also needed to look after a sick relative, or
available to employees does tend to reduce employee
children of such a relative, and this can cause a high rate of
stress, but does not necessarily reduce parents’ work-
absenteeism from work or even stopping work altogether
family conflict or their absenteeism (Hipp, Morrissey, &
Whether assistance is needed for one's children, Warner, 2017) A ‘family-friendly’ company must also
parents, or relatives, key factors in selecting an appropriate pay attention to the attitudes of their employees and make
care site are quality of care, price, and hours of availability sure the company provides broad-based support (Aryee
(Helpguide.org, 2016; National Association for the et al., 2013; Hill et al., 2016) The keys are how supervisors
Education of Young Children, 2016) Depending on one's act and the number and type of benefits the company
economic situation, it may not be possible to find affordable provides. Cross-cultural research in Korea confirms
and quality care available when needed. In such cases, there having a family-friendly supervisor matters (Aryee et al.,
may be no option but to drop out of the workforce or ask 2013) The most important single thing a company can
for help from friends, neighbours, and family. do is allow the employee to leave work without penalty to
tend to family needs (Lawton & Tulkin, 2010).
Dependent care and effects on workers Research also indicates there may not be differences
Being responsible for dependent care has significant for either mothers or their infants between work-based
negative effects on caregivers. Whether responsible for the and nonwork-based child care centres in terms of
the mothers’ ease in transitioning back to work or the
backup care Emergency care for dependent children or adults so infants’ ability to settle into day care (Hill et al., 2016;
the employee does not need to lose a day of work.
Hipp et al., 2016; Skouteris et al., 2007).

392 CHAPTER 12) WORKING AND RELAXING

Work-—family conflict
When people have both occupations and children, they
must figure out how to balance the demands of each.
These competing demands cause work-family conflict,
the feeling of being pulled in multiple directions by
incompatible demands from one’s job and one’s family
Dual-earner couples must find a balance between
their occupational and family roles. Many people believe
that work and family roles influence each other: when
things go badly at work, the family suffers, and when there
4 Employers who provide day care and afterschool centres on-site are troubles at home, work suffers. That's true, but the
have more satisfied employees influence is not the same in each direction (Andreassi,
2011). Whether work influences family or vice versa is
It will be interesting to watch how these issues -
a complex function of personality, coping skills, support
especially flexible schedules — play out in South Africa,
resources, type of job, and a host of other issues that
where such practices are not yet common. A global study
interact (Repetti & Wang, 2017). One key but often
of parental leave showed the more generous parental
overlooked factor is whether the work schedules of both
leave policies are, the lower the infant mortality rates,
partners allow them to coordinate activities such as child
clearly indicating parental leave policies are a good thing
care (van Klaveren, van den Brink, & van Praag, 2013).
(Ferrarini & Norstrém, 2010)
Another is the ability of a spouse/partner to provide
emotional and social support for the other spouse/partner
when work stress increases (Repetti & Wang, 2017).
When both members of a heterosexual couple with Understanding work-family conflict requires taking
dependents are employed, who cleans the house, cooks a life-stage approach to the issue (Blanchard-Fields,
the meals, and takes care of the children when they are Baldi, & Constantin, 2004) The availability of support
ill? This question goes to the heart of the core dilemma of for employed parents that takes the child’s developmental
modern, dual-earner couples: How are household chores age into account (for example, day care for young
divided? How are work and family role conflicts handled? children, flexible work schedules when children are
older) goes a long way to helping parents balance work
Dividing household chores and family obligations.
A comprehensive review of the research on the
Despite much media attention and claims of increased experience of employed mothers supports this conclusion
sharing in the duties, women still perform the lion's share (Edwards, 2012) Juggling the demands of housework
of housework, regardless of employment status. As shown and child care affects women, depending on the complex
in @ FIGURE 12.7, this is true globally (OECD, 2016) interplay among the age of the children, the point in
This unequal division of labour causes the most arguments career development and advancement of the woman,
and the most unhappiness for dual-earner couples. This is and her own developmental phase The combination of
the case with Anita and Prakash, the couple in the opening challenges that any one of these reflects, changes over
story; Anita does most of the housework. time. Because all of these factors are dynamic, how they
The additional burden women carry with respect help or hinder a woman in her career changes over time
to household chores, including child rearing, is still What is certain is that women’s careers are likely to be
reflected in millennials, despite their endorsement of irreparably harmed without it (LeanIn.org, 2016).
more gender-equal views on the matter. It appears that In addition to having impacts on each individual, dual-
deeply held cultural beliefs about gender-based divisions earner couples often have difficulty finding time for each
of labour are difficult to change. Ngubane (2010) states, other, especially if both work long hours. The amount of
for example, that many men in African cultures believe
that they are the custodians of their culture, while the
woman’ place is in the home, her primary role being to work-family conflict The feeling of being pulled in multiple
directions by incompatible
demands from job and family.
bear and raise children. However, there are indications

12.4 WORK AND FAMILY 393

i
=
iz
0 514 507
‘ Finland (2009-10) I =

&5 100

g 50 31
s 13

6 513 506
159 France (2008) I

£ 00

S me
6 ts
24
7 0 = =
526 590
150 [aly (2008-09) ot =
£00

2
z 23 49
=
0 aay

J 011 140 ‘so

= Be
159 Japan (2011)
£10

2 5
= a 4«17
Se oa =
488 496
150 Mexico (2009) Eo me

$ 100
& 53 71 86
g
3 50
= 15 8 15
0 | am
162 522 509
150 United States (2010) | ES) pe

£00 82

3g 50 4 -
= 19 12
. st om
@ FIGURE 127 Time spent in unpaid work and leisure (minutes per day)
Source: OECD. (2006). Baking paid werk, unpaid work and kesura Retéewed from waew.cecd ongigandadiiata! halancingpedwotureedewotandeaue. him

394 CuaprTerR 12) WORKING AND RELAXING

Ba ele ara

Recall
1. The negative effects of dealing with time
pressures can be lessened when women's
partners and women have average
or high control over their jobs.
2. A ‘family-friendly’ company must pay attention
to the and make sure the company
provides broad-based support.

3. Emergency care for dependent children or adults

4 Dualearner couples must learn how to grapple with work-family
conflict in balancing job and family demands
so the employee does not need to lose a day of
work is called

The issues faced by dual-earner couples are global Interpret

burnout from the dual demands of work and parenting is e What can organisations do to help ease work-
more likely to affect women across many cultures (Aryee family conflict?
et al, 2013; van Klaveren et al., 2013, Spector et al., 2005)
Japanese career women's job satisfaction declines, and Apply
resignation becomes more likely, to the extent they have e Suppose you are the director for human resources
high work-family conflict (Honda-Howard & Homma,
and you are thinking about creating a way to
2001) Research in China revealed a significant relation help employees who face dependent care issues.
between overcommitment and work-family conflict on What factors will you need to consider before
the one hand, with symptoms of depression on the other implementing a plan?
(Kan & Yu, 2016).
The work-family conflicts described here are arguably Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
worse for couples in the United States because Americans end of the chapter.

12.4 WORK AND FAMILY 395

Amos is a 55-year-old doctor who has enjoyed More complete measures of leisure activities not
outdoor activities his whole life. From the time only provide better understanding of how adults spend
he was a boy he rode horses and played golf. their time, but can help in clinical settings. Decline in
Although he doesn’t jump horses any more, the frequency of leisure activities is associated with
Amos still enjoys both sports every chance he depression (Schwerdtfeger & Friedrich-Mei, 2009), with
gets. lower well-being (Paggi, Jopp, & Hertzog, 2016), and
with a later diagnosis of dementia (Hertzog et al., 2009).
Adults do not work every waking moment of their lives Monitoring changes in leisure activity levels during
As each of us knows, we need to disconnect from our and after intervention programmes can provide better
phones, relax, and engage in leisure activities. Intuitively, outcome assessments.
we know that leisure consists of activities not associated
with work. Leisure is discretionary activity that includes
simple relaxation, activities for enjoyment, and creative
pursuits. Simply finding the time to fit leisure into
an already busy schedule can be challenging. For
many people, leisure just becomes another scheduled
component in our overall time management problem
(Corbett & Hilty, 2006).

I fei oii
Leisure can include virtually any activity. To organise
the options, researchers classified leisure activities into
several categories. Jopp and Hertzog (2010) developed
an empirically based set of categories that includes
a wide variety of activities. physical (lifting weights, 4 Participating in leisure activities improves one's well-being.
backpacking, jogging), crafts (woodworking, household
repairs), games (board/online games, puzzles, card
Given the wide range of options, how do people
games), watching TV, social-private (going out with a
pick their leisure activities? Apparently, each of us has a
friend, visiting relatives, going out for dinner), social-
leisure catalogue, a personal library of activities we do
public (attending a club meeting, volunteering), religious
regularly and we take with us into retirement (Nimrod,
(attending a religious service, praying), travel (travelling
2007a, b). The activities in our repertoire are determined
abroad, travel out of town), experiential (collecting
by two things. perceived competence (how good we
vinyl records, reading for leisure, gardening, knitting),
developmental (reading as part of a job, studying think we are at the activity compared to other people our
a foreign language, attending public lectures), and age) and psychological comfort (how well we meet our
technology use (photography, using computer software, personal goals for performance). As you might expect,
men and women differ in their views of leisure, as do
playing an instrument).
people in different ethnic and age groups (van der Pas &
Koopman-Boyden, 2010).
Personality factors are related to one’s choice of
leisure A discretionary activity that includes simple relaxation, leisure activities (Gaudron & Vautier, 2007), and it is
activities for enjoyment, and creative pursuits.
possible to construct interest profiles that map

396 Cuaprter 12 WORKING AND RELAXING

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved Muy et be copecd, waned, of duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to clectrommc nghts, soese thend party comtest qery be eappeesecd fom de cock andice chapters)
Exitomed seview bow doomed thet any wappremed content docx act sxstemally affect
the overall keammg expenence. Congage Learemmg reserves the night to comowe additereal coment af ary Gene tf subsequent mgish sextrictions oxpaise it.
individuals to specific types of leisure activities, and activity in emerging adulthood bodes well for health later
to each other (Leuty, Hansen, & Speaks, 2016) Other in life (Hillsdon et al., 2005; Lahti et al., 2016) Amos, the
factors are important as well: income, health, abilities, 55-year-old in the opening story who likes to ride and
transportation, education, and social characteristics play golf, is a good example of this overall trend. As Amos
Some leisure activities, such as scuba diving, are relatively demonstrates, frequent participation in particular leisure
expensive and require transportation and reasonably activities earlier in life tends to continue into adulthood.
good health and physical coordination for maximum Similar findings hold for the pre- and postretirement
enjoyment. In contrast, reading requires minimal years Apparently, one’s preferences for certain types of
finances (if one can access a public library or other free leisure activities are established early in life; they tend
sources) and is far less physically demanding. to change over the life span primarily in terms of how
The use of computer technology in leisure activities physically intense they are. Explore these findings in
has increased dramatically Most usage involves email, more detail in the ‘Spotlight on research’ feature
Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, or other social networking
tools for such activities as keeping in touch with family
: thei ee
and friends, pursuing hobbies, and lifelong learning
What do people gain from participating in leisure
Multi-participant video streaming and multiplayer
activities? Researchers have long known involvement
interactive computer gaming have also increased among
in leisure activities is related to well-being (Paggi et al.,
adult players. All of these online activities provide
2016, Warr, Butcher, & Robertson, 2004). This relation
opportunities to create virtual friendship networks that
holds in other countries, such as China, as well (Dai,
provide the same types of support as traditional face-to-
Zhang, & Li, 2013). Research shows participating in
face networks.
leisure activities helps promote better mental health
Choice of leisure activity may also be affected by
(for example, Lahti et al., 2016). This is especially true
an individual’s socio-economic status and where the
for spouses who use family-based leisure as a means to
person lives. For example, if a person lives in an under-
cope during their spouse/partner’s military deployment
resourced community with little access to libraries and
(Werner & Shannon, 2013), and buffers the effects of
recreation centres, but with a strong church outreach
stress and negative life events. It even helps lower the
club, the person might gravitate towards the church
risk of mortality (Talbot et al., 2007)
activities because there are few alternatives In addition,
Studies show leisure activities provide an excellent
if a person spends most of his or her time working at
forum for the interaction of the biopsychosocial forces
low-paying jobs just to make ends meet, he or she might
discussed in Chapter 1 (Cheng & Pegg, 2016, Kleiber,
not have the time or money to spend on many activities
2013). Leisure activities are a good way to deal with
away from family obligations.
stress, which - as we have seen in Chapter 4 - has
significant biological effects. This is especially true for
unforeseen negative events, such as cancer (Chun et al.,
2016). Psychologically, leisure activities have been well
Cross-sectional studies report age differences in leisure
documented as one of the primary coping mechanisms
activities. Emerging adults participate in a greater range of
people use, such as providing a sense of purpose in life
activities than middle-aged adults. Furthermore, emerging
(Chun et al., 2016; Patry, Blanchard, & Mask, 2007)
adults prefer intense leisure activities that provide a ‘rush,
How people cope by using leisure varies across
such as rock climbing, white water river rafting, and
cultures depending on the various types of activities that
riding motorbikes. In contrast, middle-aged adults focus
are permissible and available. Likewise, leisure activities
more on home-based and family-oriented activities
vary across social class, soccer is one activity that cuts
In later middle age, they spend less of their leisure time
across class because it is inexpensive, whereas scuba
in strenuous physical activities and more in sedentary
diving is more associated with people who can afford to
activities such as reading and watching television and in
travel to diving resorts and pay the fees.
moderately strenuous activities such as tennis and hiking
How do leisure activities provide protection against
(van der Pas & Koopman-Boyden, 2010).
stress? Kleiber and colleagues (2002, Kleiber, 2013)
Longitudinal studies of changes in individuals’ leisure
offer four ways leisure activities serve as a buffer against
activities over time show considerable stability in leisure
negative life events:
interests over reasonably long periods. Specifically,
studies in the United States, Finland, Great Britain, and e Leisure activities distract us from negative life events
Japan show that the level of activity in young adulthood e Leisure activities generate optimism about the future
predicts the activity level later in life, and leisure physical because they are pleasant.

12.5 TAKING TIME TO RELAX LEISURE ACTIVITIES 397

© Leisure activities connect us to our personal past by Instead of taking a couple of short breaks throughout
allowing us to participate in the same activities over the year, they save leave to take an extended holiday to
much of our lives. be with their family at home. Adults use leisure as a way
e Leisure activities can be used as vehicles for personal to explore interpersonal relationships or to seek social
transformation. approval. In fact, research indicates marital satisfaction
Whether the negative life events we experience are is linked with leisure time; marital satisfaction is even
personal, such as the loss of a loved one, or societal, such helped when couples spend some leisure time with others
as a high crime rate, leisure activities are a common and in addition to spending it just as a couple (Zabriskie
effective way to deal with them. They truly represent the & Kay, 2013). But there’s no doubt couples who play
together are happier (Johnson, Zabriskie, & Hill, 2006).
confluence of biopsychosocial forces and are effective at
any point in the life cycle. There is a second sense of attachment that can
Participating with others in leisure activities may develop as a result of leisure activities: place attachment.
also strengthen feelings of attachment to one’s partner, Place attachment occurs when people derive a deep sense
friends, and family (Carnelley & Ruscher, 2000). As
of personal satisfaction and identity from a particular
place (Di Masso, Dixon, & Hernandez, 2017). Place
a result of socioeconomic circumstances many South
African adults work far away from home, and spend attachment is an active process, bringing the individual
the majority of the year living close to their occupation a sense of belonging that might not be experienced

398 Cuaprter 12 WORKING AND RELAXING

Test yourself 12.5

Recall Interpret
1. is a discretionary activity that © How are choices of leisure activities related to
includes simple relaxation, activities for physical, cognitive, and social development?
enjoyment, and creative pursuits.
Apply
2. Emerging adults participate in a greater range
of activities than middle-aged adults, and they © Workers in South Africa tend to take fewer
prefer : vacation days compared with workers in European
countries. What might the consequences of this be
3. Place attachment occurs when people derive a for South African workers?
deep sense of and identity from a Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
particular place. end of the chapter.

12.1 Occupational selection and development How do people choose their occupations?
e Holland’s theory 1s based on the idea people choose
How do people view work?
occupations to optimise the fit between their individual
e Although most people work for money, other reasons are
traits and their occupational interests. Six personality
highly variable.
types, representing different combinations of these, have
e Meaning-mussion fit can set the tone for an organisation
been identified. Support for these types has been found
and help people derive meaning.
in several studies.

SUMMARY 399

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
© Social cognitive career theory emphasises that how such occupations are still viewed more negatively than
people choose careers, is also influenced by what they men in the same occupations.
think they can do and how well they can do it, as well as
how motivated they are to pursue a career What factors are related to women’s occupational
© Super’s developmental view of occupations is based on development?
self-concept and adaptation to an occupational role. © Women leave well-paid occupations for many reasons,
Super describes five stages in adulthood: implementation, including family obligations and workplace environment.
establishment, maintenance, deceleration, and retirement. Women who continue to work full-time have adequate
child care and look for ways to further their occupational
What factors influence occupational development? development.
© Reality shock is the realisation one’s expectations about e The glass ceiling, that limits women’s occupational
an occupation are different from what one actually attainment, and the glass cliff, that puts women leaders
experiences. Reality shock is common among young in a precarious position, affect how often women achieve
workers. top executive positions and how successful women
© Few differences exist across generations in terms of their leaders are.
occupational expectations.
¢ A mentor or developmental coach is a co-worker What types of bias and discrimination hinder
who teaches a new employee the unwritten rules and occupational development, especially of women and
fosters occupational development. Mentor-protégé previously disadvantaged workers?
relationships, like other relationships, develop through
e Gender bias remains the chief barrier to women’s
stages over time
occupational development. In many cases, this operates
as a glass ceiling. Pay inequity 1s also a problem; women
What is the relationship between job satisfaction
are often paid less than what men earn in simular jobs.
and age? e Sexual harassment 1s a problem 1n the workplace.
© Older workers report higher job satisfaction than younger Current criteria for judging harassment are based on the
workers, but this may be partly due to self-selection, ‘reasonable person’ standard.
unhappy workers may quit. Other reasons include
intrinsic satisfaction, good fit, lower importance of work, 12.3 Occupational transitions
finding non-work diversions, and life-cycle factors.
¢ Alienation and burnout are important considerations in Why do people change occupations?
understanding job satisfaction. Both involve significant © Important reasons people change occupations include
stress for workers. personality, obsolescence, and economic trends.
© Vallerand’s Passion Model proposes people develop a Occupational change can be voluntary or involuntary.
passion toward enjoyable activities that are incorporated © To adapt to the effects of a global economy and an
into identity. Obsessive passion happens when people ageing workforce, many corporations are providing
experience an uncontrollable urge to engage in the retraining opportunities for workers. Retraining is
activity; harmonious passion results when individuals especially important in cases of outdated skills and career
freely accept the activity as important for them without plateauing.
any contingencies attached to it.
Is worrying about potential job loss a major source of
12.2 Gender, ethnicity, and discrimination stress?
issues © Occupational insecurity 1s a growing problem. Fear that
one may lose one’s job 1s a better predictor of anxiety
How do women’s and men’s occupational selection than the actual likelihood of job loss.
differ? How are people viewed when they enter
occupations that are not traditional for their gender? How does job loss affect the amount of stress
© Boys and girls are socialised differently for work, and experienced?
their occupational choices are affected as a result. Women © Job loss 1s a traumatic event that can affect every aspect of a
choose non-traditional occupations for many reasons, person's life. The degree of financial distress and the extent
including expectations and personal feelings. Women in of attachment to the job are the best predictors of distress.

400 Cuartrer 12) WorKING AND RELAXING

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

meaning-mission fit burnout (378) answers
(372) passion (379)
career construction gender discrimination 12.1 1.anincome 2. artistic 3. deceleration 4. reality
theory (373) (384) shock 5. helping professions 6. obsessive
social cognitive career glass ceiling (384) 12.2 1. women-domunated 2. occupational
theory (SCCT) (373) glass cliff (384) development 3. interdependence 4. who were
vocational maturity (373) age discrimination (386) previously discriminated against 5. glass ceiling
reality shock (375) boomerang employee 6. boomerang employee
mentor (376) (386)
developmental coach career plateauing (388) 12.3 1. lower job satisfaction 2. unemployed
(376) backup care (392) participants 3. subjective physical health
job satisfaction (377) work-family conflict 4. at least a year
psychological capital (393)
12.4 1. provide good support 2. employees 3. backup care
theory (377) leisure (396)
alienation (378) 12.5 1. Leisure 2. intense leisure activities that provide a
‘rush’ 3. personal satisfaction

SUMMARY 401

Copryraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, or duplicated 1m whole ce in part. Dur to clectronic nghts, some therd party contest may he wuppeessed thom the cfook andive cChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
Making it in midlife: The
biopsychosocial challenges of
middle adulthood
Chapter outline

13 1 Physical changes and

health 403
Changes in appearance 404
Changes in bones and joints 404
Reproductive changes 408
What do you think? Menopausal
hormone therapy 410
Stress and health 411
Exercise 415

13.2 Cognitive development 417

Practical intelligence 417
Becoming an expert 419
Lifelong learning 419
Spotlight on research. Designing
software for middle-aged and
older non-experts 420

13.3 Personality 421

The five-factor trait model 421
Changing priorities in midlife 424

13.4 Family dynamics and middle

age 427
Letting go: Middle-aged adults
and their children 428
Giving back: Middle-aged adults
and their ageing parents 428
Real people: Applying human
development: Taking care of
Mom 429
Grandparenthood 430

Summary 433

Key terms 435

All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scared, of duplicated. 1m whole of in part. Due to clectroeic nights, some thind party costest mary he suppressed form the cftook andice oChapter(s
omed comicnt dacs aot istcradly affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Learting reserves the night to remove additional coment at any time if subsequent neh sexnctoes noqene ot
their personal goals and change These days, people think that
an old saying that life
their behaviour if they choose, it's much harder to define middle
begins at 40. Perhaps that was
develop adult relationships with age and put much less emphasis
society's way of saying that the
their children, and ease into on chronological age than on
changes that occur around this time
grandparenthood. Along the way, perceived age Eight in ten British
of life — wrinkles, grey hair, and a
they must deal with stress, changes people believe that the line
bulging waistline — are OK.
in the way they learn, and the between young and old is much
But times — and attitudes — have
challenges of helping their ageing fuzzier than it used to be (Benenden
changed Increasingly, middle age
parents People’s health ts generally Health, 2013) Let's take a closer
is being viewed as a time when
good, and their earnings are at their look at the issues confronting
adults achieve new heights in
peak people during midlife
cognitive development, re-evaluate

FEX] Physical changes and health

Learning objectives

® Identify the changes that occur in bones and joints.

e Define stress, and discuss how it affects physical and psychological health.

® List the benefits of exercise.

By all accounts, Tom is extremely successful. over-the-hill, sometimes going to great lengths to
Among other things, he became the head of prove that they are still vibrant.
a moderate-sized manufacturing firm by the Crossing the boundary to middle age is typically
time he was 43 Tom has always considered associated with turning 40 (or ‘the big four-oh, as
himself to be a rising young star in the many people term it). This event is frequently marked
company Then one day he found more than with a special party, and the party often has an over-
the usual number of hairs in his brush. ‘Oh the-hill theme. Such events are society’s attempt to
no!’ he exclaimed. ‘I can’t be going bald! create a rite of passage between youth and maturity.
What will people say?’ What does Tom think As people move into middle age, they begin
about these changes? experiencing some of the physical changes associated
with ageing. In this section, we focus on the changes
One morning when you least expect it, you'll be most obvious in middle-aged adults: appearance,
staring into the bathroom mirror when the reality of reproductive capacity, and stress and coping. In
middle age strikes. Standing there, peering through Chapter 14, we will consider changes that may begin
half-awake eyes, you see it. One solitary grey hair in middle age but are usually not apparent until later
or one tiny wrinkle at the corner of your eye — or, in life, such as slower reaction time and sensory
like Tom, some excess hairs falling out - and you changes. A critical factor in setting the stage for healthy
worry that your youth is gone, your life is over, and ageing is living a healthy lifestyle in young adulthood
you will soon be acting the way your parents did and middle age. Eating a healthy diet and exercising
when they embarrassed you in your younger days. regularly across adulthood can help reduce the chances
Middle-aged people become concerned that they are of chronic disease later in life (Aldwin & Gilmer, 2013)

opyraght
201% Cengage Lewemag. All Rights Reserved May net be copscd, scammed, of duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to clectrommc nghts, soe thend party contest mery be seappecsend trom te cfiook andive of hapter!s)
aovew bee dooned thos aay wappromed comamt das act masrally atfoct
the overall amuang cxpencnee. Congage Leoarting rowrven the nett comes addetveal coment at any ree if sebeequent nef rodtnchoes mga t
Changesinappearance Osteoporosis
On that fateful day when the hard truth stares back at One physical change that can be potentially serious is loss of
you in the bathroom mirror, it probably doesn’t matter to bone mass. Skeletal maturity, the point at which bone mass
you that getting wrinkles and grey hair is universal and is greatest and the skeleton is at peak development, occurs
inevitable. Wrinkles are caused by changes in the structure at around 18 for women and 20 in men (Gilsanz & Ratib,
of the skin and its connective and supporting tissues, as 2012, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal
well as by the cumulative effects of damage from exposure and Skin Diseases, 2015a). Bone mass stays about the same
to sunlight and cigarette smoke (Blume-Peytavi et al., 2016; until women experience menopause and men reach late
Tobin, 2017). You have some control over how quickly your life. For women, there is a rapid loss of bone mass in the
face wrinkles, mainly by limiting your exposure to the sun. first few years after menopause, which greatly increases the
It may not make you feel better to know that grey risk of problems with disease and broken bones.
hair is perfectly natural and caused by a normal decline Loss of bone mass makes bones weaker and more
of pigment production in hair follicles. Male pattern brittle, thereby making them easier to break. Because
baldness, a genetic trait in which hair is lost progressively there is less bone mass, bones also take longer to heal in
beginning at the top of the head, often begins to appear middle-aged and older adults. Severe loss of bone mass
in middle age. But the scientific evidence that gradual results in osteoporosis, a disease in which bones become
thinning and greying of hair with age is nearly universal porous and extremely easy to break (see @ FIGURE 13.1).
isn’t what matters most (Adhikari et al., 2016) What In severe cases, osteoporosis can cause spinal vertebrae
matters is that these changes are affecting you. to collapse, causing the person to stoop and to
To make matters worse, you also may have noticed become shorter (Bartl, Bartl, & Frisch, 2015; National
that your clothes aren't fitting properly even though you Osteoporosis Foundation, 2016a; see @ FIGURE 13.2).
watch what you eat carefully. You remember a time not Osteoporosis is the leading cause of broken bones in
very long ago when you could eat whatever you wanted, older women (one in three women over the age of 50 will
now it seems that as soon as you look at food you put on suffer a fracture), although men are also at risk (one in
weight. Your perceptions are correct; most people gain five men over 50 will suffer a fracture in their remaining
weight between their early 30s and mid-50s, producing lifetime (National Osteoporosis Foundation of South
the infamous ‘middle-aged spread’ as metabolism slows Africa, n.d) According to the National Osteoporosis
down (Aldwin & Gilmer, 2013). Foundation of South Africa (NOFSA) osteoporosis can
People’s reactions to these changes in appearance occur in all racial groups in South Africa since bone
vary. Tom wonders how people will react to him now that mass is more or less equal in all populations. However,
he's balding. Some people rush out to purchase hair dye hip fractures seem to occur less in the black population,
and wrinkle cream, or investigate hair plug procedures. while osteoporosis of the spine and subsequent spinal
Others just take it as another stage in life. You've probably fractures occur equally in all race groups (National
experienced several different reactions yourself. There Osteoporosis Foundation of South Africa, n.d).
is a wide range of individual differences, especially
those between men and women and across cultures. For Osteoporotic
bone tissue
example, certain changes on men in Western society are
viewed as positive, but the same changes in women are not.
cI int ‘ini
The bones and the joints change with age, sometimes in
potentially preventable ways and sometimes because of
genetic predisposition or disease. Let's take a closer look.

skeletal maturity The point at which bone mass is greatest and

the skeleton is at peak development; occurs at around 18 for
women and 20 in men.
osteoporosis Disease in which bones become porous and
extremelyeasy to break. @ FIGURE 131 The difference between normal bone (on the right)
and osteoporosis (on the left) is easy to see

404 CuHaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Although the severe effects of osteoporosis typically calcium as ways to prevent osteoporosis. There is
are not observed until later life, this disease can occur evidence that calcium supplements after menopause
in people in their 50s. Osteoporosis is caused in part by may slow the rate of bone loss and delay the onset of
having low bone mass at skeletal maturity (the point at osteoporosis, but benefits appear to be greater when
which your bones reach peak development), deficiencies the supplements are provided before menopause
in calcium and vitamin D, oestrogen depletion, and lack People should consume foods such as milk, sardines,
of weight-bearing exercise that builds up bone mass almonds, broccoli, or kale that are high in calcium and
Other risk factors include smoking; high-protein diets, should also take calcium supplements if necessary.
and excessive intake of alcohol, caffeine, and sodium Recommended calcium intake for men and women
Women who are being treated for asthma, cancer, of various ages is shown in @ TABLE 13.1. Although
rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid problems, or epilepsy are sunlight is a good source for vitamin D, due to the risk
also at increased risk because the medications used can of skin cancer from overexposure to the sun, most
lead to the loss of bone mass. people get their recommended amounts of vitamin
The National Osteoporosis Foundation (2016b) D from dietary sources (National Osteoporosis
recommends getting enough vitamin D and dietary Foundation, 2016c).

13.1 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 405

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scammed, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectromic nghts, some thend party costest mory he suppressed from the cfSook andive cl hapter|s).
Exttomad semew boo deaned that any wuppromed content docs sot sustcrially affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to memnowe additeoeal crevicnt af any Gane if subsequent nett sextnctioes neqenre it.
TABLE 13.1 Recommended calcium and Lowering the risk of osteoporosis involves dietary,
. in D intak medication, and activity approaches (National
Vitamin D Osteoporosis Foundation, 2016a, b) Some evidence also
Calcium (international supports the view that taking supplemental magnesium,
Age (milligrams) units) zinc, vitamin K, and special forms of fluoride may
infants be effective. Oestrogen replacement is effective in
preventing women’s bone loss after menopause but
Birth-6 months 200 400
is controversial because of potential side effects (as
6 months-1 year 260 400
discussed later). There is also evidence that regular
Children/Young adults weight-bearing exercise (for example, weight lifting,
1-3 years 700 600 jogging, or other exercise that forces you to work against
4-8 years 1000 600 gravity) is beneficial.
9-13 years 1300 600 In terms of medication interventions,
14-18 years 1 300 600 bisphosphonates are the most commonly used and are
Adult women and men highly effective, but can have serious side effects if used
over a long time (Adler et al., 2016). Bisphosphonates
19-30 years 1000 600
31-50 years 1000 600
slow the bone breakdown process by helping to
maintain bone density during menopause. Research
51- to 70-year-old 1000 600
males indicates that using bisphosphonates for up to five
51- to 70-year-old 1 200 600 years appears relatively safe if followed by stopping the
females medication (called a ‘drug holiday’). There is evidence
Over 70 years 1 200 800 for protective effects lasting up to five years more.
Pregnant or lactating women Periodic re-evaluation of people taking medications
18 years or younger 1300 600
to assess whether continued medication treatment is
19-50 years 1000 600
needed is crucial to appropriate and effective use of
these drugs (Adler et al., 2016)
Source: Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, Raloxifene (for example, Evista) is also approved for
National Academy of Sciences, 2010, www.niams.nih
gov/Health_Info/Bone/Osteoporosis/osteoporosis_hoh.
the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis It is one
asp#calcium. of a relatively new group of drugs known as selective
oestrogen receptor modulators. Selective oestrogen
receptor modulators (SERMs) are not oestrogens, but
Women who are late middle-aged or over age 65 are are compounds that have oestrogen-like effects on some
encouraged to have their bone mineral density (BMD) tissues and oestrogen-blocking effects on other tissues.
tested by having a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry The newest classes of medications for osteoporosis
(DXA) test, which measures bone density at the hip and are the RANK ligand inhibitors, such as Denosumab
spine. The DXA test results are usually compared with (Lipton et al., 2014). Related research indicates that
the ideal or peak bone mineral density of a healthy Romosozumab is effective in stimulating bone growth
30-year-old adult, and you are given a T-score. A score in postmenopausal women (McClung et al., 2014).
of 0 means that your bone mineral density is equal to Although these medications are very promising,
the norm for a healthy young adult. A T-score between additional research will be needed to ensure that they
+1 and -1 is considered normal or healthy The greater are effective over the long run and that side effects are
the negative number, the more severe the osteoporosis minimal.
(National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and
Skin Diseases, 2015b)
Arthritis
Many middle-aged and older adults have good reason
to complain of aching joints. Beginning in the 20s, the
dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) test Test of bone protective cartilage in joints shows signs of deterioration,
mineral density (BMD) at the hip and spine.
such as thinning and becoming cracked and frayed.
selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) Compounds Two types of arthritis can result osteoarthritis and
that are not oestrogens, but have oestrogen-like effects on some rheumatoid arthritis. These diseases are illustrated in
tissues and oestrogen-blocking effects on other tissues.
@ FIGURE 13.3.

406 Cuaprer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Thickened
synovial
membrane

Worn cartilage

@ FIGURE 13.3 Rheumatoid arthritis versus osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis, the most common form of arthritis, involves the wearing
away of the cartilage that caps the bones in your joints. With rheumatoid arthritis, the synovial membrane that protects and lubricates
joints becomes inflamed, causing pain and swelling Joint erosion may follow.
Source: MayoClinic.com. 2016. Artivitia. weve ayociine o1gki ceases condtiona/lanhiiahoma/ave-20168303

Over time and repeated use, the bones underneath South Africa Treatment recommendations for
the cartilage become damaged, which can result in rheumatoid arthritis suggest early diagnosis, prompt
osteoarthritis, a disease marked by gradual onset and commencement of anti-rheumatic drugs, and an
progression of pain and disability, with minor signs intense treatment strategy where the progression of the
of inflammation (National Institute of Arthritis and disease is frequently evaluated and therapy increased
Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, 2014a). The disease until progression is slowed or halted. All rheumatoid
usually becomes noticeable in late middle age or early arthritis patients in South Africa are at increased risk of
old age, and it is especially common in people whose tuberculosis, so healthcare practitioners need to screen
joints are subjected to routine overuse and abuse, such for and treat for it as well (Hodkinson & Kalla, 2013).
as athletes and manual workers. Because it is caused by Both osteoarthritis (Warner & Valdes, 2016)
overuse and abuse of joints, osteoarthritis is considered and rheumatoid arthritis (Yarwood, Huizinga, &
a wear-and-tear disease. Pain from osteoarthritis Worthington, 2016) have genetic components. Although
typically is worse when the joint is used, but skin the exact nature of these inheritance factors is unknown,
redness, heat, and swelling are minimal or absent. several potential locations have been identified as
Osteoarthritis usually affects the hands, spine, hips, possible markers Further advances in our knowledge
and knees, sparing the wrists, elbows, shoulders, and of these genetic links could result in more effective and
ankles. Effective management consists mainly of certain more individualised treatments.
steroids and anti-inflammatory drugs, rest, nonstressful Surgical interventions may be an option if medications
exercises that focus on range of motion, diet, and a do not provide relief. For example, arthroplasty, or
variety of homeopathic remedies. the total replacement of joints damaged by arthritis,
A second form of arthritis is rheumatoid arthritis, continues to improve as new materials help artificial
a more destructive disease of the joints that also joints last longer Hip and knee replacement surgery
develops slowly and typically affects different joints is becoming both more common and more effective
and causes other types of pain and more inflammation as less invasive surgical techniques are developed that
than osteoarthritis (National Institute of Arthritis and
Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, 2014b) Most often,
a pattern of morning stiffness and aching develops osteoarthritis Most common form of arthritis, a disease marked
in the fingers, wrists, and ankles on both sides of the by gradual onset of bone damage with progression of pain and
body. Joints appear swollen disability together with minor signs of inflammation from wear
and tear.
The South African Rheumatism and Arthritis
Association (SARAA) offer recommendations to rheumatoid arthritis More destructive disease of the joints that
improve healthcare delivery and enrich the quality of develops slowly; it typically affects different joints and causes
different types of pain than osteoarthritis does.
lives of those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis in

131 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 407

TABLE 13.2 Similarities and differences among osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis
Osteoporosis Osteoarthritis Rheumatoid arthritis

Risk factors x x
Age-related Xx Xx
Menopause Xx
Family history x Xx x
Use of certain medications such as glucocorticoids or Xx
seizure medications
Calcium deficiency or inadequate vitamin D Xx
Inactivity Xx
Overuse of joints Xx
Smoking Xx
Excessive alcohol x
Anorexia nervosa Xx
Excessive weight Xx
Physical effects
Affects entire skeleton Xx
Affects joints Xx Xx
Is an autoimmune disease Xx
Bony spurs Xx Xx
Enlarged or malformed joints Xx Xx
Height loss x
Sources. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (2010), www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Bone/
Osteoporosis/Conditions_Behaviours/osteoporosis_arthritis.asp

408 CuaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copryraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
liberating change because they no longer need to worry
about getting pregnant.
The major reproductive change in women during
adulthood is the loss of the natural ability to bear
children (Pregnancy and childbirth are still possible,
though, through medical intervention.) This change
begins in the 40s as menstrual cycles become irregular,
and by age 50 to 55 it is usually complete (MedlinePlus,
2014). This time of transition from regular menstruation
to menopause is called perimenopause, and how long it
lasts varies considerably The gradual loss and eventual
end of monthly periods is accompanied by decreases
in oestrogen and progesterone levels, changes in
the reproductive organs, and changes in sexual
functioning
A variety of physical and psychological symptoms
may accompany perimenopause and menopause
with decreases in hormonal levels (WomensHealth.
gov, 2010) hot flushes, night sweats, headaches, sleep
problems, mood changes, more urinary infections, pain
during sex, difficulty concentrating, vaginal dryness,
less interest in sex, and an increase in body fat around
the waist Many women report no symptoms at all,
4 Despite physical changes associated with middle age, women and
but most women experience at least some, and there men continue to enjoy sexual activity.
are large differences across social, ethnic, and cultural
groups in how they are expressed (Nosek, Kennedy, &
In response to these increased risks and to the
Gudmundsdottir, 2012)
oestrogen-related symptoms that women experience, one
In South Africa cultural beliefs and the ways in which
approach is the use of menopausal hormone therapy
symptoms of menopause are seen or accepted varies (MHT) women take low doses of oestrogen, which is often
(Ramakuela, 2015) Some women view menopause as
combined with progestin (synthetic form of progesterone).
a natural ageing process resulting in infertility, whereas Hormone therapy is controversial and has been the focus
other women lack the knowledge to understand what of many research studies with conflicting results (North
is happening in their bodies (Rikhotso, Makuwa, & American Menopause Society, 2016) There appear to be
Mulaudzi, 2015) In some rural villages menopause is
both benefits and risks with MHT, as discussed in the
considered a taboo subject and therefore not discussed ‘What do you think?’ feature.
(Ramakuela, 2015). Women’ genital organs undergo progressive change
The decline in oestrogen that women experience after menopause The vaginal walls shrink and become
after menopause is a very big deal. Oestrogen loss thinner, the size of the vagina decreases, vaginal
is related to numerous health conditions, including
lubrication is reduced and delayed, and the external
increased risk of osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, genitalia shrink somewhat. These changes have important
stress urinary incontinence (involuntary loss of urine effects on sexual activity, such as an increased possibility
during physical stress, as when exercising, sneezing, of painful intercourse and a longer time and more
or laughing), weight gain, and memory loss In short, stimulation needed to reach orgasm Failure to achieve
almost every major body system is affected (Women’s orgasm is more common in midlife and beyond than
Health Research Institute, 2016). Consider just one
negative effect cardiovascular disease At age 50 (prior
perimenopause Individually varying time of transition from
to menopause) women have three times less risk of heart
regular menstruation to menopause.
attacks than men on average Ten years after menopause,
when women are about 60, their risk equals that of men. menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) Therapy in which women
take low doses of oestrogen, which is often combined with
Clearly, oestrogen depletion has a negative effect on
progestin (a synthetic form of progesterone).
health.

131 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 409

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party comtest mory he wappeeascd thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
WHAT DO YOU THllNk? * groups showed similar changes
in cardiovascular function and no
significant changes in biomarkers, no
CTO ETS Meee Clee) significant differences in breast cancer
rates, or in rate of blood clots
The combined results from the
For many years, women have had the * were aged 50 to 79 when they enrolled WHI, the Million Women Study, and
choice of taking medications to replace in the study between 1993 and 1998 the KEEPS led doctors to modify
the female hormones that are no The health of study participants was their recommendations regarding
longer produced naturally by the body carefully monitored by an independent MHT (Moyer, Miller, & Faubion, 2016,
after menopause Hormone therapy panel called the Data and Safety North American Menopause Society,
may involve taking oestrogen alone Monitoring Board (DSMB) The study 2016, Women’s Health Research
or In combination with progesterone was stopped in July 2002 because Institute, 2016) Specifically, the joint
(or progestin in its synthetic form) investigators discovered a significant recommendation of the American
Research on the effects of menopause increased risk for breast cancer and Society for Reproductive Medicine,
hormone therapy has helped clarify the that overall the risks outnumbered the the Endocrine Society, and the North
appropriate use of such medications benefits However, in addition to the American Menopause Society, ts that
Until about 2003, it was thought increased risk of breast cancer, heart MHT ts reasonably safe for healthy
that menopausal hormone therapy attack, stroke, and blood clots, MHT women under age 60 who have
was beneficial for most women, resulted in fewer hip fractures and moderate to severe menopausal
and results from several studies lower rates of colorectal cancer symptoms. Advances in genomics
were positive But results from the The Million Women Study began in are likely to make MHT more precise
Women’s Health Initiative research in 1996 and includes one in four women because of the increasing ability to
the United States and from the Million over age 50 in the United Kingdom, the tailor the hormone therapy to each
Women Study in the United Kingdom largest study of its kind ever conducted woman's own genetics (Moyer et al.,
indicated that, for some types of Like the Women’s Health Initiative, 2016, Panay, 2016)
MHT, there were several potentially the study examines how MHT (both MHT Is not recommended for
serious side effects As a result, oestrogen/progestin combinations and women over age 60 or for those who
doctors are now far more cautious in oestrogen alone) affects breast cancer, have significant risk factors for side
recommending MHT cardiovascular disease, and other effects (for example, blood clots)
The Women’s Health Initiative aspects of women's health Results Additionally, women over age 60 who
(WHI), begun in the United States from this study confirmed the Women’s begin MHT are at increased nsk for
in 1991, was a very large study Health Initiative outcome of increased certain cancers
(National Heart, Lung, and Blood risk for breast cancer associated with In sum, women face difficult choices
Institute, 2010) The oestrogen plus MHT when deciding whether to use MHT
progestin tnal used 0.625 milligram A third important study ts the as a means of combatting certain
of oestrogen taken daily plus 2.5 Kronos Early Oestrogen Prevention menopausal symptoms and protecting
milligrams of medroxyprogesterone Study (KEEPS) In the primary study, themselves against other diseases
acetate (Prempro) taken daily. This 727 women were randomly assigned For example, MHT can help reduce hot
combination was chosen because it is to three groups One group received a flushes and night sweats, help reduce
the mostly commonly prescribed form dose of Premanin that was lower than in vaginal dryness and discomfort dunng
of the combined hormone therapy the WHI study, another group received sexual intercourse, slow bone loss, and
in the United States and, in several a patch, and the third group received perhaps ease mood swings On the
observational studies, had appeared to a placebo Both treatment groups other hand, MHT can increase a woman's
benefit women's health The women in experienced a drop in menopausal risk of blood clots, heart attack, stroke,
the WHI oestrogen plus progestin study . symptoms Most important, all three . breast cancer, and gallbladder disease

in a woman's younger years. However, maintaining an Whether women continue to have an active sex life
active sex life throughout adulthood lowers the degree to has a lot more to do with the availability of a suitable
which problems are encountered. Despite these changes, partner than a woman's desire for sexual relations. This
there is no physiological reason not to continue having is especially true for older women. The AARP Modern
an active and enjoyable sex life from middle age through Maturity sexuality study (AARP, 1999), the Sex in
late life. The vaginal dryness that occurs, for example, America study (AARP, 2005), and the Sex, Romance, and
can be countered by using personal lubricants, such as Relationships (AARP, 2010) studies all found that older
K-Y. married women were far more likely to have an active

410 CuaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Think about it

Why does sexual desire remain largely

unchanged despite the biological changes that
are occurring?

As with women, as long as men enjoy sex and have

a willing partner, sexual activity is a lifelong option. 4 Work-related stress is a major problem around the world and can
Also as with women, the most important ingredient of have serious negative effects on physical and psychological health
sexual intimacy for men is a strong relationship with a
partner (AARP, 1999, 2005, 2010). For example, married
men in early middle age tend to have intercourse four to Stress as a physiological response
eight times per month, but this rate drops about 20% per There is widespread agreement across many research
decade. The loss of an available partner is a significant studies that people differ in their physiological responses
reason why frequency of intercourse decreases with to stress (Campbell & Ehlert, 2012; Laurent et al.,
age. Still, late middle-aged and older people continue to 2016). Prolonged exposure to stress leads to damaging
enjoy themselves. Nearly three-quarters of people 57 to influences from the sympathetic nervous system (which

131 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 411

Copyeaght 2019 Cengage Lesrmng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanned, of duplicated. m whale oc in part. Dur to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mury be suppressed teem the cfiook andive Chapter().
Exton scview ton deaned that a2y wippromed coment dacs act seaicrally affect the overall keamung expenence. Cengage Learaung reserves the night to nemove akditweal coment at ary tre if subpequent gh sedtnctoes soya at
controls such things as heart rate, respiration, The stress and coping paradigm
perspiration, blood flow, muscle strength, and mental Imagine you are stuck in a traffic jam. Depending on
activity) and a weakening of the immune system. whether you are late for an important appointment
As Cohen and colleagues (2012) discussed in their or have plenty of time on your hands, you will
model of these effects, prolonged stress directly causes probably feel very different about your situation.
susceptibility to a wide range of diseases, from the The stress and coping paradigm views stress not as
common cold to cardiovascular disease, to cancer. At an environmental stimulus or as a response but as the
the cellular level, stress may play a role in shortening interaction of a thinking person and an event (Lazarus,
telomeres (see Chapter 3, Mathur et al., 2016). 1984; Lazarus et al., 1985; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Gender differences in physiological stress responses What matters is how we interpret an event like being
have also been documented. For example, there is some stuck in traffic, not the event itself or what we do in
evidence that the hormone oxytocin plays a different response to it. Put more formally, stress is ‘a particular
role in women and in men. Oxytocin is the hormone relationship between the person and the environment
that is important in women’s reproductive activities and that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding
for establishing strong bonds with one’s children (Kim, his or her resources and endangering his or her well-
Strathearn, & Swain, 2016) Researchers speculate that being’ (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 19). Note that this
when stressed, men follow a ‘flight or fight’ approach definition states that stress is a transactional process
whereas women follow a ‘tend and befriend’ approach between a person and the environment, that it takes
(Taylor, 2006). Fischer-Shofty, Levkovitz, and Shamay- into account personal resources, that the person's
Tsoory (2013) showed that oxytocin improves accurate appraisal of the situation is key, and that unless the
perception of social interactions, but in different ways situation is considered to be threatening, challenging,
in men and women. In men, performance improved or harmful, it does not result in stress A diagram of the
only for competition recognition, whereas in women it transactional model is shown in @ FIGURE 13.4.
improved for kinship recognition.

stress and coping paradigm Framework that views stress not as Appraisal
an environmental stimulus or as a response, but as the interaction Lazarus and Folkman (1984) describe three types of
of a thinking person and an event.
appraisals of stress. Primary appraisal categorises events
primary appraisal Process that categorises events into three into three groups based on the significance they have for
groups based on the significance they have for one’s well-being: our well-being: irrelevant, benign or positive, and stressful.
irrelevant, benign or positive, and stressful.
Primary appraisals filter the events we experience.

0 eee

; 1 Benign or Positive
1 3 positive emotional
i : appraisal responses |

v v v
Stressors Appraisal of Physiological increased
(environmental demands or behavioural risk of
demands) and adaptive responses physical and
capacities psychiatric
disease
Perceived I
I stress I
t I
I I
i I
1 I
1 SEMA Creatye'Shuttesspc.com '

@ FIGURE 13.4 Anexample of a transactional model of stress.

Source: From Cotan, 5. Keasler, RC, & Gorden, LU Eds|. Massering Seca A Guate fr Haalth atc Soca! Soenrars, Copytight © 1995 by Oxford University Preas. Lised with parmiasion from Oxford Univeraty Preas

412 Cuaprter 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyraght2019 Congage Lesemag. All Rights Reserved May net be copsnd, scanned, or duplicated m whole of in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party content mary be suppecacd fom the cock andice cChapter( +)
Eddtomad acuew bos docned thos aay wappromed comamt das act maxrally affect the overall kamung cxpenenee. Cangage Leartang rowrven the nett comes addetaeal coment at any ome if rebeequent nef rewnchoes mga ot
Specifically, any event that is appraised as either their life span. For example, as our physiological abilities
irrelevant (things that do not affect us) or as benign change with increasing age, we may have fewer physical
or positive (things that are good or at least neutral) is resources to handle particular events. As a result, events
not stressful. So, we literally decide which events are that were appraised as not stressful in young adulthood
potentially stressful and which ones are not. This is an may be appraised as stressful in late life.
important point for two reasons. First, it means we can
effectively sort out the events that may be problems and Coping
those that are not, allowing us to concentrate on dealing During the secondary appraisal of an event labelled
with life's difficulties more effectively. Second, it means stressful in primary appraisal, we may believe there is
that we could be wrong about our reading of an event. A something we can do to deal with the event effectively.
situation that may appear at first glance to be irrelevant, Collectively, these attempts to deal with stressful events are
for example, may actually be very important, or a called coping. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) view coping
situation considered to be stressful initially may turn out more formally as a complex, evolving process of dealing
not to be. Such mistakes in primary appraisal could set with stress that is learned. Much like appraisals, coping is
the stage for real (or imagined) crises later on.
seen as a dynamic, evolving process that is refined over
If a person believes that an event is stressful, a second time Our first attempt might fail, but if we try again in a
set of decisions, called secondary appraisal, is made slightly different way we may succeed. Coping is learned,
Secondary appraisal evaluates our perceived ability to not automatic. That is why we often do not cope very
cope with harm, threat, or challenge. Secondary appraisal well with stressful situations we are facing for the first
is the equivalent of asking three questions: “What can I time (such as the end of our first love relationship).
do?’ “How likely is it that I can use one of my options The saying ‘practice makes perfect’ applies to coping,
successfully?’ and “Will this option reduce my stress?’ too. Also, coping takes time and effort. Finally, coping
How we answer these questions sets the stage for involves only managing the situation; we do not need
addressing them effectively For example, if you believe to overcome or control it. Indeed, many stressful events
there is something you can do in a situation that will cannot be fixed or undone; often, the best we can do is to
make a difference, then your perceived stress may be learn to live with the situation. It is in this sense that we
reduced, and you may be able to deal with the event may cope with the death of a spouse.
successfully. In contrast, if you believe there is little that People cope in different ways. Two important ways
you can do to address the situation successfully or reduce are problem-focused coping and emotion-focused
your feelings of stress, then you may feel powerless and coping. Problem-focused coping involves attempts
ineffective, even if others around you believe there are to tackle the problem head-on. Taking medication to
steps you could take. treat a disease and spending more time studying for
Sometimes, you learn additional information or an examination are examples of problem-focused
experience another situation that indicates you should coping with the stress of illness or failing a prior test.
reappraise the original event. Reappraisal involves In general, problem-focused coping entails doing
making a new primary or secondary appraisal resulting something directly about the problem at hand.
from changes in the situation. For example, you may Emotion-focused coping involves dealing with one’s
initially dismiss an accusation that your partner is feelings about the stressful event. Allowing oneself
cheating on you (in other words, you make a primary to express anger or frustration over becoming ill or
appraisal that the event is irrelevant), but after being failing an exam is an example of this approach. The
shown pictures of your partner in a romantic situation goal here is not necessarily to eliminate the problem,
with another person, you reappraise the event as stressful. although this may happen. Rather, the purpose may be
Reappraisal can either increase stress (if your partner
had initially denied the encounter) or lower stress (if you
discovered that the photographs were fakes). secondary appraisal Process that evaluates one’s perceived ability
to cope with harm, threat, or challenge.
The three types of appraisals demonstrate that
determining whether an event is stressful is a dynamic reappraisal Process of making a new primary or secondary
process. Initial decisions about events may be upheld over appraisal resulting from changes in the situation.
time, or they may change in light of new information or coping Attempt to deal with stressful events.
personal experience. Different events may be appraised problem-focused
coping Attempts to tackle a problem head-on.
in the same way, and the same event may be appraised
differently at any two points in time. This dynamic process emotion-focused coping Dealing with one’s feelings about a
stressful event.
helps explain why people react the way they do over

131 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 413

(Copyraght
2099 Cengage Lowrseng All Raghes Reserved Mozy aot be copacd, scommed or daphicted m whol of op pert. Der to clecteenc mphes, somee theed party comtcat muy be eappeceecd Seen tar cBiock andive of hapersis)
Edecrad scvacw bos doomed ut ary eappromed coment dors set sexxrotly aflect Ge ower koremy cupemeace. Canpages Lowzang scare tc mgt © somes adden eee of any tne of chert rege encmons mgee s
to help oneself deal with situations that are difficult or There is ample evidence that perceived stress is
impossible to tackle head-on related to brain structures. For instance, the size of
Several other behaviours can also be viewed in the the hippocampus, a brain structure closely involved
context of coping. Religious people use their relationship in cognition is smaller in people who report moderate
with their God as the basis for their coping (Bade, 2012, to high levels of chronic stress (Lindgren, Bergdahl,
Kinney et al., 2003) For believers, using religious coping & Nyberg, 2016) Likewise, chronic stress has been
strategies usually results in positive outcomes when clearly shown to have significant negative effects on
faced with negative events. health This includes pervasive negative effects on the
How well we cope depends on several factors For immune system that cause increased susceptibility to
example, healthy, energetic people are better able to cope viral infections, increased risk of atherosclerosis and
with an infection than frail, sick people. Psychologically, hypertension, impaired memory and cognition, and
a positive attitude about oneself and one’s abilities is also psychopathology (Frank et al., 2016, Webster-Marketon
important. Good problem-solving skills put people at & Glaser, 2008) Effects can last for decades Severe
an advantage by creating several options with which to stress experienced in childhood has effects that last well
manage the stress. Social skills and social support are into adulthood (Shonkoff et al., 2012)
important in helping people ask for suggestions and Research indicates that different types of appraisals that
assistance from others. Finally, financial resources are are interpreted as stressful create different physiological
important; having the money to pay a mechanic to fix outcomes (Frank et al., 2016; Webster-Marketon & Glaser,
your car allows you to avoid the frustration of trying to 2008). This may mean that the way that the body reacts
do it yourself. to stress depends on the appraisal process — the reaction
The most effective ways to deal with stress are through to different types of stress is not the same. In turn, this
various relaxation techniques Whether you prefer yoga, implies that changing people's appraisal may also be a way
visualisation, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation or to lower the impact of stress on the body.
contemplative prayer, massage, or just chilling, does not Research indicates that one of the most serious
really matter. All good relaxation methods have similar consequences of chronic stress is that it increases the
effects: they slow the pulse, lower blood pressure, slow level of LDL cholesterol, which has significant negative
down breathing, reduce tension, focus concentration, consequences (see Chapter 3, McKay, 2016) LDL
lower anger and fatigue, and boost confidence. cholesterol levels rise as a result of chronic stress for several
Keep in mind that the number of stressful events reasons. people stop exercising, eat more unhealthy foods,
is less important than a person’s appraisal of them and and have higher levels of cortisol and adrenaline (which
whether the person has effective skills to deal with them stimulate the production of triglycerides and free fatty
Of course, should the number of stressful issues exceed acids, which in turn increase LDL cholesterol levels over
one’s ability to cope, then the number of issues being time) High levels of LDL cholesterol are associated with
confronted would be a key issue cardiovascular disease and stroke (see Chapter 3).

Effects of stress on psychological health

How might life experience and cognitive Experiencing stress can trigger psychological processes
developmental level influence one's ability to and reactions. Although stress does not directly cause
appraise and cope with stress? psychopathology, it does influence how people react and
behave For example, the stress many people in the U.S
experienced after the terrorist attacks of 11 September
Effects of stress on physical health 2001 resulted in higher levels of anxiety experienced
How does stress affect us? If the stress is short, such through nightmares, flashbacks, insomnia, traumatic
as being stuck in a traffic jam for an hour when we're grief, emotional numbing, and avoidance (LeDoux &
already late in an otherwise relaxed day, the answer is Gorman, 2001).
that it probably will have little effect other than on our One very important effect of stress on psychological
temper But if the stress is continuous, or chronic, then health is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The
the picture changes dramatically. National Institute of Mental Health (2016f) defines
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as an anxiety
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) An anxiety disorder that disorder that can develop after exposure to a terrifying
can develop after exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal in which event or ordeal in which grave physical harm occurred or
serious physical harm occurred or was threatened.
was threatened. The kinds of traumatic events that may

414 CuaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
trigger PTSD include violent personal assaults, natural Adults benefit from aerobic exercise, exercise that
or human-caused disasters, accidents, or military places moderate stress on the heart by maintaining a pulse
combat. rate between 60% and 90% of the person’s maximum heart
PTSD affects up to 25% of South Africans — this is about rate. You can calculate your maximum heart rate by
6 million people (SADAG, 2010). It can be a debilitating subtracting your age from 220 So, if you are 40 years old,
condition. Not everyone who is exposed to very stressful your target range would be 108 to 162 beats per minute.
situations develops PTSD, so our understanding of its The minimum time necessary for aerobic exercise to be
causes are is limited. Treatment is typically done through of benefit depends on its intensity. At low heart rates,
psychotherapy, with the addition of certain antidepressant sessions may need to last an hour, whereas at high heart
medications in limited circumstances. rates, 15 minutes may be enough. Examples of aerobic
Because stress is such a ubiquitous aspect of life, exercise include jogging, aerobics, dancing, swimming,
much effort (and consumer spending) goes into stress and cycling.
reduction techniques. For example, one popular approach What happens when a person exercises aerobically
is mindfulness-based stress reduction, being aware and (besides becoming tired and sweaty)? Physiologically,
nonjudgemental of whatever is happening at that moment adults of all ages show improved cardiovascular
(University of Massachusetts Medical School Center functioning and maximum oxygen consumption;
for Mindfulness, 2017). Common approaches using lower blood pressure, and better strength, endurance,
mindfulness-based stress reduction include yoga and flexibility, and coordination (Mayo Clinic, 2015)
meditation. Research indicates that using mindfulness- Psychologically, people who exercise aerobically report
based techniques has many positive effects on physical lower levels of stress, better moods, and better cognitive
and psychological health (Sharma, 2014) In addition, functioning.
mindfulness techniques result in functional and The best way to gain the benefits of aerobic exercise
structural changes in the brain, especially in areas related is to maintain physical fitness throughout the life span,
to control of stress and emotion as well as attention, beginning at least in middle age. There are numerous
memory, and sensory processing (Esch, 2014). benefits of various forms, including lowering the risk
of cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis (if the exercise
Exercise is weight bearing), and many other conditions The
Mayo Clinic’s Healthy Lifestyle Fitness websites provide
Since the time of the ancient Greeks, doctors and an excellent place to start. In planning an exercise
researchers have known that exercise significantly programme, three points should be remembered
slows the ageing process. In fact, evidence suggests that First, check with a doctor before beginning an
a programme of regular exercise, in conjunction with aerobic exercise programme. Second, remember that
a healthy lifestyle, can slow the physiological ageing moderation is important Third, just because you
process and improve the immune system (Bartlett & intend to exercise doesn’t mean you will; you must take
Huffman, 2017, Parrella & Vormittag, 2017). Being the necessary steps to turn your intention into action
sedentary is absolutely hazardous to your health. (Paech, Luszezynska, & Lippke, 2016, Schwarzer, 2008).
If you do, and stick with it, you may feel much younger
(Joyner & Barnes, 2013)
Without question, regular exercise is one of
the two most important behaviours you can do
to promote healthy living and good ageing (not
smoking is the other) In addition to the wide variety
of positive effects on health (for example, lower risk
of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension),
there is also substantial evidence that exercise is also

mindfulness-based stress reduction Being aware and

2 ~
-
nonjudgemental of whatever is happening at that moment.
%

aerobic exercise Exercise that places moderate stress on the heart

& Engaging in a mindfulness-based stress reduction programme by maintaining a pulse rate between 60% and 90% of a person's
such as yoga throughout middle age is a great way to counter a
maximum heart rate.
stressful lifestyle.

131 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 415

Zo 6. and a healthy lifestyle can slow the

physiological ageing process and improve the
-- -- ==> Cognitive
Improved mood immune system.
improvements

Interpret
@ FIGURE 13.5 A schematic representation of the general path by
which cognitive function and mood are improved by physical activity. It e The media are full of advertisements for anti-
could be hypothesised that improvements in cognitive function mediate
the improvements in mood or that improvements in mood mediate
ageing creams, diets, and exercise plans. Based
some of the improvernents in cognitive function. The dotted lines on what you have read in this section, how would
represent these hypothesised paths. you evaluate these ads?
Sourew: Erickson, K | Gildengers, AG, & Bumers,M A Q013) Physical activity and bain plasticty m
ite adulthood Duwlegues © Circa Neuwoscence, 15, 99-906.
atideaPMC3622479/ image rethewed from warw.ncte cin nih gow
CistoguesCinNeurase-15-99-4001/
Rawieved trom wa. ocho nim
Cie ickes/PRICIE224
73 figures
ih gowns
Apply
e What would be an ideal stress reduction exercise
programme for middle-aged adults?
In summary, if you want to improve your chances Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
of healthy ageing, exercise. Guidelines state about 150 end of the chapter.
minutes of moderate aerobic exercise weekly with

416 Cuaprer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

® Discuss the concept of lifelong learning, and differentiate between the way that adults and young people
learn.

Ayesha, a 54-year-old social worker, is widely assess cognition provides a better assessment of the
regarded as the resident expert when it comes kinds of skills that adults actually use in everyday
to working the system of social welfare. Her life (Gamaldo & Allaire, 2016; Margrett et al., 2010,
coworkers admire her ability to get several Mayer, 2014) Most people spend more time at tasks
agencies to cooperate, which they do not do such as managing their personal finances, dealing with
normally, and to keep clients coming in for uncooperative people, and juggling busy schedules than
routine matters and follow-up visits. Ayesha they do solving mazes or working out number patterns.
claims that there is nothing magical about it — it’s Traditional tests of adults’ intelligence have a number
just her experience that makes the difference. of shortcomings, and these flaws led to different ways
of viewing intelligence that differentiate academic (or
Compared with the rapid cognitive growth of childhood traditional) intelligence from other skills (Diehl et al,
or the controversies about postformal cognition in 2005, Margrett et al., 2010) The broad range of skills
young adulthood, cognitive development in middle age related to how individuals shape, select, or adapt to their
is relatively quiet Generally, the trends in intellectual physical and social environments is called practical
development discussed in Chapter 10 are continued intelligence. The examples at the beginning of this
and solidified. The main characteristic of cognitive section illustrate how practical intelligence is measured.
development in middle age involves developing higher Such real-life problems differ in three main ways from
levels of expertise like Ayesha shows and being flexible in traditional tests (Diehl et al., 2005): people are more
solving practical problems. We will also see how important motivated to solve them; personal experience is more
it is to continue learning throughout adulthood. relevant; and they have more than one correct answer
Research evidence shows that performance on these
Practical intel i kinds of tests, while related to basic cognitive abilities
such as fluid intelligence, are also strongly related to lived
Take a moment to think about the following problems experience, age, and crystallised intelligence (Frank et al.,
(Denney, 1984; Denney, Pearce, & Palmer, 1982): 2016; Gamaldo & Allaire, 2016; Margrett et al., 2010)
e A middle-aged woman is frying chicken in her home
when suddenly a grease fire breaks out on top of the Applications of practical intelligence
stove Flames begin to shoot up. What should she do? Practical intelligence and postformal thinking (see
e A man finds that the geyser in his flat is not working Chapter 10) are linked across adulthood. Specifically,
He asks his landlord to send someone out to fix it, and the extent to which a practical problem evokes an
the landlord agrees. But after a week of cold water and emotional reaction, together with experience and one's
several calls to the landlord, the geyser is still not fixed. preferred way of thinking, determines whether one will
What should the man do? use a cognitive analysis (thinking one’s way through
These practical problems are different from the problem), a problem-focused action (tackling the
the examples of measures of fluid and crystallised
intelligence in Chapter 10 They are more realistic, and practical intelligence Broad range of skills related to how
they reflect real-world situations that people routinely individuals shape, select, or adapt to their physical and social
environments.
face Many researchers argue that using such problems to

132 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 417

Pragmatics (crystallised)
>

/ ~ Basie information processing

j \ Content-poor
| Mechanics | Universal, biological

{ ~
>< Genetically predisposed 8 a

( Pragmatics | —_Content-rich
\ / Culture-dependent
eo) ft Experience-based

| ca. 25 ca. 70
Life course

@ FIGURE 13.6 Conceptualisation of the mechanics and pragmatics of intelligence across the life span. As described later,
the mechanics of intelligence correspond to fluid intelligence and the pragmatics to crystallised intelligence.
Based on Baltes, P B. (1994). The aging mind. Potential and ima The Garonidoger, 33, 580-554

418 CuaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
by how we are socialised given the particular historical alternative ways of solving problems or making
period in which we are raised. For example, during the decisions These well-developed knowledge structures
Border War era, the South African government viewed are the major difference between experts and novices,
the South West African People’s Organisation (SWAPO) and they enable experts to bypass steps needed by
as the enemy Today, trade and other interactions occur novices (Chi, 2006)
routinely between South Africa and the SWAPO- Experts don't always follow the rules as novices do,
led Namibian government, implying that on certain they are more flexible, creative, and curious; and they
issues they are allies. As a result, how people view and have superior strategies based on superior knowledge
consider dilemmas and problems that are influenced by for accomplishing a task (Ericsson & Towne, 2010)
historical context may result in very different solutions. Even though experts may be slower in terms of raw
Such differences reflect the sociocultural and historical speed because they spend more time planning, their
contexts of particular points in time Overall, these ability to skip steps puts them at a decided advantage
knowledge structures influence the way we implement In a way, this represents ‘the triumph of knowledge over
our professional skills, solve everyday problems, and reasoning’ (Charness & Bosman, 1990).
conduct the business of life (Baltes et al., 2006) What happens to expertise over the adult life span?
Finally, as the right portion of Figure 13.6 shows, Research evidence indicates expert performance tends
developmental pathways differ in terms of the to peak by middle age and drops off slightly after that
mechanics and pragmatics of intelligence across the (Masunaga & Horn, 2001). However, the decline in
course of adult life Biological and genetic forces expert performance is not nearly as great as it is for the
influence the mechanics, so there is a downward abilities of information processing, memory, and fluid
pathway with age beginning by middle age. However, intelligence that form the basis of expertise. Expertise
given that the pragmatics of intelligence is governed may sometimes also compensate for a decline in
more by environmental and cultural factors, there is underlying cognitive abilities (Masunaga & Horn, 2001;
an upward trajectory that is maintained across the Taylor et al., 2005).
adult life span This compensation is seen in expert judgements
about such things as how long certain figure skating
manoeuvres will take. Older people who were experts
Becoming
an expert were as good at predicting the amount of time skating
One day Mlungisi was driving along when his car moves take, as younger adults who were still skating
suddenly began coughing and sputtering. As safely as (Diersch et al., 2012) So, it appears that knowledge based
possible, he pulled over to the side of the road, turned on experience is an important component of expertise.
off the engine, opened the bonnet, and looked inside. It Indeed, researchers argue that people become ‘experts
was hopeless; to him, it looked like a jumble of unknown by experience’ (Tolkko, 2016). But how do people keep
parts. After the car was towed to a garage, a middle-aged acquiring knowledge? That's achieved through lifelong
mechanic set about fixing it. Within a few minutes, the learning.
car was running like new How?
We saw earlier in this chapter how aspects of
intelligence grounded in experience (crystallised
intelligence) tend to improve throughout most of Can expertise be taught? Why or why not?
adulthood. In a real-world experiential perspective,
each of us becomes an expert at something important
to us, such as our work, interpersonal relationships, Lifel | .
cooking, sports, or car repair. In this sense, an expert is
someone who is much better at a task than people who Many people work in occupations where information
have not put much effort into it. We tend to become and technology change rapidly. To keep up with these
selective experts in some areas while remaining changes, many organisations and professions now
amateurs or novices at others. emphasise the importance of learning how to learn, rather
What makes experts better than novices? It’s how than learning specific content that may become outdated
experts handle the problem (Ericsson & Towne, in a couple of years For most people, a university
2010; Hambrick et al , 2016). For novices, the goal education will probably not be the last educational
for accomplishing the activity is to reach as rapidly as experience they have in their careers Workers in
possible a satisfactory and stable performance level. In many professions — such as medicine, nursing, social
contrast, experts build up a wealth of knowledge about work, psychology, and optometry - are now required

132 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 419

PEST
non-experts
SaneLecm CUM cer lt Cett mes Tie (tcc
Spotlight on
Who were the investigators, and what was the aim of the Were there ethical
Research
study? Ali Dareyeh and Dalbir Singh (2014) observed that concerns with the study?
software companies such as Microsoft periodically make There were no ethical
significant changes to their core products Such changes are concerns as participants
often well-founded and greatly enhance the functionality of were appropnately informed
the program or app. However, the changes may be difficult for about the study
some people to adapt to, which impairs their ability to use the What were the results? Dareyeh and Singh found that only
program or app effectively and efficiently. two of the nine tasks could be completed by more than half
Darejeh and Singh were especially interested in how the participants using MS Outlook as designed by Microsoft.
well middle-aged adults could learn how to use the Ribbon However, based on interviews and other assessments, Darejeh
interface in Microsoft (MS) Office Outlook, as the introduction and Singh redesigned the MS Outlook interface to include such
of the Ribbon was a major design change changes as using more meaningful icons, showing only those
How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? tools that were useful for the tasks at hand, and providing
Darejeh and Singh observed participants’ actions while they more complete descriptions of how tools are used When
were using MS Outlook. Participants also completed several this redesigned interface was provided, at least 80% of the
evaluation forms, and they were interviewed Participants completed all but one of the tasks.
Who were the participants in the study? The participants What did the investigators conclude? Darejeh and Singh
were four men and six women staff or students of Apple concluded that users who are not experts learn better when
English Institute in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, between the more appropnately designed interfaces were provided with
ages of 52 and 66 None of the participants had significant embedded help. The redesigned interface greatly improved
background knowledge about computers, worked on self-learning as measured by a decrease in the time and
computers daily, were very familiar with programming in the number of steps needed as well as much improved
languages, or were proficient with Microsoft Outlook performance To summarise upgrades to software need to
What was the design of the study? The design was a take learner differences into account.
longitudinal design that lasted 62 days during which tasks What converging evidence would strengthen their
to be completed on MS Office were assigned (for example, conclusions? Future research should include people at
create a new e-mail and attach a file to it, create a new different levels of expertise with the target software or app,
meeting) Sessions lasted 45 minutes each. and participants should be of a wider age range

420 CuaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Recall Interpret
1. The broad range of skills related to how ¢ Based on the cognitive-developmental changes
individuals shape, select, or adapt to their einen described in this section, what types of jobs
and social environments is called would be done best by middle-aged adults?
2. Middle-aged adults use more Apply
frequently in dealing with instrumental problems
than adolescents or young adults do. e If you were asked to design a cognitive training
programme for middle-aged adults, what
3. The refers to those aspects of strategies would you include?
intelligence reflecting crystallised intelligence
rather than fluid intelligence. Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.
4. relates to learning how to learn,
rather than learning specific content.

FEE] Personality
Learning objectives

® Discuss how a person achieves generativity, and consider how midlife is best described.

Anele was attending her 25" high school To learn as much about our friends as possible we
reunion She hadn't seen her friend Mashudu could make careful observations of our classmates’
since they graduated. Anele remembered that personalities over the course of several reunions. Then,
in high school Mashudu was always surrounded at the gathering marking 40 years since graduation,
by a group of people She always walked up we could examine the trends we observed Did our
to people and initiated conversations She classmates’ personalities change substantially or did they
was at ease with strangers, pleasant, and remain essentially the same as they were 40 years earlier?
often described as the ‘life of the party’. Anele How we think these questions will be answered
wondered if Mashudu would be the same provides clues to our personal biases concerning
outgoing person she was in high school personality stability or change across adulthood. As we
will see, biases about continuity and discontinuity are
Many of us eventually attend a high school reunion It more obvious in personality research than in any other
is amusing, so it is said, to see how our classmates have area of adult development.
changed over the years. In addition to noticing grey or
missing hair and a few wrinkles, we should pay attention
The five-factor trait model
to personality characteristics. The questions that surfaced
for Anele are similar to the ones we generate ourselves In the past few decades, one of the most important
For example, will Sonel be the same outgoing person she advances in research on adult development and ageing
was as captain of the hockey team? Will Janus still be as has been the emergence of a personality theory aimed
concerned about social issues at 43 as he was at 18? specifically at describing adults. Due mostly to the efforts

133 PERSONALITY 421

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
of Robert McCrae and Paul Costa, Jr. (Costa & McCrae, counselling, which offer diversity of experience rather
2011; McCrae, 2016, McCrae & Costa, 2003), we are than high pay. People who are low on this dimension
now able to describe adults’ personality traits using five tend to be down-to-earth, uncreative, conventional,
dimensions: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to uncurious, and conservative.
experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. These e Scoring high on the agreeableness dimension is
dimensions (the five-factor model or the so-called Big associated with being accepting, willing to work
Five traits) are strongly grounded in cross-sectional, with others, and caring. People who score low on
longitudinal, and sequential research. First, though, let's this dimension (i.e., demonstrate high levels of
take a closer look at each dimension. antagonism) tend to be ruthless, suspicious, stingy,
antagonistic, critical, and irritable.
© People who are high on the neuroticism dimension
© People who show high levels of conscientiousness tend
tend to be anxious, hostile, self-conscious, depressed,
to be hard-working, ambitious, energetic, scrupulous,
impulsive, and vulnerable. They may show violent or
and persevering. Such people have a strong desire
negative emotions that interfere with their ability to get
to make something of themselves People at the
along with others or to handle problems in everyday
opposite end of this scale tend to be negligent, lazy,
life People who are low on this dimension tend to
disorganised, late, aimless, and nonpersistent.
be calm, even-tempered, self-content, comfortable,
unemotional, and hardy. The five-factor model has been examined cross-culturally
e Individuals who are high on the extraversion dimension (Church, 2016; McCrae, 2016). Research evidence
thrive on social interaction, like to talk, take charge generally shows that the same five factors appear across
easily, readily express their opinions and feelings, like to at least 50 cultures, including rarely studied Arabic and
keep busy, have boundless energy, and prefer stimulating black African groups (McCrae & Terracciano, 2005).
and challenging environments. Such people tend to Heine and Buchtel (2009) point out, though, that much
enjoy people-oriented jobs such as social work and of this research has been conducted by Westerners; so
sales, and they often have humanitarian goals. People it remains to be seen whether similar studies conducted
who are low on this dimension tend to be reserved, by local researchers will have the same outcomes
quiet, passive, serious, and emotionally unreactive. Additionally, Church (2016) points out that it is difficult
© Being high on the openness to experience dimension to validate the five-factor model in preliterate cultures.
tends to create individuals who have a vivid imagination
and dream life, an appreciation of art, and a strong What happens to traits across adulthood?
desire to try anything once. These individuals tend to be
Costa and McCrae have investigated whether the general
naturally curious about things and to make decisions
traits that make up their model remain stable across
based on situational factors rather than absolute rules.
adulthood (for example, Costa & McCrae, 2011, McCrae,
People who are readily open to new experiences place
2016; McCrae & Costa, 2003). They suggest personality
a relatively low emphasis on personal economic gain.
traits stop changing by age 30, after which they appear
They tend to choose jobs such as the ministry or
to be ‘set in plaster’ (Costa & McCrae, 1994, p. 21) The
data from the Costa, McCrae, and colleagues’ studies
neuroticism Personality trait dimension associated with the came from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging
tendency to be anxious, hostile, self-conscious, depressed, for the 114 men who took the Guilford-Zimmerman
impulsive, and vulnerable. Temperament Survey (GZTS) on three occasions, with
extraversion Personality trait dimension associated with the each of the two follow-up tests about six years apart.
tendency to thrive on social interaction, to like to talk, to take What Costa and colleagues found was surprising.
charge easily, to readily express their opinions and feelings, to Even over a 12-year period, the 10 traits measured by the
keep busy, to have boundless energy, and to prefer stimulating
and challenging environments.
GZTS remained highly stable; the correlations ranged
from 0.68 to 0.85. In much of personality research we
openness to experience Personality dimension that reflects might expect to find this degree of stability over a week
a tendency to have a vivid imagination and dream life, an
or two, but it is noteworthy to see it over 12 years.
appreciation of art, and a strong desire to try anything once.
We would normally be sceptical of such consistency
agreeableness Dimension of personality associated with being over a long period. But similar findings were obtained
accepting, willing to work with others, and caring.
in other studies. In a longitudinal study of 60-, 80-, and
conscientiousness Dimension of personality in which people 100-year-olds, Martin, Long, and Poon (2002) found
tend to be hard-working, ambitious, energetic, scrupulous, and stability higher for those in their 70s and 80s than for
persevering.
centenarians. However, some interesting changes did occur

422 CuaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcanned, ce duplicated. 1m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some therd party contest mury he wuppeesscd thom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
in the very old. There was an increase in suspiciousness and involves developmental changes in terms of their adaptive
sensitivity that could be explained by increased wariness of value and functionality, such as functioning effectively
victimisation in older adulthood. within society, and how personality contributes to everyday
Stability was also observed in longitudinal data life running smoothly. Personality growth refers to ideal
conducted over various lengths of time, from a 7-year end states such as increased self-transcendence, wisdom,
period (Méttus, Johnson, & Deary, 2012, Roberts & and integrity. Examples of this will be discussed later and
DelVecchio, 2000) to as long as a 30-year span (Leon include Erikson’s theory.
et al., 1979). According to this evidence, it appears that Both of these personality dimensions interact
individuals change little in self-reported personality because growth cannot occur without adjustment
traits over periods of up to 30 years long and over the age However, Staudinger (2015) argues that growth in
range of 20 to 90 years of age. terms of ideal end states does not necessarily occur in
everyone, because it is less easily acquired, and that this
means that strategies for adjustment develop across the
latter half of the life span. This framework can be used to
interpret stability and change in the Big Five personality
factors.
First, the consensus regarding change in the Big Five
with increasing age is the absence of neuroticism and the
presence of agreeableness and conscientiousness. These
three traits are associated with personality adjustment,
especially in terms of becoming emotionally less volatile
and more attuned to social demands and social roles
(Mihlig-Versen et al., 2012; Staudinger, 2015). These
characteristics allow older adults to maintain and regain
levels of well-being in the face of loss, threats, and
challenges — these are common occurrences in late life.
A Most occupations require the acquisition of new information over Studies also show a decrease in openness to new
time through lifelong learning so that workers can do their jobs
well and stay up-to-date on the latest information
experiences with increasing age (for example, Graham &
Lachman, 2012; Helson et al., 2002, Roberts et al., 2006;
Srivastava et al., 2003). Staudinger argues openness to
However, there is evidence that both stability and experience is related to personal maturity because it is
change can be seen in personality trait development highly correlated with ego development, wisdom, and
across the adult life span (Allemand, Zimprich, & emotional complexity. Evidence suggests these three
Hendriks, 2008, Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005; Debast aspects of personality (ego level, wisdom, and emotional
et al., 2014, MGttus et al., 2012; Schultz & Schultz, complexity) do not increase with age and may show
2017). These findings came about because of advances decline (Grihn et al., 2013; Miihlig-Versen et al., 2012;
in statistical techniques in separating longitudinal and Staudinger, Dorner, & Mickler, 2005; Staudinger, 2015).
cross-sectional data (see Chapter 1) Researchers find Staudinger concludes that personal growth in adulthood
the way people differ in their personality becomes more appears to be rare rather than normative.
pronounced with older age. For example, researchers To summarise, there appears to be increases in
find extraversion and openness decrease with age but adjustment aspects of personality with increasing age,
agreeableness increases with age. Conscientiousness and these could be normative. At the same time, however,
appears to peak in middle age. Most interestingly, the basic indicators of personality growth tend to show
neuroticism often disappears or is much less apparent in stability or decline You might ask, what's going on?
late life. Such changes are found in studies that examine The most likely answer is that personality growth or
larger populations across a larger age range (for example, change across adulthood does not normally occur unless
16 to mid-80s) and greater geographical regions (for
example, the United States and Great Britain). personality adjustment Developmental changes in terms of their
Ursula Staudinger and colleagues have a perspective adaptive value and functionality such as whether one can function
effectively within society and how personality contributes to
that reconciles both stability and change in personality everyday life running smoothly.
traits (Mihlig-Versen, Bowen, & Staudinger, 2012;
Staudinger, 2015) They suggest personality takes on two personality growth Form of personality that refers to ideal end
states such as increased self-transcendence, wisdom, and integrity.
forms adjustment and growth. Personality adjustment

133 PERSONALITY 423

@ FIGURE 137 TESSERA framework

of adult personality development.
Source Weve, C. & Roberta, B W017) Processes of petsonulity Govelopenent im adttood The TESSERA tharrewot. Fersonalty
and Socal Psychology Review. Goi 10 1177/10888883 166522779

424 Cuarrer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Copyright2019 Congage Learmng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcammed or duplicated m whole of in part. Dur te clectroenc nights, some third party content mory he mappecssed froen the effock andive eChapter's)
Ddarmead serew how doomed that any wuppromed comem dace aot sumcmally aflect the overall kamnmy cupenceee. Cengage Learnang reacrves the npbt to remove addmeoeal crenem! at ary tare of submequeces! raphe sestnictroes reqenne @
Achieving generativity can be enriching. It is for the next generation and a belief in the goodness
grounded in the successful resolution of the previous of the human enterprise The positive resolution of
six phases of Erikson’s theory (see Chapter 1) There this conflict finds middle-aged adults developing a
are numerous avenues for generativity (Kotre, 2005; generative commitment, which produces generative
McAdams, 2001, 2015; McAdams & Guo, 2015), such as actions A person derives personal meaning from being
parenting, mentoring, and creating one's legacy by doing generative by constructing a life story or narrative,
something of lasting importance. Sources of generativity which helps create the person's identity.
do not vary across ethnic groups (Bates, 2009). The components of McAdams’s model relate
Some adults do not achieve generativity. Instead, they differently to personality traits. For example, generative
become bored, self-indulgent, and unable to contribute concern is a general personality tendency of interest in
to the continuation of society Erikson referred to this caring for younger individuals, and generative action
state as stagnation, in which people are unable to deal is the actual behaviours that promote the well-being of
with the needs of their children or to provide mentoring to the next generation. Generative concern relates to life
younger adults. satisfaction and overall happiness, whereas generative
action does not. For example, new grandparents may
What are generative people like? love and enjoy being around their grandchildren and are
Research shows that generativity is different from traits; greatly concerned with their well-being, but have little
for example, generativity is more related to societal desire to engage in the daily hassles of caring for them
engagement than are traits (Wilt, Cox, & McAdams, on a regular basis.
2010). One of the best approaches to generativity Although they can be expressed by adults of all
is McAdams’s model (McAdams, 2015), shown in ages, certain types of generativity are more common
@ FIGURE 13.8. at some ages than others. For example, middle-aged
This multidimensional model shows how and older adults show a greater preoccupation with
generativity develops as a result of the complex
interconnections between societal and inner forces stagnation In Erikson’s theory, the state in which people are
unable to deal with the needs of their children or to provide
On the one hand, one creates a product or an outcome
mentoring to younger adults.
that outlives oneself On the other hand, one selflessly
bestows one’s efforts as a gift to the next generation narrative Way in which a person derives personal meaning from
being generative by constructing a life story, which helps create
(reflecting a concern for what is good for society) The
the person's identity.
tension between these two forces results in a concern

Motivational Thoughts, plans Behaviour Meaning

sources

N
a
r

ae
t
i
0
n

@ FIGURE 13.8 McAdams's model of generativity Note that the way a person shows generativity
(action) is influenced by several factors

133 PERSONALITY 425

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party comtest mary he wuppreased thom the cfiock andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
generativity themes than do younger adults in their fundamental changes in their priorities and personal
accounts of personally meaningful life experiences concerns was grounded in the possibility that middle
(McAdams, 2015; McAdams & Guo, 2015) Middle- adulthood includes other important changes. Carl Jung,
aged adults make more generative commitments (for one of the founders of psychoanalytic theory, believed
example, ‘save enough money for my daughter to go that adults may experience a midlife crisis. This belief
to university’), which reflects a major difference in the led to the development of several theories suggesting
inner and outer worlds of middle-aged and older adults that adulthood consists of alternating periods of
as opposed to younger adults. An important aspect of stability and transition that people experience in a
generativity is leaving a personal legacy (Newton & fixed sequence
Jones, 2016). Despite its appeal, though, there is no such thing as
Similar research focusing specifically on middle-aged a universal midlife crisis Instead, Labouvie-Vief and
women provides comparable results. Hills (2013) argues colleagues (for example, Grihn et al., 2013; Labouvie-
that leaving a legacy, a major example of generativity in Vief, Grithn, & Mouras, 2009) offer some good evidence
practice, is a core concern in midlife, more so than at any for a reorganisation of self and values across the adult
other age. Schoklitsch & Bauman (2012) point out that life span. They suggest that the major dynamic driving
the capacity of generativity peaks during midlife but that such changes may not be age-dependent but may follow
people continue to accomplish generative tasks into late general cognitive changes Middle-aged adults show
life (for example, great-grandparenthood). the most complex understanding of self, emotions, and
How well do these ideas generalise across ethnic motivations. Cognitive complexity also is shown to be
groups and cultures? A study of second-generation the strongest predictor of higher levels of complexity in
Chinese American women found similar trends in general. From this approach, a midlife ‘crisis’ may be the
generativity with European American women (Grant, result of general gains in cognitive complexity from early
2007) In one of the few studies to examine generativity to middle adulthood.
across cultures, Hofer et al (2008) examined it in This increase in cognitive complexity may help
Cameroon, Costa Rica, and Germany. They found that people make what could be called midlife corrections.
McAdams’s model could be successfully applied across Abigail Stewart (Newton & Stewart, 2012; Torges,
the three cultures. Stewart, & Duncan, 2008) found that well-educated
These findings demonstrate that the personal women who reported regrets for adopting a traditional
concerns of middle-aged adults are fundamentally feminine role in life (i.e., they wished they had pursued
different from those of younger adults. In fact, generativity additional education or a career) and subsequently made
may be a stronger predictor of emotional and physical adjustments in midlife were better off than those who
well-being in midlife and old age (Gruenewald, Liao, & did not make adjustments or had no role regrets at all
Seeman, 2012; McAdams, 2015; McAdams & Guo, 2015, Stewart suggests that rather than a midlife crisis, such
Wilt et al., 2010) For example, among both women and an adjustment may be more appropriately considered a
men, generativity is associated with positive emotion and midlife correction, re-evaluating one’s roles and dreams
satisfaction with life and work, and it predicts physical and making the necessary corrections
health Considered together, these findings provide Perhaps the best way to view midlife is as a time
considerable support for Erikson’s proposal that the of both gains and losses (Lachman, 2004). That is,
central concerns for adults change with age However, the changes people perceive in midlife can be viewed
the data also indicates that generativity is more complex as representing both gains and losses. Competence,
than Erikson originally proposed and, while it peaks in ability to handle stress, sense of personal control,
middle age, it may not diminish in late life. purpose in life, and social responsibility are all at their
peak, whereas physical abilities, women’s ability to
Life transition in midlife bear children, and physical appearance are examples
We have seen that theorists such as Erikson believe that of changes that many view as negative This gain—-loss
adults face several important challenges and that by view emphasises two things First, the exact timing of
struggling with these issues, people develop new aspects change is not fixed but occurs over an extended period
of themselves. Erikson’s notion that people experience of time Second, change can be both positive and
negative at the same time. Thus, rather than seeing
midlife as a time of crisis, one may want to view it
midlife correction Re-evaluating one’s roles and dreams and
as a period during which several aspects of one’s life
making the necessary correction.
acquire new meanings.

426 CuaprTer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Recall 5. McAdams’s model of generativity may be

seen as universally applicable, in that it can be
1. The five-factor model describes adults’ successfully applied across ;
personality traits using five dimensions:
neuroticism, extraversion, ;
Interpret
agreeableness, and conscientiousness.
¢ How can you reconcile the data from trait
2. Maria is high on the dimension:
research, which indicates little change, with the
she is a teacher and considers her job to be a
data from other research, which shows substantial
vocation, because she wants to help as many
change in personality during adulthood?
people as she can.
3. The personality factor in the Big Five list that Apply
disappears or declines in later life is e Ifpsychotherapy assumes that a person can change
4. In Erikson’s theory, is the quality behaviour over time, what is the relation between
of being productive by helping others to ensure personality and behaviour from this perspective?
the continuation of society by guiding the next Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
generation. end of the chapter.

EEX] Family dynamics and middle age

Learning objectives

® Identify the kin-keepers in families.

® Describe how the relationship between middle-aged parents and their young adult children changes.

® Discuss how middle-aged adults deal with their ageing parents.

e Describe how grandchildren and grandparents interact and how grandparenthood is meaningful, and the
issues that arise for grandparents caring for grandchildren.

Lelanie is facing a major milestone: Her youngest children (Deane et al., 2016; Fingerman et al., 2012,
child, Megan, is about to head off to university. Hareven, 2001). Middle-aged mothers (more than fathers)
But instead of feeling depressed, as she thought tend to take on this role of kin-keeper, the person who
she would, Lelanie feels almost elated at the gathers family members together for celebrations and
prospect. She and Riaan are finally free of the keeps them in touch with each other.
day-to-day parenting duties of the past 30 years. Think about the major issues confronting a typical
Lelanie is looking forward to getting to know middle-aged couple: maintaining a good marriage,
her husband again. She wonders whether there parenting responsibilities, dealing with children who
is something wrong with her for being excited are becoming adults themselves, handling job pressures,
that her daughter is leaving. and worrying about ageing parents, just to name a few
of the issues. Middle-aged adults truly have a lot to
People such as Lelanie connect generations. Family deal with every day in balancing their responsibilities
ties across the generations provide the context for to their children and their ageing parents (Boyczuk &
socialisation and for continuity in the family’s identity. At
the centre, in terms of age, are members of the middle- kin-keeper Person who gathers family members together for
aged generation, such as Lelanie, who serve as the links celebrations and keeps them in touch with each other; usually a
middle-aged mother.
between their ageing parents and their own maturing

134 FAMILY DYNAMICS AND MIDDLE AGE 427

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
Fletcher, 2016) Indeed, middle-aged adults are sometimes A positive experience with letting children go is
referred to as the sandwich generation because they strongly influenced by whether the parents perceive a
are caught between the competing demands of two job well done and their children have turned out well
generations: their parents and their children. (Farris, 2016; Mitchell, 2010). Children are regarded
as successes when they meet parents’ culturally based
Letting go: Middle-aged adults and their developmental expectations, and they are seen as ‘good
kids’ when there is agreement between parents and
children
children in basic values.
Sometime during middle age, most parents experience Parents’ satisfaction with the empty nest is
two positive developments with regard to their children sometimes short-lived. Roughly half of young adults
(Buhl, 2008) Suddenly their children see them in a new in the United States return to their parents’ home
light, and the children leave home. at least once after moving out (Farris, 2016). This is
It’s important how much the parents support and a worldwide phenomenon. There is evidence these
approve of their children’s attempts at being independent. young adults, called ‘boomerang kids’ (Farris, 2016;
Most parents manage the transition successfully (Owen, Mitchell, 2006), reflect a less permanent, more mobile
2005). That's not to say parents are heartless. When children contemporary society.
leave home, emotional bonds are disrupted. Mothers in all Why do children move back? In South Africa
ethnic groups report feeling sad when children leave, but the main reasons for the boomerang generation are
they have more positive feelings about the potential for economic. They include youth unemployment, declining
growth in their relationships with their children (Feldman, middle-class incomes, the diminishing advantage of a
2010) Still, parents provide considerable emotional support degree, the high cost of poverty, and affirmative action
(by staying in touch) and financial help (such as paying (Financial Planning South Africa, 2013).
tertiary education fees, providing a free place to live until
the child finds employment) when possible (Farris, 2016).
Giving back: Middle-aged adults and their
sandwich generation Middle-aged adults who are caught
ageing parents
between the competing demands of two generations: their parents Most middle-aged adults have parents who are in
and their children. reasonably good health But for nearly a quarter of
filial obligation Sense of obligation to care for one’s parents if adults like Sonto in the ‘Real people’ feature, being a
necessary. child of ageing parents involves providing some level
of care (Hyer, Mullen, & Jackson, 2017). How adult
children become care providers varies a great deal
from person to person, but the job of caring for older
parents usually falls to a daughter or a daughter-in-law
(Barnett, 2013), and daughters also tend to coordinate
care provided by multiple siblings (Friedman &
Seltzer, 2010) In Japan, even though the oldest son is
responsible for parental care, it is his wife who actually
does the day-to-day caregiving for her own parents and
her in-laws (Lee, 2010).
Most adult children feel a sense of responsibility,
termed filial obligation, to care for their parents if
necessary Adult child care providers sometimes
express the feeling they ‘owe it to Mom or Dad’ to care
for them, after all, their parents provided for them
for many years, and now the shoe is on the other foot
(Gans, 2007) Adult children often provide the majority
of care when needed to their parents in all Western
and non-Western cultures studied, but the same is true
especially in Asian cultures (Barnett, 2013, Haley, 2013;
Lai, 2010). In South Africa, the different population
A Adult children’s relationships with their parents often include a groups have different ideas about the level of contact
friendship dimension. between adult children and their parents. 52%

428 CHAPTER 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Applying human her mother could not afford a ladder Other employees now brought
development nursing home, Sonto made back the great new ideas and could
the only decision she could — respond to out-of-town crises quickly
her mom would move in As hard as it was, Sonto knew that
with her, Teboho, and Dineo her career pathway had taken a
Taking care of Mom
Sonto firmly believed that different turn And she and Teboho
Everything seemed to be because her mom had had more disagreements than she
going well for Sonto Her provided for her, Sonto could ever remember, usually about
career was taking off, her owed it to her mom to do the decreased amount of time they
youngest daughter Dineo the same now that she was had to spend with each other Dineo’s
had just entered high school, in need demands to be driven here and there
and her marriage to Teboho What Sonto didn’t count also added to Sonto’s stress
was better than ever So on was that taking care But Sonto and her mom were able
when her phone rang one June of her mom was the most to develop the kind of relationship they
afternoon, she was taken by difficult yet most rewarding could not have otherwise, and to talk
surprise thing she had ever done about issues they had long suppressed
The voice on the other end Sonto quickly realised that Although caring for a physically disabled
was matterof-fact Sonto’s mother her days of lengthy business trips mother was extremely taxing, Sonto
had suffered a major stroke and would and seminars were over, as was her and her mother's ability to connect ona
need someone to care for her Because . quick nse up the company leadership different level made it worthwhile

Stresses and rewards of providing care Financial pressures are especially serious for those
Providing care is a major source of both stress and caring for parents with chronic conditions, such as
reward On the stress side, adult children and other Alzheimer’s disease, that require services that are
family caregivers are especially vulnerable from two expensive and not covered by medical aid, if the parent
main sources (Pearlin et al., 1990)
has cover. In some cases, adult children may need to leave
their jobs to provide care if adequate alternatives, such
e Adult children may have trouble coping with declines as employing a helper, are unavailable or unaffordable,
in their parents’ functioning, especially those involving usually creating even more financial stress.
cognitive abilities and problematic behaviour, and The stresses of caring for a parent mean the caregiver
with work overload, burnout, and loss of the previous needs to carefully monitor his or her own health. Indeed,
relationship with a parent. many professionals point out caring for the care provider
e If the care situation is perceived as restricting or is an important consideration to avoid care provider
seriously affects the adult child's other responsibilities burnout (Ghosh, Capistrant, & Friedemann-Sanchez,
(spouse, parent, employee, etc.), then the situation is 2017; Tamayo et al., 2010).
likely to be perceived negatively, and that may lead On the plus side, caring for an ageing parent also has
to family or job conflicts, economic problems, loss of rewards. Caring for ageing parents can bring parents and
self-identity, and decreased competence. their adult children closer together and provide a way
When caring for an ageing parent, even the most for adult children to feel they are giving back to their
devoted adult child caregiver will at times feel depressed, parents (Miller et al., 2008) Cross-cultural research
resentful, angry, or guilty (Cavanaugh, 1999; Haley, examining Taiwanese (Lee, 2007) and Chinese (Zhan,
2013, Hyer et al., 2017). Many middle-aged care 2006) participants confirms adults caring for ageing
providers struggle financially: they may still be paying parents can find the experience rewarding.
for child care or education expenses, perhaps trying to Cultural values enter into the care providing relationship
save adequately for their own retirement, and having to in an indirect way (Mendez-Luck et al., 2016) Care
work more than one job to do it. providers in all cultures studied to date show a common

134 FAMILY DYNAMICS AND MIDDLE AGE 429

How do grandparents interact with

grandchildren?
Grandparents have many different ways of interacting
with their grandchildren. Categorising these styles
has been attempted over many decades (for example,
Neugarten & Weinstein, 1964), but none of these
attempts has been particularly successful because
grandparents use different styles with different
grandchildren and styles change as grandparents and
grandchildren age (Gonyea, 2013, Hoffman et al., 2012).
An alternative approach involves considering the
many functions grandparents serve and the changing
nature of families (Hills, 2010). The social dimension
& Caring for an older parent creates both stresses and rewards includes societal needs and expectations of what
grandparents are to do, such as passing on family history
Determining whether older parents are satisfied with to grandchildren. The personal dimension includes the
the help their children provide is a complex issue (Cahill personal satisfaction and individual needs fulfilled by
et al., 2009; Park et al., 2013). Based on a critical review being a grandparent. Many grandparents pass on skills -
of the research, Newsom (1999) proposes a model of how as well as religious, social, and vocational values (social
certain aspects of care can produce negative perceptions dimension) — through storytelling and advice, and they
of care directly or by affecting the interactions between may feel great pride and satisfaction (personal dimension)
care provider and care recipient (see @ FIGURE 13.9) from working with grandchildren on joint projects.
The important thing to conclude from the model is even Grandchildren give grandparents a great deal in
under the best circumstances, there is no guarantee return. Grandchildren keep grandparents in touch with
the help adult children provide their parents will be youth and the latest trends. Sharing the excitement
well received. Misunderstandings can occur, and the of surfing the web on a new device may be one way
frustration caregivers feel may be translated directly into grandchildren keep grandparents on the technological
negative interactions. forefront.

430 CHAPTER 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

é
(e.g., inappropriate amount,
of help, criticisms)

: @ FIGURE 13.9
Situational variables
(e.9., mood, pain,
life events, conflict)

Whether a care recipient perceives the care to be good depends on the recipient's
interactions with the care provider and whether those interactions are perceived negatively
Source. Nawacm, JT (1995). Another ade to Caregiving Negalive reactors 16 being helped. Current Directions in Psychokyica! Soence, & 185.

Being a grandparent is meaningful strength in many African families. Grandparents, during

Being a grandparent really matters Most grandparents the colonial and apartheid era, played an important
derive multiple meanings from their role as a role in holding families together in South Africa. The
grandparent, and they are linked with generativity law at the time did not allow parents to bring their
(Gonyea, 2013; Hayslip & Blumenthal, 2016). For some, children to the cities where most parents were working.
grandparenting is the most important thing in their Grandparents considered it a duty and an honour to
lives. For others, meaning comes from being seen as care for their grandchildren. As such, grandparents
wise, from spoiling grandchildren, from remembering filled the gap of socialising and caring for children left
the relationship they had with their own grandparents, in the rural areas (Spiegel, Watson, & Wilkinson, 1996;
or from taking pride in the fact they will be followed by Makiwane, Schneider, & Gopane, 2004) Research by Mia
not one but two generations. (2010) revealed that black grandparents take on more
Grandchildren also highly value their relationships active roles in the raising of their grandchildren, while
with grandparents, even when they are young Indian grandparents were more active in teaching their
adults (Alley, 2004; Hayslip & Blumenthal, 2016). grandchildren about their heritage.
Grandparents are valued as role models as well as for In many instances, generations opt to co-reside as a
their personalities, the activities they share, and the result of sickness or financial difficulties Co-residence
attention they show to grandchildren. Emerging adult between generations is an important indicator of the
grandchildren (ages 21-29) derive both stress and level of support between generations (Makiwane, 2010).
rewards from caring for grandparents, much the same @ FIGURE 13.10 shows the difference in levels of
way middle-aged adults do when they care for their co-residence between population groups in South Africa.
ageing parents (Fruhauf, 2007).
When grandparents care for grandchildren
Ethnic differences Grandparenthood today is tougher than it used to be.
How grandparents and grandchildren interact varies in Families are more mobile, which means grandparents
different ethnic groups. Intergenerational relationships are are more often separated from their grandchildren by
especially important and historically have been a source of geographical distance. Grandparents also are more likely

134 FAMILY DYNAMICS AND MIDDLE AGE 431

asa |AN2™ |cotoured| Oee™ | white Asa |AMC2 coloured) Mee | white
mOther 103 | 68 | 78 | 73 | 161 mOther 125| 117 | 72 | 92 | 177
mSkip generation | 152] 210 | 81 | 71] 30 mSkip generation | 144 | 197 | 90 | 48 | 26
minole generationor | 356 | 468 | 393 | 199 | 60 Gane meee | aaa eee (awe | oad) || AO
mDouble generation | 21.3 | 177 | 308 | 451 | 242 mDouble generation | 207 | 175 | a24 | 372 | 227
mingle generation | 175 | 58 | 140 | 205 | 508 mSingle generation | 19.0 | 94 | 136 | 285 | 51.1
@ FIGURE 13 10 Percentage of co-residence by population groups in South Africa, 2011 versus 2015.
eadle Goup Series Il 7 Dred, lor Parsons, tora: Statetcs South Africa Retieved from www slatesa gov Japublcations/
$-032015. pal, based on the G yot 200 a

being employed outside the home; when the parents are

deceased, addicted, incarcerated, or unable to raise their
children for some other reason; or when discipline or
behaviour problems have been exhibited by the grandchild.
In South Africa, grandparents may look after children
whose parents have died in the HIV and AIDS pandemic,
or whose parents have moved away to look for work.
The majority (64% in 2014) of children in South Africa
who are not living with a parent live with a grandparent
(SAHRC & UNICEF, 2016). Many of these grandparents
are supported by social welfare grants for themselves and
for the children, but they still struggle financially and this
is a cause of stress and worry for them. In addition, this
comes at a time when many people were at an age that
A How grandparents and grandchildren interact varies across ethnic they may have expected their own children to be looking
groups after them Being unable to rely on their own adult
children, as well as looking after their grandchildren,
to have independent lives apart from their children and places greater stress on these grandparents.
grandchildren What being a grandparent involves in Because most grandparents in this situation do not
the 21st century is more ambiguous than it once was have legal custody of their grandchild, problems and
(Hayslip & Blumenthal, 2016; Hyer et al., 2017) challenges such as dealing with schools and obtaining
Perhaps the biggest change worldwide for grandparents school or health records are frequent Typically, social
is the increasing number serving as custodial parents service workers must assist grandparents in navigating the
or primary caregivers for their grandchildren (Choi, many unresponsive policies and systems they encounter
Sprang, & Eslinger, 2016). Estimates are that over 2.5 when trying to provide the best possible assistance to
million grandparents provide basic needs (food, shelter, their grandchildren (Cox, 2007) Clearly, public policy
clothing) for one or more of their grandchildren (AARP, changes are needed to address these issues, especially
2016) These situations are due to several factors (Choi concerning grandparents’ rights with regard to schools
et al., 2016). the most frequent is due to both parents and healthcare for their grandchildren (Ellis, 2010).

432 Cuarprer 13) MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Test yourself 13.4

Recall 5. Many custodial grandparents in South Africa

are given for looking after their
1. Many middle-aged people are caught between children, but this money is seldom enough to
their responsibilities for their children and their meet their monthly needs.
responsibilities for their parents. They are known
as the
Interpret
2. Xolani moved out of his mother’s home but
e If you were to create a guide to families for
found that working, studying and paying rent
middle-aged adults, what would be your most
was too much for him to handle on his own.
important pieces of advice? Why did you select
He moved back in with his mom to finish his
these?
studies. Xolani could be called a

3. Most adult children feel a sense of responsibility, Apply

called to care for their parents if e What are the connections between the first part
necessary. of this chapter, on health, and this section, on
4. Adult children and other family caregivers are caregiving?
especially vulnerable to stress from two main Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
sources: and if they perceive the end of the chapter.
care situation as restricting.

13.1 Physical changes and health arthritis, a more destructive disease, 1s a more common
form affecting fingers, wrists, and ankles
How does appearance change in middle
adulthood? What reproductive changes occur in men and women
© Some of the signs of ageing appearing in middle age in middle age?
include wrinkles, grey hair, and weight gain. e The climacteric (loss of the ability to bear children
by natural means) and menopause (cessation of
What changes occur in bones and joints? menstruation) occur in the 40s and 50s and constitute a
e An important change ~ especially in women - is loss of major change in reproductive ability in women
bone mass, which in severe form may result in the disease © The decline of oestrogen has been correlated with certain
osteoporosis. This disease can be very serious and result physical changes. Menopausal hormone therapy is a
in broken bones and loss of height. controversial approach to treatment of menopausal symptoms.
© Osteoarthritis, a disease marked by gradual onset and © Reproductive changes in men are much less dramatic;
progressive pain and disability, generally becomes even older men usually are still fertile. Physical changes
noticeable in late middle or early old age Rheumatoid do affect sexual response.

SUMMARY 433

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
What is stress? How does it affect physical and longitudinal studies indicate that personality traits show
psychological health? long-term stability in general, but certain traits can change
© In the stress and coping paradigm, stress results from a across adulthood. The Triggering situations, Expectancy,
person's primary and secondary appraisal of an event as States/State Expressions, and Reactions (TESSERA) model
taxing his or her resources. Daily hassles are viewed as accounts for both stability and change.
the primary source of stress.
What changes occur tn people’s priorities and
© Coping is the response to dealing with stress. Problem-
focused coping and emotion-focused coping are two personal concerns? How does a person achieve
examples. generativity? How is midlife best described?
© Long-term stress has potentially serious negative health e Erikson believed that middle-aged adults become more
effects, such as on the immune and cardiovascular concerned with doing for others and passing social values
systems. It is also related to mental health problems, such and skills to the next generation ~ a set of behaviours and
as post-traumatic stress disorder. beliefs he labeled generativity. Those who do not achieve
generativity are thought to experience stagnation. People
What are the benefits of exercise? derive personal meaning from constructing a life story or
© Aerobic exercise has numerous benefits, especially with narrative.
regard to cardiovascular health and cognitive fitness. © Priorities and personal concerns change with age, shown
The best results are obtained with a moderate exercise in the experience of a midlife correction.
programme maintained throughout adulthood.
13.4 Family dynamics and middle age
13.2 Cognitive development
Who are the kin-keepers in families?
How does practical intelligence develop in © Middle-aged mothers tend to adopt the role of kin-
adulthood? keepers to keep family traditions alive as a way of linking
© Intelligence in middle age shows more clearly the generations.
mechanics (the underlying skills) and pragmatics © Middle age 1s sometimes referred to as the sandwich
(practical applications of crystallised intelligence) generation because middle-aged adults are caring for
Research on practical intelligence reveals connections to both their ageing parents and their own children.
post-formal thinking. Emotion is more strongly blended
with cognition in midlife than in younger adulthood. How does the relationship between middle-aged
parents and their young adult children change?
How does a person become an expert? © Parent-child relations improve dramatically when
© People tend to become experts in some areas and not children grow out of adolescence. Most parents look
in others Experts tend to think in more flexible ways forward to having an empty nest Difficulties emerge
compared with novices and can skip steps in solving to the extent that raising children has been a primary
problems. Expert performance tends to peak in middle age. source of personal identity for parents. However, once
children leave home, parents still provide considerable
What is meant by lifelong learning? What differences support.
are there between adults and young people in how © Young adult children move back home primarily for
they learn? financial reasons. In general, neither parents nor children
© Adults learn differently than children and youth. Older prefer this arrangement.
students need practical connections and a rationale for
How do middle-aged adults deal with their ageing
learning, and they are more motivated by internal factors.
parents?
13.3 Personality © Caring for ageing parents usually falls to a daughter or
daughter-in-law. Caregiving creates a stressful situation
What is the five-factor model? What evidence is
due to conflicting feelings and roles. The potential for
there for stability in personality traits? conflict 1s high, as 1s financial pressure
© The five-factor model postulates five dimensions of © Caregiving stress is usually greater in women, who
personality: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to must deal with multiple roles. Older parents are often
experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Several dissatisfied with the situation as well.

434 Cuaprer 13 MAKING IT IN MIDLIFE THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

skeletal maturity (404) mindfulness-based stress answers
osteoporosis (404) reduction (415)
dual-energy X-ray aerobic exercise (415) 13.1. 1. metabolism 2. osteoarthntis 3. oestrogen
absorptiometry (DXA) practical intelligence 4. ‘tend and befriend’ 5. emotion-focused coping.
test (406) (417) 6. Regular exercise
selective oestrogen mechanics of intelligence 13.21. practical intelligence 2. problem-focused
receptor modulators (418) strategies 3. pragmatics of intelligence
(SERMs) (406) pragmatics of intelligence 4. Lifelong learning
osteoarthritis (407) (418)
rheumatoid arthritis neuroticism (422) 13.3. 1. openness to experience 2. extraversion
(407) extraversion (422) 3. neuroticism 4. generativity 5. different
climacteric (408) openness to experience cultures
menopause (408) (422)
13.4 1. sandwich generation 2. boomerang kid
perimenopause (409) agreeableness (422)
3. filial obligation 4. a decline in their parents’
menopausal hormone conscientiousness (422)
functioning 5. social welfare grants
therapy (MHT) (409) personality adjustment
stress and coping (423)
paradigm (412) personality growth (423)
primary appraisal (412) generativity (424)
secondary appraisal (413) stagnation (425)
reappraisal (413) narrative (425)
coping (413) midlife correction (426)
problem-focused coping kin-keeper (427)
(413) sandwich generation
emotion-focused coping (428)
(413) filial obligation (428)
post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) (414)

SUMMARY 435

14.1 What are older adults

like? 437
The demographics of ageing 437
Longevity 440
Genetic and environmental
factors in average
longevity 442
The Third—Fourth Age
distinction 444

14.2 Physical changes and

health 445
Biological theories of ageing 445
Physiological changes 447
Chronic disease and lifestyle
health issues 453
Real people: Applying human
development:
The ‘Angelina
Jolie effect’ 455

14.3 Cognitive processes 456

Information processing 456
Memory 458
Creativity and wisdom 461
What do you think? Does
creativity exist? 462

14.4 Mental health and

intervention 464
Depression 464
Anxiety disorders 466
Dementia 467
Spotlight on research. Training
persons with dementia to be
group activity leaders 472

Summary 473

Key terms 475

ane
- nerenen

[a All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, xcanmed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Duc to clectrosic nghts, sonse third party costest mury he suppressed fom the cftook andice cChapter(s)
emed content dacs act mustcradly affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Learzing reserves the nght $9 remove additioeal coment at amy time if subsequent righ sextnctioes neqasre it
of growing older. A quick look at of them, such as slowing down, are
about all the descriptions of
birthday cards shows that negative based in fact, and others, such as
older adults you have heard or used
stereotypes of ageing are common. a general decline in all aspects of
yourself, and write down as many
How accurate are these images? memory, are not. Most important, we
as you can think of Chances are, at
In this chapter and in Chapter 15, we will learn that lifestyle factors under
least several of them are not positive
check the facts We will sort through our control can heavily influence
Later life is a time of life that provides
the common beliefs people have what our experience of later life
much material for stereotypes that
about ageing and find out that some will be
often paint a not so-pretty picture

ETS] What are older adults like?

Learning objectives

® Suggest how long most people will live, and identify the factors that influence this.

e Distinguish between the Third and Fourth Age.

Mapula is an 87-year-old South African great-grandparents (or even your parents) did when
woman who comes from a family of long- they were your age. The proportion of older adults in
lived individuals. She has never been to a the population of developed countries has increased
doctor, and she has never been seriously ill. tremendously, mainly due to better healthcare over the
Mapula thinks it’s just as well that she has past century (for example, the elimination or prevention
never needed a doctor because for most of of previously fatal acute diseases, especially during
her life, she had no medical aid. Because she childhood, better treatment for chronic diseases) and
feels healthy and has more things that she to lowering women’s mortality rate during childbirth.
wants to do, Mapula believes that she'll live People who study population trends, called
for several more years. demographers, use a graphic technique called a
population pyramid fo illustrate these changes.
What is it like to be old* Do you want your own late life @ FIGURE 14.1 shows average population pyramids
to be described by the words and phrases you wrote at for the most developed and least developed countries
the beginning of the chapter? Do you look forward to around the world. Let's consider developed countries
becoming old, or are you afraid of what may lie ahead? first (they're down the left side of the figure) Notice
Most of us probably want to be like Mapula and enjoy a the shape of the population pyramid in 1950, shown in
long, healthy life. Growing old is not something we think the top panel of the figure. In the middle of the 20th
about very much until we have to. Most of us experience century, there were fewer people over age 60 than under
the coming of old age as a surprise. It's as if we go to bed age 60; so the figure tapers toward the top. Compare
one night middle-aged and wake up the next day feeling this to projections for 2050, you can see that a dramatic
old. But we can take comfort in knowing that when the change will occur in the number of people over 65.
day comes, we will have plenty of company. These changes also occur in developing countries,
shown in the lighter colour. The figures for both 1950
The d hi f . and 2015 look more like pyramids when you look at
both the male and female halves together because
Did you ever stop to think about how many older there are substantially fewer older adults than younger
adults you see in your day-to-day life? Did you ever
wonder whether your great-grandparents had the
demographers People who study population trends.
same experience? Actually, you are privileged — there
have never been as many older adults alive as there population pyramid Graphic technique for illustrating
are now, so you see many more older people than your population trends.

437

opyraght
3019 Cengage Learmng All Rights Reserved May mot be copscd, scammed, of duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectroemc nights, some thend party costest mury he wappeesecd from dhe cfbook andive cf hapter|s)
review tes deaned that aay wippromed coment doc act maxrially affect
the overall kammng expenenee. Cengage Leartung rewrves the nigtt wo comose addsteeal coment af any brne if sutmequent nghe rednchoes cyan
people. But by 2050, the number of older adults even in population aged 60 years or older will go from 7.7% to
developing countries will have increased dramatically, 15.4% of the country’s total population over the next
substantially changing the shape of the figure. 35 years Presently, the number of South Africans who
According to the World Health Organization are 60 years or older is around 4.2 million people, this
(WHO) South Africa's elderly population is expected figure is estimated to be around 10 million people in
to double by 2050: the proportion of South Africa's 2050 (WHO).
Mali DEVELOPED COUNTRIES—1950 Female

8
-
ettPULeLeteeecuters
reeeeaed?
Hi.

a
"
-=

ties

r t
50 40 3 20 10 10 «20 2 «625
nd

—_
oc

°o

on
ou

uo
_
a

-
o

_
Age (years)
i;
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES-2014
:
{

100+
agen ee
coeaeac

TTettitistity:

Ye
it Egkebute

tf tike

so 40 30 20 10 10 42 14 14 70
8
8
8
g
a

a
Age group Population (in milbons) Popefiation
{in milions) Age group Population
(in millions)
|

Female
.
8+

reziegEbeucecenecugeEee
EEEEEESSE EEE!
wh,

li.

Ke
A
tre
tt

45 2718 8 18 27 % 45 19 9 3 SF 6 8
&

Population (in millions) Age group —_Popufation

(in millions) Population {in millions) Age group = Poputation (in milfions)

@ FIGURE 14 1 Population pyramids for developed and developing countries 1950-2050 Note the changing shapes of the distributions in terms
of the proportion of the population that is young versus old over time and as a function of whether countries are considered developed or developing
From remational programa’ Intemational Gatabase, by U.S Census Bureas Copyright © US Census Bureau Reviewed from www.ceraus Gow populatcrynnemaiondAaiaity (1950 developed couttrias| Reming Gata
extracted from cardus Gata tables See Kal and Cavanaugh, Essevitiats of Harmen Devaloment 2nd ed, p 369.

438 CuapPrTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

| 85+ u
ie ta
i 75-78 La
ee ta
= -69 =

==
5-5

15-19
10-14

@ FIGURE 14.2 Population pyramids for South Africa, with details from the censuses of 1996, 2001, and 2011.
Source Siatistics South Aca 2014) Consus 2011 Profile of alte persons m Sout Afica Retiewed from were slatisa Gow tal puthcat ors Report 0301-2 Repert-06-01- 020! | ot

14.1 WHAT ARE OLDER ADULTS LIKE? 439

Copyrapht
2079 Cengage Larsing. All Rights Reserved Mizy sot be comand scammed of dupliceed m wholk of in port. Dur so clectoenc myhes, somes tend party comet muy be eappeceecd foes tar chock andite oC hapacs+)
Edecrad scvacw bos doomed ut ary eappromed coment dors set sexxrotly aflect Ge ower koremy cupemeace. Canpages Lowzang scare tc mgt © somes adden eee of any tne of chert rege encmons mgee s
Estimated annual population How long we live depends on complex interactions
Froth rates, 2002-2017 among biological, psychological, socioeconomic, and
Period Elderly 60+ life-cycle forces. Let's begin by exploring the concept
of longevity for yourself. To get started, complete the
2002-2003 1.34
exercise at www.livingto100.com, based on research
2003-2004 1.45
from the New England Centenarian Study. How long
2004-2005 1.60
will you live? Only time will tell!
2005-2006 1.74
2006-2007 1.87
Average and maximum longevity
2007-2008 2.11
2008-2009 2.30
How long you live, called longevity, is jointly determined
2009-2010 2.46
by genetic and environmental factors. Researchers
2010-2011 2.59
distinguish between two different types of longevity:
2011-2012 2.69
average longevity and maximum longevity. Average
2012-2013 2.75
longevity is commonly called average life expectancy and
2013-2014 2.90
refers to the age at which half of the individuals who are
born in a particular year will have died. Average longevity
2014-2015 2.95
is affected by both genetic and environmental factors.
2015-2016 2.98
Average longevity can be computed for people at any
2016-2017 2.99 age. The most common method is to compute average
Source: Statistics South Africa (2017). Mid-year population longevity at birth, which is the projected age at which
estimates 2017 Pretoria Statistics South Africa Retrieved half of the people born in a certain year will have died.
from www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022017. pdf The current average longevity is about 67 years at birth
for women, and 61 years at birth for men in South Africa
The general ageing of the population is a global (Statistics South Africa, 2018) This means that of the
phenomenon. It is due mainly to two factors: a declining women born in 2018, for example, half of them will still
birth rate in many countries, often tied to increases in be alive when the group reaches age 67.
opportunities for women (such as education and careers), When average longevity is computed at other points
and especially to more people living longer Let's take in the life span, the calculation is based on all the people
a closer look at longer life spans, and how they affect who are alive at that age; people who died earlier are not
societies. included. For example, computing the average longevity
for people currently 65 years old would provide a
predicted age at which half of those people will have
died. In the U.S., females currently aged 65 can expect to
How will the demographic changes in the first 30 live on average about 20 more years, men about 18 more
years of the 21st century affect social policy? years (National Center for Health Statistics, 2016b).
Globally, the most rapid increases in average longevity
at birth occurred in the first half of the 20th century. These
Longevity increases in average longevity were caused mostly by better
The length of life has an enormous impact on healthcare. The decrease in the number of women who
everything from decisions about government died during childbirth was especially important in raising
healthcare programmes (for example, how much average life expectancies for women. Advances in medical
money should the Departments of Health and Social technology and improvements in healthcare mean that
Development allocate to healthcare) to retirement more people survive to old age, thereby increasing average
policy (for example, the age at which people may longevity in the general population. In South Africa the
collect maximum retirement benefits) to life insurance increase in life expectancy is attributed to the large anti-
premiums (for example, longer lives on average mean retroviral (ARV) rollout treatment programme.
cheaper rates for young adults). Maximum longevity is the oldest age to which any
individual of a species lives. Even if we were able to eliminate
average longevity Age at which half of the people born in a
all diseases and other environmental influences, most
particular year will have died. researchers estimate the limit to be somewhere around 120
years because key body systems such as the cardiovascular
maximum longevity Oldest age to which any person lives.
system have limits on how long they can last (Hayflick, 1996).

440 CuHuaprTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

: 50

8 40
&
°
- w

0
EC FS GP KZN LP MP NC NW we

EC FS GP KZN LP MP NC NW
@ 2001-2006 51.2 46.6 M4 455 51.2 52.7 53.2 50.3
WB 2006-2011 52.9 471 5.2 48.4 53.0 53.1 53.6 51.8 61.8
© 2011-2016 56.5 53.3 61.7 55.0 583 56.9 99.0 56.8 HB
® 2016-2021 58.0 55.7 64.1 57.8 60.5 59.5 611 58.4 66.8

Provincial average life expectancy at birth (females)

:*
.*
£ x

EC FS @ KZN up MP NC NW we
i 2001-2006 54.2 50.6 39.2 43.4 7 56.3 57.8 53.9 63.9
WB 2006-2011 55.0 50.9 9.5 53.1 %9 56.2 57.3 54.9 655
2011-2016 | 616 58.2 67.6 61.0 637 637 65.0 620 70.6
@ 2016-2021 63.9 61.8 8 63.5 HS 6.1 65.9 64.1 718

@ FIGURE 14.3 The average provincial life expectancies at birth for males and females for the periods 2001-2006, 2006-2011, 2011-2016, and
2016-2021 The assumptions for this projection were that Western Cape has the highest life expectancy at birth for both males and females, while the
Free State has the lowest life expectancy at birth
Source: Sutisics South Afica. 2017) fad yee popetanon esteeedes, 2017 Pretota: Suatistics South Atica. Retieved trom wow. statsas gov 2aubicatonaP0S02/P0302201 Tot

14.1 WHAT ARE OLDER ADULTS LIKE? 441

(Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learsing. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, xcammed, ce duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur so clectreenc mph, some therd party comicat muy he sappecescd torn tac cltook andive of haptce|+).
Edtonad seview ton doomed that ary euppromed comcm! dacs sot mumcmally affect the overall kamnmy cepenceee. Congage Learning reucrves the night w remove addmosal comicen af any tome of suteequeet ngh scanctons noqeaw &
Increasingly, researchers are differentiating between impact of socioeconomic status on longevity results from
active life expectancy and dependent life expectancy; reduced access to medical care and healthy food, both
the difference is between living to a healthy old age (active factors that characterise certain ethnic groups, the poor,
life expectancy) and the length of time one lives with a and many older adults, as clearly demonstrated in a very
debilitating condition in which the person depends on large study (566 402 participants) of premature mortality
others for care (dependent life expectancy). Said another in adults (Doubeni et al., 2012). Most of these people
way, it is the difference between adding years to life and have restricted access to good healthcare and cannot
adding life to years. One's active life expectancy ends at afford healthy food. For many people living in urban
the point when one loses independence or must rely on areas, air pollution, poor drinking water, and a lack of
others for most activities of daily living (for example, electricity and other facilities are serious problems, but
cooking meals, bathing). The remaining years of one’s life they simply cannot afford to move.
constitute living in a dependent state. How many active
and dependent years one has in late life depends a great
deal on the interaction of genetic and environmental
factors, to which we now turn.

Genetic and environmental factors in

average longevity
Our average longevity is influenced most by genetic,
environmental, ethnic, and gender factors. Clearly, these
factors interact. But it is important to examine each of
these factors and see how they influence our longevity
Let's begin with genetic and environmental factors.
We have known for a long time that a good way to
have a greater chance of a long life is to come from a
family with a history of long-lived individuals. Research 4 Coming from a family of long-lived individuals shows the role of
indicates that about 25% of the variation in human genetics in longevity

longevity is due to a person's genetics (Passarino, De

Rango, & Montesanto, 2016).
Sadly, human activity is responsible for most
Although genes are a major determinant of longevity,
environmental factors also affect the life span, often in
environmental factors. Denying adequate healthcare
to everyone, continuing to pollute our environment,
combination with genes (Passarino et al., 2016). Diseases,
such as cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer’s disease,
and failing to address the underlying causes of poverty
have undeniable consequences: These causes needlessly
and lifestyle issues, such as smoking and exercise, receive
a great deal of attention from researchers Environmental shorten lives and dramatically increase the cost of
healthcare.
toxins, encountered mainly as air and water pollution,
are a continuing problem.
Living in poverty shortens longevity Statistics Ethnic and gender differences in average
South Africa’s poverty trends report indicates that longevity
30 million South Africans (more than 50% of the People in different ethnic groups do not have the same
population) are living below the poverty line (Statistics average longevity at birth. For example, although African
South Africa, 2017b, f) Over 60% of black South Americans’ average life expectancy at birth is about four
Africans live in underdeveloped or rural areas and years less for men and about three years less for women
shacks in the informal settlements where access to basic than it is for European Americans, by age 65 this gap has
resources is limited or not available (UNDP, 2000). The narrowed to about two and one years, respectively, for
men and women. By age 85, African Americans tend to
outlive European Americans. Why the shift over time?
active life expectancy Number of years that a person is free from Lower access to good-quality healthcare in general
debilitating chronic disease and impairment.
means that those African Americans who live to age 85
dependent life expectancy Number of years a person lives with may be in better health on average than their European
a debilitating chronic disease in which the person depends on American counterparts. But this is just a guess, because
others for care.
Latinos have higher average life expectancies than European

442 CuapPrTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

cfelti
erect

iii
i FLElineads if
i
2

|
i

iy
S
i

=
|

South Africa
Eg

80 90
‘{
‘
3

Life expectancy (years) Life expectancy (years)

@ FIGURE 14.4 Life expectancy at birth, OECD countries, 2013
Based on COC/NCHS, Health, United Suates, 2095, Figure | and Tables 14 and 15. Data trom the National Vinal Statistica System INVSS) and the Organisation for Economic Co-cpemtion atd Oewelogment (OECD)

14.1 WHAT ARE OLDER ADULTS LIKE? 443

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party contest mary he suppressed thom the cock andice cChapter|s).
Edtorad seview bos deaned that any wappromed comient docs sot sustcmally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareimg reserves the ngbt to mmove additeceal coment at any Gre if subsequent nett sextnictoes nopeine it.
and economic conditions, healthcare, disease, and The ‘bad news’: The Fourth Age (oldest-old)
the like across industrialised and developing nations.
The differences also mean that populations in countries © Sizeable losses in cognitive potential and ability to
such as Sierra Leone are very much younger, on average, learn
than they are in countries such as Japan or the U.S. e Increases in the negative effects of chronic stress
e High prevalence of dementia (50% in people over
The Thirt-Fouth Ave distine#i age 90), frailty, and multiple chronic conditions
e Problems with quality of life and dying with dignity
The development of the science of gerontology, the study
The Third and Fourth Ages approach is grounded in
of older adults, in the latter part of the 20th century led to
the ‘selective optimisation with compensation’ model
cultural, medical, and economic advances for older adults
described in Chapter 1. The description of gains and
(for example, longer average longevity, increased quality
losses in the Third and Fourth Ages flows naturally
of life) that in turn resulted in fundamental positive
from this life-span perspective. As you proceed through
changes in how older people are viewed in society
this chapter and the next, keep in mind the distinction
Gerontologists and policy makers became optimistic
between the Third and the Fourth Ages. Note the
that old age was a time of potential growth rather than of
different developmental patterns shown by the young-
decline. This combination of factors is termed the Third
old and oldest-old. In Chapter 15, we will consider some
Age (Baltes & Smith, 2003). As we will see in this chapter
of the social policy implications of this distinction.
and in Chapter 15, much research has documented that
the young-old (ages 60 to 80) do have much to look
forward to.
However, recent research shows conclusively that Test yourself 14.1
the oldest-old (over age 80) typically have a different
experience, which is referred to as the Fourth Age Recall
(Baltes & Smith, 2003, Gilleard & Higgs, 2010; Lamb, 1. is commonly called average life
2014). The oldest-old are at the limits of their functional expectancy and refers to the age at which half of
capacity, and few interventions to reverse the effects the individuals who are born in a particular year
of ageing have been successful to date A major focus will have died.
is the choice of housing, whether to age in place or to
move to alternative placements (Koss & Ekerdt, 2017) 2. Average longevity is affected by both genetic and
We will see that the rates of diseases such as cancer and factors.
dementia increase dramatically in the oldest-old and 3. On average, women live than men
that other aspects of psychological functioning (for do.
example, memory) also undergo significant and fairly
rapid decline. 4. The is a period in old age that is
Baltes and Smith (2003) view the differences between considered to be a time of potential growth
the Third Age and the Fourth Age as important for rather than of decline.
research and social policy. They characterise the Third
Age as the ‘good news’ about ageing and the Fourth Age Interpret
as the ‘bad news.
e Think back to the lifestyle influences on health
discussed in Chapter 12. If most people actually
The ‘good news’: The Third Age (young-old)
exhibited a healthy lifestyle, what would happen
e Increased life expectancy, with more older people to average life expectancy?
living longer and ageing successfully
© Substantial potential for physical and mental fitness, Apply
with improvement in each generation e Ifyou were to design an intervention programme
e Evidence of cognitive and emotional reserves in the to maximise the odds that people will live to
ageing mind maximum longevity, what would you emphasise?
e High levels of emotional and personal well-being Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
e Effective strategies to master the gains and losses of end of the chapter.
later life

444 CHaprTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

® Discuss the physiological changes that normally occur in later life.

Ravi is an 80-year-old man who has been may increase longevity, research focusing on nonhuman
physically active his whole life. He still enjoys primates shows that longer lives do not always result
walking and cycling Although he considers from restricting calories alone (Chaudhari et al., 2016).
himself to be in excellent shape, he has noticed
that his endurance has decreased and that his Cellular theories
hearing and sight aren’t quite as sharp as they A second family of ideas points to causes of ageing at the
used to be Ravi wonders whether he can do cellular level. One notion focuses on the number of times
something to stop these declines or whether cells can divide, which presumably limits the life span of
they are an inevitable part of growing older. a complex organism Cells grown in laboratory culture
dishes go through only a fixed number of divisions
If your family has kept photograph albums for many
before dying, with the number of possible divisions
years, you are able to see how your grandparents and/
dropping depending on the age of the donor organism
or great-grandparents changed over the years Some of
This phenomenon is called the Hayflick limit, after its
the more visible differences are changes in the colour
discoverer, Leonard Hayflick (Bernadotte, Mikhelson, &
and amount of hair and the addition of wrinkles, but
Spivak, 2016; Hayflick, 1996)
many other physical changes are harder to see In this
What causes cells to limit their number of divisions?
section, we consider some of these changes, as well as a
Evidence suggests that the tips of the chromosomes, called
few things that adults can do to improve their health. As
telomeres, play a mayor role in ageing by adjusting the
noted in Chapter 13, many ageing changes begin during
cell’s response to stress and growth stimulation based
middle age However, most of these changes typically do on cell divisions and DNA damage, and by typically
not affect people's daily lives until later in life, as Ravi is shortening with each cell replication (Bernadotte et al.,
discovering But first, we will ask a basic question why 2016). Healthy, normal telomeres help regulate the cell
do people grow old in the first place? division and reproduction process.
lita catash le ak as An enzyme called telomerase is needed in DNA
replication to fully reproduce the telomeres when cells
Much research on ageing has focused on answering the divide But telomerase normally is not present in somatic
question of why people and other living organisms grow cells, so with each replication the telomeres become
old and die With regard to human ageing, three groups shorter. Eventually, the chromosomes become unstable
and cannot replicate because the telomeres become too
of theories have provided the most insights.
short. This process is shown in @ FIGURE 14.5.
Chronic stress may speed up the changes that occur
Metabolic theories
in telomeres and thereby shorten one’s life span (Oliveira
One theory of ageing that makes apparent common et al., 2016; Spivak, Mikhelson, & Spivak, 2016).
sense postulates that organisms have only so much Research also shows that moderate levels of exercise
energy to expend in a lifetime. (Couch potatoes might
like this theory, and may use it as a reason why they are
not physically active ) The basic idea is that the rate of telomeres Tips of chromosomes that play a major role in ageing
by adjusting the cell’s response to stress and growth stimulation
a creature's metabolism is related to how long it lives based on cell divisions and DNA damage.
(Barzilai et al., 2012)
Although some research indicates that significantly telomerase Enzyme needed in DNA replication to fully reproduce
the telomeres when cells divide.
reducing the number of calories animals and people eat

142 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 445

—e——

-/* 8

@ FIGURE
Adapted trom
14.5 The process by which telomeres shorten as we age
telomeres-aging. comimages/shorteningdna jog
doe
— telomeres shorten, and eventually cell division stops.

The most important evidence that free radicals code (Mitteldorf, 2016). Even when cell death appears
may be involved in ageing comes from research with random, researchers believe that such losses may be
substances that prevent the development of free radicals part of a master genetic programme that underlies
in the first place These substances, called antioxidants, the ageing process (Freitas & de Magalhiaes, 2011;
prevent oxygen from combining with susceptible Mackenzie, 2012).
molecules to form free radicals. Common antioxidants Programmed cell death appears to be a function
include vitamins A, C, and E, and coenzyme Q. of physiological processes, the innate ability of cells to
A growing body of evidence shows that ingesting self-destruct, and the ability of dying cells to trigger key
antioxidants postpones the appearance of age-related processes in other cells, all of which are also thought
diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and to be influenced by external environmental factors
immune system dysfunction (Suja et al., 2016). However, (Arbeev, Ukraintseva, & Yashin, 2016; Ukraintseva et al.,
there is no direct evidence yet that eating a diet high 2016). At present, we do not know how this genetic self-
in antioxidants actually increases the life span (Berger destruct programme is activated, nor do we understand
et al., 2012). how it works. Nevertheless, there is increasing evidence
that many diseases associated with ageing (such as
Genetic programming theories Alzheimer's disease) have genetic aspects.
What if ageing were programmed into our genetic It is quite possible that the other explanations
code? This possibility seems much more likely as the we have considered in this section and the changes
extremely rapid growth of knowledge about human we examine throughout this text are the result of a
genetics continues to unlock the secrets of our genetic genetic programme. We will consider many diseases
throughout the text that have known genetic bases, such
as Alzheimer's disease. As genetics research continues, it
free radicals Highly reactive chemicals produced randomly in is likely that we will have some exciting answers to the
normal metabolism.
question of why we age.

446 Cuaprer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening. All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosic nghes, some third party costest muy he wuppeesaed tem die effiook andi oC Deapter(s)
Dabtored review hen cheered thet any suppremed coment dacs set matemally affect the overall kammg expenence. Congage Learaung reserves the night to nemove additioeal content af any Game if submecpacrt rghit: nedrictioms meyainy
tangling occurs normally with age, but large numbers of
neurofibrillary tangles are associated with Alzheimer’s
Growing older brings with it several inevitable disease and other forms of dementia (Sala Frigerio & De
physiological changes. Like Ravi, whom we met in the Strooper, 2016). @ FIGURE 14.7 shows how this process
opening story, older adults find that their endurance has works.
declined relative to what it was 20 or 30 years earlier and Changes in the dendrites are more complicated. Some
that their sight and hearing has declined. In this section, dendrites shrivel up and die, making it more difficult for
we consider some of the most important physiological neurons to communicate with each other and transmit
changes that occur in neurons, the cardiovascular and information (Voss et al., 2013). However, research
respiratory systems, the motor system, and the sensory indicates that dendrites continue to grow in some areas
systems. We also consider general health issues such as of the brain, and embryonic stem cell research indicates
sleep, nutrition, and cancer. Throughout this discussion, that inducing growth may be a future way to treat brain
you should keep in mind that although the changes we disease and injury (West, 2010) This may help explain
consider happen to everyone, the rate and the amount of why older adults continue to improve in some areas, as
change varies a great deal among individuals. we will discover later in this chapter Why some dendrites
degenerate and others do not is poorly understood, it may
Changes in the neurons reflect the existence of two different families of neurons.
Neuroscience research indicates that the most important Neuritic or amyloid plaques are spherical structures
normative changes with age involve structural changes in consisting of a core of beta-amyloid, a protein,
the neurons, the basic cells in the brain, and in how they surrounded by degenerated fragments of dying or dead
communicate (Whalley, 2015) Recall the basic structures neurons. The plaques are found in various parts of the
of the neuron we encountered in Chapter 3, shown again brain, with the amount of beta-amyloid moderately
here in @ FIGURE 14.6. Two structures in neurons are related to the severity of the disease (National Institute
most important in understanding ageing: the dendrites, on Aging, 2015b) A depiction of beta-amyloid plaques
which pick up information from other neurons, and is also shown in @ FIGURE 14.7.
the axon, which transmits information inside a neuron Considerable recent research has focused on beta-
from the dendrites to the terminal branches Each of the amyloid as a major factor in Alzheimer’s disease, both
changes we consider in this section impairs the neurons’ in terms of the cause and possible avenues for treatment.
ability to transmit information, which ultimately affects The role of beta-amyloid is controversial, though. Some
how well the person functions Three structural changes researchers view concentration of beta-amyloid as a
are most important in normal ageing. neurofibrillary biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease (Sala Frigerio & De
tangles, dendritic changes, and neuritic plaques. Strooper, 2016) Others consider it an early warning
of potential cognitive decline, even in the absence of
any behavioural symptoms (Gandy & DeKosky, 2013;
Singh et al., 2016) We will consider the controversy
surrounding diagnostic categories related to Alzheimer's
disease a bit later.
Neurons do not physically touch each other, so they must
communicate via chemicals called neurotransmitters. With
age, the levels of these neurotransmitters decline (Behl &
Ziegler, 2014). An especially important neurotransmitter in
this respect is dopamine, involved in several key cognitive
processes (Mather, 2016; Park & Festini, 2017) These
Tle declines in dopamine as well as other neurotransmitters
Direction
of information flow are believed to be responsible for numerous age-related
@ FIGURE 14.6 Basic structure of the neuron.
neurofibrillary tangles Spiral-shaped masses formed when fibres
that compose the axon become twisted together.
For reasons that are not understood, fibres that
beta-amyloid A protein that is the basis for neuritic plaques and
compose the axon sometimes become twisted together is thought to be a basis for dementia.
to form spiral-shaped masses called neurofibrillary
tangles These tangles interfere with the neuron's ability neurotransmitters Chemicals released by neurons in order for
them to communicate with each other.
to transmit information down the axon. Some degree of

142 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 447

beta-amyloid plaque

@ FIGURE 14.7 Action of beta-amyloid and tau proteins in relation to neurons Each disrupts neurons, but in different ways.
Adapled for weew.try limes. comyinleactvas201
20200 sGencein-azminns2-laighd protean ran

behavioural changes, including those in memory and sleep, commonly used are X-rays, computerised tomography
and for diseases such as Parkinson’s disease (Parkinson's (CT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Disease Foundation, 2016a). Images from structural neuroimaging techniques
All of these changes in neurons are a normal part are like photographs in that they document what a
of ageing, so it is difficult to say precisely how they specific brain structure looks like at a specific point
may also cause cognitive and other diseases late in life in time. Structural neuroimaging is usually effective
Many researchers believe that disease occurs when these at identifying such things as bone fractures, tumours,
changes occur at a much greater rate, but they cannot and other conditions that cause structural damage in
specify the exact point at which this happens This point the brain, such as strokes.
is important because it means that serious behavioural e Functional neuroimaging provides an indication
changes (for example, severe memory impairment) are of brain activity but not high anatomical detail. The
not a result of normative age changes in the brain; rather, most commonly used are single photon emission
they are indicators of disease. computerised tomography (SPECT), positron
Through technological advances in noninvasive emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic
imaging and in assessing psychological functioning, we resonance imaging (f{MRI), magnetoencephalography
are learning a great deal about the relations between (or multichannel encephalography), and near infrared
changes in the brain and changes in behaviour (Linden, spectroscopic imaging (NIRSI) In general, {MRI
2016; Sugiura, 2016). Neuroimaging is an important tool is the most commonly used technique in cognitive
for understanding both normal and abnormal cognitive neuroscience research (Poldrack, 2012) Functional
ageing. Two neuroimaging techniques are used most often. neuroimaging provides researchers with information
e Structural neuroimaging provides highly detailed about what parts of the brain are active when people
images of anatomical features in the brain. The most are doing specific tasks. A typical image will show
different levels of brain activity as different colours, for
structural neuroimaging Neuroimaging technique such as CT example, red on an image might indicate high levels
and MRI scans that provides highly detailed images of anatomical of brain activity in that region, whereas blue might
features in the brain. indicate low levels of activity.
functional neuroimaging Neuroimaging technique that provides These noninvasive imaging techniques, together with
an indication of brain activity but not high anatomical detail. sensitive tests of cognitive processing, have shown quite

448 CHAPTER 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party comtest mary he wuppreased thom the cfiock andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
convincingly that age-related changes in the brain are, given promptly. So if you or a person you know thinks
at least in part, responsible for the age-related declines they are experiencing a CVA, get medical attention
in cognition that we will consider later (Sugiura, 2016). immediately because to be most effective, tPA therapy
The reasons for these declines has yet to be discovered, must be started within three hours after the onset of a
although fMRI offers considerable promise in helping stroke. Recovery from CVA depends on the severity of
researchers unlock this mystery. the stroke, area and extent of the brain affected, and
patient age.
Cardiovascular and respiratory systems Older adults often experience transient ischemic
Having healthy lungs and heart and circulatory system attacks (TIAs), which involve an interruption of blood
are key factors for people to enjoy a high quality of flow to the brain and are often early warning signs of
life as they grow older. Let's take a closer look at the stroke. A single, large cerebral vascular accident may
changes that occur to us all, as well as problems that can produce serious cognitive impairment, such as the loss
develop. of the ability to speak, or physical problems, such as the
inability to move one’s arm. The nature and severity of
Cardiovascular system changes. You may already the impairment in functioning that a person experiences
know that cardiovascular disease is one of the top three most are usually determined by which specific area of the
common causes of death in South Africa. Cardiovascular brain is affected. Recovery from a single stroke depends
diseases such as heart attack, irregular heartbeat, stroke, and on many factors, including the extent and type of the
hypertension (high blood pressure) increase dramatically loss, the ability of other areas in the brain to assume the
with age. functions that were lost, and personal motivation.
Two important age-related structural changes in Numerous small cerebral vascular accidents can
the heart are the accumulation of fat deposits and the result in a disease termed vascular dementia. Unlike
stiffening of the heart muscle caused by tissue changes. Alzheimer’s disease, another form of dementia
By the late 40s and early 50s, the fat deposits in the discussed later in this chapter, vascular dementia
lining around the heart may form a continuous sheet. can have a sudden onset and may progress slowly
Meanwhile, healthy muscle tissue is being replaced (Leys, Murao, & Pasquier, 2014). Typical symptoms
by connective tissue, which causes a thickening and include hypertension, specific and extensive
stiffening of the heart muscle and valves that forces the alterations on an MRI, and differential impairment on
remaining muscle to work harder (National Institute on neuropsychological tests, although we still have a great
Aging, 2015a). deal to learn about precise diagnosis (Shim, 2014). The
Two important age-related changes occur in the differential impairment refers to a pattern of scores
circulatory system First, the walls of the arteries showing some functions intact and others significantly
stiffen due to calcification of the arterial walls and below average. Individuals’ specific symptom patterns
by replacement of elastic fibres with less elastic ones. may vary a great deal depending on which specific
Second, fat deposits in the arteries can create blockages areas of the brain are damaged. In some cases, vascular
that restrict blood flow and may result in a myocardial dementia has a much faster course than Alzheimer’s
infarction (heart attack) Calcification and blockages in disease, resulting in death on average of two to three
the arteries cause the disease atherosclerosis. years after onset. In other cases, the disease may
As people grow older, their chances of having a progress more slowly with irregular symptom patterns.
stroke increase. Strokes, or cerebral vascular accidents Single cerebral vascular accidents and vascular
(CVAs), are caused by interruptions in the blood flow in dementia are diagnosed similarly. Evidence of damage
the brain due to blockage or a haemorrhage in a cerebral may be obtained from diagnostic structural imaging
artery. Blockages of arteries may be caused by clots or by
atherosclerosis. Haemorrhages are caused by ruptures of atherosclerosis A disease caused by calcification and blockages
the artery. CVAs are the fourth leading cause of death in in the arteries.
South Africa (Statistics South Africa, 2015a).
strokes, or cerebral vascular accidents (CVAs) Interruption
of
Treatment of CVA has advanced significantly. The the blood flow in the brain due to blockage or a haemorrhage in
most important advance is use of the clot-dissolving a cerebral artery.
drug tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) to treat CVAs
transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) Interruption of blood flow to
(American Stroke Association, 2016). Currently, tPA is
the brain; often an early warning sign of stroke.
the only approved treatment for CVAs caused by blood
clots, which constitute 80% of all CVAs. Not every patient vascular dementia Disease caused by numerous small cerebral
vascular accidents.
should receive tPA treatment, and tPA 1s effective only if

142 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 449

Vision. Age-related changes in vision are fairly

obvious - just watch as middle-aged and older adults’
arms become too short for them to see things clearly close
up. This change is due to age-related changes in the lens's
ability to adjust, and focus declines as the muscles around
it stiffen (Alavi, 2016). This is what causes difficulty in
seeing close objects clearly (called presbyopia), necessitating
either longer arms or corrective lenses. To complicate
matters further, the time our eyes need to change focus
from near to far (or vice versa) increases. This also poses a
major problem in driving. Because drivers are constantly
changing their focus from the instrument panel to other
vehicles and signs on the highway, older drivers may miss
important information because of their slower refocusing
time. In addition, as we grow older, the lens becomes more
yellow, causing poorer colour discrimination in the green-
blue-violet end of the spectrum.
Other changes also affect how well we see in later
life. One is a decrease in the amount of light that passes
@ FIGURE 14.8 Neuroimaging is especially helpful in diagnosing a through the eye, resulting in the need for more light
cerebrovascular accident (shown in red). to do tasks such as reading. As you might suspect, this
change is one reason older adults do not see as well in
Respiratory system changes. Although the size of the lungs the dark, which may account in part for their reluctance
does not change with age, the maximum amount of air in to go places at night One logical response to the need
one breath drops 40% from age 25 to age 85, due mostly for more light would be to increase illumination levels
to stiffening of the rib cage and air passages with age, and in general. However, this solution does not work in all
to destruction of the air sacs in the lungs by pollution and situations because we also become increasingly sensitive
smoking (Copley, 2016). This decline is the main cause of to glare (Sanford, 2014).
shortness of breath after physical exertion in later life.
Because of the cumulative effects of breathing polluted
air over a lifetime, it is hard to say how many of these
changes are strictly age-related. The most common form
of incapacitating respiratory disease among older adults
is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
COPD can be a debilitating condition and may result
in depression, anxiety, and the need to be continually
connected to oxygen (American Lung Association,
2016). Emphysema is the most common form of COPD.
Although most cases of emphysema are due to smoking,
some forms are genetic. Chronic bronchitis and asthma
are other common types of COPD. COPD can severely
restrict a person’s ability to function, interact with others,
and enjoy good quality of life

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Most common

form of incapacitating respiratory disease among older adults.
4 Older adults must adjust to several changes in vision, including the
presbyopia Difficulty seeing close objects clearly. need for reading glasses.

450 CHAPTER 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, xcanned, or duplicated. am whole or in part. Duc to clectronic nights, some therd party contest may he wppeeased thom the eBook andice cChapter(s)
Edaomad seview ton deaned that any wuppromed comin! dacs sot maimally affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Leareing rescrvex the night t remove additioeal coment af any tame if audecquent neh sednchoes moqain
Another major change is that our ability to adjust to Hearing. The age-related changes in vision we have
changes in illumination, called adaptation, declines. Going considered can significantly affect people's ability to
from outside into a darkened movie theatre involves dark function in their environment. Similarly, age-related
adaptation; going back outside involves light adaptation. changes in hearing can also have this effect and interfere
Research indicates that the time it takes for both types of with people's ability to communicate with others. Hearing
adaptation increases with age (Andersen, 2012) These loss is a well-known normative change associated with
changes are especially important for older drivers, who ageing (Davis et al., 2016). A visit to any housing complex
have more difficulty seeing after being confronted with for older adults will easily demonstrate this point; you will
the headlights of an oncoming car. quickly notice that television sets and radios are turned
A third structural change affects the ability to see up fairly loud. But you don't have to be old to experience
detail and to discriminate different visual patterns, called significant hearing problems.
acuity Acuity declines steadily between ages 20 and 60, Loud noise is the enemy of hearing at any age.
with a more rapid decline thereafter Loss of acuity is You probably have seen people who work in noisy
especially noticeable at low light levels (Andersen, 2012) environments (such as factories and airports) wearing
Besides these normative structural changes, some protective gear on their ears so that they are not exposed
people experience diseases caused by abnormal to loud noise over extended periods of time
structural changes. First, opaque spots called cataracts However, you can do serious damage to your hearing
may develop on the lens, which limit the amount of light with short exposure, too. But you don't need to be at a
transmitted. Cataracts often are treated by surgical loud rock concert or next to a jet engine to damage your
removal and replacement of the lenses. Second, the hearing either. Using headphones or earbuds, especially
fluid in the eye may not drain properly, causing very high at high volume, can cause the same serious damage and
internal pressure; this condition, called glaucoma, can should be avoided (Jiang et al., 2016) It is especially easy to
cause internal damage and loss of vision. Glaucoma is a cause hearing loss with headphones or earbuds if you wear
fairly common disease in middle and late adulthood and them while exercising; the increased blood flow to the ear
is usually treated with eye drops. during exercise makes hearing receptors more vulnerable
The second major group of changes in vision to damage. Because young adults do not see their music
results from changes in the retina. The retina lines listening behaviour as a risk (Gilliver et al., 2012), hearing
approximately two-thirds of the interior of the eye. The loss from this and other sources of loud noise is on the
specialised receptor cells for vision, the rods and cones, rise. The worst news is that hearing loss is likely to increase
are contained in the retina. They are most densely packed among older adults in the future (Davis et al., 2016).
toward the rear, especially at the focal point of vision, a The cumulative effects of noise and normative age-
region called the macula At the centre of the macula is related changes create the most common age-related
the fovea, where incoming light is focused for maximum hearing problem: reduced sensitivity to high-pitched tones
acuity, as when one is reading With increasing age, or presbycusis, which occurs earlier and more severely
the probability of degeneration of the macula increases than the loss of sensitivity to low-pitched tones Research
(Lighthouse International, 2014). Age-related macular indicates that by their late 70s, roughly half of older
degeneration involves the progressive and irreversible adults have presbycusis. Men typically have greater loss
destruction of receptors from any of a number of causes than women, but this may be due to differential exposure
This disease results in the loss of the ability to see details, to noisy environments. Hearing loss usually is gradual at
for example, reading becomes extremely difficult and first, but accelerates during the 40s, a pattern seen clearly
television is often reduced to a blur. Roughly one in five in @ FIGURE 14.9.
people over age 75, especially smokers and European
American women, have macular degeneration, making it cataracts Opaque spots on the lens that limit the amount of light
transmitted.
the leading cause of functional blindness in older adults.
A second age-related retinal disease is a by-product of glaucoma Disease in which the fluid in the eye does not drain
diabetes. Diabetes is accompanied by accelerated ageing of properly, causing very high internal pressure that can damage the
eye and cause loss of vision.
the arteries, with blindness being one of the more serious
side effects. Diabetic retinopathy, as this condition is age-related macular degeneration Progressive and irreversible
called, can involve fluid retention in the macula, detachment destruction of receptors from any of a number of causes.
of the retina, haemorrhage, and aneurysms (National Eye diabetic retinopathy Eye disease that is a result of diabetes and
Institute, 2015) Because it takes many years to develop, can involve fluid retention in the macula, detachment of the
retina, haemorrhage, and aneurysms.
diabetic retinopathy is more common among people who
developed diabetes early in life. presbycusis Reduced sensitivity to high-pitched tones.

142 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 451

a 1 Kitz
2 KHz
43 e 4 Kitz
es
60
8 Kz

0 x» 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age (years)
4B
0
FREQUENCY

= 1 Kitz

: 2 KHz
ze 40
“3
6 4 Khe

8 KHz
0 x9 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age (years)

@ FIGURE 14.9 Hearing loss occurs in all adults but is greatest for high-pitched tones and greater for
men than for women As a reference, the highest note on a piano is 4 186 Hz; normal human hearing
ranges from 27 Hz to 20 000 Hz
Based on Ord, J M4, Brizzee, K. A, Beavers, T, and Madart, P (1975). Age citlarances in the functional and svuctural orgarizaion of the auditory system in
fan. in J MM. Ovdy and K. A. Briznee (Eds|, Sensory syaranns and coririurncatce? © the eiderty, San Dago, CA: Raven Presa.

Presbycusis results from four types of changes in mechanical presbycusis also produces loss across all
the inner ear (Nagaratnam, Nagaratnam & Cheuk, pitches, but the loss is greatest for high pitches.
2016): sensory, consisting of atrophy and degeneration Loss of hearing in later life can also cause
of receptor cells, neural, consisting of a loss of neurons numerous adverse emotional reactions, such as loss of
in the auditory pathway in the brain, metabolic, independence, social isolation, irritation, paranoia, and
consisting of a diminished supply of nutrients to the depression (Cherko, Hickson, & Bhutta, 2016). Much
cells in the receptor area; and mechanical, consisting research indicates hearing loss in itself does not cause
of atrophy and stiffening of the vibrating structures social maladjustment or emotional disturbance. However,
in the receptor area. Knowing the cause of a person's friends and relatives of an older person with undiagnosed
presbycusis is important because the different causes or untreated hearing loss often attribute emotional
have different implications for other aspects of hearing. changes to hearing loss, which strains the quality of
Sensory presbycusis has little effect on other hearing interpersonal relationships (Li-Korotky, 2012). So, hearing
abilities. Neural presbycusis seriously affects the loss may not directly affect older adults’ self-concept
ability to understand speech. Metabolic presbycusis or emotions, but it may negatively affect how they feel
produces severe loss of sensitivity to all pitches. Finally, about interpersonal communication, especially between

452 CHaprTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

(Copyraght 3019 Cengage Lewemsag. All Rights Reserved May not be copsnd, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectromec nights, some thend party contest ery be suppeesecd torn fre cftook andice of hapter(s).
Eddttomed seview bos doomed thot aay wappromed comicnt dace act sxsicmally affect the overall kamung cxpenence. Congage Leasing rencrves the night to come additaveal content af any Gre if subsequent mete sextnichoes cepenre of.
couples. Moreover, over 11% of adults with hearing loss develop diabetes as children, adolescents, or young
report having experienced moderate to severe depression, adults; those who develop diabetes in late middle age
double the rate of adults without hearing loss (Li et al., and typically develop cardiovascular problems, and
2014). By understanding hearing loss problems and ways those who develop diabetes in late life and usually show
to overcome them, people who have no hearing loss can mild problems. This last group includes the majority of
play a large part in minimising the effects of hearing loss older adults with diabetes mellitus. In adults, diabetes
on the older people in their lives. mellitus often is associated with obesity and is usually
Fortunately, many people with hearing loss can be diagnosed during other medical procedures, such as eye
helped through two types of amplification systems and examinations or hospitalisations for other conditions.
cochlear implants. Analogue hearing aids are the most Diabetes is more common among older adults.
common and least expensive, but they provide the lowest- The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) estimates
quality sound. Digital hearing aids include microchips that over 5% of South African adults have diabetes
that can be programmed for different hearing situations. (International Diabetes Federation, 2015), although it
Cochlear implants do not amplify sound. Rather, a is likely that this figure is under-reported in rural areas.
microphone transmits sound to a receiver, which stimulates The chronic effects of increased glucose levels may
auditory nerve fibres directly Although technology result in serious complications, including nerve damage,
continues to improve, none of these devices can duplicate diabetic retinopathy (discussed earlier), kidney disorders,
our original equipment; so be kind to your ears. stroke, cognitive dysfunction, damage to the coronary
arteries, skin problems, and poor circulation in the arms
and legs, which may lead to gangrene (also commonly
known as Sefolane) The majority of elderly patients
How might changes in hearing affect people's with gangrenous lower limbs end up with amputation
cognitive performance? of the limb. In traditional culture, this is often attributed
to witchcraft and its related traditional treatment often
delays the healing process, leading to more complications.
Chronic disease and lifestyle Although it cannot be cured, diabetes can be
health issues managed effectively through a low-carbohydrate and
low-calorie diet, exercise; proper care of skin, gums,
Older adults face numerous health challenges that teeth, and feet, and medication (insulin) (American
are influenced by both lifestyle and genetics and their Diabetes Association, 2016b) Taking the appropriate
interaction. steps to avoid diabetes in the first place is the best
strategy, of course, so monitoring diet and weight are
Chronic disease important aspects of an overall wellness-based lifestyle.
Many adults in South Africa have a chronic health
condition Some of the most common are diabetes Cancer. Lung cancer, cervical cancer, and oesophageal
mellitus and cancer, discussed here, and arthritis, cancer are the three deadliest forms of cancer, and
discussed in Chapter 13. accounted for 19 160 deaths in 2015 (Statistics South
Africa, 2017f). The risk of dying from cancer is slightly
Diabetes mellitus. The disease diabetes mellitus less than one in four for men and one in five for women
occurs when the pancreas produces insufficient insulin (American Cancer Society, 2016b) The risk of getting
The primary characteristic of diabetes mellitus is above- cancer increases markedly with age Many current deaths
normal sugar (glucose) in the blood and urine, caused caused by cancer are preventable: stopping smoking,
by problems in metabolising carbohydrates. People with limiting exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet rays, and eating
diabetes mellitus can go into a coma if the level of sugar a healthy diet can prevent many cancers.
gets too high, and they may lapse into unconsciousness
if it gets too low.
diabetes mellitus Disease that occurs when the pancreas
There are two general types of diabetes (American
produces insufficient insulin.
Diabetes Association, 2016a). Type 1 diabetes usually
develops earlier in life and requires the use of insulin; Type 1 diabetes Type of diabetes that usually develops earlier
in life and requires the use of insulin; sometimes called insulin-
hence, it is sometimes called insulin-dependent diabetes. dependent diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes typically develops in adulthood and
is often effectively managed through diet There are Type 2 diabetes Type of diabetes that typically develops in
adulthood and is often effectively managed through dict.
three groups of older adults with diabetes: those who

142 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 453

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanmed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party costest mary he suppecssed tom the cflook andlce eChapter(s).
Ecttomal seview ho deaned thot ary wippromed coment dacs aot miaicnally affect the overall amg etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the night to remove additional coment af amy brne if udmequent nef wednctoes moyenne at.
Why older people have a much higher incidence raised awareness among many African men who seldom
of cancer is not understood fully (American Cancer visit doctors or go for regular health checks.
Society, 2016a, b, c). Certainly, genetic predisposition
is a major factor. Another key reason is the cumulative Lifestyle health issues
effect of poor health habits over a long period of time, Two key factors in staying healthy are getting enough
including cigarette smoking and poor diet. In addition, good sleep and eating a healthy diet. Let's see how these
the cumulative effects of exposure to pollutants and are accomplished later in life.
cancer-causing chemicals are partly to blame. Some
researchers believe that normative age-related changes Sleep. Nearly every aspect of sleep undergoes age-
in the immune system, resulting in a decreased ability to related changes (Mattis & Sehgal, 2016). It takes older
inhibit the growth of tumours, may also be responsible adults longer to fall asleep, they are awake more at
Research in molecular biology and microbiology night, and they are more easily awakened. Older adults
is increasingly pointing to genetic links, likely in experience mayor shifts in their sleep-wake cycles, called
combination with environmental factors (Battista circadian rhythms. Across adulthood, circadian rhythms
et al , 2012). For example, three breast cancer move from a two-phase pattern of sleep (awake during the
susceptibility genes that have been identified are day and asleep at night for most people) to a multiphase
BRCAI on chromosome 17, BRCA2 on chromosome rhythm reminiscent of that of infants (daytime napping
13, and PALB2 which works in conjunction with and shorter sleep cycles at night)
BRCA2. When a woman carries a mutation in either These changes are related to the changes in regulating
BRCA1 or BRCA2, she is at a greater risk of being core body temperature. Other major causes of sleep
diagnosed with breast or ovarian cancer. Similarly, disturbance include sleep apnoea (stopping breathing
a potential susceptibility locus for prostate cancer for 5 to 10 seconds), periodic leg jerks, heartburn,
has been identified on chromosome 1, called HPC1, frequent need to urinate, poor physical health, and
which may account for about 1 in 500 cases of prostate depression Among the most effective treatments of
cancer. An additional rare mutation of HOXB13, on sleep problems are increasing physical exercise, reducing
chromosome 17, has also been identified. caffeine intake, avoiding daytime naps, and making sure
Screening for cancer remains controversial in some that the sleeping environment is as quiet and dark as
areas, such as for breast cancer and prostate cancer For possible (Boswell, Thai, & Brown, 2015). In the South
example, a 25-year study of nearly 90 000 Canadian African context, environmental circumstances and living
women showed that annual mammography did not conditions pose a real challenge for some: overcrowding
reduce deaths from breast cancer (Miller et al., 2014). and poor infrastructure aggravate changes in sleep
Other research finds similar results for regular screening patterns among elderly people.
for breast and prostate cancer Despite evidence that
routine screening for everyone does not reduce deaths Nutrition. Experts agree nutrition directly affects one’s
from these cancers — and can even result in unnecessary mental, emotional, and physical functioning (Hammar
medical procedures - some physicians still encourage & Ostgren, 2013; McKee & Schiiz, 2015) Diet has
routine screening. been linked to cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
Occasionally, a famous person's handling of a anaemia, and digestive disorders. To stay maximally
personal health issue impacts general public behaviour healthy, though, we must recognise that nutritional
That was certainly the case when Angelina Jolie went requirements and eating habits change across the life
public with her genetic predisposition to breast cancer, span. This change is due mainly to differences in, or how
as discussed in the ‘Real people’ feature. This was also much energy the body needs, termed metabolism. Body
the case when South African musician, Hugh Masekela, metabolism and the digestive process slow down with
disclosed that he was battling with prostate cancer age (Janssen, 2005)
(Malatji and Khaliyanyane, 2017). His death in 2018 As you have seen in Chapter 10, the South African
Department of Health publishes dietary guidelines
based on current research. It recommends we eat a
circadian rhythms Sleep-wake cycle.
variety of nutrient-dense foods and beverages across
the basic food groups The general guidelines for
metabolism The rate at which energy is needed and used in the adults can again be seen, in summarised format, in
body.
@ FIGURE 14.10

454 CuapPrTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

@ FIGURE 14 10 Key recommendations for a healthy diet for South Africans.

Source: Vorate, H H, Badham,J.8 Venter, CS. (2013) An intoduction
w the revised food- based etary guidelines fer South Affica. South Afican Joumal of Civncal Nutrition, 26/31, 51-5 164.

Applying human about her situation to raise beauty Still others thought her decision
development awareness of breast cancer was a brave one What cannot be
and ovarian cancer risks and argued is that her fame raised the
the options women have issues much higher in the public's
She wrote two op-eds in mind, resulting in many more women
The ‘Angelina Jolie
the New York Times (Jolie, consulting their doctors about potential
effect’ 2013, 2015) to explain genetic risk and health screening
Angelina Jolie is one her decision making Her . And that is a very good and important
of the most famous decision, and her fame, outcome
actresses in the world made a very big difference
Because of her fame, many It became clear that
people watch her behaviour an ‘Angelina Jolie effect’
carefully, and base their own resulted Research in the
actions on what she does In United Kingdom indicates that
2013, Angelina learned that following her announcement
she carried the BRCA1 gene, of her breast cancer nsk and
which, considered in the context surgery in May 2013, referrals
of the rest of her family health history for genetic screening for breast cancer
and other tests that detected protein more than doubled (Evans et al., 2014)
abnormalities, gave her an estimated Such increases were found globally
87% risk of breast cancer and 50% {Lebo et al., 2015) In general, women
chance of ovarian cancer What expressed increased knowledge of
she did next created both a media breast cancer screening, techniques
sensation and greatly increased of reconstructive surgery, and genetic
awareness of the challenges and testing and risk
decisions that confront thousands of Angelina Jolie's public discussion
women each year of her learning of her cancer nsk, how
Angelina decided to have a double and why she made the decisions she
mastectomy and reconstructive did, and her recovery process, caused
surgery, and subsequently had her some controversy Some argued that
ovaries and Fallopian tubes removed. she should have monitored her health
After her mastectomies, she had and not undergone surgery Others
reconstructive surgery using her argued that she provided additional
own tissue She decided to be public support for the stereotype of female 4 Angelina Jolie

14 .2 PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH 455

Recall sometimes called insulin-dependent diabetes.

typically develops in adulthood and
1. There are three biological theories of ageing: is often effectively managed through diet.
metabolic theories, theories, and
genetic programming theories.
Interpret
2. Cardiovascular diseases in South Africa include
e In this section, we have concentrated on the
heart disease, and hypertension
biological forces in development. Think about the
(high blood pressure).
other forces (psychological, social, and life cycle)
3. To be most effective, must be and list some reasons why scientists have yet to
started within three hours after the onset of a propose a purely biological theory that accounts
stroke. for all aspects of ageing.
4. Hearing loss can be mitigated through the use of Apply
analogue hearing aids, digital hearing aids, and
© How do the sensory changes that occur with age
affect an older adult's everyday life?
5. Type 1 diabetes usually develops earlier in Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
life and requires the use of insulin; hence, it is end of the chapter.

ETE] Cognitive processes ARR R eRe Reem eee s sdb DEED DEER ee eee eee ess SSA ED DEDEDE Eee meee ee esse ssbb DEEDS DEBE ED

Learning objectives

e Describe the changes that occur in information processing as people age, and explain how these changes
relate to everyday life.

Zante is a 75-year-old widow who believes that Situations like this place a heavy demand on
she does not remember recent events — such as cognitive resources such as attention and memory. It
whether she took her medicine - as well as she is even harder when elderly grandparents have to raise
used to, but she has no trouble remembering their children’s children; in Chapter 13 we saw that
things that happened in her 20s. Zante wonders many grandparents are raising children because of the
if this is normal or whether she should be HIV and AIDS pandemic in South Africa. This means
worried. that they have the responsibility for remembering
all the tasks associated with child-rearing, as well as
Zante, like many older people, takes medications for looking after themselves. In this section, we examine
arthritis, allergies, and high blood pressure. However, age-related changes in attention and memory, as well
each drug has its own pattern, some are taken only with as other cognitive processes, including reaction time,
meals, others are taken every eight hours, and still others intelligence, and wisdom.
are taken twice daily Keeping these regimens straight is
important to avoid potentially dangerous interactions
and side effects, and older people face the problem of
remembering to take each medication at the proper In Chapter 1, we saw that one theoretical framework for
time studying cognition is information-processing theory.

456 CHAPTER 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

In 2003, the Kenyan government introduced free

primary education. A number of older people who
had never been to school in their lives enrolled
at local schools. They joined Grade 1 classes and
learned to read for the first time in their lives.
How do you think this would have affected their
cognitive functioning?

Speed of processing
You are driving home from a friend’s house when
suddenly a car pulls out of a driveway directly into your
path. If you don't hit the brakes as fast as possible, you
4 Due to sensory and attention changes, older adults are more
will have an accident. How quickly can you move your
challenged when driving
foot from the accelerator to the brake?
This real-life situation is an example of speed of
processing, how quickly and efficiently the early steps in Dividing attention among multiple tasks
information processing are completed Speed of processing
Adults spend much of their time doing more than one
is one of the most investigated phenomena of ageing,
task simultaneously, such as walking and talking on a
and hundreds of studies point to the same conclusion:
phone, cooking multiple items for a meal, and driving a
people slow down as they get older. In fact, the slowing-
car. Such multitasking requires us to spread our attention
with-age finding is so well documented that many
across all the tasks. Divided attention concerns how well
researchers accept it as the only universal behavioural
people perform multiple tasks simultaneously. Driving a
change in ageing discovered so far (Salthouse, 201 4a, b).
car is a classic divided attention task — you pay attention
However, research shows that the rate at which cognitive
to other cars, the gauges in your car, pedestrians along
processes slow down from young adulthood to late life
the side of the street, and perhaps your passengers as you
varies a great deal depending on the task (Salthouse,
have a conversation with them.
201 4a, b).
Although it is widely believed older adults have more
The most important reason that speed of processing
trouble than younger adults at dividing attention, it turns
slows down is that older adults take longer to decide
out the age differences observed are due to older adults’
that they need to respond, especially when the situation
difficulties with the individual tasks and not to spreading
involves ambiguous information (Salthouse, 201 4a, b)
Even when the information presented indicates that
speed of processing How quickly and efficiently the early steps in
a response will be needed, there is an orderly slowing information processing are completed.
of responding with age. As the uncertainty of whether
a response is needed increases, older adults become divided attention The ability of people to perform more than one
task simultaneously.
differentially slower, the difference in reaction time

14.3 COGNITIVE PROCESSES 457

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party contest mory he wuppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
their attention across the tasks (Horwood & Beanland, loaf of bread when they are 25 is annoying but otherwise
2016; Rizzuto, Cherry, & LeDoux, 2012). Observations all right, but forgetting it when they are 70 is cause for
in the workplace show that older workers are just as concern (‘Do I have Alzheimer’s disease?’). We will see
able to multitask, but they perform each task a bit more that forgetting is part of daily life, and that it is incorrect
slowly than younger workers However, when the tasks to believe that it only happens in late life It is also
become complex, older adults encounter difficulties incorrect to believe that the fact that it happens in later
dividing their attention and their performance suffers as life automatically means something is seriously wrong.
a result. In fact, older adults are quite adept at using strategies in
Age differences on divided-attention tasks can be their everyday life contexts to remember what they need
minimised if older adults are given training, which to know.
reduces the demands on attention. Such training can
even be through online computer games (Toril et al.,
2016; van Muijden, Band, & Hommel, 2012). These Working memory
results imply that older adults may be able to learn One day at work, you suddenly remember that your
through experience how to divide their attention significant other's birthday is a week from tomorrow
effectively between tasks. You decide that a romantic dinner would be a great way
So when do older adults have difficulty performing to celebrate; so you go online, find a restaurant that is
multiple tasks simultaneously? You may have observed perfect for a romantic dinner, see that you must call to
older adults having difficulty trying to remember make a reservation, look at the phone number, pick up
something as they are walking down a staircase, or your phone, and call. Remembering the number long
trying to simply walk and talk at the same time. Li and enough to dial it successfully requires good working
colleagues (Li et al., 2001) found older adults prioritise memory Working memory involves the processes and
walking and maintaining balance at the expense of structures involved in holding information in mind and
memory In other words, older adults focused on the simultaneously using it to solve a problem, make a decision,
task most important to them: walking and balancing to perform some function, or learn new information
prevent falls. This finding is supported by neurological Researchers generally consider working memory
research (Holtzer et al., 2016). Younger adults, on the an umbrella term for many similar short-term holding
other hand, optimised their memory performance and and computational processes that relate to a wide range
ignored walking and balancing. of cognitive skills and knowledge domains (Sternberg
& Sternberg, 2017). This places working memory in a
central position — it plays an active, critical, and central
Memory role in encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Memory is the most important cognitive ability we have Working memory has a relatively small capacity.
It gives us our identity through the recordings of our Working memory deals with information that is being
past. It gets us through our lives by enabling us to find used at the moment, so it acts as a kind of mental note
our way home, to our job, our school, and to so many pad or buffer. Unless we take some action to keep the
other places. It enables us to recognise ourselves and information active (perhaps by rehearsal) or pass it along
loved ones and friends (and to know who we have never to long-term storage, the ‘page’ we are using will be filled
met). It provides our vast store of information about up quickly; to handle more information, some of the old
everything under the sun. Memory really is the core of information must be discarded.
our being. Most evidence indicates there is significant age-
Perhaps that is why we put so much value on related decline in working memory (Heathcote, 2016),
maintaining a good memory in old age. In fact, the although the extent of the decline is still in doubt.
ability to remember is a common measure of how well Neuroimaging studies reveal why these age differences
we are doing in late life. Older adults are stereotyped occur It turns out that both younger and older adults
as people whose memory is on the decline, people for activate the prefrontal area of their brains (an area
whom forgetting is not to be taken lightly. Like Zante in behind the forehead) during working memory tasks
the opening story, many people think forgetting to buy a But older adults activate more of it on easier tasks,
they also exhaust their resources sooner (Cappell,
Gmeindl, & Reuter-Lorenz, 2010; Heinzel et al., 2014).
working memory Processes and structures involved in holding Ina sense, older adults must devote more ‘brain power’
information in mind and simultaneously using it for other to working memory compared with younger adults on
functions.
average, so older adults run out of resources sooner,

458 CuapPrTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
resulting in poorer performance. This can be seen A final area of memory research concerns
when older people interrupt conversations to interject autobiographical memory, memory for events that
something that they had forgotten previously: they occur during one’s life. Autobiographical memories tend
seem to think “Let me quickly say this before | forget to be organised according to the periods in one’s life
it again. However, research shows that older adults can when they occurred such that remembering some events
be trained to increase their working memory, which is from a particular time period can trigger others (Mace
reflected in more efficient brain processing (Heinzel & Clevinger, 2013) When simply asked to remember
et al., 2014) whatever events they choose, older adults tend to report
fewer details than do younger adults (Addis, Wong, &
Implicit and explicit memory Schacter, 2008) and they tend to remember more positive
In addition to working memory, we can further divide than negative events and even put a more positive spin
memory into two other types implicit memory, the on events once remembered more negatively (Boals,
unconscious remembering of information learned at some Hayslip, & Banks, 2014)
earlier time, and explicit memory, the deliberate and Neuroimaging studies indicate that when older
conscious remembering of information that is learned adults take in and encode information, their prefrontal
and remembered at a specific time. Explicit memory is cortex shows overactivity, indicating that they are
further divided into episodic memory, the general class attempting to compensate for age-related brain changes
of memory having to do with the conscious recollection of (Meunier, Stamatakis, & Tyler, 2014) When older adults
information from a specific time or event, and semantic retrieve information, neuroimaging studies show age-
memory, the general class of memory concerning the related differences in how the prefrontal cortex and
remembering of meanings of words or concepts not tied to hippocampus work together (Wang & Giovanello, 2016).
a specific time or event This research also indicates age-related compensatory
Implicit memory is much like getting into a routine - brain activity in older adults for retrieval, similar to
we do things from memory, but we do not have to think that seen in other cognitive processing (Oedekoven
about them. For example, the way we brush our teeth et al., 2013) Specifically, younger adults have more
tends not to be something we consciously think about at extensive neural network connections in the parietal
the time. We just remember how to do it Whether age and frontal regions involved in retrieval than do older
differences in implicit memory are observed depends adults. However, older adults show higher levels of brain
on the specific kind of implicit memory task in question activity more generally in these regions, indicating a
(Howard & Howard, 2012, 2013, 2016) For example, likely compensatory strategy for less extensive networks.
learning sequences tend to show age differences, whereas Overall, this research supports the view that older
learning spatial context does not. adults process information in their brains differently
Much more research has focused on explicit from younger adults These differences in part represent
memory, and it is here where consistent age-related attempts at working around, or compensating for, the
differences are observed, although even here there are normal age-related changes that occur in information
exceptions (Light, 2012) When we probe a bit deeper, processing. In the area of memory, though, these
we find that on tests of memory for recall of explicit bits compensation attempts are insufficient on their own,
of information, older adults leave out more information, but with training they can mitigate some of the losses in
remember information that was not actually presented, performance.
and repeat more previously recalled items. These age
differences have been well documented, are large, and implicit memory Unconscious remembering of information
are not reliably lowered by a slower presentation or by learned at some earlier time.
cues or reminders given during recall. On recognition
explicit memory Deliberate and conscious remembering of
tests, age differences are smaller but still present. Older information that is learned and remembered at a specific time.
adults also tend to be less efficient at spontaneously
using memory strategies to help themselves remember, episodic memory General class of memory having to do with
the conscious recollection of information from a specific time or
but they can learn to use such strategies effectively event.
(Berry et al., 2010; Brehmer et al., 2016). In contrast,
age differences on semantic memory tasks are generally semantic memory General class of memory concerning the
remembering of meanings of words or concepts not tied to a
absent in normative ageing but are found in persons specific time or event.
with dementia, making this difference one way to
diagnose probable cases of abnormal cognitive ageing autobiographical memory Memory for events that occur during
one’s life.
(Grady, 2012)

14.3 COGNITIVE PROCESSES 459

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, xcanned, ce duplicated. 1m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some therd party contest mury he wuppeesscd thom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
When is memory change abnormal? Support programmes can be designed to help people
As we noted earlier, older adults are sensitive to the to remember. Sometimes people such as Zante who
stereotype that their forgetfulness is indicative of are experiencing normal age-related memory changes
something much worse Because people are concerned need extra help because of the high memory demands
that memory failures may reflect disease, identifying they face. At other times, people need help because the
true cases of memory-impairing disease is extremely memory changes they are experiencing are greater than
important. Differentiating between normal and abnormal normal. In such cases the assistance of the immediate
memory changes is usually accomplished through a wide and extended family members is necessary. This is a
array of tests that are based on the research findings that common practice among many African families.
document the various developmental patterns discussed Camp and colleagues (1993; Camp, 2005; Malone
& Camp, 2007) developed the E-I-E-I-O framework
previously (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
This testing focuses on measuring performance and to handle both situations. The E-I-E-I-O framework
identifying declines in aspects of memory that typically do combines two types of memory: explicit and implicit
not change, such as tertiary memory (which is essentially The framework also includes two types of memory aids.
long-term memory) (Stoner, O'Riley, & Edelstein, 2010).
External memory aids are memory aids that rely on
Even if a decline is identified in an aspect of memory environmental resources, such as notebooks and calendars.
that is cause for concern, it does not automatically mean Internal memory aids are memory aids that rely on mental
that there is a serious problem. A first step is to find processes, such as imagery. The ‘aha experience that comes
out whether the memory problem is interfering with with suddenly remembering something (as in, ‘Oh, now I
everyday functioning. When the memory problem does remember!’) is the O that follows these Es and Is As you
interfere with functioning, such as not remembering can see in @ FIGURE 14.11, the E-I-E-I-O framework
your spouse's name or how to get home, it is appropriate allows different types of memory to be combined with
to suspect a serious, abnormal underlying reason. different types of memory aids to provide a broad range of
Once a serious problem is suspected, the next step intervention options to help people remember
is to have a thorough examination (Stoner et al., 2010).
This should include a complete physical and neurological
examination and a complete range of neuropsychological
tests. These may help identify the nature and extent of
the underlying problem and provide information about
what steps, if any, can be taken to alleviate the difficulties.
Neuroimaging can help sort out the specific type of
problem or disease the individual may be experiencing.
The most important point to keep in mind is that
there is no magic number of times a person must forget
something before it becomes a matter for concern Many
memory-impairing diseases progress slowly, and poor
memory performance may only be noticed gradually over
an extended period of time. The best course is to have the
person examined. These concerns can only be checked
appropriately with complete and thorough testing. 4 External memory aids such as pill organisers help people
remember when certain medications need to be taken.

Remediating memory problems

Remember Zante, the person in the opening story Type of memory Type of memory
aid
who had to remember when to take several different
medications? In the face of normal age-related declines, External intemal
how can her problem be addressed? Explicit Appointment book Mental imagery
Grocery list Rote rehearsal
external memory aids Memory aids that rely on environmental Implicit Colour-coded maps Spaced retrieval
resources, such as notebooks, calendars, alarms and assistance of Sandpaper letters Conditioning
family members.
internal memory aids Memory aids that rely on mental processes,
@ FIGURE 14.11 The E-I-E-I-O model of memory helps categorise
such as imagery.
differant types of memory aids.

460 CuHuaprTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party contest mary he suppressed thom the cock andice cChapter|s).
Edtorad seview boo deaned thot any wappromed coment docs sot susicmally affect
the overall kame expenence. Congage Leareung reserves the night to cemmove additeoeal coesient at any Gre if subsequent neh sextnicthoes maguire it.
You are probably most familiar with the explicit-
S nalialin aailetail
external and explicit-internal types of memory aids.
Explicit-internal aids such as rehearsal help people Two aspects of cognition that have been examined for
remember phone numbers. Explicit-external aids are age-related differences are creativity and wisdom Each
used when information needs to be better organised and has been the focus of stereotypes: creativity is assumed
remembered, such as using a smartphone to remember to be a function of young people, whereas wisdom is
appointments. Implicit-internal aids represent nearly assumed to be the province of older adults. Let's see
effortless learning, such as the association between whether these views are accurate
the colour of the door of your building and the fact
that you live there. Implicit-external aids such as icons Creativity
representing time of day and the number of pills to take Researchers define creativity in adults as the ability to
help older adults remember their medication. produce work that is novel, high in demand, and task
In general, explicit-external interventions are most appropriate (Kaufman, 2016; Simonton, 2018) Creative
frequently used to remediate the kinds of memory output, in terms of the number of creative ideas a person
problems that older adults face, probably because such has or the major contributions a person makes, varies
methods are easy to use and widely available (Berry across the adult life span and disciplines (Franses, 2016;
et al., 2010; Mercer, 2016). For example, most people Jones, 2010, Kaufman, 2016; Kozbelt & Durmysheva,
own a cell phone or an address book in which they store 2007, Simonton, 2018) When considered as a function
addresses and phone numbers. of age, the overall number of creative contributions
Explicit-external interventions have other a person makes tends to increase through one’s 30s,
important applications, too Ensuring that older peak in the late 30s to early 40s, and decline thereafter
adults take the proper medication at the proper A typical life-span trend is shown for painters and
time is a problem best solved by an explicit- composers in @ FIGURE 14.12
external intervention a pillbox that is divided into The age-related decline from midlife on does
compartments corresponding to days of the week and not mean people stop being creative altogether, just
different times of the day, which research shows to be that they produce fewer creative ideas than when
the easiest to load and results in the fewest medication they were younger (Damian & Simonton, 2015). For
errors (Ownby, Hertzog, & Czaja, 2012). Nursing example, the age when people made major creative
homes also use explicit-external interventions, such as contributions, such as research that resulted in winning
bulletin boards with the date and weather conditions the Nobel Prize, increased throughout the 20th century
and activities charts, to help residents keep in touch (Jones, 2010). And because creativity results from
with current events. the interaction of cognitive abilities, personality, and

When
we peak
8
8
writers and
peaking at given ages
Number of top painters,
composers
8
86
8
8

0 he By My Be My Me Me By Mey By a My
@ FIGURE 1412 Age at which peak creative output was reached for painters, writers, and
composers.
Based on ing weahingtonpost comybioga/workblogTiies/201
G06 Arestive_age pogkews 1484.

143 COGNITIVE PROCESSES 461

WHAT DO YOU THINK? it is not that simple Macnamara,

Hambrick, and Oswald (2014)
conducted a meta-analysis of studies
Does creativity exist? examining the relationship between
practice and creativity or expert
performance They found that although
Miriam Makeba’s music, paintings sees creativity as not something practice ts certainly an important
by George Pemba, Aubrey Kruger’s special, but as a trainable skill that is factor in performance in a wide range
invention of dolosse — these and many essentially achievable by anyone who of fields, such as music, sports, and
thousands more items in our world are puts in the time and practice From games, It is far from the only factor
generally described as creative works this perspective, what people call They concluded that practice, while
For thousands of years, creativity was creative output is little more than the important, does not explain creative or
viewed as the field of a few people next logical step in an ongoing process highly expert output
who received inspiration from some that is the result of expertise, and Does creativity exist? It seems to
special source (Simonton, 2018) that is largely predictable In his book come down to this Until we have a
Creative people were, and still are by Outliers, Gladwell (2008) made this fuller understanding of what happens
many, seen as different — they thought quite prescriptive with his famous cognitively when a person puts many,
differently, they felt things differently, “10 000-hour rule’, derived from often separate ideas together in a
they did things differently. research by Encsson, which specified novel way, we are left without a good
By the 20th century, an alternative the typical amount of practice time it alternative explanation Something
view became more prominent. That takes to become sufficiently expert to about that outcome ts different. You
view, expressed clearly through produce ‘creative’ things cannot simply practise and make it
authors and researchers such as As popular and optimistic as the happen What do you think?
Encsson (2014) and Gladwell (2008), . Practice idea of creativity is, however,

462 CuaprTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrming. All Rights ieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, oe duplicated. m whole ce in part. Due to electronic nghts, some thind party costest mary be suppressed teem the cfiock andioe oChapter(s)
Edtonal view tos deaned that azy wippromed coment docs act muuirally affect the overall kamung expenence. Cengage Leartung rencrvex the ngbt remove additioeal coment at any tame if sutmequent neh wcdnchoes nyeine it.
e Wisdom is truly ‘superior’ knowledge, judgement, and There is an interesting debate over whether with
advice. wisdom comes happiness. There 1s research evidence that
e Wisdom is knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth, wise people are happier, have better mental health, are
and balance that is applicable to specific situations. humble, and have a better quality of life (Bergsma & Ardelt,
e Wisdom, when used, is well intended and combines 2012, Etezadi & Pushkar, 2013, Krause, 2016; Thomas
mind and virtue (character). et al., 2017). Wise people tend to have higher levels of
perceived control over their lives and use problem-focused
Researchers used this framework to discover that people and positive reappraisal coping strategies more often than
who are wise are experts in the basic issues in life (Ardelt, people who are not wise. On the other hand, some evidence
2010; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). Wise people know a indicates that the attainment of wisdom brings increased
great deal about how to conduct life, how to interpret life distress (Staudinger & Gliick, 2011). Perhaps because with
events, and what life means. Kunz (2007) refers to this as the experience that brings wisdom comes an understanding
the strengths, knowledge, and understanding learned only that life does not always work out the way one would like.
by living through the earlier stages of life.
Research studies indicate that, contrary to what many
people expect, there is no association between age and Test yourself 14.3
wisdom (Ardelt, 2010; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000) In
fact, the framework on wisdom discussed above has been
Recall
applied to emerging adults (Booker & Dunsmore, 2016)
As suggested by Baltes and colleagues, whether a person 1. The term refers to how quickly
is wise depends on whether he or she has extensive life and efficiently the early steps in information
experience with the type of problem given and has the processing are completed.
required cognitive abilities and personality. Thus, wisdom 2. Kenny is finding, as he gets older, that it is
could be related to crystallised intelligence: knowledge that harder to talk to his wife and drive the car at the
builds over time and through experience (Ardelt, 2010).
same time. He is experiencing difficulties with
Culture matters, though, in understanding wisdom. , the ability of people to perform
For instance, younger and middle-aged Japanese adults more than one task simultaneously.
use more wisdom-related reasoning strategies (for
example, recognition of multiple perspectives, the 3. Neuroimaging studies indicate that when older
limits of personal knowledge, and the importance of adults take in and encode information, their
compromise) in resolving social conflicts than younger shows overactivity, indicating that
or middle-aged Americans (Grossman et al., 2012). they are attempting to compensate for age-
However, older adults in both cultures used similar related brain changes.
wisdom-related strategies. 4. The E-I-E-I-O framework relates to the different
So what specific factors help one become wise? Baltes types of as they apply to explicit and
(1993) identified three factors: (1) general personal conditions implicit memory.
such as mental ability; (2) specific expertise conditions such as
mentoring or practice; and (3) facilitative life contexts such as 5. Malcolm Gladwell specified that a person should
education or leadership experience. Personal growth during practise a skill for in order to become
adulthood, reflecting Erikson’s concepts of generativity and sufficiently expert to produce ‘creative’ things.
integrity also fosters the process, as do facing and dealing
with life crises (Ardelt, 2010). All of these factors take time Interpret
So, although growing old is no guarantee of wisdom, it does
provide the time, which, if used well, creates a supportive e How would the view that wisdom involves life
context for developing wisdom. experience fit into the discussion of expertise in
Becoming wise is one thing; having one’s wisdom Chapter 13?
recognised is another. Interestingly, peer ratings of
wisdom are better indicators of wisdom than self-ratings
Apply
(Redzanowski & Gliick, 2013). It appears people draw e If you were to design a training programme for
from a wide array of examples of wisdom (Westrate, older drivers, what elements would you include?
Ferrari, & Ardelt, 2016) and are better at recognising Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
wisdom in others than they are in themselves. Perhaps it end of the chapter.
is better that way.

14.3 COGNITIVE PROCESSES 463

® Discuss how anxiety disorders are treated in older adults.

Mokgadi lived by herself for 30 years after her Depression

husband died. For all but the last five years
or so, she managed very well. Little by little,
Most people feel down or sad from time to time, perhaps
family members and friends began noticing
in reaction to a problem at work or in one’s relationships.
that Mokgadi wasn’t behaving quite right For But does this mean that most people are depressed?
example, her memory slipped, she sounded How is depression diagnosed? Are there age-related
confused sometimes, and her moods changed differences in the symptoms examined in diagnosis?
without warning. Her appearance deteriorated. How is depression treated?
Some of her friends attribute these changes to First of all, let's dispense with a myth. Contrary to the
the fact that Mokgadi is in her 80s. But others popular belief that most older adults are depressed, for
wonder whether it is something more than healthy people, the rate of severe depression declines from
normal ageing. young adulthood to old age as shown in @ FIGURE 14.13;
the average age of onset is 32 (National Institute of Mental
Imagine Mokgadi is a relative of yours. How would you Health, 2016a). However, this downward age trend does
deal with the situation? How would you decide whether not hold in all cultures; for example, depressive symptoms
her behaviour is normal? What would you do to try to among Chinese older adults rose over a 24-year period
improve Mokgadi’s life? We'll consider interventions (1987-2010, inclusive) (Shao et al., 2013). And depression
later in this section that might help Mokgadi if she has a does not present in the same way across all cultures. In
serious disease such as Alzheimer's. some African cultures, depression may express itself
Every day, families turn to mental health through mostly somatic complaints of physical aches
professionals for help in dealing with the psychological and pains rather than emotional expression of sadness
problems of their ageing relatives. Unfortunately, (Kaizer, Katz, & Shaw, 1998).
myths interfere with appropriate mental health For those people who do experience depression, let's
diagnoses and interventions for older adults For examine its diagnosis and treatment.
example, many people mistakenly believe that nearly
all older adults are depressed, demented, or both How is depression diagnosed in older adults?
When they observe older adults behaving in these Depression in later life is usually diagnosed on the
ways, they take no action because they believe that basis of two clusters of symptoms that must be present
nothing can be done. for at least two weeks feelings and physical changes.
In this section, we will see that such beliefs are As with younger people, the most prominent symptom of
wrong Only a minority of older adults have mental depression in older adults is feeling sad or down, termed
health problems, and most of these problems respond to dysphoria. But whereas younger people are likely
therapy. Sometimes these problems manifest themselves to label these feelings directly as ‘feeling depressed’,
differently in younger and older adults, so we need to older adults may refer to them as ‘feeling helpless’
know what to look for. Accurate diagnosis is essential. or in terms of physical health such as ‘feeling tired’
Let's examine some of the most commonly occurring (NIHSeniorHealth, 2016, Segal, Qualls, & Smyer, 2011)
and widely known disorders: depression, anxiety As mentioned previously, depression in some African
disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease cultures can present through somatic symptoms, which
makes diagnosis complex, especially as men in these
cultures rarely come forward for treatment of mental
dysphoria Feeling sad or down.
conditions as this may be perceived as a sign of weakness

464 CuapPrTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

: |

Yr, — “ing gag Bagg

@ FIGURE 1413 Twelve-month prevalence of major depressive episode among U.S. adults (2015)
Adagned from National instinae of Mantal Health 2013} 12Month Prevalance of Mayor Depressive Egesode Among US. Adults. Retrieved trom weenie ih gowtmalthalatatea
Prevedenca/majorcdepressiotam ongaduls shew

(Matsumoto, 1996). This means that the diagnostician or she interact with others? There must be clear evidence
must be aware of these cultural differences, to be able to that daily life is affected.
diagnose the patient correctly
Older adults are also more likely than younger What causes depression?
people to appear apathetic and expressionless, to confine There are two main schools of thought about the causes of
themselves to bed, to neglect themselves, and to make
depression One focuses on biological and physiological
derogatory statements about themselves. processes, particularly on imbalances of specific
The second cluster of symptoms includes physical neurotransmitters, genetic predisposition, and changes
changes such as loss of appetite, insomnia, and trouble in certain types of brain cells (Ménard, Hodes, & Russo,
breathing (NIHSeniorHealth, 2016, Segal et al., 2011)
2016) Research evidence indicates that the most likely
In young people, these symptoms usually indicate an cause of severe depression in later life is an imbalance
underlying psychological problem, but in older adults, in neurotransmitters such as low levels of serotonin
they may simply reflect normal, age-related changes. and the action of brain-derived neurotrophic factor
Thus, older adults’ physical symptoms of depression must (BDNF, Hashimoto, 2013). The general view that severe
be evaluated very carefully (Chew-Graham & Ray, 2016) depression has a biochemical basis determines current
An important step in diagnosis is ruling out approaches to drug therapies, discussed a little later
other possible causes of the symptoms. For example, The second view focuses on psychosocial factors,
underlying health problems that appear as depression such as loss and internal belief systems. Although several
include vitamin deficiencies (for example, B12),
types of loss or negative events have been associated
diabetes, cardiovascular disease, chronic pain, with depression - including loss of a spouse, a job, or
hypothyroidism, cancer, Cushing’s syndrome, certain one’s health — it is how a person interprets a loss, rather
viruses, dementia, Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid than the event itself, that causes depression (Segal et al.,
arthritis, and medication interactions and side effects 2011). In this approach, internal belief systems, or what
(Chew-Graham & Ray, 2016).
Finally, it is important to establish whether the
symptoms interfere with daily life. Can the person carry internal belief systems View of a cause of depression of what one
tells oneself about why certain things are happening.
out normal responsibilities at home? How well does he

14.4 MENTAL HEALTH AND INTERVENTION 465

Coprraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mieserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppressed trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edttomal sewew bon deaned that any wuppromed cretion! docs sot muatcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Learsing reserves the night $0 remove additeoeal coetent at any tame if subsequent rghit seatnctioes neqene it.
one tells oneself about why certain things are happening, A second effective approach is cognitive therapy, which
are emphasised as the cause of depression. For example, is based on the idea that maladaptive beliefs or cognitions
experiencing an unpredictable and uncontrollable event about oneself are responsible for depression. From this
such as the death of a spouse may cause depression if perspective, those who are depressed view themselves as
you believe it happened because you are a bad person unworthy and inadequate, the world as insensitive and
(Beck, 1967). People who are depressed tend to believe ungratifying, and the future as bleak and unpromising
that they are personally responsible for all the bad things (Beck et al., 1979). In a cognitive therapy session, a
that happen to them, that things are unlikely to get person is taught how to recognise these thoughts and
better, and that their whole life is a shambles. to re-evaluate the self, the world, and the future more
Some African cultures offer another explanation for positively, resulting in a change in the underlying beliefs.
depression. They suggest that the causes of illness rest in Cognitive behaviour therapy is especially effective for
the cosmic influence, and that illness could be a form of older adults (Carr & McNulty, 2016, Jeste & Palmer,
punishment from the ancestors for abandoning them or 2013). This is good news, because medications may not
doing wrong (Igbokwe & Ndom, 2008). Their treatment be as effective or as tolerated by older adults because of
of illness thus focuses on appeasing the ancestors. age-related changes in metabolism.
The most important fact to keep in mind about
How is depression treated in older adults? depression is that it is treatable. Thus, if an older person
Regardless of how severe depression is, people benefit behaves in ways that indicate depression, it is a good
from treatment, often through a combination of idea to have him or her examined by a mental health
medication and psychotherapy (Segal et al., 2011) professional. Even if the malady turns out not to be
Most medications used to treat depression work by depression, another underlying and possibly treatable
altering the balance of specific neurotransmitters in condition may be uncovered.
the brain (Jainer et al., 2013). For very severe cases of
depression, medications such as selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), heterocyclic antidepressants
(HCAs), or monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors can be Feelings of sadness may also arise from being
administered (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016b) isolated, and many older people experience
SSRIs are the medication of first choice because they loneliness. New technologies — such as cell phones —
have the lowest overall side effects of any antidepressant. have made it easier for people to stay in touch with
SSRIs work by boosting the level of serotonin, which is a family and friends, as well as to use the internet and
neurotransmitter involved in regulating moods. make transactions. What effect do you think this
Either as an alternative to medication or in might have on a person's diagnosis and treatment
conjunction with it, psychotherapy is also a popular of depression?
approach to treating depression. Two forms of
psychotherapy have been shown to be effective with In South Africa, it should be noted that people seek
older adults The basic idea in behaviour therapy help for depression (and other mental health issues)
is that depressed people experience too few rewards from a variety of practitioners, including traditional
or reinforcements from their environment Thus, the healers and spiritual advisors (Sohrsdahl et al., 2011)
goal of behaviour therapy is to increase the good As mentioned previously, depression may be seen as a
things that happen and minimise the negative things
punishment from the ancestors, and a traditional healer
(Lewinsohn, 1975). The net increase in positive events
or advisor will be unlikely to suggest Western medication
and net decrease in negative events comes about through to help this. Other practitioners may suggest a course of
practice and homework assignments during the course treatment involving herbal medicines or counselling, for
of therapy, such as going out more or joining a club to example (Starkowitz, 2014)
meet new people

behaviour therapy Type of therapy based on the notion that

depressed people experience too few rewards or reinforcements Imagine you are about to give a speech to an audience of
from their environment.
several hundred people. During the last few minutes before
cognitive therapy Type of therapy based on the idea that you begin, you start to feel nervous, your heart begins to
maladaptive beliefs or cognitions about oneself are responsible
for pound, your mouth gets dry, and your palms get sweaty.
depression.
These feelings, common even to experienced speakers, are

466 CuapPrTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanmed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party costest mary he suppecssed tom the cflook andlce eChapter(s).
Ecttomal seview ho deaned thot ary wippromed coment dacs aot miaicnally affect the overall amg etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the night to remove additional coment af amy brne if udmequent nef wednctoes moyenne at.
similar to the feelings that people with anxiety disorders benzodiazepine (for example, Valium® and Librium®),
go through more frequently and intensely. SSRIs (Paxil®, among others), buspirone, and beta-
Anxiety disorders involve excessive, irrational dread blockers. Although moderately effective, these drugs
in everyday situations and include problems such as must be monitored carefully in older adults because
feelings of severe anxiety for no apparent reason, phobias the amount needed to treat the disorder is very low and
with regard to specific things or places, and obsessions or the potential for harmful side effects is great. For older
compulsions in which thoughts or actions are performed adults, the clear treatment of choice is psychotherapy,
repeatedly (National Institute of Mental Health, 201 6c, d) specifically cognitive behavioural or relaxation therapy,
The prevalence of anxiety disorders in adults of all ages especially when anxiety disorders first occur in later
is about 18%, but the lifetime prevalence is about twice life (Carr & McNulty, 2016, Hendriks et al., 2012).
as high in young and middle-aged adults as it is in older Relaxation therapy is exceptionally effective, easily
adults Overall, women are 60% more likely than men learned, and presents a technique that is useful in many
to experience an anxiety disorder over their lifetime situations, for example, falling asleep at night (Segal
(National Institute of Mental Health, 2016e). The reasons et al., 2011). The advantage of these psychotherapeutic
for this gender difference are unknown techniques is they usually involve only a few sessions,
Common to all the anxiety disorders are physical have high rates of success, and offer clients procedures
changes that interfere with social functioning, they can take with them.
personal relationships, or work These physical
changes include dry mouth, sweating, dizziness, upset Dementia
stomach, diarrhoea, insomnia, hyperventilation, chest
pain, choking, frequent urination, headaches, and a Probably no other condition associated with ageing
sensation of a lump in the throat (Segal et al., 2011). is more feared than the family of disorders known as
These symptoms occur in adults of all ages, but they dementia. In dementia, individuals can literally lose their
are particularly common in older adults because of personal identity through the loss of autobiographical
loss of health, relocation stress, isolation, fear of losing memory and the ability even to recognise their spouse
control over their lives, or guilt resulting from feelings of and children Dementias serious enough to impair
hostility toward family and friends. independent functioning affect nearly 48 million people
An important issue concerning anxiety disorders globally (World Health Organization, 2015)
in older adults is that anxiety may be an appropriate Dementia is not a specific disease but rather a family
response to the situation For example, helplessness of diseases characterised by cognitive and behavioural
anxiety is generated by a potential or actual loss of deficits involving some form of permanent damage to the
control or mastery (Varkal et al., 2013). A study in brain The most common and widely known of these
Turkey showed that older adults are anxious about their is Alzheimer’s disease, but others are important as well.
memory, reflecting at least in part a realistic assessment vascular dementia, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's
of normative, age-related decline. disease, alcoholic dementia, Lewy body, and AIDS
In addition, a series of severe negative life experiences dementia complex. South Africa, with its alarming rate of
may result in a person's reaching the breaking point and HIV infection, has a high level of AIDS dementia complex.
appearing highly anxious. Many older adults who show
symptoms of anxiety disorder have underlying health Alzheimer's disease
problems that may be responsible for the symptoms. In Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of
all cases, the anxious behaviour should be investigated progressive, degenerative, and fatal dementia, accounting
first as an appropriate response that may not warrant for between 60% and 80% of all cases of dementia
medical intervention. The important point is to evaluate
the older adult's behaviour in context.
These issues make it difficult to diagnose anxiety anxiety disorders Problems such as feelings of severe anxiety,
disorders, especially in older adults (Carr & McNulty, phobias, and obsessive-compulsive behaviours.
2016; Segal et al., 2011). The problem is that there usually dementia Family of diseases involving serious impairment
is nothing specific that a person can point to as the exact of behavioural and cognitive functioning and some form of
trigger or cause. In addition, anxiety in older adults often permanent damage to the brain.
accompanies an underlying physical disorder or illness. Alzheimer’s disease Disease marked by gradual declines in
Anxiety disorders can be treated with medication and memory, attention, and judgement; confusion as to time and
psychotherapy (Carr & McNulty, 2016, Chew-Graham & place; difficulties in communicating; decline in self-care skills;
inappropriate behaviour; and personality changes.
Ray, 2016). The most commonly used medications are

14.4 MENTAL HEALTH AND INTERVENTION 467

Generally
last from 2 to 10 years.

Progression
of Alzheimer's
through
the brain
Plaques and tangles (shown in the blue-shaded
areas) tend to spread through the cortex in a
predictable pattern as Alzheimer's disease
progresses.
The rate of progression varies greatly. People
with Alzheimer's live an average of eight years,
but some people may survive up to 20 years.
The course of the disease depends in part on
age at diagnosis and whether a person has other
May last from 1 to 5 years. health conditions.

@ FIGURE 14.14 Progression of Alzheimer's disease through the brain

From Alzhermer's Assocation (2096). Progression rough the brain Retieved fom waw.alz orgtrartcugeaty_stage. aap (Side 13)

468 Cuaprter 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyraght2019 Cengage Learsing. All Rights Ricserved May mot be copeed, scammed, ce duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosec nights, some therd party comtest oy be suppecescd torn the clock and/or of hapter|s).
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
usually involve mutations in the presenillin-1 (PSEN1),
presenillin-2 (PSEN2) and amyloid (A4) precursor
How do the memory problems in Alzheimer's protein (APP) genes. The genetic inheritance aspect of
disease differ from those in normal ageing? early-onset Alzheimer’s disease is a major concern of
families.
Other genetic links to later-onset (after age 65)
How is Alzheimer’s disease diagnosed? Given Alzheimer’s disease involve the complex interaction of
that the behavioural symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease several genes, processes that are not yet well documented
eventually become quite obvious, one would assume that or understood. Several sites on various chromosomes
diagnosis would be straightforward. Quite the contrary. have been tentatively identified as being potentially
Accurate early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease depends involved in the transmission of Alzheimer’s disease,
on a thorough assessment of the number and severity including chromosomes 1, 12, 14, 19, and 21. The most
of neurological and behavioural changes (Ismail et al., promising work noted links between the genetic markers
2016).
and the production of beta-amyloid protein, the major
For an early diagnosis to be accurate, however, it component of neuritic plaques (as noted earlier). Much
must be comprehensive and broad. e FIGURE 14.15 of this research focuses on apolipoprotein e4 (APOE-e4),
provides an overview of the process used to differentiate associated with chromosome 19, that may play a central
Alzheimer’s disease from other conditions. Note a great role in creating neuritic plaques. People with the
deal of the diagnostic effort goes into ruling out other APOE-e4 trait are more likely to get Alzheimer’s disease
possible causes for the observed cognitive deficits. All than those with the more common APOE-é3 trait
possible treatable causes for the symptoms must be (Di Battista, Heinsinger, & Rebeck, 2016). Additionally,
eliminated before a diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease can a related mutation (TREM2) may be involved with
be made. APOE-e4 as well by interfering with the brain's ability to
A great deal of attention has been given to the contain inflammation (Jonsson et al., 2013, Sala Frigerio
development of more definitive tests for Alzheimer’s & De Strooper, 2016)
disease while the person is still alive. Much of this work Interestingly, another version, APOE-e2, seems to
has focused on beta-amyloid, a protein that is produced have the reverse effect from APOE-e4. It decreases the
in abnormally high levels in persons with Alzheimer’s risk of Alzheimer’s disease (Liu et al., 2013). Despite
disease, perhaps causing the neurofibrillary tangles and the relation between APOE-e4 and neuritic plaques,
neuritic plaques described earlier. Considerable recent and between APOE-e4 and beta-amyloid buildup,
research has focused on beta-amyloid as a major factor researchers have yet to establish strong relations
in Alzheimer's disease in terms of potential diagnosis, as directly between apolipoprotein ¢ and general cognitive
well as a possible cause and avenue for treatment The functioning (Wu & Zhao, 2016).
role of beta-amyloid is controversial, though (Molin &
A mutation on the ABCA7 gene has been identified
Rockwood, 2016). As we will see in the next section, that appears to be of African origin and roughly doubles
some researchers view a concentration of beta-amyloid the chances for African Americans to get late-onset
as a biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease. Other researchers Alzheimer’s disease (Cukier et al., 2016). This mutation
caution that many people with increased levels of beta creates overproduction of cholesterol and lipids, which
amyloid do not develop Alzheimer’s disease in turn are known to be risks for cardiovascular disease
and strokes. It is not certain whether this finding applies
to all Africans, however.
Much of the genetics and related biomarker research
If an accurate diagnostic test for Alzheimer’s
focuses on beta-amyloid and its proposed relation to
disease is developed and there is no treatment for
Alzheimer’s disease reviewed earlier. When viewed as
the disease, should the test be made available?
a cause of Alzheimer’s disease, researchers refer to the
beta-amyloid cascade hypothesis as the process by which
What causes Alzheimer’s disease? We do not this occurs (Selkoe, 2016). The beta-amyloid cascade
know for sure what causes Alzheimer’s disease (Scheff, hypothesis refers to the process by which beta-amyloid
Neltner, & Nelson, 2014). What we do know is that
early-onset (before age 65) forms of Alzheimer's disease beta-amyloid cascade hypothesis Theory of Alzheimer's disease
are mostly caused by single-gene mutations related to in which beta-amyloid deposits create neuritic plaques, that in
beta-amyloid protein production (Nicolas et al., 2016). turn lead to neurofibrillary tangles, that cause neuronal death and
Alzheimer's disease.
Single-gene mutation forms of Alzheimer’s disease

14.4 MENTAL HEALTH AND INTERVENTION 469

Copyright
2019 Cengage Lessing All Rights Reserved May not be copied acammed cr duplicated in whole
ce in part. Dur to clectreesc nphts, some therd party contest muy he suppecascd Seen tae clock andive oChaptcs+}
Edtonad seview ton doomed that ary euppromed comcm! dacs sot mumcmally affect the overall kamnmy cepenceee. Congage Learning reucrves the night w remove addmosal comicen af any tome of suteequeet ngh scanctons noqeaw &
MSE: AHRQ guidelines
PSMS

DSM-IV criteria
Titer)
AHRQ guidelines

Medication review —_-———_— > Medication-induced dementia AHRQ guidelines

Reduce/change medication

If no improvement in cognition after treatment |

Progressive change in Abnormal Hypothyroidism

Bi»
emeky ot Sencten Systemic illness

| If no improvement in cognition after treatment

Vascular dementia
CTorMRVOptiona* ___—Abnormal_
= Hydrocephalus NINDS criteria
Tumours
Subdural hematoma
| Minor vascular changes

Yes DSM-IV criteria

Depressed mood rr Depression-treat
AHRQ guidelines

oe If no improvement in cognition |

rat mee ee bo) Atypical disorders**

criteria

Refer for assessment

* itis required in patients with focal signs, rapid progression, and

headache.

** This category will contain rare dementias (e.9., frontotemporal

degenerations, Jakob-Creutzfeldt disease, Parkingon’s disease [and
other movement disorders that present with dementias}) that should be
considered when unusual clinical features are present or a rapidly
progressivecourse is noted.

@ FIGURE 14 15 Differential diagnosis in Alzheimer’s disease algorithm

From Alzheimer’s Aasocilion onkne document. wwe allogimedcaifaigtim ten. Developed awd endorsed by the THAD Adviaory Board. Capytigit 1256 Pf and Esa with special Duke to J
Ajgorithen reprinted trom TreAD, Three for the Management of Azheners Daeese, with perresceor

470 Cuarter 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved Mizy not be copied, acammed, or duplicated. im wholk
oe in part. Dur to clectromsc nphts, some therd party contest muy he muppecescd foe the cfiook andive oChaptcz(+)
Edacead senew to doomed that ary muppromed comm! doc act maxmath affect the overall kemnmye ctpenceee. Cengage Learning reactive the nett w romete addmeogal coencar af any tame if sudecquem ngbe wenchces moqese &
deposits create neuritic plaques, that in turn lead to midbrain that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine.
neurofibrillary tangles, that cause neuronal death and, Former boxing champion Muhammad Ali (who died
when this occurs severely enough, Alzheimer's disease. in 2016) and actor Michael J. Fox are some of the more
As noted earlier, there is considerable evidence beta- famous individuals who have Parkinson's disease. Over
amyloid is involved in Alzheimer’s disease. Although 4 million people globally have Parkinson's disease
there is insufficient evidence at this point to conclude it (Parkinson's Disease Foundation, 2016a).
is the main cause, data are quite clear that it is at least an Symptoms are treated effectively with several
initiating factor (Selkoe, 2016). medications (Parkinson’s Disease Foundation, 2016b),
the most popular are levodopa, which raises the
What can be done for victims of Alzheimer’s functional level of dopamine in the brain, Sinemet® (a
disease? Currently thereis no effective treatment for combination of levodopa and carbidopa), which gets
Alzheimer’s disease and no way to prevent it. The best more levodopa to the brain; and Stalevo® (a combination
we can do today is to alleviate some of the symptoms. of Sinemet® and entacapone), which extends the
Most of the research is focused on drugs aimed at effective dosage time of Sinemet™ Research indicates a
improving cognitive functioning. Unfortunately, the device called a neurostimulator, which acts like a brain
medications approved by the U.S’s Food and Drug pacemaker by regulating brain activity when implanted
Administration to date provide little relief over the deep inside the brain, may prove effective in significantly
long run, and few medications in development show reducing the tremors, shaking, rigidity, stiffness, and
promising results. walking problems.
Currently, the most effective interventions for For reasons we do not yet understand, some people
Alzheimer’s disease are behavioural strategies, these with Parkinson's disease also develop severe cognitive
approaches are recommended over medications impairment and eventually dementia (Zheng et al.,
because they give better and more effective outcomes 2014) Lewy bodies characterise dementia in Parkinson's
(Barton et al., 2016) These strategies can be used from disease; the key factor in the latter case is that the
the time of initial diagnosis throughout the duration dementia component occurs later.
of the disease Behavioural strategies range from
simple interventions, such as large calendars to help Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
with orientation to time, to the more complex, such
as more elaborate memory interventions based on the
An issue of growing concern is the long-term effects
of experiencing brain concussions, or traumatic
E-I-E-I-O approach discussed earlier in the section on
memory brain injury (TBI) (White & Venkatesh, 2016) Two
In designing interventions for those with Alzheimer's situations brought TBI to the forefront war veterans
and sports injuries (Finkbeiner et al., 2016; Schulz-Helk
disease, the guiding principle should be optimising
et al., 2016) About 350 000 U.S. veterans have been
the person’s functioning. Regardless of the level of
diagnosed with TBI since 2000 (Defense and Veterans
impairment, attempts should be made to help the person
cope as well as possible with the symptoms. The key is Brain Injury Center, 2016) And a significant number
helping all individuals maintain their dignity as human of athletes who received numerous concussions during
their playing careers have evidence of chronic traumatic
beings. This can be achieved in some very creative ways,
such as adapting the principles of Montessori methods
encephalopathy
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a
of education to bring older adults with Alzheimer’s
disease together with preschool children so that they can form of dementia caused by repeated head trauma such
perform tasks together (Malone & Camp, 2007; Materne, as concussions. CTE can occur as the result of repeated
Luszez, & Goodwin-Smith, 2014). One example of this
brain trauma (Sorg et al., 2014). Emerging evidence
approach is discussed in the ‘Spotlight on research’ shows that irrespective of the cause, there is structural
feature.

Parkinson’s disease Parkinson’s disease Brain disease known primarily for its
Parkinson’s disease is known primarily for its characteristic motor symptoms: very slow walking, difficulty
getting into and out of chairs, and a slow hand tremor; can
characteristic motor symptoms: very slow walking, develop into a form of dementia.
difficulty getting into and out of chairs, and a slow hand
chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) Form of dementia
tremor, but it can develop into a form of dementia These
caused by repeated head trauma such as concussions.
problems are caused by a deterioration of neurons in the

14.4 MENTAL HEALTH AND INTERVENTION 471

damage to various parts of the brain that have to do with Clearly, there is more awareness of the problems
executive functions and memory. associated with repeated TBI Whether sports, or at
Because of the concern over CTE, the National least certain sports involving physical contact, should
Institute of Neurological Disease and Stroke (NINDS) and now be considered dangerous remains to be seen. What
the National Institute of Biomedical and Bioengineering is certain, though, is the effects of repeated TBI last
established specific neuropathological criteria for the well into adulthood, and can cause serious cognitive
diagnosis of CTE (McKee et al., 2016). These criteria, impairment, and perhaps death, even at a relatively
established following the death of the individual, can now early age
be used to definitively diagnose cases of CTE.

472 CuapPrTer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Recall permanent damage to the brain. The most common

and widely known of these is :
1. For healthy people, the rate of severe depression
from young adulthood to old age. Interpret
2. Depression in later life is usually diagnosed on e After reading about the symptoms of Alzheimer's
the basis of two clusters of symptoms that must disease, what would be the most stressful aspects
be present for at least two weeks: emotions and of caring for a parent who has the disease? (You
may want to refer to the section on caring for
3. Ina session, a person is taught how ageing parents in Chapter 13.)
to recognise these thoughts and to re-evaluate
the self, the world, and the future more
Apply
positively, resulting in a change in the underlying e Ifa friend asked you the difference between
beliefs. dementia and the normative increases in
forgetting that occur with age, what would you
4. Dementia is not a specific disease but rathera tell him or her?
family of diseases characterised by cognitive Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
and behavioural deficits involving some form of end of the chapter.

14.1 What are older adults like? What ts the distinction between the Third Age and the
Fourth Age?
What are the characteristics of older adults in the
© The Third Age refers to changes in research that led
population?
to cultural, medical, and economic advances for older
© The number of older adults 1s growing rapidly, especially adults (for example, longer average longevity, increased
the number of people over age 85. In the future, older quality of life) In contrast, the Fourth Age reflects that
adults will probably be more ethnically diverse and better the oldest-old are at the limits of their functional capacity,
educated than they are now. the rates of diseases such as cancer and dementia
increase dramatically, and other aspects of psychological
How long will most people live? What factors
functioning (for example, memory) undergo significant
influence this? and fairly rapid decline
e Average longevity or life expectancy has increased
dramatically over the past century, due mainly to 14.2 Physical changes and health
improvements 1n healthcare Maximum longevity or
life expectancy 1s the longest time any human can live What are the major biological theories of ageing?
Active life expectancy refers to the number of years that e There are several theories of biological ageing
a person 1s free from debilitating disease; dependent life Metabolic theories focus on the rate of metabolism
expectancy also considers the length of time a person Cellular theories focus on limits on cell division and
experiences debilitating chronic disease. the role played by telomeres, the tips of chromosomes
© Genetic factors that can influence longevity include that play a role in ageing by adjusting the cell’s
familial longevity and a family history of certain diseases. response to stress and growth stimulation and by
Environmental factors include acquired diseases, toxins, shortening with each cell replication; and on free
pollutants, and lifestyle. radicals, unstable highly reactive chemicals produced
© Women have a longer average life expectancy at birth than in metabolism Genetic programming theories are
men. Ethnic group differences are complex; depending on based on ideas that propose ageing as programmed
how old people are, the patterns of differences change. into the genetic code

SUMMARY 473

Copyright 3019 Cengage Lesemng. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectrommc nights, some thend party costest mary be suppressed form the cftook and/or oC hapter|s)
Edtonal view tos deaned that azy wippromed coment docs act muuirally affect the overall kamung expenence. Cengage Leartung rencrvex the ngbt remove additioeal coment at any tame if sutmequent neh wcdnchoes nyeine it.
What physiological changes normally occur in © Older adults are generally less able to perform divided
later life? attention tasks. Sensory and information-processing
© Three important structural changes in the neurons are changes create problems for older drivers.
neurofibrillary tangles, dendritic changes, and neuritic
What changes occur in memory with age? What can
plaques caused by beta-amyloid. These have important
consequences for functioning because they reduce the be done to remediate these changes?
effectiveness with which neurons transmit information. © Working memory declines with age. Older adults
© Neuroimaging provides significant insights into ageing. typically do worse on tests of episodic recall; age
Techniques include structural neuroimaging (for differences are less on recognition tasks. Semantic and
example, X-ray, CT, and MRI scans) and functional implicit memory are both largely unaffected by ageing.
neurommaging (for example, PET, SPECT, and fMRI). e Distinguishing memory changes associated with
© The risk of cardiovascular disease increases with ageing from memory changes due to disease should
age. Normal changes in the cardiovascular system be accomplished through comprehensive evaluations.
include buildup of fat deposits in the heart and arteries Neuroimaging and careful and thorough diagnosis can
(atherosclerosis), a decrease in the amount of blood the help make this distinction.
heart can pump, a decline in heart muscle tissue, and e Memory training can be achieved in many ways. A useful
stiffening of the arteries. Transient ischemic attacks and framework is to combine explicit-implicit memory
vascular dementia are possible results. Most of these distinctions with external-internal types of memory aids.
changes are affected by lifestyle. Stroke causes significant
cognitive impairment depending on the location of the What are creativity and wisdom, and how do they
brain damage. relate to age?
© Strictly age-related changes in the respiratory system © Research indicates that creative output peaks in late
are hard to identify because of the lifetime effects of young adulthood or early middle age and declines
pollution. However, older adults may suffer shortness of thereafter, but the point of peak activity varies across
breath and face an increased risk of chronic obstructive disciplines and occupations.
pulmonary disorder (COPD) ¢ Wisdom has more to do with being an expert in living
© Age-related declines in vision and hearing are well than with age per se. Three factors that help people
documented, and include presbyopia, glaucoma, diabetic become wise are personal attributes, specific expertise,
retinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration. The and facilitative life contexts.
main changes tn vision concern the structure of the
eye and the retina. Changes in hearing mainly involve 14.4 Mental health and intervention
presbycusis, reduced sensitivity to high-pitched tones.
How does depression in older adults differ from
What are the principal health issues for older adults? depression in younger adults? How is it diagnosed
© Older adults experience higher rates of chronic diseases. and treated?
Diabetes (Type 1 and Type 2) pose several risks. The © The key symptom of depression is persistent sadness.
risk of cancer is much higher in older adults. Several Other psychological and physical symptoms also occur,
risk genes have been identified, especially for breast and but the importance of these depends on the age of the
prostate cancers. person reporting them. Older and younger adults differ
e Older adults have more sleep disturbances than do significantly in how they describe their symptoms and
younger adults. Nutritionally, most older adults do not experiences.
need vitamin or mineral supplements. Diabetes mellitus © Major causes of depression include imbalances in
is a significant problem for many older adults. Cancer neurotransmitters and psychosocial forces such as loss
risk increases sharply with age. and internal belief systems.
© Depression can be treated with medications and
14.3 Cognitive processes through psychotherapy such as behavioural or cognitive
therapy.
What changes occur in information processing
as people age? How do these changes relate to How are anxiety disorders treated in older adults?
everyday life? © Many older adults are afflicted with a variety of
© Older adults’ speed of processing is slower than younger anxiety disorders. All of them can be effectively treated
adults! However, the amount of slowing is lessened if with either medications or psychotherapy, especially
older adults have practice or expertise in the task. relaxation techniques.

474 Cuaprer 14 THE PERSONAL CONTEXT OF LATER LIFE PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE AND MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES

Copyright2019 Cengage Lawening. All Rights Reserved May met be copied, scanmed, ce duplicated. 2m whole or in part. Due to cliectroesic nights, some thend party costent muy he suppeceaed tern dw elliowk ancblve Chapters)
Eadaomad vewtew how chewed thet any suppresed content dacs mot mastenadly affect the overall kaming expenence. Cengage Learzing reserves the mght to remove additsonal comviewl af aery tirne if submeupanl riglvis wesirictioms nexyeine it.
What is Alzheimer's disease? How is it diagnosed and © Most researchers are focusing on a probable genetic
managed? What causes it? cause of Alzheimer’s disease. Early-onset Alzheimer's
¢ Dementia 1s a family of diseases that causes severe disease 1s caused by single-gene mutations, later onset 1s
cognitive impairment. Alzheimer’s disease is the most likely related to various marker or risk genes.
e Although Alzheimer’s disease 1s incurable, various
common form of irreversible dementia.
© Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include memory behavioural interventions may improve the quality of the
impairment, personality changes, and behavioural patient's life.
changes. These symptoms usually worsen gradually, with e Parkinson's disease is usually marked by tremors and
rates varying considerably among individuals. difficulty in walking, but in many cases, it also develops
© Definitive diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease can only into a form of dementia.
© Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) 1s of growing
be made only after very careful and thorough testing,
including biomarker and genetic marker screening. concern for individuals who experience repeated head
The diagnostic categories of Alzheimer's disease remain trauma.
controversial.

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

demographers (437) presbycusis (451)
answers
population pyramid (437) diabetes mellitus (453)
average longevity (440) Type 1 diabetes (453) 14.1 1. average longevity 2. environmental 3. longer
maximum longevity (440) Type 2 diabetes (453) 4. Third Age
active life expectancy circadian rhythm (454)
142 1. cellular 2. stroke 3. tPA therapy 4. cochlear
(442) metabolism (454)
implants 5. Type 2 diabetes
dependent life expectancy — speed of processing (457)
(442) divided attention (457) 14.3 1. speed of processing 2. divided attention
telomeres (445) working memory (458) 3. prefrontal cortex 4. memory aids 5. 10 000 hours
telomerase (445) implicit memory (459)
free radicals (446) explicit memory (459) 144 1. declines 2. physical changes 3. cognitive therapy
neurofibrillary tangles episodic memory (459) 4. Alzheimer's disease
(447) semantic memory (459)
beta-amyloid (447) autobiographical
neurotransmitters (447) memory (459)
structural neuroimaging external memory aids
(448) (460)
functional neuroimaging internal memory aids
(448) (460)
atherosclerosis (449) dysphoria (464)
strokes, or cerebral internal belief systems
vascular accidents (465)
(CVAs) (449) behaviour therapy (466)
transient ischemic attacks cognitive therapy (466)
(TIAs) (449) anxiety disorders (467)
vascular dementia (449) dementia (467)
chronic obstructive Alzheimer’s disease (467)
pulmonary disease incontinence (468)
(COPD) (450) beta-amyloid cascade
presbyopia (450) hypothesis (469)
cataracts (451) Parkinson’s disease (471)
glaucoma (451) chronic traumatic
age-related macular encephalopathy (CTE)
degeneration (451) (471)
diabetic retinopathy
(451)

SUMMARY 475

15.1 Theories of psychosocial

ageing 477
The goal of healthy ageing 477
Competence and environmental
= press 478
: Preventive and corrective
proactivity model 480
Real people: Applying human
development: Katherine
Johnson, human computer for
NASA 482

15.2 Personality, social cognition,

and spirituality 483
Integrity versus despair 483
Well-being and emotion 484
Spirituality in later life 485
Spotlight on research. The ageing
emotional brain 486

15.31 used to work at. : Living

in retirement 489
What does being retired
mean? 490
Why do people retire? 490
Adjustment to retirement 491
Employment and
volunteering 491

15.5 Social issues and ageing 500

Frail older adults 500
Housing options 502
Elder abuse and neglect 506
Social grants 507
What do you think? What to do
about healthcare? 507

Summary 508

: Key terms 510

All Raghts Reserved May mot be copsed, scammed, of duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to clectrommc nights, some therd party costest mory be suppressed thorn the cfiook ancdice oC hapter(s).
mcd coment docs sot mustnially affect the overall kammg expenence. Congage Learzing renervex the ngbt to remove additioeal coment af any tame if subeequent night sednctoes neoqanwe it
once they are no longer working full- We know the most about young-old
it really like to be an older
time? Do they like being retred? What people, even though the old-old
adult? As we saw in Chapter 14,
roles do relationships with friends reflect the majority of frail elderly and
ageing brings with it both physical
and family play in their lives? How do those who live in nursing homes
limits (such as declines in vision and
older people cope when their partner Like other times tn life, getting
hearing) and psychological gains
is ill and requires care? What if their along tn the environments a
(such as increased expertise) Old
partner dies? When older people complicated issue We begin by
age also brings social challenges.
need assistance, where do they live? considering a few ideas about
Older adults are sometimes
These are a few of the issues we how to optimise our fit with the
stereotyped as being marginal
will examine in this chapter As in environment. Next, we examine how
and powerless in society, much
Chapter 14, our main focus will be on we bring the story of our lives to a
like children Psychosocial issues
the majority of older adults who are conclusion After that, we consider
confront older adults as well How
healthy and live in the community how interpersonal relationships and
do people think about their lives
The distinction made in Chapter 14 retirement provide contexts for life
and bring meaning and closure to
between young-old adults (60- to satisfaction We conclude with an
them as they approach death? What
80-year-olds) and old-old adults examination of the social contexts of
is considered well-being for older
(80-year-olds and up) ts important. ageing
people? How do they use their time

EEX] Theories of psychosocial ageing

Learning objectives

® Define social involvement and successful ageing.

e Discuss the preventive and corrective proactivity model.

Since Xolly retired from her job as secretary life. This consistency fits well in continuity theory, the
at the local African Methodist Episcopal first framework considered in this section Her ability
Church, she has hardly slowed down. She to maintain this level of commitment indicates that
sings in the gospel choir, is involved in a the match between her abilities and her environment
women’s committee, and volunteers one day is just about right, as discussed in the competence-
a week at a local school. Xolly’s friends say environmental press theory later in this section.
that she has to stay involved because that's
the way she’s always been. They say you’d
never know that Xolly is 81 years old.
The goal of healthy ageing
One of the most important aspects of research on
Understanding how people grow old is not as simple as older adults has been a rethinking of late life as one
asking someone how old he or she is, as Xolly shows. As of mostly inevitable decline, to one that is a more
we saw in Chapter 14, ageing is an individual process multidimensional view that also has positive aspects,
involving many variations in physical changes, cognitive such as productive engagement with life and social
functioning, and mental health. Psychosocial approaches involvement (Johnson & Mutchler, 2014) The coming
to ageing recognise these individual differences. demographic changes in South Africa and the rest of
Consider Xolly — her life reflects several key points Her the world present a challenge for improving the kind
level of activity has remained constant across her adult of lives older adults live. For this reason, promoting

477

lopyraght
3019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Bieserved Mizy mot be copsed, xcammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nights, some therd party contest mory he wuppeessed trom the clock andive of hapter|s).
eview bon deemed that any wappremed cretent dacs act suzicrally affcct the overall komme expenence. Cengage Leasing reserves the mgbt to nemowe additional coment af any tame if subsequent nb sednctoms noqesr at
wellness and healthy lifestyles in all living settings ageing. In short, these premises involve paying attention
(community, long-term care, etc ) is seen as one of the to both internal and external factors affecting the person.
top healthcare priorities of the 21st century (Parrella & The background includes all the changes that happen to
Vormittag, 2017). Remaining healthy is important for a person. The mechanisms in the model are the selection,
decelerating the rate of ageing (Aldwin & Gilmer, 2013). optimisation, and compensation (SOC) processes that
shape the course of development, as we discussed in
Chapter 1 Finally, the outcomes of the model suggest
that enhanced competence, quality of life, and future
adaptation are the visible signs of healthy ageing.
Using the SOC model is supported by Heckhausen and
colleague's (2010; Barlow et al., 2017) notions of control
and motivation. With these ideas in mind, various types
of interventions can be created to help people achieve
healthy ageing. In general, these interventions focus on
the individual or on aspects of tasks and the physical
and social environment that emphasise competence
(Aldwin & Gilmer, 2013; Lindbergh, Dishman, & Miller,
2016; Thornton, Paterson, & Yeung, 2013) When
& More older adults are experiencing healthy ageing by avoiding
designing interventions aimed primarily at the person,
disease and engaging in life it is important to understand the target person's goals
(rather than the goals of the researcher) For example, in
As researchers and theorists have approached healthy teaching older adults how to use technology, it is essential
ageing, they have focused on optimising the individual to understand the kinds of concerns and fears older
outcome of the interplay of biopsychosocial forces and the adults have and to ensure that the training programme
individual over a lifetime (Aldwin & Gilmer, 2013, Centers addresses them (Lesnoff-Caravaglia, 2010).
for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016e; Hostetler & Performance on tests of everyday competence
Paterson, 2017; Samanta, 2017) Healthy ageing in this predicts longer term outcomes, as we saw in Chapter 14
sense involves avoiding disease, being engaged with life, (Allaire & Willis, 2006; Lindbergh et al., 2016). Careful
and maintaining high cognitive and physical functioning monitoring of competence can be an early indicator
Healthy ageing is both measurable (for example, in terms of problems, and appropriate interventions should be
of specific health metrics, cognitive performance, other undertaken as soon as possible. Maintaining competence
specific behaviours) and subjective (for example, well- is an important element in determining quality of life,
being). It is reached when a person achieves his or her so we now turn to a more focused consideration of what
desired goals with dignity and as independently as possible competence means in everyday contexts.
The life-span perspective can be used to create a
formal model for healthy ageing. Heckhausen, Wrosch, &
Schulz (2010; Barlow et al., 2017) developed a theory of
Competence
and environmental press
life-span development based on motivation and control Understanding psychosocial ageing requires paying
by applying basic assumptions that recognise ageing as attention to individuals’ needs rather than treating all older
a complex process involving increasing specialisation adults alike. One method focuses on the relation between
and influenced by factors unrelated to age. The basic the person and the environment (Aldwin, 2015; Aldwin
premises of healthy ageing include keeping a balance & Igarashi, 2012). The competence—environmental press
between the various gains and losses that occur over approach is a good example of a theory that incorporates
time and minimising the influence of factors unrelated to elements of the biopsychosocial model into the person-
environment relation (Lawton & Nahemow, 1973;
Nahemow, 2000; Pynoos, Caraviello, & Cicero, 2010).
healthy ageing Growing old by avoiding disease, being engaged
with life, and maintaining high cognitive and physical functioning.
Competence is defined as the upper limit of a person's
ability to function in five domains: physical health, sensory-
competence Upper limit of a person's ability to function in five perceptual skills, motor skills, cognitive skills, and ego
domains: physical health, sensory-perceptual skills, motor skills,
strength. These domains are viewed as underlying all other
cognitive skills, and ego strength.
abilities and reflect the biological and psychological forces.
environmental press Physical, interpersonal, or social demands Environmental press refers to the physical, interpersonal,
that environments put on people.
or social demands that environments put on people. Physical

478 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

(Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved May mot be copsed, scammed,of duplicated. m whole
of in part. Dur to clectrommc nghts, some thend party costest mory he wappeexecd
from dhe cfSook andice of hapter|s)
Edtomad seview bos deaned that any wappremed comint dacs sot muztcmally affect
the overall lamang expenence. Congage Learning rencrves the ngbt to comove additeseal coment at any trne if subsequent mgt sextnctooes noqein of
demands might include having to walk up three flights As a person moves away from these areas, behaviour
of stairs to your flat. Interpersonal demands may require becomes increasingly maladaptive and affect becomes
adjusting your behaviour patterns to different types of negative. Notice that these outcomes can result from
people. Social demands involve dealing with laws or several different combinations and for different reasons.
customs that place certain expectations on people. These For example, too many environmental demands on a
aspects of the theory reflect biological, psychological, and person with low competence and too few demands on a
social forces. Both competence and environmental press person with high competence both result in maladaptive
change as people move through the life span: what you are behaviours and negative emotion.
capable of doing as a 5-year-old differs from what you are What does this mean with regard to late life? Is
capable of doing as a 25-, 45-, 65-, or 85-year-old. Similarly, ageing merely an equation relating certain variables?
the demands put on you by the environment change as you The important thing to realise about the competence-
age. So, the competence-environmental press framework environmental press model is that each person has
also reflects life-cycle factors. the potential of being happily adapted to some living
The competence and environmental press model situations, but not to all. Whether people function well
depicted in @ FIGURE 15.1 shows how the two are related. depends on whether what they are able to do fits what
Low to high competence is represented on the vertical axis, the environment forces them to do. When their abilities
and weak to strong environmental press is displayed on match the demands, people adapt. When there is a
the horizontal axis. Points in the figure represent various mismatch, they don't. In this view, ageing is more than
combinations of the two. Most important, the shaded areas an equation, because the best fit must be determined on
show adaptive behaviour and positive affect can result an individual basis
from many different combinations of competence and How do people deal with changes in their particular
environmental press levels. Adaptation level is the area combinations of environmental press (such as adjusting
where press level is average for a particular level of competence; to a new living situation) and competence (perhaps
this is where behaviour and affect are normal. Slight increases reduced abilities due to illness)? People respond in two
in press tend to improve performance; this area on the figure basic ways (Lawton, 1989, Nahemow, 2000) When
is labelled the zone of maximum performance potential. people choose new behaviours to meet new desires or
Slight decreases in press create the zone of maximum needs, they exhibit proactivity and exert control over
comfort, in which people are able to live happily without their lives. In contrast, when people allow the situation
worrying about environmental demands. Combinations of to dictate the options they have, they demonstrate
competence and environmental press that fall within either docility and have little control. Lawton (1989) argues
of these two zones result in adaptive behaviour and positive that proactivity is more likely to occur in people with
emotion that translate into a high quality of life. relatively high competence, and docility in people with
relatively low competence.
The model has considerable research support For
High Negative affect
and maladaptive example, the model accounts for why people choose
behaviour the activities they do (Lawton, 1982), how well people
adhere to medication regimens (LeRoux & Fisher, 2006),
and how they adapt to changing housing needs over time
(Iwarsson, Slaug, & Fange, 2012; Granbom et al., 2016).
This model helps us understand how well people adapt

adaptation level When press level is average for a particular level

of competence.
zone of maximum performance potential When press level is
slightly higher, tending to improve performance.

Low : zone of maximum comfort When press level is slightly lower,

Weak KA Strong ae facilitating a high quality of life.
Environmental press proactivity When people choose new behaviours to meet new
desires or needs and exert control over their lives.
@ FIGURE 151 The competence—environmental press model
From Lawton, MP & Nahemow, L. (1973) Ecology and the ageing grcoesa In C. Eiadorfar and MP
docility When people allow their situation to dictate the options
Lawson (Eda), The psychabgy of adult devedoerian acd apengpp. 613-674) Copyright © 1973 Americas they have.
Peychologaal Associaton

15 1 THEORIES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL AGEING 479

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanmed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party costest mary he suppecssed tom the cflook andlce eChapter(s).
Ecttomal seview ho deaned thot ary wippromed coment dacs aot miaicnally affect the overall amg etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the night to remove additional coment af amy brne if udmequent nef wednctoes moyenne at.
to various care settings (Golant, 2012; Scharlach & Preventive and corrective proactivity
Lehning, 2016). In short, there is considerable merit to
model
the view that ageing is a complex interaction between
a person’s competence level and environmental press, Maintaining a high quality of life is a key goal for adults
mediated by choice This model can be applied in many of all ages. From the competence-environmental press
different settings. approach we saw proactivity, or exerting control over
Before leaving Lawton and Nahemow’s model, one’s life, is central to achieving that goal. Because
we need to note an important implication for ageing proactivity is so important, Kahana and Kahana (2003;
People experience declines in competence (such as Midlarsky, Kahana, & Belser, 2015) built a model of
resulting from declines in health, sensory processes, successful ageing on the core concept of proactivity. The
motor skills, cognitive skills, or ego strength) The model is shown in @ FIGURE 15.2
extent to which they experience these declines affects The Preventive and Corrective Proactivity (PCP)
how well they can cope with environmental demands. model explains how life stressors (such as life events,
That is why the home modifications discussed later chronic illnesses) and lack of good congruence in
in this chapter, such as grab bars, and cell phones, are person-environment interactions (Component B),
important - they functionally increase competence. especially when the person has nothing to help buffer
Interventions based on artificial intelligence, such or protect against these things, result in poor life
as robots and self-driving cars, will do even more to outcomes (Component F). The helpful buffers include
increase functional competence and enable people external resources (Component E) such as friends or
to live in the community City planners can now home modifications; internal resources or dispositions
incorporate aspects of the competence-environmental (Component C) such as a positive outlook on life; and
press model in designing housing and neighbourhoods specific proactive behaviours (Component D), such
(Lewis & Groh, 2016). However, this is only possible as physical exercise, work to lower the negative impact
in urban and some semi-urban areas. In South Africa, of the stressors and prepare people to cope better in
such planning and environmental adjustments are not the future. In brief, the PCP model proposes proactive
possible because many elderly people experience poor adaptations and helpful external resources reduce the
living conditions. For example, informal settlements effect of life stressors on quality-of-life outcomes.
are generally overcrowded and do not have room What kinds of actions reflect proactive adaptations?
available for adjustment suitable to the specific needs Kahana, Kahana, and Zhang (2005) described two types
of elderly people. of proactive adaptations: preventive and corrective.
The competence and environmental press model Preventive adaptations are actions that avoid stressors
has been the basis for evaluating and optimising living and increase or build social resources. An example of a
situations with people who have severe cognitive preventive adaptation would be increasing one's social
impairments, such as those of Alzheimer’s disease network by adding friends Corrective adaptations are
(Dalton, 2014) To manage severe cognitive impairment actions taken in response to stressors and can be facilitated
effectively, caregivers must identify the right level of by internal and external resources An example of a
environmental support based on the patient’s level of corrective adaptation is changing one’s diet after having
competence. For example, people with mild cognitive a heart attack.
impairment may be able to live independently, but as Older adults tend to engage in more corrective
the impairment increases additional levels of support are adaptations than preventive adaptations, at least
needed. The model has provided the basis for designing initially However, many actions that start as corrective
special care units for people with Alzheimer’s disease. adaptations turn into preventive adaptations A great
In these units, environmental supports (such as colour- example of this is exercise. Many people begin an exercise
coded room doors) help people with dementia identify programme only after they are told to, perhaps as part
where they belong. of a recovery programme after a health crisis. However,
continued exercise becomes preventive by helping the
person avoid future recurrences of the original health
problem and avoid other problems altogether.
preventive adaptations Actions that avoid stressors and increase
or build social resources.
Research supports the importance of proactivity as
described in the PCP model. Kahana, Kelley-Moore,
corrective adaptations Actions taken in response to stressors that & Kahana (2012) showed that life stressors can still
can be facilitated by internal and external resources.
have a negative effect on quality-of-life outcomes four

480 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Temporal context Future

of history cine Hopefulness Self-esteem

and biography
Spatial context of
ag
Path
re
satisfaction
Altruism Coping
dispositions
demography and 8
community

(a)
. oO rn
PROACTIVE ADAPTATIONS bs
Traditional preventive Traditional corrective
adaptations adaptations
* Health promotion * Marshalling support
(exercise) * Role substitution QUALITY-OF-LIFE
Planning ahead © Environmental OUTCOMES
© Helping others modifications
‘hoers| Affective states
CUMULATIVE STRESS ©
EXPOSURE ——> ene ee Meaning
in life
Long-term events * Technology use
ie * Healthcare consumerism aera:
Recent events * Self-improvement

se
* Chronic iliness = :
* Social losses
* Person— (d) ( -
* Incongruence
EXTERNAL RESOURCES

(0) Financial Social

: © Y

@ FIGURE 15.2 Model of emerging proactive options for successful ageing

From: Katee E., Kahana, B. & Zharay, J 2006) Motivational amecedarta of preventive groectivity in ke Ife Linking future orientation and axerise Motivation
and Emotion, 79, 438-459 (Figure 1) dot 10 9007/
919031-006-9012.2

years after they occur, but proactive adaptations (such The ‘Real people’ feature about Katherine Coleman
as exercise, planning ahead, and gathering support) Goble Johnson, a pioneering African American physicist
significantly reduce this negative impact. Longitudinal and mathematician who helped make NASA’s human
research in China also showed the importance of space flight programmes successful, shows that both
proactivity and other external and internal resources successful ageing and competence-environmental press
in improving quality-of-life outcomes in the oldest- theory are important.
old residents in the community and in long-term care
facilities (Liu et al., 2012). In South Africa, proactivity
can be seen in elderly people joining exercise teams such
as adult football teams or walking teams, or taking part How does the competence—environmental press
in group hobbies such as knitting or gardening groups. approach help explain which coping strategies
Understanding how people age usually entails taking might work best in a particular situation?
a broader perspective than any single theory can offer.

15 1 THEORIES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL AGEING 481

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learmag. All Rights Reserved. May not be copsed, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some thind party contest mary be wuppeeased tom the cock andice cChapter|s)
Exttorad cuew tos deaned that aay wappromed comin doc act mairially affect the overall amung expenence. Congage Learting remerven the nett wo comove additeveal coment at any brne if aubmequent neh rednchoes mopar ot
Applying human bathroom facilities (located return the Apollo 13 crew safely after an
development across the compound) explosion onboard forced the mission to
apart from their European be aborted Kathenne retired from NASA
Amencan counterparts in 1986 after subsequently working on
She also faced significant the Space Shuttle programme, the Earth
Katherine Johnson,
gender discrimination in Resources Satellite, and on plans for a
human computer for the otherwise all-male Mars mission She was consulted for the
NASA environment. book Hidden Figures and was depicted in
Imagine being an African Despite the obstacles the 2016 film adaptation
Amenican born in 1918 and and discrimination, Kathenne Katherine Johnson is a great example
growing up in segregated was a true proneenng star of the interplay between competence
West Virginia in the early part Her job involved, among other and enwronmental press Her science
of the 20th century Imagine things, precisely calculating and maths skills competencies are
also being a bnilliant young rocket launch and orbital unquestionably exceptional Equally
woman who graduated high trayectones by hand at a time strong was her competence regarding
school at age 14 Imagine being when digital computers were in her ability to succeed despite the
that African American woman their early stages of development. legal and other discnminatory bamers
as a graduate of West Virginia State She was so good, in fact, that John Glenn {environmental press) put in her way
College at age 18, then being one of the refused to fly his mission in 1962 unless throughout her early life and career Even
first three African Amencans (and only Katherine personally checked the digital in her late 90s, as various ailments slowed
woman) to attend graduate school at computer's calculations In 1969 she her physically, her mental competence
West Virginia University To top it off, her calculated the trajectory for the Apollo was Still clearly apparent. Kathenne
specialties were physics and maths 11 mission to the moon, and in 1970 Johnson managed to maximise her
This was reality for Kathenne her work on backup procedures helped . adaptation level throughout her long life.
Coleman Goble Johnson who, in
1953, began a career at the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(later, the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration —- NASA) as one
of the so-called coloured computers
at the Guidance and Control Division
of Langley’s Flight Research Drvision
in Hampton, Virginia. Because of the
discnminatory laws in the segregated
South, Katherine and her other African
Amencan women colleagues faced
workplace discnmination, including 4 Katherine Johnson, a pioneering African American
separate working, eating, and physicist and mathematician

Test yourself 15.1

Recall adaptation: Melusi himself did not

have cancer, but he was concerned to avoid it.
1. involves avoiding disease, being
engaged with life, and maintaining high Interpret
cognitive and physical functioning.
e How does continuity theory incorporate aspects
2. The incorporates elements of of the biopsychosocial model?
the biopsychosocial model into the person-
environment relation. Apply
3. The model explains how life stressors ¢ How would a new law requiring older adults to
and lack of good congruence in person—environment pass a vision test before they could renew their
interactions result in poor life outcomes. driver's licence be an example of changes in
environmental press?
4. Melusi stopped smoking after a friend of his Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
was diagnosed with lung cancer. This was a end of the chapter.

482 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

® Explain integrity in late life, and how people achieve it.

® Describe how well-being is defined in adulthood, and how people view themselves differently as they age.

® Identify the role that spirituality plays in late life.

Anindita is an active 88-year-old who spends Erikson (1982), this struggle comes about as older adults
more time thinking and reflecting about her such as Anindita try to understand their lives in terms of
past than she used to. She also tends to be the future of their family and community Thoughts of a
less critical of decisions she made years ago person's own death are balanced by the realisation that
Anindita remembers her visions of the woman they will live on through children, grandchildren, great-
she wanted to become and concludes that she grandchildren, and the community as a whole. This
has come pretty close. Anindita wonders if this realisation produces what Erikson calls a ‘life-affirming
process of reflection is something that most involvement in the present.
older adults go through The struggle of integrity versus despair requires people
to engage in a life review, the process by which people
Think for a minute about the older adults you know. reflect on the events and experiences of their lifetimes.
What are they like? How do they see themselves today? To achieve integrity, a person must come to terms with
How do they visualise their lives a few years from now? the choices and events that made his or her life unique
Do they see themselves the same as or different from There must also be an acceptance of the fact that one's
the way they were in the past? These questions have life is drawing to a close. Looking back on one’s life may
intrigued authors since the early days of psychology. resolve some of the doubting of decisions made earlier
In the late 19th century, William James (1890), one of in adulthood (Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986). For
the early pioneers in psychology, wrote that a person's example, people who were unsure whether they made the
personality traits are set by young adulthood. Some right choices concerning their children now feel satisfied
researchers agree; as we saw in Chapter 13, some aspects that things worked out well. In contrast, others feel bitter
of personality remain relatively stable throughout about their choices, blame themselves or others for their
adulthood But people also change in important ways, misfortunes, see their lives as meaningless, and greatly
as Carl Jung (1960/1933) argued, by integrating such fear death. These people end up in despair rather than
opposite tendencies as masculine and feminine traits. As living with integrity
we saw in Chapter 1, Erik Erikson (1982) was convinced Research shows a connection between engaging in a
that personality development takes a lifetime, unfolding life review and achieving integrity; so life review forms
over a series of eight stages from infancy through late life. the basis for effective mental health interventions (Villar
In this section, we explore how people such as & Serrat, 2017, Westerhof, Bohlmeijer, & Webster,
Anindita assemble the final pieces in the personality 2010), especially for older individuals with depression
puzzle, and we see how important aspects of personality (Hallford & Mellor, 2013) A therapeutic technique
continue to evolve in later life. We begin with Erikson’s called ‘structured life review’ (Haight & Haight, 2007,
issue of integrity, the process by which people try to 2013) has been shown to be effective in helping people
make sense of their lives. Next, we see how well-being is deal with stressful life events.
achieved and how personal aspirations play out. Finally, Who reaches integrity? Erikson (1982) emphasises
we examine how spirituality is an important aspect of that people who demonstrate integrity come from various
many older adults’ lives. backgrounds and cultures and arrive there having taken
. ‘
integrity versus despair According to Erikson, the process in late
life by which people try to make sense of their lives.
As people enter late life, they begin the struggle of
integrity versus despair, which involves the process by life review Process by which people reflect on the events and
experiences of their lifetimes.
which people try to make sense of their lives. According to

25,2 PERSONALITY, SOCIAL COGNITION, AND SPIRITUALITY 483

arousal When negative emotional arousal occurs,

for example, memory for events associated with the
emotion is stronger But the situation is different for
5.1 older adults — both amygdala activation and emotional
5.0
arousal are lower. That may be one reason why older
adults experience less negative emotion, lower rates of
49
depression, and better well-being (Mather, 2016)
15-20 21-30 «31-40 «= 41-50» 51-60 ~= 61-70 But that’s not the whole story In Chapter 13, we
Age group discovered that brain activity in the prefrontal cortex,
which is associated with cognition, changes with age.
@ FIGURE 15.3 The pattern of a typical person's happiness Neuroimaging research shows that changes in cognitive
through life processing in the prefrontal cortex also are associated
From A. Oswald
cawveld_gresentation_071129 gat
"Happmess tealth, and economncs’, Warwick Univeraly, ttecwreca crgliesndew_
with changes in emotional regulation in older adults. For
example, research shows that the connection between
These happiness-related factors and the overall certain parts of the prefrontal cortex (the medial prefrontal
shape of the function apply across cultures as well. For cortex) and the amygdala are more connected and active
example, studies of Tanzanian, Australian, German, while older adults are at rest than it is in younger adults
and Taiwanese older adults showed similar predictors This connectivity is probably the reason that older adults
remember more positive emotional content (Mather, 2016;
Sakaki, Nga, & Mather, 2013). A good example of the kind
subjective well-being Evaluation of one’s life that is associated of neuroimaging research that has led to these conclusions
with positive feelings.
is described in the ‘Spotlight on research’ feature.

484 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanmed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party costest mary he suppecssed tom the cflook andlce eChapter(s).
Ecttomal seview ho deaned thot ary wippromed coment dacs aot miaicnally affect the overall amg etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the night to remove additional coment af amy brne if udmequent nef wednctoes moyenne at.
Spirituality inlater lif and personality development (described in this chapter and
in Chapters 10 and 13). Cavanaugh (2017) argues that it is
Humanity’s oldest surviving literary work, the Epic of these underlying processes that permit the shift in perspective
Gilgamesh, tells of the title character's search for the answer reflected in the transition from False Self to True Self.
to one of life's great issues: the search for eternal life as an This change in perspective is also a key factor in how
answer to the question “What happens next?’ We continue many older adults cope with life stresses. According
to seek answers to life's great existential questions: What is to research, older adults in many countries and from
the meaning of life? Why do bad things happen to good many different backgrounds, use their religious faith and
people? Is there anything more than this life? Why is there spirituality as the basis for coping, often more than they
so much suffering? Why am I here? use family or friends (Ai et al., 2013, 2017; Ai, Wink, &
Spirituality is the context in which most people search Ardelt, 2010; Ardelt et al., 2013). For some older adults, a
for meaning and answers to these questions (Aldwin et al, strong attachment to God is what they believe helps them
2014; Pargament, 2013; Park, 2013; Park, Edmondson, & deal with the challenges of life (Dilworth-Anderson,
Hale-Smith, 2013). Spirituality ‘can inform all aspects of Boswell, & Cohen, 2007, Harvey, Johnson, & Heath,
meaning, informing beliefs . . . and providing ultimate 2013). South Africa is characterised by religious diversity:
motivation and primary goals for living and guidelines some South Africans believe in the Christian, Muslim, or
for achieving those goals, along with a deep sense of Hindu deities, for example, while others incorporate a
purpose and mattering’ (Park, 2013 p. 42). traditional African belief in ancestors into their religion.
Individuals’ sense of spirituality develops across They may believe they need to appease the ancestors
adulthood. Thomas Merton (1949, 1955, 1962) and and perform regular religious rituals to remain in good
Richard Rohr (2011, 2013) both describe this process health or be healed. What the people from these various
as the progression from the False Self to the True Self. religions have in common is the practice of seeking
Essentially the distinction is between the superficial, spiritual guidance or intervention when facing adversity.
external self that we mean when we use the first person
singular pronoun ‘I, the self that Merton considers a
prison from which we must escape, and the joy of living
in union with the essence of everything in the universe
in the core of our soul. This is the self that Merton
argues we must become Rohr writes that the False Self
is based on a relative identity that each of us creates for
ourselves, an identity that depends critically on external
indicators of success (for example, title, prestige, salary,
status, etc ). The False Self 1s inherently fragile, tends to
be dissatisfied because it depends on external definitions
of achievement, and is felt as separate from others in the
sense that we want to belong to the ‘in’ group and define
others selectively as members of the ‘out’ group. Change
is to be feared. Morality is defined in terms of adherence
to rules. In short, the False Self is the result of building A The Spirituality of these Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in Zion
members Can serve as an important coping strategy.
one’s ego structure based on incorporating external
messages regarding of ‘values’ and ‘success. There is a
heavy emphasis on doing things ‘correctly’ according to There is considerable evidence linking spirituality,
the rules of the group or society In Rohr's view, achieving religious-based coping, and health (Ai et al., 2010, 2017;
the True Self involves (re)discovering the universality Harvey et al., 2013; Krause, 2012; Park, 2007). In general,
and wholeness, an ‘authentic inner knowing, which older adults who are more involved with and committed
has always been within, but has gone unrecognised or to their faith have better physical and mental health than
unacknowledged. The True Self does not see anything older adults who are not religious. For example, older
with absolute certainty. The True Self is the fulfilment of Mexican Americans who pray to the saints and the Virgin
the search for answers to the core existential questions. It Mary on a regular basis tend to have greater optimism
involves a letting go and an acceptance of what is. and better health (Krause & Bastida, 2011). Spirituality
As you probably worked out, the developmental also helps improve psychological well-being (George,
transition from False Self to True Self is a reflection of Palmore, & Cohen, 2014; Hayward et al., 2016) and helps
underlying cognitive (described in Chapters 10, 13, and 14) patients following cardiac surgery (Ai et al., 2010).

PERSONALITY, SOCIAL COGNITION, AND SPIRITUALITY 485

Who were the investigators, and what was the aim of the completed 60 positive image tnals (30 Experience’ and 30
study? Although much research has examined the behavioural ‘Reappraise’}, 60 negative image trials (30 ‘Experience’ and
side of emotions, very little has examined the specific 30 ‘Reappraise’), and 30 neutral image trials (all ‘Experience’)
underlying neural mechanisms in the brain. Winecoff and Within each condition, half of the images contained people
colleagues (2011) decided to examine these mechanisms and and the other half did not The fMRI session provided images
discover whether they differed with age of ongoing brain activity
How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? Who were the participants in the study?The sample
Winecoff and colleagues used a range of tests to measure consisted of 22 younger adults (average age = 23, range = 19 to
cognitive performance and emotional behaviour They tested 33 years) and 20 older adults (average age = 69, range = 59 to
participants’ immediate recall, delayed recall, and recognition for 73 years) Participants were matched on demographic variables,
16 target words as measures of memory. They also administered including education Participants received the cognitive/
a response-time test to measure psychomotor speed (see memory/emotion tests on one day and the reappraisal task in
Chapter 14), and a digit-span test to measure working memory the fMRI session on a second day. Participants were paid $55.
(see Chapter 14) The researchers also had participants complete What was the design of the study? The study used a
three questionnaires to measure various types of emotions cross-sectional design, with testing of two age groups over
After these measures were obtained, participants were two sessions
given the cognitive reappraisal task shown in @ FIGURE 15.4. Were there ethical concems with the study? All participants
In brief, participants learned a reappraisal strategy that provided written consent under a protocol approved by the
involved thinking of themselves as an emotionally detached Institutional Review Board of Duke University Medical Center
and objective third party During the training session, they told What were the results? Younger and older adults
the experimenter what they were thinking about the image performed the reappraisal tasks similarly; that is, in the
to ensure task compliance, but they were instructed not to reappraisal condition, positive images were reported
speak during the scanning session During the functional as less positive and negative images were reported as
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) session, participants less negative However, older adults’ reports of negative

z = How negativeor
3 3 was the image?
positive

i] | «| |) etter
é 6

i ai a
negative positive
experience experience

2s 2s 6s 4s
(a)

am am
f 5 { 5 How negative or
Lc : ty : positive was the image?

r
|
3 t
| 3
+ ees ve svo gy
Gees
lt v-* G-- ei

ae a 5 ae a i sequin neutral positive

decrease decrease

2s 2s 6s 4s
(b)

@ FIGURE 15.4 Cognitive reappraisal task. Participants were trained in the use of a reappraisal strategy for emotion regulation
(A) On ‘Experience’ trials, participants viewed an image and then received an instruction to experience naturally the emotions
evoked by that image The image then disappeared, but participants continued to experience their emotions throughout a six-
second delay period At the end of the tral, the participants rated the perceived emotional valence of that image using an eight-
item rating scale. (B) 'Reappraise’ trials had similar timing, except that the cue instructed participants to decrease their emotional
response to the image by reappraising the image (for example, distancing oneself from the scene) Shown are examples of the
negative (A) and positive (B) images used in the study
From Viinecott, A, at al. (2011). Cognitive and maura conmibutiara to emotian reguaton in aging. Social Cognitive and Al active Newoscencs, 6, 965-178

486 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

0.70
0.60 I Younger adults
z= 1 Ober adults
2 0.50

5 0.40

& 0.30

& 0.20
5 0.10

Exp Reap Reap Exp Reap Exp

(b) Negative a Positive — Neutral Positive

0.20
_ 0.15

€ 0.10
5 0.05
=
& 0.00
B
2-0.05
3 -0.10
-0.15
Exp Reap Exp Reap Exp Exp Reap Exp Reap Exp
(d) Negative Neutral Positive Negative Neutral Positive

@ FIGURE 15.5 Modulation of prefrontal and amygdalar activation by emotion requlation

Cabeza, A. & Huemel S A 2011) Cognitive and neural conutions to emotion agulation in aging. Soci! Cogitive and Afective Meurascence
& doi0 (SG hceyinsglG0

15 2 PERSONALITY, SOCIAL COGNITION, AND SPIRITUALITY 487

Copyright 2019 Cengage Leaeming. All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, scanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party comtest mary he wuppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Exdttomal seview ton deaned that any wppromed comint docs sot makrally affect the overall kamumng expenence. Cengage Learting rencrven the night to remove additioeal coment at any time if autmequent neh rednctoes mga it
Researchers have increasingly focused on spiritual This kind of positive structural change has led some
support — which includes seeking pastoral care, researchers (Luders, 2014; Luders & Cherbuin, 2016;
participating in organised and nonorganised religious Newberg et al., 2014) to argue that meditation might
activities, and expressing faith in a God who cares for people offer promise as a way to help slow down, and perhaps
- as a key factor in understanding how older adults cope even prevent, the brain changes that underlie brain
Even when under high levels of stress, such as during diseases such as dementia. While it is still too early to
critical illness or other major life trauma, people who rely tell for certain, the possibility that a practice done for
on spiritual support report greater personal well-being centuries among all of the major world religions in one
(Ai et al., 2010, 2017, Hayward et al., 2016) Lucette and form or another, mindful meditation or contemplation,
colleagues (2016; Krause, 2006) report that maintaining a could prevent or reverse negative changes in the brain
sense of spirituality helps people cope with chronic health will undoubtedly be the focus ofa great deal of research.
conditions Many South Africans consult traditional
healers or spiritual guides to prevent themselves and their Think about it
families from being sick; when they are sick they consult
How might the transition from the False Self to the
traditional healers or spiritual guides before going to a
True Self reflect postformal cognitive development?
clinic or hospital for medical intervention.
Neuroscience research has shown a connection
between certain spiritual mindfulness practices and
| Test yourself 15.2
brain activity (Dobkin & Hassed, 2016; Tang & Posner,
2012). For example, there is evidence that people who
Recall
have practised meditation show positive structural
changes in areas of the brain related to attention and 1. Erikson suggested that as people enter late life,
memory (Esch, 2014; Luders, 2014; Newberg et al, they begin the struggle of » Which
2014). Thus, neurological evidence indicates that there involves the process by which people try to make
may be changes in brain activity and in brain structure sense of their lives.
associated with spiritual practices that help people cope. 2. Keitumetsi is 79, and spends a lot of time wondering
An example of the changes that occur in brain activity whether she should have married Tendai when she
between a normal resting state and a meditative state was only 20. She wonders how her life would have
is shown in @ FIGURE 15.6. Notice the significant turned out if she had finished her education and
increase in activity during meditation. had children later in life, rather than becoming a
mom at 21. She is engaging in a
3. Young-older adults experience improved
PNT tle ie ess) PVCie leer)
compared with middle-aged adults
4. A brain structure called the ,an
almond-shaped set of nuclei deep in the brain,
helps regulate emotion.
5. People who have practised meditation show
positive structural changes in areas of the brain
related to
Interpret
e How might different spiritual traditions influence
personal well-being?
Eber ite) Ce lety

Apply
@ FIGURE 15.6 SPECT scans of a subject at rest and during peak e Given that the prefrontal cortex is activated for
meditation showing increased cerebral blood flow (arrows) during
meditation
both positive and negative emotions for younger
and older adults, what might account for older
adults’ increased reaction to negative emotions?
spiritual support Type of coping strategy that includes seeking
Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
pastoral care, participating in organised and nonorganised religious
activities, and expressing faith in a God who cares for people. end of the chapter.

488 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved Muy net be copied, scanned, o¢ duplicated, m whole oe in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party costest ery he suppressed trom the cftook andice cChapter|s
Exdtoral semew bon decned thot any wuppremed coment dacs sot sxstcrially affect the overall keamung expenence. Cengage Learaung reserves the ngbt $0 remove additsseal coestert af aety time if subsequent rights sextnctioes neqpesre it
EEE] | used to work at .. . : Living in retirement
Learning objectives

® Describe what it means to be retired.

e Identify the employment and volunteer opportunities available for older adults.

Tinyiko is a 77-year-old retired construction As we consider retirement and other options in late life,
worker who laboured hard all of his life He keep in mind the world is changing, resulting in increased
managed to save a little money, but he and options and the likelihood more older adults will continue
his wife rely primarily on his monthly SASSA in the labour force by choice and necessity. Globally, the
(South African Social Security Agency) grant. baby boomers have not been able to save enough for their
Although not rich, they have enough to pay retirement. The trend is to change to fewer hours of work
the bills. For the most part, Tinyiko is happy per day or to retire only when they can no longer manage
with retirement, and he stays in touch with health-wise (Clark & Morrill, 2016). In South Africa
his friends He thinks that maybe he’s a little today, young people are staying in tertiary education
strange, though, because he has heard that longer than they did previously. This has meant a shorter
retirees are supposed to be isolated and lonely. time in the workforce: rather than joining the workforce at
18 and working until they were 65, they are now starting
In South Africa, the Pension Law (1996) states that work 22 and working until they are 60. This gives them
government employees should retire at 60, although a shorter time to prepare for retirement. Millennials may
early retirement may happen at 55 and extended also change jobs more frequently than older generations
retirement may happen at 65. However, this does not did, and this can have a negative effect on their pension
apply to all employers, and generally, retirement age is funds (Lee-Volker, 2016; Frey, 2018) In addition, the cost
determined by the company’s policy and the contract of living has risen, which has also made it harder for them
between employer and employee. People may access to save enough for their retirement.
social welfare grants for pensioners at 60. Realising that these generational shifts reflect
Although we take retirement for granted, economic important changes in how people view the latter part of
downturns and people's socioeconomic status have a one’s working life, AARP created the Life Reimagined®
major effect on retirement decisions and plans. New tool that assists people in finding their path, including
views of ageing and increased health for the typical reawakening long-dormant interests.
older adult have also had an effect on people's notions
about retirement. These realities have, in turn, affected
social policy. As more people retire and take advantage
of longer lives, a significant social challenge is created
regarding how to fund retiree benefits and how to
support older adults who are still active (Monahan,
2017, Quinn & Cahill, 2016; Wise, 2017).
After having one or several careers across adulthood,
many older adults find themselves questioning whether
they want to continue in that line of work anymore, or find
themselves being forced to go through that questioning
because they lost their jobs. This period of questioning and
potential exploration enables people to think about their
options: retiring, looking for work in the same or a different
field, volunteering, or some combination of all of these.
With the movement of the baby-boom generation
into old age, increasing numbers of these adults are A Retirement provides many people with the opportunity to do
redefining what ‘retirement’ and ‘work’ mean in late life. things they want to do rather than things they must do.

153 I USED TO WORK AT LIVING IN RETIREMENT 489

Copyraght2019 Congage Lesemag. All Rights Reserved May net be copsnd, scanned, or duplicated m whole of in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party content mary be suppecacd fom the cock andice cChapter( +)
Eddtomad acuew bos docned thos aay wappromed comamt das act maxrally affect the overall kamung cxpenenee. Cangage Leartang rowrven the nett comes addetaeal coment at any ome if rebeequent nef rewnchoes mga ot
What does being retired mean? they will achieve their personal goals through work
or retirement influences the decision to retire and its
Retirement means different things to men and connection with health and disability.
women, and to people in different ethnic groups and The decision when to retire is strongly affected
careers (James, Matz-Costa, & Smyer, 2016, Loretto
by an individual's socioeconomic status and savings.
& Vickerstaff, 2013, Silver, 2016) It has also taken on
South Africa does not have a strong savings culture,
new and different meanings since the beginning of the and only 8% of retirees can replace 75% of their income
global recession in 2008 because of the abrupt change in when they retire (Business Tech, 2018), following the
people's planning and expectations as a result of the loss recommended guidelines for a comfortable retirement.
of savings or pensions (Quinn & Cahill, 2016, Sargent This alarming figure is influenced by the low salaries
et al., 2013) that many South Africans earn, which leaves little at
Part of the reason it is difficult to define retirement the end of the month for savings. many families survive
precisely is that the decision to retire involves the loss of from month to month This means that retirement
occupational identity with no obvious replacement for ages may be adjusted from 60 to 70 in many work
that loss. Not having a specific job any more means we places. People are forced to delay their retirement until
either put that aspect of our lives in the past tense — ‘I they have financial resources to do so, or to continue
used to work as a manager at a hotel’ - or say nothing working part time when they had not planned to do so
at all. Loss of this aspect of ourselves can be difficult to to supplement their income
face, so some people look for a label other than ‘retired’ Income security is now at the forefront in retirement
to describe themselves. decisions (Monahan, 2017; Quinn & Cahill, 2016).
That’s why researchers view retirement as another Although 42% of respondents in one survey in the U.S.
one of many transitions people experience in life (Kojola thought the ideal retirement age is between 60 and 65,
& Moen, 2016, Moen, 2016a, Sargent et al., 2013) This
only 29% thought they would actually be able to achieve
view makes retirement a complex process where people that goal (Boschma, 2015). Indeed, 30% of respondents
withdraw from full-time participation in an occupation thought that they would be unable to retire before age
(Moen, 2016a; Sargent et al., 2013), recognising there 70, if ever, mainly due to pessimism regarding financial
are many pathways to this end (Kojola & Moen, 2016; security.
Moen, 2016a, b; Sargent et al., 2013) How much do you need to have in savings to be
comfortable in retirement? A decent rule of thumb is
to save enough to generate between 70% and 80% of
your current income, and to plan for about 25 years in
In the absence of mandatory retirement, is there retirement. This figure takes into account typical living
such a concept as ‘early retirement’? and medical expenses The end result is that longer life
expectancies have added to the amount of money you
will need in retirement — and that amount is usually
Why do people retire? much greater than people think.
Provided they have good health, more workers retire
by choice than for any other reason (Cohen-Mansfield Gender differences
& Regev, 2016; Kojola & Moen, 2016), as long they feel Women’s experience of retiring can be quite different
financially secure after considering projected income from men’s (Loretto & Vickerstaff, 2013, Silver, 2016).
from social welfare, pensions, retirement annuities, and Women’s employment career may have developed
other structured retirement programmes, and personal differently, such as having starts and stops related to
savings (Quinn & Cahill, 2016). Of course, some dependent care responsibilities, or may reflect later entry
people are forced to retire because of health problems into the workforce. Because of the pay gap and possible
or because they lose their jobs. As companies downsize interruptions in work history, many women have fewer
during economic downturns or after corporate mergers, financial resources for retirement
some older workers accept retrenchment packages For women who were never employed outside the
involving supplemental payments if they retire. Others home, the process of retirement is especially unclear
are permanently retrenched or dismissed. (Loretto & Vickerstaff, 2013), even when such spouses
The decision to retire is influenced by one’s are eligible for social welfare grants. Because they
occupational history and goal expectations (Moen, were not paid for all of their work raising children and
2016a; Sargent et al., 2013). Whether people perceive caring for the home, it is rare for them to have their

490 Cuarprtrer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

18.7
ample evidence that being forced to retire is correlated
8
\

with significantly poorer physical and mental health

(Hershey & Henkens, 2014).

Employment
and volunteering SS
Retirement is an important life transition, one best
understood through a life-course perspective that @FIGURE 157 Percentage of older South Africans employed,
takes other aspects of one’s life, such as one’s marital 1996-2011
relationship, into account (Moen, 2016a; Wickrama, Soures: Suwistica South Alrica. (2044). Consus 2011: Profile of older persans in South Africa Presoria
Statistica South Afica. Ratiaved fom ww. shalsaa gov 2a/publicatonaAeport-03-01-60 Aeport-03-01-
O'Neal, & Lorenz, 2013). This life change means E020 pat

retirees must look for ways to adapt to new routines and

patterns, while maintaining social integration and being Overall, labour force participation of older adults in
active in various ways (for example, friendship networks, South Africa and other countries has been increasing
community engagement). Some South African retirees most rapidly among women (DeSilver, 2016; Sterns
volunteer in the jobs that they previously were paid for, & Chang, 2010) This is due mostly to more women
for free or for little payment. being in the labour force across adulthood than in
decades past, more older women being single, and
Employment in late life greater financial need. Difficult economic times have
For an increasing number of people, especially for those exacerbated the need for older adults to work at least
whose retirement savings is insufficient, ‘retirement’ part-time to ensure greater financial security (Quinn &
involves working at least part-time. Employment Cahill, 2016).

15 3 Ll USED TO WORK AT LIVING IN RETIREMENT 491

Copreaght
2019 Cengage Leareing. All Rights Rxerved. May not be copied, canned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party contest mary he suppressed feom the cfook andice cChapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
Older workers face many challenges, not the least service to others, to maintain social interactions and
of which are ageism and discrimination (Jackson, improve their communities, and to keep active.
2013). Employers may believe older workers are less Why do so many people volunteer? Several factors
capable, and there is evidence this translates into are responsible (Ajrouch et al., 2015; Tang, Morrow-
lower likelihood of getting a job interview compared Howell, & Choi, 2010). changing characteristics of social
to younger or middle-aged workers, all other things networks, developing a new aspect of the self, finding
being equal (Abrams, Swift, & Drury, 2016). Despite a personal sense of purpose, wanting to share one’s
the fact that the laws of South Africa do not allow for skills and expertise, redefining the nature and merits
discrimination on the basis of age, such barriers are of volunteer work, and having a more highly educated
still widespread. and healthy population of older adults along with greatly
The relationship between age and job performance expanded opportunities for people to become involved
is extremely complex (Sterns & Chang, 2010). This is in volunteer work they enjoy. Research in New Zealand
because it depends a great deal on the kind of job one documents older adults who find volunteering enables
is considering, such as one that requires a great deal them to give back to their local communities (Wiles &
of physical exertion, or one that involves a great deal Jayasinha, 2013). Brown and colleagues (2011) argue
of expertise and experience. In general, older workers volunteerism offers a way for society to tap into the vast
show more reliability (for example, showing up on time resources older adults offer.
for work), organisational loyalty, and safety-related
behaviour
How have companies adapted to having more older
workers? One example is BMW, a company that changed
a number of things in its automobile assembly plants to
better meet the needs of older workers (de Pommereau,
2012). BMW provides physical trainers on the factory
floor, has new, softer floors, offers chairs that rise up
and down to make tasks easier, uses larger print fonts on
computer screens, and provides special shoes.
The trend for companies to employ older workers,
especially on a part-time basis, is likely to continue
because it is a good option for companies (Beck, 2013;
Coleman, 2015) Some companies find they need the
expertise older workers bring, as well as the flexibility of
older workers in terms of hours and the type of benefits 4 Some retired adults volunteer as a way to stay active
they need (or do not need) often make it less expensive.
Consequently, ‘retirement’ is likely to continue to evolve
as a concept, and is likely to include some aspect of There is also evidence the expectations of people
employment well into late life. who volunteer in retirement are changing. Seaman
Coleman (2015) argues that the benefits of hiring and (2012) notes women in the leading edge of the baby-
retaining older workers could make companies stronger boom generation are interested in volunteering for
and more successful. However, a change in approach personal, rather than purely altruistic reasons, and
will require overcoming stereotypes of ageing, as well as do so on their own terms. They are not as willing as
balancing the need to provide opportunities for younger volunteers were in previous generations to serve on
workers with the need to retain the experience and time-consuming boards and to engage in fundraising.
knowledge of older workers. As a result, organisations that rely on volunteers need to
be in touch with the concerns and motivations of their
Volunteering pool of volunteers.
Healthy, active retired adults often find meaning and
explore things they always wished they had had a chance
to do by volunteering (Ajrouch et al., 2014; Kleiber,
With regard to politics, what might the
2013). Older adults report they volunteer for many
opportunity for more older adults to volunteer for
reasons that benefit their well-being (Ajrouch et al.,
organisations mean?
2015, Greenfield & Marks, 2005), such as to provide

492 CHAPTER 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Recall Interpret
1. People may access social welfare grants for © Why does forced retirement have a negative
pensioners at effect on health?
2. Being forced to retire is correlated with Apply
significantly poorer
e Using the information from Chapter 12
3. In general, older workers are more reliable, on occupational development, create a
, and safety-minded. developmental description of occupations that
incorporates retirement.
4. Older adults often find that
enables them to give back to their local Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
communities. end of the chapter.

EEX] Friends and family in late life

Learning objectives

® Describe older adults’ marriages and same-sex partnerships.

® Explain what it is like to provide basic care for one’s partner.

e Explain how people cope with widowhood, and how men and women differ.

® Identify the special issues involved in being a great-grandparent.

Aza was married to Njabulo for 46 years Even For a growing number of older adults, becoming a great-
though he died 20 years ago, Aza still speaks grandparent is an exciting time
about him as if he only recently passed away. We have seen throughout this text how our lives
Aza still gets sad on special dates — their are shaped by others and how we share the company of
wedding anniversary, Njabulo’s birthday, and others. The term social convoy is used to suggest how
the date on which he died. Aza tells everyone a group of people journeys with us throughout our lives,
that she and Njabulo had a wonderful marriage providing support in good and bad times. People form the
and that she still misses him terribly, even after convoy, and under ideal conditions, that convoy provides
all these years a protective, secure cushion that permits people to
explore and learn about the world (English & Carstensen,
To older adults such as Aza, the most important thing 2014; Luong, Charles, & Fingerman, 2011) Especially
in life is relationships. In this section, we consider many for older adults, the social convoy also provides a source
of the relationships that older adults have. Whether it is of affirmation of who they are and what they mean to
friendship or family ties, having relationships with others others. This leads to better mental health and well-being.
is what keeps people connected. So, when one's partner
is in need of care, it is not surprising to find wives and
husbands devoting themselves to caregiving. Widows social convoy Group of people who journey with us throughout
our lives, providing support in good times and bad.
such as Aza also feel close to their departed partners.

15 4 FRIENDS AND FAMILY IN LATE LIFE 493

Coprraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mary be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview ton deaned that any wuppromed comicat docs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional comicnt af any time if autmequent nghe aednctoes myer it.
Several studies have shown that the size of one’s accompany old age, such as retirement or the death of a
social convoy and the amount of support it provides loved one, and can increase people's happiness and self-
do not differ across generations. This finding strongly esteem (Schulz & Morycz, 2013) People who live alone
supports the conclusion that friends and family are especially benefit from friends in the neighbourhood
essential aspects of all adults’ lives These networks (Bromell & Cagney, 2014) And people who have
provide all sorts of informal assistance for health-related ambivalent feelings about their social networks have
and other issues (Warren-Findlow & Issel, 2010). Social shorter telomeres than people who have strong feelings
networks also play a critical role in helping immigrants, about theirs (Uchino et al., 2012).
for example, when settling in their new country, older In the case of online friendships (for example,
Mexican American and Filipino immigrants are assisted through social media), trust develops on the basis
by family members in their network (Miller-Martinez & of four sources: (1) reputation; (2) performance, or
Wallace, 2007; Molina, 2012). what users do online; (3) precommitment (through
personal self-disclosure); and (4) situational factors,
Friends, siblings, and socioemotional especially the premium placed on intimacy and
selectivity the relationship (Henderson & Gilding, 2004). Not
surprisingly, online social network friendships
By late life, a person may have been friends with members develop much like face-to-face friendships in that the
of his or her social network for several decades. Research more time people spend online with friends, the more
consistently finds that older adults have the same need likely they are to self-disclose (Chang & Hsiao, 2014)
for friends as do people in younger generations It also Online environments are more conducive to people
shows that their life satisfaction is poorly correlated with who are lonely (for example, live alone), which make
the number or quality of relationships with younger them potentially important for older adults (Cotton,
family members but is strongly correlated with the Anderson, & McCullough, 2013).
number and quality of their friendships (Blieszner &
Roberto, 2012). Why? As will become clear, friends
serve as confidants and sources of support in ways that Siblings
relatives (for example, children or nieces and nephews) A special type of friendship exists with one’s siblings,
typically do not. they are the friends who people typically have the
longest, and with whom people share the closest, bonds.
Friendships The importance of these relationships varies with age
In Chapter 11, we explored the meanings and qualities (Carr & Moorman, 2011; Moorman & Greenfield, 2010).
of friendships across young adulthood and middle age The centrality of siblings in later life depends on several
Patterns of friendship among older adults tend to mirror things: proximity, health, and degree of relatedness (full,
those in young adulthood (Rawlins, 2004) That is, step-, or half-siblings), for example. No clear pattern
older women have more numerous and more intimate of emotional closeness emerges when viewing sibling
friendships than older men do (Blieszner & Roberto, 2012) relationships on the basis of gender.
Friendships also have some differences across ethnic When sibling relationships are close and one sibling
groups. Black and Indian South African communities dies, the surviving sibling often reports reflecting, about
tend to be very closely connected, and neighbours, or talking to the deceased sibling for advice (Vacha-
the immediate family, and the extended family are Haase, Donaldson, & Foster, 2014). What is also clear
important parts of the social networks They provide is that sibling relationships in later life are affected by
support and prevent older people from being isolated events in the lives of the siblings that may have occurred
or lonely. decades earlier (Knipscheer & van Tilburg, 2013). If there
There are some important differences in friendships was no contact between the siblings over an extended
in later life, though. The quality and purpose of late- period of time, it is unlikely that these relational rifts
life friendships are particularly important (Bromell will be repaired. An important source for such tension
& Cagney, 2014; Schulz & Morycz, 2013). Friends is hard feelings originating from perceived parental
are sometimes even more important to older adults favouritism among siblings. This tension subsequently
in part because older adults do not want to become plays out when ageing parents need care, and it may
burdens to their families (Blieszner & Roberto, 2012; continue into the siblings’ own late life (Gilligan et al.,
Moorman & Greenfield, 2010). As a result, friends help 2013). In such situations, jealousies that have their roots
each other foster independence. Having friends also in childhood fester for decades, only to resurface when
provides a buffer against the loss of roles and status that siblings need to coordinate parental care

494 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

What role might siblings play in an older adult's

Marri » hi
autobiographical memory (see Chapter 14)?
‘It's great to be 72 and still married; said Livhuwani.
“Yes, it's great to have Takalani around to share old times
Socioemotional selectivity with and to have him know howI feel even before | tell
Why are friends important to older adults? Some him? Livhuwani and Takalani are typical of most older
researchers believe one reason may be older adults’ not married couples.
wanting to become burdens to their families (Adams Marital satisfaction in long-term marriages — that
& Taylor, 2015, Blieszner & Roberto, 2012, Moorman is, marriages of 40 years or more — is a complex issue. In
& Greenfield, 2010). As a result, friends help each general, marital satisfaction among older couples increases
other remain independent by providing transportation, shortly after retirement but then decreases with health
checking on neighbours, and doing errands. problems and advancing age, and is directly related to the
Older adults tend to have fewer relationships with level of perceived support each partner receives (Landis
people in general and develop fewer new relationships et al., 2013; Proulx, 2016) The level of satisfaction in
than people do in midlife and particularly in young these marriages appears to be unrelated to the amount of
adulthood (Adams & Taylor, 2015, Carr & Moorman, past or present sexual interest or sexual activity, but it is
2011) Carstensen and colleagues (Carstensen, 2006; positively related to the degree of social engagement such
Charles & Carstensen, 2010; English & Carstensen, as interaction with friends (Bennett, 2005). In keeping
2016; Reed & Carstensen, 2012) have shown the with the married-singles concept, many older couples have
changes in social behaviour seen in late life reflect a simply developed detached, contented styles (Connidis,
more complicated and important process They propose 2001; Lamanna, Riedmann, & Stewart, 2015, Proulx, 2016).
a life-span theory of socioemotional selectivity, Older married couples show several specific
which argues social contact is motivated by a variety of characteristics (O'Rourke & Cappeliez, 2005). Many
goals, including information seeking, self-concept, and older couples show a selective memory regarding
emotional regulation the occurrence of negative events and perceptions
Each of these goals is differentially relevant at of their partner Older couples have a reduced
different points of the adult life span and results in potential for marital conflict and greater potential
different social behaviours. When information seeking is for pleasure, are more likely to be similar in terms of
the goal, such as when a person is exploring the world mental and physical health, and show fewer gender
trying to figure out how he or she fits in, what others differences in sources of pleasure. This is especially
are like, and so forth, meeting many new people is an true if the couple have developed strong dyadic coping
essential part of the process. However, when emotional strategies, that is, coping strategies that rely on the
regulation is the goal, people become highly selective in interconnectedness of the couple (Berg et al., 2016).
their choice of social partners and nearly always prefer
people who are familiar to them socioemotional selectivity Theory that argues that social contact
Carstensen and colleagues believe information seeking is motivated by a variety of goals, including information seeking,
self-concept, and emotional regulation.
is the predominant goal for young adults, emotional

154 FRIENDS AND FAMILY IN LATE LIFE 495

Copyright
2019 Cengage Lesrming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcamned, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectrosic nghts, some therd party contest mary he suppecssed tom the cfiook andive eChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
A Older long-term married couples tend to emphasise their partner's positive attributes.

In short, older married couples developed adaptive there are many similarities in personal outcomes across
ways to avoid conflict and grew more alike In general, various gender identity groups.
marital satisfaction among older couples remains Little research has been conducted examining the
high until health problems begin to interfere with the development of transgender and gender nonconforming
relationship (Connidis, 2001) (TGNC) individuals across adulthood (Witten, 2016).
Being married in late life has several benefits A One detailed examination of experiences of TGNC adults
study of 9 333 European Americans, African Americans, over age 50 found that many barriers to accessing key
and Latino Americans showed marriage helps people services such as healthcare and social services exist, largely
deal better with chronic illness, functional problems, due to anti-TGNC prejudice, discrimination, and lack of
and disabilities (Pienta, Hayward, & Jenkins, 2000). appropriate and adequate training of professionals (Porter et
Although the division of household chores becomes al., 2016) Additionally, research indicates that transgender
more egalitarian after the husband retires than it older adults experience social isolation more than most
was when the husband was employed, irrespective of other groups (Harley, Gassaway, & Dunkley, 2016).
whether the wife was working outside the home, women So how do long-term relationships change and
still do more than half of the work (Kulik, 2011). develop from midlife through late life? Wickrama et al.
King (2016) argues that the experiences of older (2013) developed a model that takes into account the
lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults cannot be put into influences of genetic markers, personal characteristics,
need categories, even generational ones. Rather, King cumulative life experiences, and stressful events during
emphasises that the LGB community is at least as the period from late midlife through later life The
diverse as the heterosexual community, and needs to model, shown in @ FIGURE 15.8, shows how all of these
be understood as such influences interact.
With the advent of legalised same-sex marriage and The key point in the model is that people bring their past
civil unions, numerous issues that heterosexual married with them when they enter late life, and those experiences,
couples have long taken for granted are being confronted including their genetic makeup, work together to create the
in the LGBTQ community, including end-of-life issues relationships that people experience as older adults. Although
and legal matters regarding caregiving (Godfrey, 2016, Wickrama et al. (2013) initially created the model to describe
Orel & Coon, 2016) Changes to South African laws will baby boomers’ marriages as they experience retirement, the
carry on as reforms and revisions continue to keep pace researchers point out that the model is probably applicable
with change to other forms of long-term relationships, such as same-sex
When compared to LGB individuals living with relationships and cohabitation.
partners, LGB individuals living alone or with others
(but not in a relationship with them) reported higher
Caring for a partner
degrees of loneliness (Kim & Fredriksen-Goldsen, 2016)
This finding parallels that of heterosexual individuals in When couples pledge their love to each other ‘in sickness
similar living arrangements, and highlights the fact that and in health, most of them envision the sickness part

496 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

1. Cumulative chronic life

experiences (adversities) Al
* Marital functioning .”
« Financial strainjob status
* Work conditions
|_81 "| [4lateStressfulmid-
life events&
=] 5,: | | 5. The level and
¢ Parent-child relationship transitions en! change of marital
* Family of origin/sibling « Retirement status, |-¥—{———» functioning
relationship form, & timing rain
x *individuallosses | + + |
D *Economiciosses |} ; °
¥ p2 | * Service losses ‘| | | Marital interactions
2.P " >| * Social losses iF ‘ H ,
control, mastery * Relocation ay | |
Health. mental
and physical Ce
ee Marital quality
G er
G 1a,
3. Genotype ae

@ FIGURE 15 8 Marital functioning from middle to later years: A life course-stress process
framework.
From Viickrawa, K AS. O'Neal CW, & Lorenz, FO. (2093). Marital functioning from muddle to later yeara A ife course-airesa process Yammer’
Jounal of Fanlly Theory & Reve, 5. 15-34 doc 10.1111/7tc 12000. Ravieved from onkneltrary. wiley comsdoy
90.1111 itr 12000/tull

to be no worse than an illness lasting a few weeks. That Ingersoll-Dayton, 2004; Revenson et al., 2016). Marital
may be the case for many couples, but for others, the satisfaction is also an important predictor of spousal
illness they experience severely tests their pledge caregivers’ reports of depressive symptoms; the better the
Francine and Ron are one such couple. After 51 years perceived quality of the marriage, the fewer symptoms
of mostly good times together, Ron was diagnosed with caregivers report (Kinney & Cavanaugh, 1993), a finding
Alzheimer’s disease. When she was first contacted by that applies to European American and minority spousal
researchers, Francine had been caring for Ron for six caregivers (Chiao, Wu, & Hsiao, 2015; Parker, 2008).
years. ‘At times, it's very hard, especially when he looks Most partner caregivers adopt the caregiver role out
at me and doesn't have any idea who I am Imagine of necessity. Although evidence about the mediating
after all these years not to recognise me. But I love him, role of caregivers’ appraisal of stressors is unclear,
and I know that he would do the same for me. But to interventions that help improve the functional level of
be perfectly honest, we're not the same couple we once the ill partner generally improve the caregiving partner's
were. We're not as close; I guess we really can't be’ situation (Revenson et al., 2016, van den Wijngaart,
Francine and Ron are typical of couples in which one Vernooij-Dassen, & Felling, 2007).
partner cares for the other. Caring for a chronically ill The importance of feeling competent as a partner
partner presents different challenges from caring for a caregiver fits with the docility component of the
chronically ill parent. The partner caregiver assumes the competence-environmental press model presented
new role after decades of shared responsibilities Often earlier in this chapter Caregivers attempt to balance their
without warning, the division of labour that had worked perceived competence with the environmental demands
for years must be readjusted This kind of change of caregiving. Perceived competence allows them to be
inevitably puts stress on the relationship (Haley, 2013). proactive rather than merely reactive (and docile), which
This is especially true when one’s spouse/partner has a gives them a better chance to optimise their situation.
debilitating chronic disease. Even in the best of committed relationships, providing
Studies of partner caregivers of persons with full-time care for a partner is both stressful and rewarding
Alzheimer’s disease show that satisfaction with the in terms of the relationship (Haley, 2013; Kimmel, 2014;
relationship is much lower than it is for healthy couples Revenson et al., 2016). For example, coping with a wife
(Cavanaugh & Kinney, 1994, Haley, 2013; Kulik, 2016; who may not remember her husband's name, who may
Proulx, 2016). Spousal and same-sex partner caregivers act strangely, and who has a chronic and fatal disease
report a loss of companionship and intimacy over the presents serious challenges even to the happiest of
course of caregiving, but also receive more rewards couples. Yet even in that situation, the caregiving husband
compared with adult child caregivers (Croghan, may experience no change in marital happiness despite
Moone, & Olson, 2014; Kimmel, 2014, Raschick & the changes in his wife due to the disease

15 4 FRIENDS AND FAMILY IN LATE LIFE 497

Coprraght2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Mteserved. May not be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party costest mury he suppeesscd trom the cfiock andive oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview ton deaned that any wuppromed comicat docs act musicrally affectthe overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional comicnt af any time if autmequent nghe aednctoes myer it.
Widowhood
Aza, the woman in our opening story, still feels the loss
of her husband, Njabulo. “There are many times when
I feel him around. When you're together for so long,
you take it for granted that your husband will always be
there. And there are times when I just don’t want to go
on without him. But I suppose I'll get through it?
Like Aza and Njabulo, almost all older married
couples see their marriages end legally when one partner
dies. For most people, the death ofa partner is one of
the most traumatic events they experience. A study in
the U.S. showed that it caused an increased risk of death
among older European Americans (but not African
Americans) (Moorman & Greenfield, 2010). This effect
lasts several years: an extensive study of widowed adults
in Scotland showed the increased likelihood of dying
lasted for at least 10 years (Boyle, Feng, & Raab, 2011)
Despite the stress of losing one’s partner, most widowed
older adults manage to cope reasonably well (Moorman
& Greenfield, 2010).
The effects are broader than just mortality, though.
Lucy Kalanithi (2016) described how her marriage vows
to love, to honour, and to be loyal to her husband did not
end with his death at age 37 from cancer. For her, marriage
did not end with her transition to being a widow.
Women are much more likely to be widowed than are
men. More than half of all women over age 65 are widows,
but only 15% of men the same age are widowers. Women 4 Widowers are less likely than widows to form new friendships,
continuing a trend throughout adulthood that men have fewer
have longer life expectancies and typically marry men close friends than women do
older than themselves. Consequently, the average married
woman can expect to live at least 10 years as a widow
The impact of widowhood goes well beyond the Feelings of loss do not dissipate quickly, as the case of
ending of a long-term partnership (Boyle et al., 2011, Aza shows clearly Men and women react differently to
Brenn & Ytterstad, 2016, McCoyd & Walter, 2016). widowhood. In general, those who were most dependent
For example, there is evidence of increased mortality, on their partners during the marriage report the highest
especially within the first week of widowhood (Brenn & increase in self-esteem in widowhood when they learn
Ytterstad, 2016). to do the tasks formerly done by their partners (Carr,
Loneliness is a major problem. Widowed people 2004). Widowers may recover more slowly unless they
may be left alone by family and friends who do not have strong social support systems (Bennett, 2010).
know how to deal with a bereaved person. As a result, Widows often suffer more financially because survivor's
widows and widowers may lose not only a partner, but benefits are usually only half of their husband's pensions
also those friends and family who feel uncomfortable (Weaver, 2010). For many women, widowhood results in
with including a single person rather than a couple in difficult financial circumstances, particularly regarding
social functions (McCoyd & Walter, 2016). Traditionally, medical expenses (McGarry & Schoeni, 2005).
African extended families included support structures For many reasons, including the need for
for widowhood. However, African family structures companionship and financial security, some widowed
are changing, and becoming more like Western nuclear people cohabit or remarry. A newer variation on
families. This has meant that older family members may repartnering is ‘living alone together, an arrangement
be alone after the death of their partner, and a widowed where two older adults form a romantic relationship
person may be more likely to go to live in a facility for but maintain separate living arrangements (Moorman
older people, rather than staying alone in their home or & Greenfield, 2010). Repartnering in widowhood can
living with the extended family. be difficult because of family objections (for example,

498 Cuaprer
15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Copyragts2099 Compages Lewraeng. All Raghes Reserwod Mizy not be coped acommed, or depicted m whole or im pert. Der to clecteeenc rights, somne theed pty contest mery be eappeceend een ther eBook andibe oC hapeeniy)
Edecead avare tos doomed Gus any eapgromed coment docs act memerodh aflect he overall koeemy crpemencs. Congage Loxtang scare the mgt somes addéeesd comico at ay tere of ateegueet rg arénctces sogeer &
resistance from children), objective limitations a great-grandparent provides a sense of personal and
(decreased mobility, poorer health, poorer finances), family renewal - important components for achieving
absence of incentives common to younger ages (desire integrity. Their grandchildren have produced new life,
for children), and social pressures to protect one's estate renewing their own excitement for life and reaffirming
(Moorman & Greenfield, 2010). the continuance of their lineage. Seeing their families
stretch across four generations may also provide
Great-grandparenthood psychological support, through feelings of symbolic
immortality, to help them face death. They take pride
As discussed in Chapter 13, grandparenting is an and comfort in knowing that their families will live
important and enjoyable role for many adults. With many years beyond their own lifetime. Keeping the
increasing numbers of people - especially women - family together is a major source of meaning (Even-
living to very old age, more people are experiencing Zohar & Garby, 2016)
great-grandparenthood. Age at first marriage and age Second, great-grandchildren provide new diversions
at parenthood also play a critical role: people who reach in great-grandparents lives. There are now new people
these milestones at relatively young ages are more likely with whom they can share their experiences. Young
to become great-grandparents. children can learn from a person they perceive as ‘really
Although surprisingly little research has been old’ (Mietkiewicz & Venditti, 2004).
conducted on great-grandparents, their investment Third, becoming a great-grandparent is a major
in their roles as parents, grandparents, and great- milestone, a mark of longevity that most people never
grandparents forms a single family identity (Drew & achieve. The sense that one has lived long enough to see
Silverstein, 2004; Even-Zohar & Garby, 2016; Moorman the fourth generation is perceived very positively.
& Greenfield, 2010). That is, great-grandparents see As you might expect, people with at least one living
a true continuity of the family through the passing on grandparent and great-grandparent interact more
of genes. However, their sources of satisfaction and with their grandparent, who is also perceived as more
meaning apparently differ from those of grandparents influential (Roberto & Skoglund, 1996). Unfortunately,
(Doka & Mertz, 1988; Even-Zohar & Garby, 2016, some great-grandparents must assume the role of
Wentkowski, 1985). Compared with grandparents, primary caregiver to their great-grandchildren, a role for
great-grandparents are more similar as a group in what which few great-grandparents are prepared (Bengtson,
they derive from the role, largely because they are less Mills, & Parrott, 1995; Burton, 1992). As more people
involved with the children than the grandparents are. live longer, it will be interesting to see whether the
Three aspects of great-grandparenthood appear to role of great-grandparents changes and becomes more
be most important (Doka & Mertz, 1988). First, being prominent.

Test yourself 15.4

Recall of renewal, new diversions for the great-

grandparent, and being a mark of
1. Our is the group of people who
journey with us throughout our lives, providing
Interpret
support in good times and bad.
e Why would widows and widowers want to
2. Friendships among older adults tend to mirror
establish a new cohabitation relationship?
those in young adulthood, and older women
have friendships than older men do. Apply
3. The advent of legalised same-sex marriage © How do the descriptions of marital satisfaction
and civil unions has meant that the LGBTQ and spousal caregiving presented here fit with the
community faces the same issues that heterosexual descriptions of marital satisfaction in Chapter 11,
married couples face, including and and caring for ageing parents in Chapter 13?
legal matters regarding caregiving. What similarities and differences are there?

4. Becoming a great-grandparent has several Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
important effects, including providing a sense end of the chapter.

154 FRIENDS AND FAMILY IN LATE LIFE 499

(Copyraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved Muay mot be copaed, scammed, or duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectroemc nghts, some thend party costest mmry he wappeesecd trom the cfSook andive chapters)
Edtonal sview tos deaned that azy wippromed coment dacs act muakrally affect the overall kamung expenence. Cengage Learaung rescrves the ngbt w remove additioeal coment af any tre if submequent mgt redinctoes require at
EEE] Social issues and ageing
Learning objectives

® State who frail older adults are, and determine how common frailty is.

® Identify the housing options available for older adults.

® Identify the signs that an older adult is abused, neglected, or exploited.

e Describe the key social policy issues affecting older adults.

Luthando is an 82-year-old woman who still oldest-old on the horizon (the baby-boom generation),
lives in the same neighbourhood where she finding ways to deal with these issues is essential.
grew up She has been in relatively good health
for most of her life, but in the last year she has Frail older adults
needed help with tasks such as preparing meals
and shopping for personal items. Luthando In our discussion about ageing to this point, we focused
very much wants to continue living in her own on the majority of older adults who are healthy, are
home. She doesn’t want to be placed in a home, cognitively competent, are reasonably financially secure,
but her family wonders whether that might be and have good family relationships. Some older adults
the best option. are not as fortunate They are the frail older adults
who have physical disabilities, are very ill, may have
Our consideration of late life thus far has focused on the cognitive or psychological disorders, and need assistance
experiences of the typical older adult. In this final section, with everyday tasks These frail older adults constitute a
we consider people such as Luthando, who represent minority of the population over age 65, but the size of
a substantial number but still a minority of all older this group increases considerably with age.
adults Like Luthando, some older adults experience Frail older adults are people whose competence
problems completing common tasks such as taking (in terms of the competence-environmental press model
care of themselves. We will consider the prevalence and presented earlier) is declining They do not have one
kinds of problems such people face. Although most specific problem that differentiates them from their
older adults live in the community, some reside in other active, healthy counterparts. Instead, they tend to have
settings; we will consider the housing options that older multiple problems (Wilhelm-Leen et al., 2014). Some
adults have. Unfortunately, some older adults are the researchers focus on the age-related loss of muscle mass
victims of abuse or neglect; we will examine some of the and strength, called sarcopenia (Afilalo, 2016). Other
key issues relating to how elder abuse happens Finally, researchers argue that frailty is the result of accumulated
we will conclude with an overview of the most important deficits in several functional areas (Rockwood, 2016)
emerging social policy issues. In either case, to identify the areas in which people
All of these issues are critical when viewed from experience limited functioning, researchers have
Baltes and Smith’s (2003) Fourth Age perspective, as developed observational and self-report techniques to
described in Chapter 14. We will see that it is the oldest- measure how well people can accomplish daily tasks
old who make up most of the frail older adults living in Everyday competence assessment consists of
both the community and long-term care facilities such as examining how well people can complete activities of
nursing homes With the rapid increase in the number of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living,
and whether they have other physical limitations
(Verbrugge, Brown, & Zajacova, 2017). Activities of
frail older adults Older adults who have physical disabilities, are
daily living (ADLs) include basic self-care tasks such as
very ill, may have cognitive or psychological disorders, and need
assistance with everyday tasks. eating, bathing, toileting, walking, or dressing. A person
can be considered frail if he or she needs help with one
activities of daily living (ADLs) Basic self-care tasks such as
eating, bathing, toileting, walking, and dressing.
or more of these tasks. Instrumental activities of daily
living (IADLs) are actions that involve some intellectual
instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) Actions that competence and planning. Which activities constitute
require some intellectual competence and planning.
IADLs vary widely across cultures. For example, for

500 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

How important are socioeconomic factors?

Once we have identified the specific conditions that
are highly predictive of future functional limitations,
an important question is whether the appropriate
intervention and prevention programmes should be
targeted at particular groups of people. That is, would
people who are well educated and have high incomes have
the same rate of key chronic conditions as people in lower
socioeconomic groups? If not, then people with different
socioeconomic backgrounds have different needs.
Research indicates a fairly strong and consistent
relationship between socioeconomic status and health-
related quality of life. Across all racial and ethnic groups,
more affluent older adults have lower levels of disability
and higher health-related quality of life than individuals
in lower socioeconomic groups (Gardiner, Mishra, &
Dobson, 2016; National Center for Health Statistics,
2016a) A Canadian study showed that this difference
A Older adults over age 85 are more likely to be frail and to need
help with basic daily tasks
appears to be set in early adulthood and maintained into
late life (Ross et al., 2012).

As you can see in @ FIGURE 15.9, the number of

How does disability in older adults differ
difficulties with functional domains increases as men
globally?
and women age (Statistics South Africa, 2014). Such
limitations increase rapidly when the person nears death. Throughout this and previous chapters, we have
People who live longer show both fewer disabilities on encountered important differences between men
average as well as slower increases in disability over and women and between various ethnic/racial and
time. By paying close attention to the number and socioeconomic groups. Do these patterns apply globally?
extent of disabilities, healthcare professionals and family
members may get advance warning of serious underlying physical limitations (PLIMs) Activities that reflect functional
limitations such as walking a block or sitting for about two hours.
problems.

15 5 SOCIAL ISSUES AND AGEING 501

60-64 65-69 70-74

60-64 | 65-69 | 70-74 | 75-79 | 80-84 85+

— Seeing 48 5.6 7.2 9.2 11.6 15.9
—— Hearing 1.4 18 28 44 6.1 10.0
— Communication 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 18 34
—— Walking/Climbing 27 3.6 5.2 74 10.3 15.6
—— Remembering/Concentrating 2.2 27 44 5.6 77 12.0
— _ Self-Care 1.0 1.4 2.3 3.6 62 11.7

@ FIGURE 159 Percentage of ekerly persons in South Africa aged 60 years and older with severe
difficulty in selected functional domains, by age, Census 2011
Source: Statistica South Attica. 2014). Consus 2011) Profile of obtar persona in South Altes. Ratriwed from’ wwe sletasa gov 2a\publications/
Raport(6-01-60)Report0G-01-60201 1 pat

Not surprisingly, the answer is ‘yes’ (World Health A sense of place refers to the cognitive and emotional
Organization, 2012). As the number of older adults rises attachments that a person puts on his or her place of
around the world, the number of people with disabilities residence, by which a ‘house’ is made into a ‘home’
or functional limitations does, too. Also, the rates of Throughout adulthood, people adapt to changes
disabilities are higher in low-income countries and in the places where they live, sometimes severing
among women. Early detection and treatment of chronic connections with past settings (Rowles & Watkins, 2003;
disease can lower these rates. Wahl, 2015). Making a change in where people live, and
Looked at more closely, some interesting patterns having to psychologically disconnect with a place where
emerge. The U.S., for example, has higher rates of they may have lived for many decades, can be difficult
most chronic diseases and functional impairment and traumatic There is no question people develop
than England or the rest of Europe (National Institute attachments to place, develop a sense of place, and derive
on Aging, 2012). An important difference is access to a major portion of their identity from it.
healthcare, in terms of whether everyone is guaranteed Rowles (2006) discusses the process of how a
access by the government or not. place becomes a home. Because of the psychological
connections, the sense that one is ‘at home’ becomes a
major concern in relocation, especially if the relocation
involves giving up one’s home. This attachment to
Where you live, and how you feel about it, is a critical place appears to be cross-cultural phenomenon (Felix
aspect of personal identity. We experience this every etal., 2015).
time someone asks us, “Where do you live?’ For most
people, it is the sense of place that makes the difference. Ageing in place
Feeling that one is ‘at home’ is a major aspect of ageing
sense of place Cognitive and emotional attachments that a person in place. Providing older adults a place to call their own
puts on his or her place of residence, by which a ‘house’ is made that supports the development of the psychological
intoa ‘home.
attachments necessary to convert the place to a

502 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

(Copyragts
2099 Comgage Leareeng. All Rashes Roserved May act be coped acommed or daphcted m whol or om pert. Der soclecteenc mpbes, somee theed pty contest mary be eappeceend fever tee cfook andibe of hapecr’+)
Edecead arvre tos doomed Gas any eapgromed coment dom ace meserodh aflect he ower koeemys copemenes. Compage Lowtang rare the mgt somes added omc ot ay tere of ateegueet mph arénchoes roger &
home is key for successful ageing in place (Scheidt & simply cannot afford them. As a result, many older adults
Schwarz, 2010, Wahl, 2015). Ageing in place provides with functional impairments experience a mismatch
a way for older adults to continue finding aspects of between their competency and their environment
self-identity in where they live, and to take advantage (Granbom et al., 2016; Iwarsson et al., 2012; Wahl, 2015).
of support systems that are established and familiar, by Research indicates home modifications done to
balancing environmental press and competence through address difficulties with accomplishing activities of
selection and compensation Being able to maintain daily living (ADLs) generally reduce disability-related
one's independence in the community is often important outcomes (Iwarsson et al., 2012, Wahl, 2015; Yuen &
for people, especially in terms of their self-esteem and Vogtle, 2016) Although home modification can help
ability to continue engaging in meaningful ways with reduce falls in older adults (Ripp, Jones, & Zhang, 2016),
friends, family, and others. understanding the role of self-efficacy beliefs in falling
Whether a person can age in place usually depends is also an important factor to address in successful
on their functional health. Functional health refers interventions to reduce falling (Dadgari et al., 2015).
to the ability to perform the activities of daily living
(ADLs), instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs),
and physical limitations (PLIMs) discussed earlier in this
section As a person's functional health diminishes, the
level of support needed from the environment increases
and the optimal housing situation changes.
The competence-environmental press model
provides two options for people who experience
difficulties dealing with the tasks of daily life On one
hand, people can increase their competency and develop
better or new skills for handling. To better remember
where you put your car keys, you can learn a new
memory strategy On the other hand, people can lower
the environmental press by modifying the environment
to make the task easier. For example, you can put a hook
for the car keys next to the door you exit so you see them
on your way out.
These two options represent applications of theory
to real-world settings that also apply to helping people
deal with the challenges they face in handling tasks of
daily living in their homes. When it comes to these kinds
of issues, the most frequent solution involves modifying
one’s home (i.e., changing the environment) in order
to create a new optimal balance or better ‘fit’ between
competence and environmental press (Scharlach &
Lehning, 2016, Scheidt & Schwarz, 2010).
Many strategies are available for modifying a home
to help a person accommodate changing competencies
Minor structural changes, such as installing assistive
devices (for example, hand rails in bathrooms and door 4 One way that older adults can age in place is to renovate their
home
handles that are easier to grip), are common strategies.
In other cases, more extensive modifications may be
needed to make a home fully accessible, such as widening Multicultural South Africa has many family structures,
doorways, lowering countertops, and constructing ramps. as we have discussed in previous chapters. Broadly, these
Although minor alterations can often be done at follow cultural or racial lines: black, Indian, and coloured
low cost, more extensive modifications needed by South Africans have traditionally lived with extended
people with greater limitations may be unaffordable for
low-income individuals. Even though the cost of such functional health Ability to perform the activities of daily living
(ADLs), instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), and
interventions is significantly lower than placement in
physical limitations (PLIMs).
long-term care facilities or assisted living, many people

15 5 SOCIAL ISSUES AND AGEING 503

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learmng. All Rights Reserved. May not be coped, scanned, of duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to electronic nights, some thind party costest muy he suppressed trom the cftock andlor oC hapter(s)
Edbtomad sewew bos doomed thot any wuppromed content docs sot mustcmally affect the overall kam, expenerce. Cengage Leareung reserves the night to remnowe additonal comient af any tame if subsequent mgt sedtnctooes nga ot
families, to slightly varying degrees, while white South Assisted living
Africans have traditionally lived as nuclear families. This Bessie lived in the same home for 57 years. Her familiar
means that older black, Indian, and coloured people surroundings enabled her to compensate for and manage
would be more likely to live with their family, while white the challenges of failing eyesight and worsening arthritis
older people would be more likely to live alone In some that made it hard to walk. Eventually, though, her health
African cultures, older people are not encouraged to problems interfered with her ability to live alone. Finally,
live alone, without their families, as they are regarded as her children convinced her that she needed to relocate
having an important role in the family, even if they are to an assisted living facility that would provide the
no longer very mobile or active @ FIGURE 15.10 shows necessary support for her to continue to have her own
how these traditional family structures have changed space
over the periods of three censuses in South Africa, in
Bessie is fairly typical of people who move to
terms of living arrangements for older people Older assisted living facilities. Assisted living facilities
black, Indian and coloured people are now more likely provide a supportive living arrangement for people who
to live alone. This might be due to growing economic need assistance with ADLs or IADLs but who are not so
independence, but this is not certain, and living alone in impaired physically or cognitively that they need 24-hour
poor circumstances can contribute to social isolation and care. Estimates are that nearly two-thirds of residents
loneliness (Statistics South Africa, 2014). of assisted living facilities over age 65 have an ADL or
IADL limitation (AgingStats.gov, 2016) and that about
assisted living facilities Supportive living arrangement for people half have some degree of memory impairment (Pynoos
who need assistance with ADLs or IADLs but who are not so et al., 2010) Assisted living facilities usually provide
impaired physically or cognitively that they need 24-hour care.
support for activities of daily living (for example,

@
@
M
Single
Nuclear
Extended |
ALAA WAL
0
1996

1996
9.6
24.1
62.7
2001
Black African

Black African
2001
11.4
16.1
708
2011
2011

17.7
17.4
61.6
1996

1996
9.9
29.1
52.7
2001
Coloured

Coloured
2001
10.8
275
55.2
2011

2011
13.9
29.9
50.1
1996

1996
9.3
42.9
43.0
2001
indian/Asian
2011

Indian Asian
2001
11.3
42.8
42.9
2011
15.9
447
35.4
1996 2001
White

1996
33.4
52.6
74
2011

White
2001
31.6
54.0
9.7
2011
33.0
52.6
98
@ Complex 3.6 1.7 32 8.3 6.5 6.2 48 3.0 40 6.6 47 47

‘Other’ population group responses excluded from Census 2011. Unspecified cases for Census 1996 have been excluded.

@ FIGURE 15 10 Percentage distribution of elderly people in South Africa by household composition and population group, 1996,
2001, 2011 A complex family includes stepchildren or children from previous relationships
Sources: Suatiatics South Africa @014| Census 2011: Profile of akier persons m South Africa. Protoria’ Statistics South Africa. Ratieved tron wow. stalsaa. gov 2afpubicatona Gepot-03-01-60/
Rapert-03.01-602011 pdt

504 CHAPTER 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcammed, ce duplicated. m whole oe in part. Dur to clectromsc nghes, some therd party costes muy he muppecsscd tom the cook andice cChapter|+)
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
assistance with bathing) as well as meals and other quality of life for residents (for example, whether
services. Healthcare personnel are available to assist with residents are well groomed, the food is tasty, and rooms
medications and certain other procedures. contain comfortable furniture); quality of care (whether
Assisted living facilities provide a range of services staff members respond quickly to calls, whether staff and
and care, but they are not designed to provide intensive, family are involved in care decisions); safety (whether
around-the-clock medical care. As residents become there are enough staff members, whether hallways are
frailer, their needs may go beyond those the facility can free of clutter); and other issues (whether outdoor areas
provide. When older adults eventually need a higher are available for residents to use).
level of care that is available at assisted living facilities,
they may have to turn to long-term care facilities such as Emerging housing arrangements
nursing homes. In response to the need to provide support for older
adults who require assistance with ADLs and IADLs and
Nursing homes their desire to age in place, new approaches to housing
options have emerged that provide both. Although these
The last place Sadie thought she would end up was in a are predominantly in the U.S., they are useful to discuss
bed in a nursing home, ora frail care centre. “That's a place as they may provide models for the South African
where old people go to die; she would tell her friends. ‘It's context. These movements include programmes that
not going to work for me: But here she is. Sadie fell a few infuse a different culture into nursing homes as well as
weeks ago and broke her hip. Because she lives alone, she those approaches that create small-scale living (usually
needs to stay in the facility for rehabilitation until she six to ten residents) in a community-based setting with
recovers. She detests the food; ‘tasteless, she calls it. Doris,
an emphasis on living well rather than on receiving care
who is 87 and has dementia, lives a few doors down. Doris (Pynoos et al., 2010)
is likely to live there for the remainder of her life. The Eden Alternative (Eden Alternative, 2017) seeks
Sadie and Doris are representative of the people to eliminate loneliness, helplessness, and boredom from
who live in nursing homes — some temporarily, some the lives of those living in long-term care facilities and
permanently If given the choice, the vast majority of older to create a community in which life is worth living. This
adults do not want to live there; they and their families can be achieved by rethinking how care is provided
would prefer that they age in place. Sometimes, though, in the older person’s own home or in long-term care
placement in a nursing home is necessary because of the
facilities through training.
older person's needs or the family’s circumstances. The Green House Project (Jenkins, 2016) creates
A nursing home is a type of long-term care facility that small neighbourhood-integrated homes for six to ten
provides medical care 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, using residents in which older adults receive a high level of
a team of healthcare professionals that includes doctors personal and professional care. The Green House Project
(who must be on call at all times), nurses, therapists (for takes the principles of the Eden Alternative and creates a
example, physical, occupational), and others In South different culture of care in the community.
Africa, nursing homes can be government funded or The Pioneer Network (Pioneer Network, 2017)
privately funded, and as such, they differ in terms of the focuses on changing the culture of ageing in America
facilities and level of care that they offer. irrespective of where older adults live. Like the Eden
The decision to place a family member in a nursing Alternative, this approach focuses on respecting
home is a difficult one (Caron, Ducharme, & Griffith, older adults and providing maximally supportive
2006; Krull, 2013).
environments for them. The Pioneer Network, as part
Placement decisions can occur in reaction to a crisis, of the larger cultural change in caring for older adults,
such as a person's impending discharge from a hospital advocates for a major emphasis on making nursing
or another health emergency, or can be the outcome of homes more like a home.
many months or even years of conversation among family Various cohousing and cluster housing options
members. Because the level of impairment of nursing provide additional alternative approaches. Cohousing
home residents is typically severe, the placement decision is a planned community that is modest in size and is
tends to be made by partners or adult children, often in
consultation with medical and spiritual advisers, a finding nursing home Type of long-term care facility that provide medical
that generalises across ethnic groups (Koss & Ekerdt, care 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, using a team of healthcare
2017; Krull, 2013; Lord et al., 2016; Ruiz et al., 2016). professionals that includes physicians (who must be on call at all
Selecting a nursing home should be done carefully. times), nurses, therapists (for example, physical, occupational),
and others.
Among the most important things to consider are

35 SOCIAL ISSUES AND AGEING 505

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Lesrmang. All Rights Reserved May mot be copeed, acammed. oe duplicated mm wholeof on part. Dur so clectroenc mghts, some therd party contest muy he suppecescd form the citook andice of hapece|s).
Edeomal seiew toe deemed that any euppromed crencmt docs sot muxicmadly affect the overall kare cupenence. Congape Learing reacrwes the mpbt to remove addmosal comicet af any tome af satecquent neh scenctoss moqenn &
built around an open, walkable space designed to foster e Emotional or psychological abuse: infliction of anguish,
social interaction among neighbours (Klimezuk, 2017, pain, or distress
Pynoos et al., 2010). Neighbours provide care for each e Financial or material exploitation. illegal or improper
other when it is needed as a way to foster personal use of an older adult's funds, property, welfare grant,
autonomy. Cluster housing combines the ageing-in- or assets
place philosophy with supportive services (de Jong et al., e Abandonment: desertion of an older adult by an
2012). A key feature is that services are provided to the individual who had physical custody or otherwise had
residents by staff hired by the owner or by a service assumed responsibility for providing care for the older
provider under contract. The ageing-in-place philosophy adult
in these settings emphasises individual choice on the © Neglect: refusal or failure to fulfil any part of a person's
part of residents in terms of what services to use. This obligation or duties to an older adult
approach is also being adopted in other countries, such © Self-neglect: behaviours of an older person that
as the Netherlands and Spain (de Jong et al., 2012, threaten his or her health or safety, excluding those
Fernandez-Carro, 2016) conscious and voluntary decisions made by a mentally
These alternatives to traditional housing options for competent and healthy adult.
older adults indicate that the choices for how one spends
late life are becoming more varied and that appropriate Researchers estimate that perhaps one in four
support systems are in place. Such alternatives will vulnerable older adults are at risk of some type of abuse,
be important as the baby-boom generation enters the neglect, or exploitation (Nerenberg, 2010; Roberto, 2016;
years in which support services will be needed even Wong & Rothenhaus, 2014). Unfortunately, only a small
more. Researchers need to focus their attention on proportion of these cases are reported to authorities; of
documenting the types of advantages these alternatives those that are, neglect is the most common type Elder
offer and exploring their relative effectiveness. abuse is often noted by doctors first, either through
routine examinations or in emergency departments
in hospitals (Linden & Olshaker, 2014) Financial
exploitation, particularly through electronic means,
How are housing options related to cognitive can costs older adults millions of rands Researchers
ability and to the competence—environmental and policy makers argue that prevention of financial
press model? exploitation can be greatly assisted by banks and other
financial institutions, who can monitor account activity
and question unusual withdrawals (Lichtenberg, 2016).
Elder
andneglect
abuse = SS In South Africa, the types of abuse most commonly
reported are perceived marginalization, disrespect,
Puleng, an 82-year-old woman in relatively poor health,
exploitation and violence (Ferreira & Lindgren, 2008).
has been living with her 60-year-old daughter, Tebogo,
Current approaches to elder abuse, especially by
for the past two years Recently, neighbours became
adult children, conceptualise it not as an outcome of
concerned because they had not seen Puleng very often
a caregiving situation, but as a development from the
for the last several months When they did, she looked
longer ongoing relationship between parent and child
rather worn, thin, and unkempt. Finally, the neighbours
(Pickering & Phillips, 2014). Similarly, abuse by intimate
decided that they should do something, so they called
partners may also be tied to former existing relationship
a local social worker to investigate. The social worker
issues even if abuse had not been present previously
found that Puleng was severely malnourished, had not
(Bows, 2017; Roberto, McPherson, & Brossoie, 2013)
bathed in weeks, and appeared disoriented. Based on
Understanding, detecting, and addressing elder
these findings, the agency concluded that Puleng was
abuse requires culturally sensitive approaches that
a victim of neglect. She was moved temporarily to a
reflect the values of older adults in different societies
government nursing home.
(Teaster, Harley, & Kettaneh, 2014). Although certain
Although elder abuse, neglect, and exploitation are
characteristics, such as a correlation with disability,
difficult to define precisely, the following categories are occur across cultures, how those characteristics are
commonly used (National Center for State Courts, 2016):
manifest differ Likewise, prevention and intervention
e Physical abuse. use of physical force that may result in strategies must take cultural differences into account.
bodily injury, physical pain, or impairment As with abuse at other points in the life span, identifying
© Sexual abuse. nonconsensual sexual contact of any and reporting it is everyone's concern. If you suspect
kind that an older adult is a victim of elder abuse, neglect, or

506 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcammed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to clectrosic nights, some therd party contest mary he suppeessed thom the cftook andive eChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
exploitation, the best thing you can do is contact your local need. At the same time, privately owned hospitals and
adult protective services office and report it. healthcare practitioners offer care to those who can
afford to pay for it. Some people buy medical aid — a form
Social grants of insurance that pays out for healthcare. The payment
depends on the medical aid package selected and paid
The South African constitution includes, in its Bill of for; they range from hospital cover that pays out in the
Rights, the right to social security for all people The event of a hospital stay (after an accident, for example)
government fulfils this obligation through disbursing to comprehensive cover that pays out for most expenses.
social grants, monthly payments that are available to However, most South Africans cannot afford to pay
older people, among others The Older Person's Grant for medical aid, and they rely on the public healthcare
is available to people who are over 60 and not living in system This system is overburdened: healthcare staff
a government-funded care centre. The amount granted work long hours in overcrowded and under-resourced
is determined by a means test. In addition, people can facilities. In 2018, the minister of health announced a
apply for access to free water, electricity, and sanitation. plan to institute a National Health Insurance (NHI) to
The social grant system has played a vital role in helping reform the unequal health system in South Africa. The
to alleviate poverty in South Africa (Bosch, et al., 2010) NHI will, in essence, buy healthcare services from health
However, it is at times controversial. The government professionals (such as specialist doctors) and deliver
raises the funds for the grants through taxes, including them to patients through public and private facilities.
income tax. In 2018, only about 13% of the population The NHI will be introduced in phases, and the National
paid income tax, while about 30% of the population Health Insurance policy document was approved by
received social grants (Dasnois, 2018). This places a Cabinet in 2017.
high tax burden on a small portion of the population, As with social grants, there has been some
and as the population continues to age, this burden may controversy around the NHL. Its costs will be high, and
increase. In addition, social grants are administered by the funding will come from an already overburdened small
South African Social Security Agency (SASSA), and this tax base This means that it is politically a thorny issue
agency has been implicated in accusations of corruption Taken together, the challenges facing society concerning
and tender irregularities Despite these controversies, it older adults’ financial security and access to medical care
remains clear that the social grants are a vital lifeline for will continue to be major political and economic issues
people — including older people — who would otherwise throughout the first half of the 21st century at least.
be destitute. There are no easy answers and many challenges, but
open discussion of the various arguments and the stark
Healthcare budget realities will be essential for creating the optimal
South Africa has a network of public hospitals and solution. The ‘What do you think?’ feature discusses
clinics that provide healthcare to people who are in some of the budget realities of the proposed NHI.

WHAT 00 YOU THlNk? hospitals and clinics are overcrowded,

understaffed, and underresourced, and
are situated mostly in urban centres
What to do about healthcare? Doctors routinely work long shifts,
potentially leading to fatigue and human
error in diagnosis and treatment.
In 2016, it was estimated that the * has a small tax base, and many people Waiting times for specialist attention is
proposed NHI may cost as much as are reliant on government help to keep long, and patients may wait for months
R600 billion when it starts, although them from destitution At the same to see a specialist — by which time
this figure may be even higher time, the country’s economy is not the problem may have become much
Where will this money come from? growing and appears to be in a period worse As the population ages, these
In 2018, the government introduced of stagnation Can the country afford issues will only become worse as the
aVAT increase of 1%, which ts levied to introduce it? number of patients requiring attention
against all goods sold in the country On the other hand, can the country increases
As discussed previously, the country . afford not to introduce it? The public

155 5 SOCIAL ISSUES AND AGEING 507

Recall Interpret
1. There is a fairly strong and consistent © How might the large generation now graduating
relationship between and health- from high school affect social grants in the
related quality of life. future?
2. Black, Indian, and coloured South Africans Apply
have traditionally lived with to
varying degrees, while white South Africans have © How would the competence-environmental
traditionally lived as nuclear families. press framework, presented earlier in this
chapter, apply specifically to the various types
3. provide a supportive living of housing and nursing homes discussed in this
arrangement for people who need assistance with section?
ADLs or LADLs but who are not so impaired
physically or cognitively that they need 24-hour care. Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
end of the chapter.
4. The is available to people who are
over 60 and not living in a government-funded
care centre.

15.1 Theories of psychosocial ageing What is the proactivity and corrective

proactivity model?
What ts social involvement and healthy ageing?
e The preventive and corrective proactivity model
e Healthy ageing involves avoiding disease, being engaged
explains how life stressors and lack of good congruence
with life, and maintaining high cognitive and physical
in person-environment interactions result in poor life
functioning The basic premises of healthy ageing
outcomes. Key buffers (external and internal resources)
include keeping a balance between the various gains and
and proactive behaviours lower the negative impact of
losses that occur over time and minimising the influence
stressors and help people cope.
of factors unrelated to ageing.
© Preventive adaptations are actions that avoid stressors
and increase or build social resources. Corrective
What ts the competence—environmental press model,
adaptations are actions taken in response to stressors and
and how do docility and proactivity relate to the
can be facilitated by internal and external resources.
model?
© According to the competence-environmental press 15.2 Personality, social cognition, and
theory, people's optimal adaptation occurs when there 1s spirituality
a balance between their ability to cope and the level of
environmental demands placed on them When balance What is integrity in late life? How can people
1s not achieved, behaviour becomes maladaptive. The achieve tt?
model has wide applicability in ageing. © Older adults face the Eriksonian struggle of integrity
© People exhibit proactivity when they choose new versus despair primarily through a life review Integrity
behaviours to meet new desires and exert control over involves accepting one’s life for what it is, despair involves
their lives In contrast, people demonstrate docility bitterness about one’s past. People who reach integrity
when they allow the situation to dictate the options they become self-affirming and self-accepting, and they judge
have their lives to have been worthwhile and good.

508 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

How do people adjust to retirement? How do people cope with widowhood? How do men
© Retirement is an important life transition. Most people and women differ?
are satisfied with retirement Most retired people © Widowhood is a difficult transition for most people.
maintain their health, friendship networks, and activity Feelings of loneliness are hard to cope with Men
levels — at least in the years immediately following generally have problems in social relationships and
retirement For men, personal life priorities are all- in household tasks, women tend to have more severe
important; little is known about women’s retirement financial problems Some widowed people remarry,
satisfaction. partly to solve loneliness and financial problems.

What employment and volunteer opportunities are What special issues are involved in being a
available for older adults? great-grandparent?
© Increasingly, people continue some level of participation ¢ Becoming a great-grandparent is an important source
in the labour force during retirement, usually for of personal satisfaction for many older adults. Great-
financial reasons. Labour force participation among grandparents as a group are more similar to each

SUMMARY 509

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

healthy ageing (478) spiritual support (488) answers
competence (478) social convoy (493)
environmental press (478) socioemotional selectivity 15.1 1. Healthy ageing 2. competence-environmental
adaptation level (479) (495) press approach 3. Preventive and Corrective
zone of maximum frail older adults (500) Proactivity (PCP) 4. preventive
performance potential activities of daily living 15.2 1. integrity versus despair 2. life review 3. subjective
(479) (ADLs) (500) well-being 4. amygdala 5. attention and memory
zone of maximum instrumental activities
comfort (479) of daily living (IADLs) 15.3 1.60 2. physical and mental health 3. loyal
proactivity (479) (500) 4. volunteering

doce) php Eee 15.4 1. social convoy 2. more numerous and more
preventive adaptations (PLIMs) (501) j .
(480) sense of place (502) intimate 3. end-of-life issues 4. longevity

corrective adaptations functional health (503) 15.5 1. socioeconomic status 2. extended families
(480) assisted living facilities 3. Assisted living facilities 4. Older Person's Grant
integrity versus despair (504)
(483) nursing home (505)
life review (483)
subjective well-being
(484)

510 Cuaprer 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF LATER LIFE PSYCHOSOCIAL, RETIREMENT RELATIONSHIP, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES

16.1 Definitions and ethical

issues 513
Sociocultural definitions of
death 514
Legal and medical definitions 515
Ethical issues 515
What do you think? The case of
Professor Davison and his
mother 518

16.2 Thinking about death:

Personal aspects 519
A life-course approach to
dying 520
Real people: Applying human
development: Randy Pausch’s
last lecture 520
Dealing with one’s own
death 521
Death anxiety 522

16.3 End-of-life issues 525

Creating a final scenario 525
The hospice option 526

16.4 Surviving the loss: The

grieving process 530
The grief process 531
Coping with grief 533
Ambiguous loss 536
Complicated or prolonged grief
disorder 536
Spotlight on research. The costs
of holding in grief for the sake
of one’s partner 537
Disenfranchised grief 538

16.5 Dying and bereavement

experiences across the life
span 539
Childhood 539
Adolescence 541
Adulthood 541
Late adulthood 542
Conclusion 544

Summary 545

Key terms 547

Family and officials follow Winnie Madikizela-Mandela’s

tis taken from the Orlando stadium after her
funeral service in Soweto on 14 April 2018

All Rights Reserved May mot be copecd, scammed, of duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to electroeic nights, some third party costest mary he wappeessed thorn the cfook andice cChapter|s
docs not razicmadly afloct the ov € night to remove additeoeal creviont at any time if subsequentr dnictooes roxas it
we visit places where famous people In this chapter we delve into
famous people such
died or are buried. We watch as thanatology Thanatology is
as Prince, Lucky Dube, or
television newscasts show scenes of the study of death, dying, grief,
Winnie Madikizela-Mandela die
devastation in natural disasters and bereavement, and social attitudes
unexpectedly, people are confronted
war. But when it comes to pondering toward these issues. We first
with the reality that death happens
our own death or that of people consider definitional and ethical
to everyone Many of us die from the
close to us, we experience difficulty issues surrounding death Next, we
same conditions; the most likely ways
As French writer and reformer La look specifically at the process of
people die across the life span are
Rochefoucauld wrote over 300 years dying Dealing with grief is important
shown in @ FIGURE 16.1 Butthe
ago, ‘looking into the sun is easier for survivors, so we consider this
plain truth ts that each of us makes
than contemplating our death’ topic in the third section. Finally, we
the transition from life to death.
When death ts personal, we become examine how people view death at
We have a paradoxical
uneasy. Looking at the sun is hard different points in the life span
relationship with death Sometimes
indeed.
we are fascinated by it. As tourists,

10000 = All causes

=— Heart disease
——« Cancer
\\

\\ Unintentional injuries
(log scale)
Deaths per 100 000 population

~~ CLRD (chronic lower

respiratory disease)
=—— Alzheimer's disease
——~ Diabetes
— — Stroke
8

2004 «2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Year Year

@ FIGURE 16.1 Age-adjusted death rates for selected causes of death for all ages, by sex. 2004-2014
From National Center for Heath Statetca 016) Health, Unined Stanea 2015. Figure 2 Reviewed from www.cde gown tta/nuahus 15. pat

Definitions and ethical issues

Learning objectives

® Explain how death is defined.

® Identify the legal and medical criteria used to determine when death occurs.

® Describe the ethical dilemmas surrounding euthanasia.

e Examine the issues surrounding the costs of life-sustaining care.

thanatology Study of death, dying, grief, bereavement, and social attitudes toward these issues.

513

Sopyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, xcammed,
or duplicated im whole
or in part. Dur so clectromnc
nights, some therd party comtest muy he muppecesed form the clock andive oChaptcs|+)
ad semicw tos doomed that any auppromed crevice! dacs sot sastcmadly affect the overall kearnmye cupenence. Cengage Learsung reacrwes the night to remove addmiosal coeicmt af any tome af sabecquent neh scenctioss moqen &
Bongane and Thandeka had been married 2010; Norton & Gino, 2014). In South Africa and many
48 years when Bongane developed terminal other countries, the death ofa dignitary is marked by
pancreatic cancer. Bongane was suffering lowering flags to half-staff and declaring a formal period
terrible pain and begged Thandeka to make it of mourning. Some cultures have formalised periods
stop. He said she would not let their pet suffer of time during which certain prayers or rituals are
this way, so why let him? Thandeka heard about performed. After the death of a close relative, Orthodox
‘mercy killing’ that involved administering Jews recite ritual prayers and cover all the mirrors in
high dosages of certain medications, but she the house. The men slash their ties as a symbol of loss.
believed this was the same as murder Yet, she In Papua New Guinea, there are accepted time periods
could hardly bear to watch her beloved husband for phases of grief (Hemer, 2010). The Muscogee Creek
suffer. Thandeka wondered what she should do. tribe's rituals include digging the grave by hand and
giving a ‘farewell handshake’ by throwing a handful of
When one first thinks about it, death seems a simple dirt into the grave before covering it (Walker & Balk,
concept to define: it is the point when a person is no 2007). Ancestor worship, a deep respectful feeling
longer alive. Similarly, dying appears to be simply the toward individuals from whom a family is descended
process of making the transition from being alive to being or who are important to them, is an important part
dead. It all seems clear enough, doesn't it? But death and of customs of death in many Asian cultures (Roszko,
dying are actually far more complicated concepts. 2010). Some African cultures see dying as a transition
As we will see, there are many cultural and religious to a different phase of being Death is accompanied
differences in the definition of death and the customs by a number of cultural rituals during the mourning
surrounding it. The meaning of death depends on the process with the dead being viewed as still existing and
observer's perspective as well as the specific medical and influencing the actions of the living Death is viewed as
biological criteria one uses. a spiritual process including the dead and the living, and
From a legal perspective, it is important to thus death and mourning processes are not strictly one-
understand what death means, as well as what causes off events (Baloyi & Makobe-Rabothata, 2014)
death, as this marks the difference between ‘killing’ and
‘letting die: This distinction is important in law as it may
affect a conviction for murder or culpable homicide, or
deciding whether any crime has been committed at all,
especially in the context of assisted dying.

Sociocultural definiti asia

Although death is one of the few truly universal
experiences, each culture has its own ways of thinking
about, defining, and ritualising it (Bustos, 2007, Gire,
2014, Penson, 2004). All cultures have their own views.
Some cultures ritually pull their hair as a sign of grief
(Lewis, 2013). Melanesians have a term, mate, that
includes the extremely sick, the very old, and the dead,
the term foa refers to all other living people (Counts &
Counts, 1985). Other cultures believe the life force leaves
the body during sleep or illness, or involves reaching a
certain age (Gire, 2014). Still other cultures view death
as a transition to a different type of existence that still
allows interaction with the living, and some believe there
is a circular pattern of multiple deaths and rebirths (Gire,
2014). In Ghana people are said to have a ‘peaceful’ or
‘good’ death if the dying person finished all business and
made peace with others before death, and implies being
at peace with his or her own death (van der Geest, 2004).
A The symbols we use when people die, such as these elaborate
Mourning rituals, expressions of grief, and states caskets from Ghana, provide insights into how cultures think about
of bereavement also vary in different cultures (Lee, death

514 Cuaprer 16 DYING AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyraghs 2009 Congage Lawemag All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xammed, or duplconed m whole of im part. Dur to clectromsc mbm. somse thand party comscat mery be aappmoend form the cock andive chapter's
Edtorad averw bow doomed os aay eappromed comet dare act susamolly affect the overall kommg cupeneres. Congage Leaeemg rowrves the nett come adémtaceal coment af ay Orne if sofeequent ref aetnctoes ongeex ¢
Death can be a truly cross-cultural experience The The guidelines describe several complex steps
international outpouring of grief over the death of that doctors must follow to diagnose brain death In
leaders such as Nelson Mandela in 2013 and Kofi Annan some cases, this involves more than 25 specific tests
in 2018, the thousands killed in various terrorist attacks For example, the guidelines describe the best way
around the world, and the hundreds of thousands killed to demonstrate absence of breathing In contrast to
in such natural disasters as the earthquake in Haiti in previous guidelines, the current revision states that
2010, drew much attention to the ways the deaths of laboratory tests such as EEG or cerebral flow studies are
people we do not know personally can still affect us. It not needed to determine brain death. The guidelines
is at these times we realise death happens to us all and also make clear that this complex determination of brain
death can simultaneously be personal and public. death must be completed by a physician who has been
The many ways of viewing death can be seen in trained in diagnosing brain death.
various funeral customs. You may have experienced a Brain death is controversial from some religious
range of different types of funeral customs, from small, perspectives. For example, there is no general consensus
private services to elaborate rituals. Variations in the whether brain death is accepted as true death under
customs surrounding death are reflected in some of the Islamic law (Al-Bar & Chamsi-Pasha, 2015, Miller, 2016).
most iconic structures on earth, such as the pyramids in Roman Catholics focus on what they term ‘natural death’
Egypt, and some of the most beautiful, such as the Taj (Kassim & Alias, 2016). When these perspectives are
Mahal in India. considered, the determination of death can be difficult.
It is possible for a person’ cortical functioning to cease
ee ae while brainstem activity continues, this is a persistent
vegetative state, from which the person does not recover
Sociocultural approaches help us understand the This condition can occur following disruption of the
different ways people conceptualise and understand blood flow to the brain, a severe head injury, or a
death, but they do not address a fundamental question: drug overdose Persistent vegetative state allows for
how do we determine when someone has died? The spontaneous heartbeat and respiration but not for
medical and legal communities grappled with this consciousness. The whole-brain standard does not
question for centuries and continue to do so today Let's permit a declaration of death for someone who is in a
see what the current answers are. persistent vegetative state. Because of conditions like
Determining when death occurs has always been persistent vegetative state, family members sometimes
subjective For hundreds of years, people accepted and face difficult ethical decisions concerning care for the
applied the criteria that now define clinical death individual. These issues are the focus of the next section.
lack of heartbeat and respiration. Today, however, the
definition used in most countries is whole-brain death. Ethical i
In 2010, the American Academy of Neurology proposed
new guidelines for determining brain death (Wijdicks An ambulance screeches to a halt and emergency
et al., 2010) The goal in this revision of the criteria personnel rush a woman into the emergency room. As
was to provide guidelines that were based on research. a result of an accident at a swimming pool, she has no
According to the guidelines, there are three signs that pulse and no respiration. Working rapidly, the trauma
a person's brain has permanently stopped functioning. team reestablishes a heartbeat through electric shock. A
First, the person is in a coma, and the cause of the respirator is connected. An EEG and other tests reveal
coma is known Second, all brainstem reflexes have extensive and irreversible brain damage — she is in a
permanently stopped working Third, breathing has persistent vegetative state. What should be done?
permanently stopped, so that a ventilator, or breathing This is an example of the kinds of problems faced in
machine, must be used to keep the body functioning. the field of bioethics, the study of the interface between
The South African case of Clarke versus Hurst NO
in 1992 was one of the first cases in South Africa to clinical death Lack of heartbeat and respiration.
consider what death meant, and whether it would be whole-brain death Declared only when the deceased meets eight
a crime to stop artificially feeding a patient via a naso- criteria, which were established in 1981.
gastric tube The patient's wife, who made the decision,
persistent vegetative state Situation in which a person's cortical
was not charged with murder when the patient died after functioning ceases while brainstem activity continues.
the artificial feeding was stopped, because maintaining
the feeding was not considered the continuation of life as bioethics Study of the interface between human values and
technological advances in health and life sciences.
it was usually understood (Norton Rose Fulbright, 2010)

161 DEFINITIONS AND ETHICAL ISSUES 515

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copied, xcanmed, oe duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghts, some third party costest mary he suppecssed tom the cflook andlce eChapter(s).
Ecttomal seview ho deaned thot ary wippromed coment dacs aot miaicnally affect the overall amg etpencnee. Cengage Leartung remerves the night to remove additional coment af amy brne if udmequent nef wednctoes moyenne at.
human values and technological advances in health and A second form of euthanasia, passive euthanasia,
life sciences Bioethics grew from two bases: respect for involves allowing a person to die by withholding
individual freedom and the impossibility of establishing available treatment A ventilator might be disconnected,
any single version of morality by rational argument or chemotherapy might be withheld from a patient with
common sense. Both of these factors are increasingly terminal cancer, a surgical procedure might not be
based on empirical evidence and cultural contexts performed, or food could be withdrawn. In South Africa,
(Priaulx, 2013; Sherwin, 2011) In practice, bioethics palliative care must be continued even as the treatment
emphasises the importance of individual choice and the is withdrawn or withheld.
minimisation of harm over the maximisation of good. There is debate regarding the need to differentiate
That is, bioethics requires people to weigh how much active and passive euthanasia (for example, European
the patient will benefit from a treatment relative to the Association of Palliative Care, 2011, Garrard &
amount of suffering he or she will endure as a result of the Wilkinson, 2005, Strinic, 2015). Some argue the single
treatment Examples of the tough choices required are label ‘euthanasia’ suffices, others prefer to distinguish
those facing cancer patients about aggressive treatment between the traditional labels. The main point is that
for cancer that is quite likely to be fatal in any case and a decision to continue or terminate a persons life is
those facing family members about whether to turn off a made.
life-support machine attached to their loved one.
In the arena of death and dying, the most important
bioethical issue is euthanasia — the practice of ending
life for reasons of mercy. The moral dilemma posed by How do sociocultural forces shape attitudes
euthanasia becomes apparent when trying to decide about euthanasia?
the circumstances a person’s life should be ended,
that implicitly forces one to place a value on the life
of another (Bedir & Aksoy, 2011; Kassim & Alias, Some South Africans favour such actions as
2016; Munoz & Fox, 2013) It also makes us think disconnecting life support in situations involving
about the difference between ‘killing’ and ‘letting die’ patients in a persistent vegetative state, withholding
at the end of life (Dickens, Boyle, & Ganzini, 2008) treatment if the person agrees or is in the later stages
In our society, this dilemma occurs most often when of a terminal illness, and the concept of assisted death.
a person is being kept alive by machines or when Since the Clarke versus Hurst NO judgement, this is
someone is suffering from a terminal illness This is permitted in South Africa, and the Health Professions
the situation confronting Bongane and Thandeka in Council of South Africa (HPCSA) has published
the opening story. guidelines regarding the disconnecting of life support
from patients in this situation. But feelings also run
strongly against such actions for religious or other
Euthanasia reasons (Meilaender, 2013; Strinic, 2015). This is true
Euthanasia can be carried out in two different ways on global platforms, too, and even political debates
actively and passively (Moeller, Lewis, & Werth, 2010) incorporate the issue, as demonstrated in the summer
Active euthanasia involves the deliberate ending of of 2009 in the United States when opponents of former
someone's life, that may be based on a clear statement of President Obama's healthcare reform falsely claimed
the person's wishes, or be a deciston made by someone else ‘death panels’ would make decisions about terminating
who has the legal authority to do so. Usually, this involves life support if the reform measure passed.
situations when people are in a persistent vegetative Globally, opinions about euthanasia vary (Bosshard
state or suffer from the end stages of a terminal disease & Materstvedt, 2011; Strinic, 2015). Western Europeans
Examples of active euthanasia would be administering a tend to view active euthanasia more positively based
drug overdose or ending a person's life through so-called on less influence of religion and more social welfare
mercy killing. services than residents of Eastern European and
Islamic countries, who are more influenced by religious
beliefs arguing against such practices (Baumann et al.,
euthanasia Practice of ending life for reasons of mercy. 2011, Hains & Hulbert-Williams, 2013; Miller, 2016;
Nayernouri, 2011).
active euthanasia Deliberate ending of someone's life.
Disconnecting a life-support system is one thing;
passive cuthanasia Practice of allowing a person to die by withholding nourishment from a terminally ill person
is quite another issue for many people. Indeed, such

516 Cuarter 16 DyinG AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyraght 3019 Cengage Lesrmang. All Rights Reserved May mot be copecd, ecammed, or duphicated, mm whole or on part. Dur to clectroesc nights, some therd party contest muy he suppecescd form the citook andive of haptcs|s)
Edtonad seview ton doomed that ary euppromed comcm! dacs sot mumcmally affect the overall kamnmy cepenceee. Congage Learning reucrves the night w remove addmosal comicen af any tome of suteequeet ngh scanctons noqeaw &
cases often end up in court. The first high-profile In general, all of these laws permit people to obtain
legal case involving passive euthanasia in the U.S and use prescriptions for self-administered lethal doses
was brought to the courts in 1990, the U.S Supreme of medication. The laws often require a physician to
Court took up the case of Nancy Cruzan, whose inform the person he or she is terminally ill and describe
family wanted to end her forced feeding The court alternative options (for example, hospice care, pain
ruled that unless clear and incontrovertible evidence control) The person must be mentally competent and
is presented to indicate that an individual desires make multiple requests. Such provisions are included to
to have nourishment stopped, such as through a ensure people making the request fully understand the
healthcare power of attorney or living will, as was issues and the request is not made hastily
the case with Dr Clarke here in South Africa, a third Available data indicate such laws often have
party (such as a parent or partner) cannot decide to psychological benefits for patients, who value having
terminate nourishment. We will consider later in this autonomy in death as in life, especially in situations
chapter how to ensure that one’s wishes about these involving unbearable suffering (Hendry et al., 2013)
matters are expressed clearly Still, the idea of physicians helping people end their lives
is a difficult topic for many.
Physician-assisted suicide In South Africa, physician-assisted suicide is illegal.
In 2016, Robert Stransham-Ford, who was terminally
Taking one’s own life through suicide has never been
ill with prostate cancer, sought an order from the court
popular in South Africa because of religious and other
to allow him to end his life through physician-assisted
prohibitions. However, the act of suicide itself is not
suicide The High Court granted his request, but it was
a criminal offence in South Africa. What is a crime,
too late for Stransham-Ford, who had died a few hours
however, is helping, assisting, aiding, or encouraging
before. The matter was taken on appeal to the Supreme
someone to commit suicide. In other cultures, such as
Court of Appeal, where the decision was overturned,
Japan, suicide is viewed as an honourable way to die
partly because Stransham-Ford had died already, so
under certain circumstances (Joiner, 2010).
there was technically no decision to be made This case
Attitudes regarding suicide in certain situations
was controversial and it revealed the difficult legal,
are changing. Much of this change concerns the topic
medical, and ethical issues as well as the high degree of
of physician-assisted suicide, in which physicians
emotion surrounding the topic of euthanasia and death
provide dying patients with a fatal dose of medication
with dignity Another case is discussed in the “What do
that the patient self-administers. Many South Africans,
you think’ feature.
as do people in other countries, favour having a
There is no question the debate over physician-
choice regarding assisted suicide if they should ever
assisted suicide will continue. As the technology to keep
be diagnosed with a terminal disease. Archbishop
people alive continues to improve, the ethical issues
Emeritus Desmond Tutu stated, in October 2016, that
about active euthanasia in general, and physician-assisted
‘dying people should have the right to choose how and
suicide in particular, will continue to become more
when they leave Mother Earth’ (Tutu, 2016). However,
complex and will likely focus increasingly on quality of
many others oppose it on moral or religious grounds,
life and death with dignity (Gostin & Roberts, 2016).
irrespective of the wishes of the dying person.
In some cases this option has been put into law.
Several countries — including Switzerland, Belgium, the The price of life-sustaining care
Netherlands, and Colombia — have legalised physician- A growing debate in South Africa concerns the financial,
assisted suicide. Each of these laws sets clear guidelines personal, and moral costs of keeping people alive on life-
for when this option is permitted. For example, in the support machines and continuing aggressive care when
Netherlands, five criteria must be met before a terminally people have terminal conditions. Debate continues on
ill person can request physician-assisted suicide as an whether secondary health conditions in terminally ill
option. people should be treated The argument is such care
is expensive, these people will die soon anyway, and
1. The patient's condition is intolerable with no hope for needlessly prolonging life is a burden on society.
improvement.
2. No relief is available
3. The patient is competent.
4. The patient makes a request repeatedly over time. physician-assisted suicide Process in which physicians provide
5. Two physicians review the case and agree with the dying patients with a fatal dose of medication that the patient
self-administers.
patient's request.

161 DEFINITIONS AND ETHICAL ISSUES 517

However, many others argue all means possible The biggest challenge in confronting these differences
should be used, whether for a premature infant or in approach and cost is the difficulty in deciding when to
an older adult, to keep them alive despite the high treat or not treat a disease a person has. There are no
cost and possible risk of negative side effects of the easy answers. Consider the loud criticism when research
treatment or intervention They argue life is precious, evidence indicated various types of cancer screening
and humans should not ‘play God’ and decide when it (for example, breast, prostate) should not be provided
should end. to everyone as early or as often as initially thought.
There is no question extraordinary interventions are Despite the lack of supporting evidence and the cost
expensive Healthcare costs can soar during the last year of continuing traditional approaches, many patients
of a person's life. One example involves the continued and physicians do so anyway Failure to base care on
use of chemotherapy for end-stage cancer patients, evidence has a price Whether that is affordable in the
the higher costs of care given the evidence of limited long run seems unlikely.
benefit and potential harm of continued treatment are
coming under increased scrutiny (Garrido et al., 2016) Think about it
Expenditures for end-of-life care are typically less for
those having advance directives (discussed later in this How should the biopsychosocial model influence
chapter) who receive palliative care political debates about dying and death?

518 CuHarPTeR 16 DyING AND BEREAVEMENT

Recall life-support machines and continuing aggressive

care when people have terminal conditions.
1. Clinical death is defined as the lack of
heartbeat and respiration, while
Interpret
includes three signs that the person's brain has
permanently stopped functioning. © What is the difference between passive and active
euthanasia?
2. Ina a persons cortical functioning
ceases while brainstem activity continues. Apply
3. The act of suicide itself is not a criminal offence © Describe how people at each level of Kohlberg’s
in South Africa, but is considered a theory of moral reasoning (described in Chapter 8)
crime. would deal with the issue of euthanasia.
4. A growing debate in South Africa concerns the Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
costs of keeping people alive on end of the chapter.

fT] Thinking about death: Personal aspects

Learning objectives

* Explain how feelings about death change over adulthood.

® Describe how people deal with their own death.

Mbali is a 49-year-old woman whose parents people's feelings about death differ with age® What is it
have both died in the past three years She now about death we fear or that makes us anxious?
realises she is the oldest living member of her Before we begin, let's take a moment and reflect on how
family (she has two younger siblings). She has people are remembered after death. One common way to
started thinking about the fact that someday remember people immediately after they die is through
she too will die. Mbali gets anxious when she an obituary, an experience we may have with hundreds
thinks about her death and tries to block it out of people we know but never our own. Here's a chance to
of her mind. think about one’s own death from that perspective. Take a
few minutes and do the following exercise:
Like Mbali, most people are uncomfortable thinking e In 200 words or less, write your own obituary. Be
about their own death, especially if they think it will be sure to include your age and cause of death List your
unpleasant. As one research participant put it, “You are lifetime accomplishments Don't forget to list your
nuts if you aren't afraid of death’ (Kalish & Reynolds, 1976) survivors.
Still, death is a paradox, as we noted at the beginning of e Think about all the things you will have done that are
the chapter. That is, we are afraid of or anxious about not listed in your obituary. List some of them.
death but we are drawn to it, sometimes in public ways e Think of all the friends you will have made and how
We examine this paradox at the personal level in this you will have affected them.
section. Specifically, we focus on two questions: How do © Would you make any changes in your obituary now?

162 THINKING ABOUT DEATH PERSONAL ASPECTS 519

Applying human At the age of 46, Randy * his wife and three children. He had a
development was told that his pancreatic birthday cake brought onto the stage
cancer had recurred and he for his wife Randy lived several more
had between three and six months after his lecture, dying in July
months to live So instead 2008 at age 47
Randy Pausch’s last You can see Randy’s lecture
of just getting depressed
lecture about it, he decided to by searching YouTube. It was also
Randy Pausch was a give a lecture a month published as a book. In a strange twist,
famous computer scientist later about achieving one’s the coauthor of the book, Jeff Zaslow,
on the faculty at Carnegie childhood dreams. His was himself killed in a car accident at
Mellon University, Pittsburgh, lecture is both moving and age 53.
U.S. He cofounded the funny. Rather than talking One never knows when one’s life
Entertainment Technology about dying, Randy focused will end, it is said that the end comes
Center there and invented a on overcoming obstacles and like a thief in the night. But people such
highly innovative way to teach seizing every moment of one’s as Randy Pausch help us put our own
computer programming, called life because, as he put tt, ‘Time death into perspective by reminding us
Alice. But that’s not what made is all you have and you may what Is important
him world famous. He was a pioneer of find one day that you have less than
virtual reality. . you think’ He spoke of his love for

520 Cuarprer 16 DYING AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyraght
2009 Congage Lowmag All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xommed or dupbicted m whole of im part. Dur to clectrosc mghes, scene thand party contest aery be eappeesend fern fe cock andive of heapter’s)
Edsorad sverw bos doomed thos aay eappromed comamt dacs act susxmodly affect the over komang ctpenence. Congage Leateng rowrves the ngbt wo corarve addstaveal coment af any Orne if sehpequent ogi netnchoes snger t
subsequently realised the emotions can overlap and be
experienced in different order.
Many authors have tried to describe the dying process, Although she believed these five stages represent
often using the metaphor of a pathway that captures the the typical range of emotional development in the
one
duration of time between the onset of dying (for
example, dying, Kiibler-Ross (1974) cautioned that not every
from the diagnosis of a fatal disease) as well as death and experiences all of them or progresses through them at
the course of the dying process (D'Angelo et al., 2015; the same rate or in the same order Research supports
Field & Cassel, 2010). These dying pathways vary a great the view her ‘stages’ should not be viewed as a sequence
deal across diseases, as illustrated in @ FIGURE 16.2. (Charlton & Verghese, 2010; Parkes, 2013). In fact, we
Some diseases, such as lung cancer, have a clear and could actually harm dying people by considering these
rapid period of decline; this ‘terminal phase’ is often stages as fixed and universal. Individual differences
ity
used to determine whether a person is eligible for certain are great. Emotional responses may vary in intens
services (for example, hospice, discussed later)
Other throughout the dying process. So, the goal in applying
diseases, such as congestive heart failure, have no clear Kiabler-Ross’s ideas to real-world settings would be to
terminal phase. The two approaches to describing the help people achieve an appropriate death. one that meets
dying process we consider will try to account for both the needs of the dying person, allowing him or her to
types of pathways. work out each problem as it comes.

Kiibler-Ross's work
A contextual theory of dying
Elisabeth Kiibler-Ross changed the way we approach
Describing the process of dying is difficult. One reason
dying. When she began her investigations into the dying
l; for these problems is the realisation there is no one right
process in the 1960s, such research was controversia of
way to die, although there may be better or worse ways
her doctor colleagues initially were outraged and some Corr, &
coping (Corr, 2010a,b; Corr & Corr, 2013; Corr,
even denied that their patients were terminally ill. Still,
Nabe, 2008; Pope, 2017) Corr identified four dimensions
she persisted. More than 200 interviews with terminally
of the issues or tasks a dying person faces from their
ill people convinced her most people experienced
perspective: bodily needs, psychological security,
several emotional reactions. Using her experiences,
interpersonal attachments, and spiritual energy and
she described five reactions that represented the ways
hope. This holistic approach acknowledges individual
people dealt with death: denial, anger, bargaining,
and acceptance (Kiibler-Ross, 1969). differences and rejects broad generalisations. Corr’s task
work approach also recognises the importance of the
depression,
Although they were first presented as a sequence, it was

—— Lung cancer
cti
Funability ona
or severity of illness
l

Time =>

decline phase, whereas others, such

@ FIGURE 16.2 Some fatal diseases, such as lung cancer, have a clear
as congestive heart failure, do not Apsocelert
tr Groncaly & turn of De Acre cat bedi!
Gemeratate and evaluate Mrorte enSclile progacn
From Stotick, A A (190% MeSCating project to
Reprinted with pernesio n
of the Arrmricin Med oa Aneaceton
279, 1511-0512.

ABOUT DEATH PERSONAL ASPECTS 521

16.2 THINKING

wary be mappresaed Soom the eflavek ance Chapters}

sot by copend, acammed, oF duplicated, # whale oF in part Que to clectronsc nights, monn thin party content SEP
Copyeaght 201 Cengage Loemng All Rights ReservedMay momove ahisaonal cement at amy tems if stmerpecns maf snsctoate
eapqeomed comment Gace act sxstetadly rede ewe keamang cxqumcece. Congags Lcarsing ecacrven the right to
arer bee deemend Got any
coping efforts of family members, friends, and caregivers The theory proposes that ensuring the continuation of
as well as those of the dying person. one’s life is the primary motive underlying behaviour
Kastenbaum and Thuell (1995) argue that what is and that all other motives can be traced to this basic one.
needed is an even broader contextual approach - one An overview of the theory is shown in @ FIGURE 16.3
that takes a more inclusive view of the dying process. (Arndt & Goldenberg, 2017).
They point out that theories must be able to handle Essentially, terror management theory explains how
people who have a wide variety of terminal illnesses health conditions affect how we think about death.
and be sensitive to dying people’s own perspectives and Basically, when mortality concerns are in our conscious
values related to death. The socio-environmental context thought, our health-related decisions are determined
where dying occurs often changes over time and must be by our short-term goal of reducing our perceived
recognised. A person may begin the dying process living vulnerability to the health threat and its related concerns
independently but end up in a long-term care facility about mortality
Such moves may have profound implications for how Additionally, some suggest that older adults present
the person copes with dying. A contextual approach an existential threat for the younger and middle-
provides guidance for healthcare professionals and aged adults because they remind us all that death is
families for discussing how to protect the quality of life, inescapable, the body is fallible, and the bases that secure
provide better care, and prepare caregivers for dealing self-esteem (and manage death anxiety) are transitory
with the end of life. Such an approach would also provide (Martens, Goldenberg, & Greenberg, 2005) That may be
research questions such as how does one's acceptance of why some people seek cosmetic surgery as a way to deal
dying change across various stages* with their death anxiety (Tam, 2013). So, death anxiety is
Although we do not yet have a comprehensive theory a reflection of one’s concern over dying, an outcome that
of dying, we examine people's experiences as a narrative would violate the prime motive.
that can be written from many points of view (for
example, the patient, family members, caregivers). What
emerges would be a rich description of a dynamically
changing, individual process. Why does death anxiety have so many
components?

Death anxiety
We have seen how people view death varies with age. In Neuroimaging research shows that terror
the process, we encountered the notion of feeling anxious management theory provides a useful framework for
about death. Death anxiety refers to people’s anxiety or studying brain activity related to death anxiety Quirin
even fear of death and dying. Death anxiety is tough to and colleagues (2012) found brain activity in the right
pin down, indeed, it is the ethereal, unknown nature of amygdala, left rostral anterior cingulate cortex, and right
death, rather than something about it in particular, that caudate nucleus was greater when male participants
makes us feel so uncomfortable. Because of this, we must were answering questions about fear of death and dying,
look for indirect behavioural evidence to document than when they were answering questions about dental
death anxiety Research findings suggest death anxiety is pain Similarly, electrical activity in the brain indicates
a complex, multidimensional construct. people defend themselves against emotions related to
For nearly three decades, researchers have applied death (Klackl, Jonas, & Kronbichler, 2013) And younger
terror management theory as a framework to study adults show greater brain responses to death-related
death anxiety (Burke, Martens, & Faucher, 2010; Park terms than do older adults, indicating a fundamental
& Pyszczynski, 2016) Terror management theory shift in how adults process death-related concepts with
addresses the issue of why people engage in certain age (Bluntschli et al., 2018). There is neurophysiological
behaviours to achieve particular psychological states evidence that shows Mbali’s attempts to block thoughts
based on their deeply rooted concerns about mortality. of her own death in the opening story are common
across people.
On the basis of several diverse studies using many
death anxiety Feeling of anxiety or even fear of death
and dying. different measures, researchers now conclude death
terror management theory Theory that addresses the issue of anxiety consists of several components Each of these
why people engage in certain behaviours to achieve particular components is most easily described with terms that
psychological states based on their deeply rooted concerns about reflect areas of great concern (anxiety) but that cannot
mortality.
be tied to any one specific focus. These components

522 CuHartrer 16 DyING AND BEREAVEMENT

Ula
Sm ie
pT Lt) bereteb tle]

Health-facilitating
TT oreits

@ FIGURE 16.3 The Terror Management Health Model.

From Amat, J., & Goldenberg, J L (2017) Where heath and deat inpersect’ Insights trom a Terror Management Health Model. Currant Drectats
in Paychakypeel Scenes, 26, 126-131 Figura1, p 127 dot 10 1177/0963721416689563

of death anxiety include pain, body malfunction, fear of the unknown than women, but women report
humiliation, rejection, nonbeing, punishment, more specific fear of the dying process (Cicirelli, 2001).
interruption of goals, being destroyed, and negative Death anxiety varies across cultures in how it is (or is
impact on survivors (Power & Smith, 2008). To not) expressed (Park & Pyszczynski, 2016) In Taiwan,
complicate matters further, each of these components higher death anxiety among patients with cancer is
can be assessed at any of three levels: public, private, associated with not having a purpose in life and level of
and nonconscious What we admit feeling about death fear of disease relapse (Tang et al., 2011).
in public may differ greatly from what we feel when Strange as it may seem, death anxiety may have a
we are alone with our own thoughts. This may differ beneficial side. For one thing, being afraid to die means
from what we may be unaware of that still influences we often go to great lengths to make sure we stay alive, as
our behaviour. In short, the measurement of death argued by terror management theory (Burke et al., 2010;
anxiety is complex, and researchers need to specify Park & Pyszczynski, 2016). Because staying alive ensures
what aspects they are assessing. the continuation and socialisation of the species, fear of
Much research has been conducted to learn what death serves as a motivation to have children and raise
demographic and personality variables are related to them properly.
death anxiety. Although the results often are ambiguous,
some patterns have emerged. Older adults tend to Learning to deal with death anxiety
have lower death anxiety than younger adults, perhaps Although some degree of death anxiety may be
because of their tendency to engage in life review, have a appropriate, we must guard against letting it become
different perspective about time, and their higher level of powerful enough to interfere with normal daily routines.
religious motivation (Henrie, 2010). Men show greater Several ways exist to help us in this endeavour. Perhaps

162 THINKING ABOUT DEATH PERSONAL ASPECTS 523

Think about it

How might different approaches to lowering

death anxiety be useful to you as a healthcare

A Facing death on a regular basis often forces people to confront

worker?
their death anxiety.

=) Test yourself 16.2

Recall Interpret
1. The time when most people in developed e Why is it important to confront the issue of death
countries confront the death of their parents is as a part of human development?

Apply
2. In general, are less anxious about
death and more accepting of it than any other e Using Erikson’s theory as a framework, explain
age group. how death anxiety changes from adolescence to
late life.
3. described five reactions that
represented the ways people dealt with death: Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance end of the chapter.

4. is a feeling of anxiety or even fear of

death and dying.

524 CuHarPTerR 16 DyING AND BEREAVEMENT

® Identify end-of-life issues, and describe a final scenario.

® Describe hospice, and explain how hospice relates to end-of-life issues.

Larissa is a 72-year-old woman recently Consider the issue of rituals surrounding the time
diagnosed with advanced colon cancer. She immediately following death. What happens to one’s
has vivid memories of her father dying a long, body and how one is memorialised matters to most
protracted death in great pain. Larissa is afraid people. But decisions about these have to be made. Is a
she will suffer the same fate. She heard that the traditional burial preferred over cremation? A traditional
hospice in town emphasises pain management funeral over a memorial service? Such choices often are
and provides a lot of support for families. based on people's religious beliefs and their desire for
Larissa wonders whether that is something she privacy for their families after they have died.
should explore in the time she has left. Making sure one’s estate and personal effects are
passed on appropriately often is overlooked. Making
When people think about how they would like to die, a will is especially important to ensure one's wishes are
no one chooses a slow, painful process where medical carried out Providing for the informal distribution of
intervention continues well beyond the point of increasing personal effects also helps prevent disputes between
quality of life over quantity of life. However, medical family members.
intervention such as life support or cardiopulmonary Whether people choose to address these issues
resuscitation (CPR), are common, often required by law, formally or informally, it is important they be given the
even in situations in which people would prefer them not opportunity to do so. In many cases, family members are
to be used. How can people make their wishes known reluctant to discuss these matters with the dying relative
about how they want to experience the end of their life? because of their own anxiety about death Making such
choices known about how they do and do not want their
lives to end is called a final scenario.
Creating
a final scenario One of the most difficult and important parts of a
When given the chance, many adults would like to discuss final scenario for most people is the process of separation
a variety of issues, collectively called end-of-life issues from family and friends (Corr & Corr, 2013; Wanzer &
management of the final phase of life, after-death disposition Glenmullen, 2007) The final days, weeks, and months
of their body, memorial services, and distribution of assets of life provide opportunities to affirm love, resolve
(Moeller et al., 2010). We are experiencing a major shift in conflicts, and provide peace to dying people The failure
how people handle end-of-life issues. Before the current to complete this process often leaves survivors feeling
generation of older adults, people rarely planned ahead that they did not achieve closure in the relationship, and
for or made their wishes known about medical care they this can result in bitterness toward the deceased.
did or did not want. Now, people want to manage the final Healthcare workers realise the importance of giving
part of their lives by thinking through the choices between dying patients the chance to create a final scenario and
traditional care (for example, provided by hospitals and recognise the uniqueness of each person’s final passage.
nursing homes) and alternatives (such as hospices, which
we discuss in the next section), completing advance end-of-life issues Issues relating to management of the final
phase of life, after-death disposition of the body and memorial
directives (for example, healthcare power of attorney, services, and distribution of assets.
living will), resolving key personal relationships, and
perhaps choosing the alternative of ending one’s life final scenario Way for people to make their choices known about
how they do and do not want their lives to end.
prematurely through euthanasia.

16 3 END OF LIFE ISSUES 525

should be kept free of pain, emotional and social
impoverishment must be minimal.
© Clients must be encouraged to maintain competencies,
conflict resolution and fulfillment of realistic desires
must be assisted.
© Clients must be free to begin or end relationships,
an interdisciplinary team approach is used, and staff
members must seek to alleviate pain and fear.
Two types of hospices exist: inpatient and outpatient.
Inpatient hospices provide all care for clients; outpatient
hospices provide services to clients who remain in their
own homes The outpatient variation, when a hospice
A Deciding whether to have a formal funeral is part of the creation of nurse or social worker visits clients in their home, is
one's final scenario becoming increasingly popular, largely because more
clients can be served at a lower cost. Having hospice
services available to people at home is a viable option
hospice Approach to assisting dying people that emphasises pain for many people, especially in helping home-based
management, or palliative care, and death with dignity. caregivers cope with loss (Newman, Thompson, &
palliative care Care that is focused on providing relief from pain Chandler, 2013). In South Africa, many hospice services
and other symptoms of disease at any point during the disease are provided by trained volunteers who give their time to
process. a hospice organisation.

526 CHAPTER 16 DYING AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyragts
2009 Comgags Lowesng All Raghes Roserved May act be copand wcmmod of dapbcrad m whok of mm part Der to clecrormc mph. sone Gand pety comacst gary be exppecvend foen fer eBook andite cf napeer's)
Edecred arvacw bos doomed tes any eappromed
coment docs act sxsxruddy affect the overall komemy cxpemences. Congage Leasang scucrves the nett to comer adéteceal comet at ary tone of sateequest rete artectooes ogee ¢
Hospices do not follow a hospital model of care. The Needs expressed by staff, family, and clients differ
role of the staff in a hospice is not so much to treat the (Hiatt et al., 2007). Staff and family members tend to
client as it is just to be with the client. A client's dignity emphasise pain management, whereas many clients
is always maintained; often more attention is paid to want more attention paid to personal issues, such as
appearance and personal grooming than to medical spirituality and the process of dying. This difference
tests. Hospice staff members also provide a great deal of means the staff and family members may need to ask
support to the client's family. clients more often what they need instead of making
Increasingly, this support includes different ways of assumptions about what they need.
being present to and with the person who is dying. Some How do people decide among various care options,
hospices have the option for death doulas who help ease such as hospice, home health, or skilled care? Families
the passage through death. For some dying individuals, should ask several key questions (Hospice Foundation of
the doula may simply hold their hand; for others it America, 2016b, Karp & Wood, 2012, Knee, 2010):
may be through playing special music and sitting or
meditating with them. The main role is to ensure that © Is the person completely informed about the nature and
dying people are not alone, and that families, if present, prognosis of his or her condition? Full knowledge and the
have personal support. ability to communicate with healthcare personnel are
Hospice and hospital patients differ in important essential to understanding what hospice has to offer.
ways (Knee, 2010). Hospice clients are more mobile, less © What options are available at this point in the progress
anxious, and less depressed; spouses visit hospice clients of the person's disease? Knowing about all available
more often and participate more in their care, and treatment options is critical. Exploring treatment options
hospice staff members are perceived as more accessible. also requires healthcare professionals to be aware of
Research consistently shows significant improvements the latest approaches and be willing to disclose them.
in chents’ quality of life occur after hospice placement or © What are the person's expectations, fears, and hopes?
beginning palliative care (Blackhall et al., 2016; Rocque Some older adults, like Larissa, remember or have
& Cleary, 2013). heard stories about people who suffered greatly at the
Although the hospice is a valuable alternative for end of their lives. This can produce anxiety about one’s
many people, it may not be appropriate for everyone. own death. Similarly, fears of becoming dependent
Those who trust their doctor regarding medical care play an important role in a person's decision making.
options are more likely to select hospice than those Discovering and discussing these anxieties helps to
who do not trust their doctor, (Ludke & Smucker, 2007; clarify options.
Smith-Howell et al., 2016) In South Africa, hospices © How well do people in the person's social network
support about 150 000 clients a year. These people have communicate with each other? Talking about death is
a range of conditions, including cancer, motor neurone taboo in many families. In others, intergenerational
disease, cardiovascular diseases, dementia, multiple communication is difficult or impossible. Even in
sclerosis and Parkinson's disease (HPCA, 2019) The families with good communication, the coming death
majority of the care takes place in community-based of a loved relative is difficult. As a result, the dying
settings, including the patient's home, hospice day care, person may have difficulty expressing his or her
and outpatient services. wishes. The decision to explore the hospice option is
best made when it is discussed openly.
e Are family members available to participate actively
in terminal care? Hospice relies on family members
to provide much of the care that is supplemented by
professionals and volunteers. We saw in Chapters 11] and
13 that being a primary caregiver can be highly stressful.
Having a family member who is willing to accept this
responsibility is essential for the hospice option to work.
e Is a high-quality hospice care programme available?
Hospices in South Africa follow the same principles,
but they are separate organisations, and hospice
programmes are not uniformly good. As with any
if ini healthcare provider, patients and family members must
4 Hospice outpatient healthcare workers provide help for people
investigate the quality of local hospice programmes
with terminal diseases who choose to die at home. before making a choice.

16.3 END-OF LIFE ISSUES 527

Copyraght2099 Congape Lowrseng All Righes Reserved May not be coped, acommed. or dupbcted m whole of on port. Dur so clectrrenc mbes, some therd party comicet muy be suppeceecd foen tac clock andive of hapecs|+)
Edecrad srvicw tos deemed thot ary eappromed comeat doc: act mumcradh affect the overall kormmy cupencece. Congage Loatung rracrve the nett someve addmeosal mee of any tone of aterquee ng apencuces mgee 2
e Is hospice covered by medical aid? Hospice services account. For instance, doctors are required to administer
are covered by most medical aids, depending on the CPR or other attempts at resuscitation in the absence of
plan that the client has. However, most hospices clear evidence that the person does not want them used.
will provide services even if the client does not have There are two ways to make one’s intentions known.
medical aid and cannot afford to pay In a living will, a person simply states his or her wishes
about life support and other treatments In a healthcare
Hospice provides an important end-of-life option for
power of attorney, an individual appoints someone to act
many terminally ill people and their families. Moreover,
as his or her agent for healthcare decisions (see @ FIGURE
the supportive follow-up services they provide are often
16.4) A major purpose of both is to make one’s wishes
used by surviving family and friends. Most important,
known about the use of life-support interventions in the
the success of the hospice option has had important
event the person is unconscious or otherwise incapable
influences on traditional healthcare For example, the
of expressing them, along with other related end-of-life
American Academy of Pain Medicine (2016) publishes
issues such as organ transplantation and other healthcare
official position papers regarding the appropriate use
options. Without them, the ethical considerations of life-
of medical and behavioural interventions to provide
sustaining intervention for terminally ill patients is full
pain management. The Centers for Disease Control and
of ethical dilemmas (Awadi & Mrayyan, 2016; Portnoy
Prevention (2016c) also published guidelines for the
et al., 2015) A sound power of attorney for healthcare
appropriate use of opioids for pain management due to
has an additional advantage: it names an individual who
the risk of addiction from these medications.
has the legal authority to speak and make decisions for
Despite the importance of the hospice option for end-
the person if necessary.
of-life decisions, terminally ill persons face the barriers
Living wills (also called advance directives) are
of family reluctance to face the reality of terminal illness
not legally recognised in South African law. However,
and participate in the decision-making process, and
medical professionals have been directed by the HPCSA
healthcare providers who hinder access to hospice care
to follow them under certain circumstances, particularly
(Knee, 2010; Moon, 2017; Torres et al., 2016).
if a patient is in a persistent vegetative state However,
As the end of life approaches, the most important
this is where the difference between active and passive
thing to keep in mind is that the dying person has
euthanasia is important: all the medical professionals
the right to quality approaches to treatment and pain
are allowed to do in these circumstances is to remove
management. Irrespective of the choice of traditional
life-supporting machines. They cannot do anything
healthcare or hospice, the wishes of the dying person
further, such as administer a lethal dose of medication,
should be honoured, and family members and primary
even if the patient's directive was for this to be done So,
care providers must participate.
in South Africa, passive euthanasia is somewhat legally
permitted, but active euthanasia is not. That is why
Making your end-of-life intentions known Robert Stransham-Ford made his plea for physician-
End-of-life realities raise complex legal, political, and assisted euthanasia to the South African courts
ethical issues. In most jurisdictions, ending life through A living will or a durable power of attorney for
such means as euthanasia or assisted suicide is legal healthcare can be the basis for a ‘do not resuscitate’
only when a person has made known his or her wishes medical order A do not resuscitate (DNR) order means
concerning medical or other intervention. Unfortunately, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is not started should
many people fail to explicitly state their wishes, perhaps one’s heart and breathing stop In the normal course of
because it is difficult to think about such situations or events, a medical team will immediately try to restore
because they do not know the options available to them. normal heartbeat and respiration With a DNR order,
Without clear directions, though, medical personnel this treatment is not done. As with living wills and
may be unable to take a patient's preferences into healthcare power of attorney, it is extremely important
to let all appropriate medical personnel know a DNR
living will Document in which a person states his or her wishes order is in effect.
about life support and other treatments.
Although there is considerable support for both living
healthcare power of attorney Document in which an individual wills and healthcare power of attorney, there are several
appoints someone to act as his or her agent for healthcare challenges as well (Alspach, 2016; Izumi & Son, 2016).
decisions.
Many people fail to inform their relatives and doctors
do not resuscitate (DNR) order Medical order that means that about their healthcare decisions. Others do not tell the
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is not started should one’s person named in a durable power of attorney where
heart and breathing stop.
the document is kept. Obviously, this puts relatives at a

528 CuHartrer 16 DyING AND BEREAVEMENT

Two licensed physicians who are familiar with my condition have determined that my life may only be maintained by artificial means, including, but not limited to,
respirators and feeding tubes, and that there is no reasonable possibility that | will ever be able to sustain my life without such artificial means; then, and in any of such
events, my Healthcare Representative is authorised to do any one or more of the following:

| UNDERSTAND THE PURPOSE AND EFFECT OF THIS HEALTHCARE POWER OF ATTORNEY AND SIGN IT AT INSERT CITY AFTER CAREFUL DELIBERATION THIS INSERT DAY
DAY OF INSERT MONTH, 2.

(Signature.}

i hereby certify that on [date } personally came before me and acknowledged under oath, to my satisfaction, that [he/she } is the person named in and personally signed this
Healthcare Power of Attorney, and that [he/she] signed, sealed and delivered this Healthcare Power of Attomey as [his/her] act and deed for the uses and purposes therein expressed.

(Signature)
COMMISSIONER OF OATHS

@ FIGURE 16.4 Extracts from a specimen healthcare power of attorney.

Source: wew. finda. comspeciman-leathcare-powercf-amomey/2018. Farm prowkded By FindLaw a Thowaon Business, for mMformaional purposes only and inmanded 16 be used 23 & Guile Pride 80 COnsulalion with an wmomey
faewdiar with parsons speciic legal smuetion. FindLaw & fol engaged m rendering legal of other profecacnal advice, and tha form is not a gubsttule for The advice of a attorney.

serious disadvantage if decisions concerning the use of record. Staff at the healthcare facility must receive
life-support systems need to be made training about advance directives, and cannot make
admissions or treatment decisions based on whether
those directives exist.
Research indicates family members and other
Have you made your end-of-life intentions known?
surrogate decision-makers are often wrong about
what loved ones, even spouses or partners, really want
(Moorman & Inoue, 2013). This further emphasises the
Patient self-determination critical need, especially for couples, to discuss end-of-life
Making your decisions about healthcare known presumes issues ahead of time and ensure the appropriate advance
that you are competent and able to make those decisions directives are in place and key individuals are aware of
them (Queen, Berg, & Lowrance, 2015).
for yourself In South Africa, healthcare professionals
are expected to recognise patient autonomy, to accept
or refuse medical treatment, through the Constitution
of the Republic of South Africa and the National Health
What steps are necessary to ensure that
Act (among others).
your advance directives about healthcare are
Patients should be asked if they have an advance
followed?
directive, and, if so, it should be included in the medical

16.3 END OF LIFE ISSUES

Recall which a person states his or her wishes about life

support and other treatments.
1. relate to management of the final
phase of life, after-death disposition of the body
Interpret
and memorial services, and distribution of
assets. © Why is there a difference in treatment approach
between hospitals and hospices?
2. is not intended to cure the patient.
Rather, it is care that is focused on providing Apply
relief from pain and other symptoms of disease
at any point during the disease process. © How does creating a final scenario incorporate
the biopsychosocial forces of development?
3. A is not accepted as a legal Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
document in South Africa. It isa document in end of the chapter.

EX] Surviving the loss: The grieving process

Learning objectives

e Identify the feelings that grieving people have.

e Describe disenfranchised grief.

After 67 years of marriage, Namita recently lost Bereavement is the state or condition caused by loss
her husband. At 90, Namita knew neither she through death. Grief is the sorrow, hurt, anger, guilt,
nor her husband was likely to live much longer, confusion, and other feelings that arise after suffering
but the death was a shock just the same. Namita a loss. Mourning concerns the ways we express our
thinks about him much of the time and often finds grief You can tell that people in some cultures are
herself making decisions on the basis of ‘what bereaved and in mourning because of the clothing
Navin would have done’ in the same situation. they wear. Mourning is highly influenced by culture.
For some, mourning may involve wearing black,
Each of us suffers many losses over a lifetime Whenever attending funerals, and observing an official period
we lose someone close to us through death or other of grief, for others, it means drinking, wearing white,
separation, like Namita we experience bereavement, and marrying the deceased spouse’s sibling Grief
grief, and mourning corresponds to the emotional reactions following
loss, whereas mourning is the culturally approved
bereavement State or condition caused by loss through death. behavioural manifestations of those feelings. Even
grief Sorrow, hurt, anger, guilt, confusion, and other feelings that
though mourning rituals may be fairly standard
arise after suffering a loss. within a culture, how people grieve varies, as we see
next We will also see how Namita’s reactions are fairly
mourning Ways in which people express their grief.
typical of most people.

530 CuHarPTeR 16 DyING AND BEREAVEMENT

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
The grief process the woman in the opening story, is in the middle of this
process. Even the matter of deciding what to do with
How do people grieve? What do they experience? the deceased's personal effects can be part of this active
Perhaps you already have a good idea about the answers coping process (Attig, 1996).
to these questions from your own experience. If so, you
already know the process of grieving is a complicated
and personal one. Just as there is no right way to die,
there is no right way to grieve. Recognising there are
plenty of individual differences, we consider grieving
patterns in this section.
The grieving process is often described as reflecting
many themes and issues people confront that may be
expressed through rituals, both in-person and digital
(Gamba, 2015, Norton & Gino, 2014). Like the process of
dying, grieving does not have clearly demarcated stages
through which we pass in a neat sequence, although
there are certain issues people must face similar to those
faced by dying people. When someone close to us dies,
we must reorganise our lives, establish new patterns of
behaviour, and redefine relationships with family and 4 Dealing with the death of friends is often especially difficult for
young adults.
friends Indeed, Attig (1996) provided one of the best
descriptions of grief when he wrote grief is the process To make sense of grief, we need to keep several things
by which we relearn the world. in mind. First, grieving is a highly individual experience
Unlike bereavement, over which we have no control, (Bagbey Darian, 2014, Cummings, 2015, Steck & Steck,
grief is a process that involves choices in coping, from 2016) A process that works well for one person may
confronting the reality and emotions to using religion not be the best for someone else. Second, we must not
to ease one’s pain (Cummings, 2015, Norton & Gino, underestimate the amount of time people need to deal
2014) From this perspective, grief is an active process with the various issues. To a casual observer, it may
when a person must do several things (Worden, 1991): appear a survivor is ‘back to normal’ after a few weeks
e Acknowledge the reality of the loss. We must overcome (Harris, 2016) Actually, what may look like a return to
the temptation to deny the reality of our loss; we must normal activities may reflect bereaved people feeling
fully and openly acknowledge it and realise it affects social pressure to ‘get on with things’ It takes most people
every aspect of our life. much longer to resolve the complex emotional issues
e Work through the emotional turmoil. We must find faced during bereavement. Researchers and therapists
effective ways to confront and express the complete both agree a person needs at least a year following the
range of emotions we feel after the loss and must not loss to begin recovery, and two years is not uncommon.
avoid or repress them. Finally, ‘recovery’ may be a misleading term. It is
© Adjust to the environment where the deceased is probably more accurate to say we learn to live with
absent. We must define new patterns of living that our loss rather than we recover from it (Attig, 1996).
adjust appropriately and meaningfully to the fact the The impact of the loss of a loved one lasts a long time,
deceased 1s not present. perhaps for the rest of one’s life. Still, most people reach
© Loosen ties to the deceased. We must free ourselves a point of moving on with their lives (Bagbey Darian,
from the bonds of the deceased in order to reengage 2014, Bonanno, 2009; Harris, 2016).
with our social network. This means finding effective Recognising these aspects of grief makes it easier to
ways to say good-bye. know what to say and do for bereaved people. Among
the most useful things are simply to let the person
Grief is an active coping process (Bagbey Darian, know you are sorry for his or her loss, you are there for
2014). In processing grief, survivors must come to terms
support, and mean what you say.
with and integrate the physical world of things, places,
and events as well as their spiritual place in the world,
the interpersonal world of interactions with family and Risk factors in grief
friends, the dead, and, in some cases, God; and aspects of Bereavement is a life experience most people have many
our inner selves and our personal experiences. Namita, times, and most people eventually handle it, often better

16.4 SURVIVING THE LOSS THE GRIEVING PROCESS 531

Copyraght2079 Congape Loring. All Raphes Reserved Mizy not be copeed xcammed. or duplicted m whol or in pon. Dur so-clectroenc mpbes, some teed pany comic: muy be muppecuncd Goer tac clock andiee oChapacs()
Ederead sevice tom doomed thot ary eappromed comom dam act muncradh afiect the overs kenny ctpencees. Conpaps Loxrtung rece te nett © nomene addmeotal comer of ay ane of atecguee pte acenchces ogee &
than we might suspect (Bagbey Darian, 2014; Bonanno, attendance or spirituality in general helps people to deal
2009; Bonanno, Westphal, & Mancini, 2011; Cummings, with bereavement and subsequent grief through the
2015; Steck & Steck, 2016). However, there are some risk post-grief period (Gordon, 2013). There are, however,
factors that make bereavement more difficult. Several consistent findings regarding gender. Men and women
of the more important are the mode of death, personal differ in the ways they express emotions related to grief
factors (for example, personality, religiosity, age, gender, (Kersting & Nagl, 2016). Men have higher mortality rates
income), and interpersonal context (social support, following bereavement than women, who have higher
kinship relationship). rates of depression and complicated grief (discussed
Most people believe the circumstances of death affect later in this section) than men, but the reasons for these
the grief process. A person whose family member was differences are unclear (Kersting et al., 2011). Research
killed in a car accident has a different situation to deal also consistently shows that older adults suffer the least
with than a person whose family member died after a health consequences following bereavement, with the
long period of suffering with Alzheimer's disease It impact perhaps being strongest for middle-aged adults,
is believed when death ts anticipated, people go through but strong social support networks, including virtual
a period of anticipatory grief before the death that ones, lessen these effects to varying degrees (Chang
supposedly serves to buffer the impact of the loss when it et al., 2016; Papa & Litz, 2011)
does come and to facilitate recovery (Shore et al., 2016)
Indicators of anticipatory grief may appear as pre-loss
grief, and as depression, anxiety, or pain.
The research evidence for whether anticipatory grief How is grief influenced by sociocultural factors?
helps people cope with loss better is mixed. Anticipating
the loss of a loved one from cancer or other terminal
disease can provide a framework for understanding Typical grief reactions
family members’ reactions (Coombs, 2010; Shore et al., The feelings experienced during grieving are intense.
2016) However, anticipatory grief does not appear to These feelings not only make it difficult to cope but can
alleviate the outcome of the bereavement, in fact, it may also make a person question her or his own reactions.
even make it more difficult to reach a positive outcome The feelings involved usually include sadness, denial,
(Nielsen et al., 2016). anger, loneliness, and guilt.
The strength of attachment to the deceased person Many authors refer to the psychological side of coming
does make a difference in dealing with a sudden as to terms with bereavement as grief work. People need
opposed to an expected death. Attachment theory space and time to grieve, whether the loss is ambiguous
provides a framework for understanding different and lacking closure (for example, waiting to learn the
reactions (Hales, 2016; Stroebe & Archer, 2013). When fate of a missing loved one) or certain (for example,
the deceased person was one for whom the survivor had verification of death through a dead body) (Berns, 2011;
a strong and close attachment and the loss was sudden, Harris, 2016). However, a major challenge in many
the grief is greater. However, such secure attachment societies is that, as noted earlier, people feel pressured to
styles tend to result in less depression after the loss ‘move on’ quickly after a loss, especially if that loss is not
because of less guilt over unresolved issues (because of a spouse or child. That is not how people really feel or
there are fewer of them), things not provided (because want to deal with their grief; they want the opportunity
more were likely provided), and so on. to work through their feelings on their own terms and
Few studies of personal risk factors have been timeline.
done, and few firm conclusions can be drawn. To date Muller and Thompson (2003) examined people's
there are no consistent findings regarding personality experience of grief in a detailed interview study and
traits that either help buffer people from the effects of found five themes. Coping concerns what people do to
bereavement or exacerbate them (Haley, 2013, Stroebe deal with their loss in terms of what helps them. Affect
& Archer, 2013). Some evidence suggests that church refers to people's emotional reactions to the death of their
loved one, such as certain topics that serve as emotional
triggers for memories of their loved one. Change involves
anticipatory grief Gricf that is experienced during the period the ways survivors’ lives change as a result of the loss;
before an expected death occurs that supposedly serves to buffer
the impact of the loss when it does come and to facilitate recovery.
personal growth (for example, ‘I didn't think I could deal
with something that painful, but I did’) is a common
grief work Psychological side of coming to terms with experience. Narrative relates to the stories survivors
bereavement.
tell about their deceased loved one, that sometimes

532 Cuarter 16 DyinG AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyraght2079 Congape Lormeng All Raphes Reserved May not be coped, acmmed or dupboted = whok of in port. Dur so clectrenc mphes, some therd pany comtcet oy be suppeceacd foes tac clock andive of hapecs|+)
Edecead scvicw bos deemed thot ary euppromed creme! dacs act mumcrodly affect the overall keorumy cupemence. Conpage Loxsung roacrves the npht w somes addosal comet at any ne of sabeoqueet ngbe aencuoss ogee 2
includes details about the process of the death. Finally, In addition to psychological grief reactions, there
relationship reflects who the deceased person was and the are also physiological ones (McCoyd & Walter, 2016).
nature of the ties between that person and the survivor Physical health may decline, illness may result, and use
Collectively, these themes indicate the experience of of healthcare services may increase. Some people report
grief is complex and involves dealing with one's feelings sleep disturbances as well as neurological and circulatory
as a survivor as well as memories of the deceased person. problems (Kowalski & Bondmass, 2008; Naef et al.,
How people show their feelings of grief varies across 2013). Widowers in general report major disruptions in
ethnic and cultural groups (Bordere, 2016, Gire, 2014). their daily routines (Naef et al., 2013).
For example, families in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, In the time following the death of a loved one, dates
have a strong desire for closure and need for dealing having personal significance may reintroduce feelings of
with the ‘loneliness of grief’ (Brysiewicz, 2008) In many grief. Holidays such as Christmas or birthdays that were
cultures the bereaved construct a relationship with the spent with the deceased person may be difficult times
person who died, but how this happens differs widely, The actual anniversary of the death can be especially
from ‘ghosts’ to appearances in dreams to connection troublesome. The term anniversary reaction refers
through prayer and ancestor worship (Cacciatore & to changes in behaviour related to feelings of sadness
DeFrain, 2015) Differences in dealing with grief and on this date. Personal experience and research show
bereavement can also be observed across different recurring feelings of sadness or other examples of the
subgroups within ethnic groups For instance, various anniversary reaction are common in normal grief
Hispanic groups (for example, Mexican, Puerto Rican, (DiBello, 2015; Holland & Neimeyer, 2010; Rostila et al.,
Central American) differ somewhat from each other in 2015). Such feelings also accompany remembrances
ritual practices (Schoulte, 2011) of major catastrophes across cultures, such as Thais
remembering the victims ofa tsunami and major flood
(Assanangkornchai et al., 2007)
Most research on how people react to the death of a
loved one is cross-sectional. This work shows grief tends
to peak within the first six months following the death
ofa loved one (Maciejewski et al., 2007) but may never
fully go away, with effects on cognitive well-being greater
than for emotional well-being in general (Luhmann
et al., 2012).
Research has been done to examine longitudinal
effects of grief Some widows show no sign of lessening
of grief after five years (Kowalski & Bondmass, 2008).
Rosenblatt (1996) reported people still felt the effects of
the deaths of family members 50 years after the event.
The depth of the emotions over the loss of loved ones
sometimes never totally goes away, as people still cry and
feel sad when discussing the loss despite the length of
time that had passed. In general, though, people move
on with their lives and deal with their feelings reasonably
well (Bagbey Darian, 2014, Bonanno, 2009; Bonnano
et al., 2011, Cummings, 2015; Steck & Steck, 2016).

Coping with grief

Thus far, we have considered the behaviours people
show when they are dealing with grief. We have also
seen these behaviours change over time How does this
happen? How can we explain the grieving process?

anniversary reaction Changes in behaviour related to feelings of

sadness on the anniversary date of a loss.
4 Mourners outside Nelson Mandela’s Johannesburg home on 6
December 2013. How openly grief is expressed varies across cultures.

16.4 SURVIVING THE LOSS THE GRIEVING PROCESS 533

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, ucanned, or duplicated. im whole or in part. Duc to electronic nights, some third party contest mory he wuppreased thom the cock andice cChapter(s)
Editomal seview ton deemed that any wppromed comient docs sot mainly affect the overall amg expenence. Congage Learting reserves the night t remove additioeal coment at any time if audmequent neh reunctoes neqaar
Numerous theories have been proposed to account distress (Bonanno, Papa, & O'Neill, 2001) Although
for the grieving process, such as general life-event it may seem people who think obsessively about their
theories, psychodynamic, attachment, and cognitive loss or who ruminate about it are confronting the loss,
process theories (Stroebe & Archer, 2013; Stroebe, rumination is actually considered a form of avoidance
Schut, & Boerner, 2010). All of these approaches to because the person is not dealing with his or her real
grief are based on more general theories that result feelings and moving on (Bui et al., 2015; Eisma et al.,
in none of them providing an adequate explanation of 2015; Robinaugh & McNally, 2013)
the grieving process. Three integrative approaches have One prospective study shows, for instance,
been proposed specific to the grief process: the four- bereaved individuals who were not depressed prior
component model, the dual-process model of coping to their spouse's death but then evidenced chronically
with bereavement, and the model of adaptive grieving elevated depression through the first year and a half of
dynamics. bereavement (i.e., a chronic grief pattern) also tended to
report more frequently thinking about and talking about
The four-component model their recent loss at the six-month point in bereavement
(Bonanno, Wortman, & Neese, 2004). So, some bereaved
The four-component model proposes understanding
grief is based on four things. (1) the context of the loss, individuals engage in minimal grief processing whereas
referring to the risk factors such as whether the death others are predisposed toward more extensive grief
was expected; (2) continuation of subjective meaning processing. Furthermore, the individuals who engage in
associated with loss, ranging from evaluations of everyday minimal grief processing will show a relatively favourable
concerns to major questions about the meaning of life; grief outcome, whereas those who are predisposed to
(3) changing representations of the lost relationship over more extensive grief processing tend toward ruminative
time; and (4) the role of coping and emotion regulation preoccupation and, consequently, to a more prolonged
processes that cover all coping strategies used to deal with grief course (Bonanno, 2009, Bonanno et al., 2011; Bui
grief (Bonanno, 2009; Bonanno et al., 2011). The four- et al., 2015, Robinaugh & McNally, 2013).
component model relies heavily on emotion theory, In contrast to the traditional perspective that equates
has much in common with the transactional model of the absence of grief processing with grief avoidance,
stress, and has empirical support. According to the four- the grief work as rumination framework assumes
component model, dealing with grief is a complicated resilient individuals are able to minimise processing of
process only understood as a complex outcome that a loss through relatively automated processes, such as
unfolds over time distraction or shifting attention toward more positive
emotional experiences (Bonanno, 2009, Bonanno
There are several important implications of this
et al., 2011, Eisma et al., 2015). The grief work as
integrative approach One of the most important in
helping a grieving person involves helping her or him rumination framework argues the deliberate avoidance
make meaning from the loss (Bratkovich, 2010; Wong, or suppression of grief actually makes the experience of
grief worse (Bonanno, 2009, Bonanno et al., 2011).
2015). Second, this model implies encouraging people
to express their grief may actually not be helpful. An
alternative view, called the grief work as rumination The dual process model
hypothesis, not only rejects the necessity of grief processing
The dual process model (DPM) of coping with
for recovery from loss but views extensive grief processing
bereavement integrates existing ideas regarding stressors
as a form of rumination that may actually increase (Stroebe & Archer, 2013; Utz & Pascoe, 2016) As shown in
@ FIGURE 16.5, the DPM defines two broad types of
four-component model Model for understanding grief that is
based on (1) the context of the loss, (2) continuation of subjective
stressors. Loss-oriented stressors concern the loss itself, such
meaning associated with loss, (3) changing representations of as the grief work that needs to be done. Restoration-oriented
the lost relationship over time, and (4) the role of coping and stressors are those that involve adapting to the survivor's
emotion-regulation processes. new life situation, such as building new relationships and
grief work as rumination hypothesis Approach that not only finding new activities. The DPM proposes dealing with
rejects the necessity of grief processing for recovery from loss but these stressors is a dynamic process, as indicated by the
also views extensive grief processing as a form of rumination that lines connecting them in the figure. This is a distinguishing
may increase distress. feature of DPM. It shows how bereaved people cycle back
dual process model (DPM) View of coping with bereavement and forth between dealing mostly with grief and trying to
that integrates loss-oriented stressors and restoration-oriented move on with life. At times the emphasis will be on grief; at
stressors. other times on moving forward.

534 CuHarter 16 DyiInG AND BEREAVEMENT

* Loss-oriented
* Grief work * Doingnew things
* Intrusionof grief * Distraction
from grief
* Breaking bonds/ties * Denial/avoidanceof
relocationof the
* Denial/avoidance
of
restoration changes

@ FIGURE 16.5 The dual process model of coping with bereavement shows the relation
between dealing with the stresses of the loss itself (loss-oriented) and moving on with one’s life
(restoration-oriented)
From Stroebe, MM & Schut, H (2001) Models of comng with bereavement A review. In M.S. Stroebe, A. O Hanssen, W Strcebe, & H. Scheut (Eds.)
Handbook of barasvamnent sasearch: Consequences, cogng, aid care pp 375-400) Waalengton, OC’ Amarican Paychobbgcal Assocation

The DPM captures well the process bereaved e Heartening experiencing and/or expressing grieving
people themselves report — at times they are nearly responses that are gratifying, uplifting, and/or
overcome with grief, while at other times they handle pleasurable
life well. The DPM also helps us understand how, © Integrating assimilating internal and external changes
over time, people come to a balance between the catalysed by a grief-inducing loss, and reconciling
long-term effects of bereavement and the need to live differences in past, present, and future realities in light
life. Understanding how people handle grief requires of these changes
understanding the various contexts in which people © Tempering: avoiding chronic attempts to integrate
live and interact with others (Sandler, Wolchik, & changed realities impacted by a grief-inducing loss that
Ayers, 2007; Sandler et al., 2013). overwhelm a griever'’s and/or community's resources
and capacities to integrate such changes
The model of adaptive grieving dynamics Bagbey Darian (2014) argues that although the pairs
Grieving is an intense, personal, complicated process of dynamics appear to be contradictory, in processing
that does not follow a straight path through predictable grief they actually work together For instance,
stages (Bagbey Darian, 2014). Consequently, to grieving people often experience both joy and sorrow
understand grief is to understand that multiple responses simultaneously when remembering a loved one. This
to loss may each prove adaptive in different ways. Only simultaneity of experience is a key difference between
when they are considered together and in their unique MAGD and the dual process model, as the dual process
combination for each grieving person is a more complete model argues that grieving people oscillate between loss-
understanding of grief possible. oriented tasks and restoration-oriented tasks.
The basic structure of the model of adaptive According to the MAGD, the outcome of grief is not
grieving dynamics is shown in @ FIGURE 16.6. As ‘working things through, or necessarily finding meaning
can be seen, the model of adaptive grieving dynamics in the loss Rather, it aims at understanding how people
(MAGD) is based on two sets of pairs of adaptive continually negotiate and renegotiate their personal and
grieving dynamics One pair consists of lamenting and interpersonal equilibrium over time. Grieving never
heartening responses to grief; the other pair consists of really ends; how the person continues finding balance
integrating and tempering responses to grief These four given that reality is the issue
interrelated dynamics are defined as follows (Bagbey
Darian, 2014):
model of adaptive grieving dynamics (MAGD) Model of
© Lamenting: experiencing and/or expressing grieving grieving based on two sets of pairs of adaptive grieving dynamics:
responses that are distressing, disheartening, and/or lamenting and heartening responses to grief; integrating and
tempering responses to grief.
painful

16.4 SURVIVING THE LOSS THE GRIEVING PROCESS 535

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. mm whole or in part. Dur to clectronic nights, some thend party contest may he wuppreased thom the clock andice cChapter(s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
Griever’s Boss (2015) coined the term ambiguous loss for these
expanding circumstances. Ambiguous loss refers to situations of
life loss in which there is no resolution or closure. Boss (2010,
experiences
2015) describes two types of ambiguous loss. The first
type refers to a missing person who is physically absent
but still very present psychologically to family and
friends. Examples of this type include people missing
after disasters, victims of kidnapping, and those never
recovered from accidents.
The primary challenge for the families and friends
of the missing is the unending pain of not knowing
eri for certain what happened, where their loved one is at
present, and their specific fate. It is this pain that terrorists
rely on to inflict constant pain and suffering. Typical grief
reactions are postponed indefinitely, making it essentially
impossible for people to move on with their lives,
sometimes for generations (Boss, 2015). What motivates
these families and friends is hope for an eventual return
of the loved one (Boss, 2015, Wayland et al., 2016).
A second type of ambiguous loss involves a loved one
who is psychologically absent but who is still physically
present. They are what people term ‘here but gone’ as is the
@ FIGURE 16.6 Model of adaptive grieving dynamics. case in certain diseases such as dementia. Families caring
From Dagtey Darian, C. 0. (2094). A new mourning Synthesiaing av interactive model of adaptive grieving
Gyrarice. Nese, Crime & Loss, 23) 196-235. doi .21909L.22.3.cp. 204 for loved ones with Alzheimer's disease, for instance, report
going through grieving as their loved one loses more and
more of what makes them who they are, ultimately coming
Ambiguous loss to a point at which they think of their loved one as ‘dead’
To this point we have been considering grief reactions to even though they are physically alive (Boss, 2010).
loss in which there is the possibility of closure. In these The common aspect of both types of ambiguous loss
situations, there is proof of death, usually a physical is that as long as certainty is not reached, closure is not
dead body, and the likelihood of a funeral or some other possible in the usual sense. Families and friends report
ritual for support of the survivors But this 1s not always feeling pressure to stop holding out hope, on one hand,
the case. Consider major natural disasters, such as or are accused of being cold on the other. Either way,
tsunamis, or mayor explosions, accidents, or repressive ambiguous grief is especially difficult to deal with.
governments who kidnap or otherwise make people
‘disappear. The tsunami in Japan in 2011 left thousands are aad
unaccounted for.
Not everyone is able to cope with grief well and begin
rebuilding a life. Sometimes the feelings of hurt,
ambiguous loss Situations of loss in which there is no resolution
or closure
to a loss. loneliness, and guilt are so overwhelming they become
the focus of the survivor's life to such an extent there is
complicated grief or prolonged grief disorder Expression of never any closure and the grief continues to interfere
grief that is distinguished from depression and from normal grief
in terms of separation distress and traumatic distress. indefinitely with one's ability to function. When this
occurs, individuals are viewed as having complicated
separation distress Expression of complicated or prolonged grief, which is characterised by persistent and intrusive
grief disorder that includes being preoccupied with the deceased
to the point that it interferes with everyday functioning, having feelings of grief lasting beyond the expected period of
upsetting memories of the deceased, longing and searching for adaptation to loss, and is associated with separation
the deceased, and feeling isolated following the loss. distress and traumatic distress (Arizmendi, Kaszniak,
traumatic distress Expression of complicated or prolonged grief & O'Connor, 2016). Symptoms of separation distress
disorder that includes disbelief about the death; mistrusting include preoccupation with the deceased to the point that
others, feeling anger, and being detachment from others as a it interferes with everyday functioning, upsetting memories
result of the death; feeling shocked by the death; and experiencing of the deceased, longing and searching for the deceased, and
the physical presence of the deceased. isolation following the loss. Symptoms of traumatic distress

536 Cuarrer 16 DYInGc AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening All Rights Reserved May net be copied, scammed, or duplicated, m whole of in part. Dur to electronic nghts, sone thind party costest mery be suppeesand tern de efiock ancilow oC hapear(s)
Eahtomed review hem dheored thet any eappremed coment dacs set eustemally affect the overall kommng expenence. Cengage Learning reserves the night to oomowe additweal coment af any Gane if subsequent rghit sedrictions nepal
include feeling disbelief about the death, mistrust, anger, those areas of the brain that are typically involved
and detachment from others as a result of the death, feeling in regulating emotions, supporting the idea that
shocked by the death, and the experience of physical presence complicated grief involves avoidance and a disruption of
of the deceased. emotion regulation.
Complicated grief forms a separate set of The presence of complicated grief transcends culture.
symptoms from depression (Stroebe, Abakoumkin, & For example, Li & Prigerson (2016) validated a measure
Stroebe, 2010). Individuals experiencing complicated of complicated grief in a sample of Chinese adults
grief report high levels of separation distress (such Likewise, complicated grief was validated in a sample of
as yearning, pining, or longing for the deceased Spanish adults in terms of how they respond to emotion
person), along with specific cognitive, emotional, or (Fernandez-Alcantara et al., 2016).
behavioural indicators (such as avoiding reminders Some researchers believe that complicated grief
of the deceased, diminished sense of self, difficulty in may be more likely with certain types of loss (such as
accepting the loss, feeling bitter or angry), as well as the death of a child). In addition, some researchers also
increased morbidity, increased smoking and substance speculate that whether a person has a supportive social
abuse, and difficulties with family and other social network may make a difference However, too little
relationships. Similar distinctions have been made research has been conducted for clear conclusions to be
between complicated or prolonged grief disorder and drawn.
anxiety disorders The ‘Spotlight on research’ feature explores grief
Arizmendi and colleagues (2016) report that work regarding a common but under-researched topic
people who experience complicated grief, process grief the degree to which partners influence each other’s
emotions differently Specifically, they do not engage grieving process (Stroebe, Finkenauer et al., 2013). As

Spotlight on The costs of holding in grief for the sake of one’s partner

R esearc h Who were the investigators, Were there ethical concems in the study? There were
and what was the aim of no ethical concerns, as participants were carefully screened,
the study? When parents were provided detailed information about the nature of
experience the loss of a child, the project, and were given the opportunity to stop their
they must cope with two main participation at any time
things how to deal with the worst What were the results? Several findings are noteworthy
thing imaginable with the death of First, grief lessened over time for both partners, with a
their child and how to deal with each other Surprisingly, little recognition that gnef was always greater for women than
research has been done to examine how partners work through for men Higher levels of POSR mattered; individuals whose
the gneving process alone and together Stroebe and colleagues partner reported more POSR expenenced more grief
wanted to know how each partner regulates or tres to protect the themselves, as did their partner These relations remained
other from the pain of the loss and from his or her own gnef constant over time. Expressions of concern for the partner
How did the investigators measure the topic of interest? The showed the opposite — more expressions of concern were
researchers administered the Dutch version of the Inventory of related to lower levels of grief in the partner being targeted by
Complicated Gnef, items that measured PartnerOnented Self- those expressions
Regulation (POSR, such as ‘| stay strong for my partner’) and What did the investigators conclude? The researchers
items that assessed expressions of concern for one's partner argued that behaviours intended to show that one ts strong
Who were the participants in the study? Partiapants were 463 for one’s partner are actually unhelpful in lowering the
Dutch couples who had lost a child and were invited to participate experience of gnef On the other hand, one partner who
Parents who were also grandparents and single parents were expresses grief and concern about his or her partner can be
excluded A total of 219 couples agreed to participate Their age helpful in the couples’ and the individuals’ coping with grief
range was 26-68 years, the causes of death of the children were What converging evidence would strengthen these
vaned, and roughly two-thirds of the children were males conclusions? Because the study included only Dutch couples,
What was the design of the study?The study used a more diverse samples would be beneficial. Also, more
longitudinal design with three times of measurement (6, 13, analyses on the cause of death and the age of the child at
and 20 months after the death of the child) death may provide additional insightful information

16.4 SURVIVING THE LOSS THE GRIEVING PROCESS 537

Think about it
Terre eee PPP CeUOCUSS SSE T Teer ereeeeS eee TTT eee ree reese errr ett eee rere sees ess -
disenfranchised grief A loss that appears insignificant to
others is highly consequential to the person who suffers the How would you use the biopsychosocial model to
loss. create a support group for bereaved people?

Test yourself 16.4

Recall accident and broke his neck. He is still alive, but

Mariam feels like he isn’t. She is experiencing a
1. The difference between grief and mourning form of
is that grief relates to the feelings that arise
after suffering a loss, while mourning relates to
Interpret
e What connections might there be between
2. The four-component model is based on the
bereavement and stress?
context of the loss, continuation of subjective
meaning associated with loss, changing Apply
representations of the lost relationship over time,
and the ¢ Ifyou were to create a brochure listing the five
most important things to do and not to do in
3. The is a view of coping with reacting to someone who has just lost a close
bereavement that integrates loss-oriented family member or friend through death, what
stressors and restoration-oriented stressors. would you include? Why?

4. Mariam feels like she is grieving the death of her Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
boyfriend, who lies in a coma after he had an end of the chapter.

538 CuHarPTeR 16 DyING AND BEREAVEMENT

® Discuss how adolescents deal with death.

® Discuss how adults deal with death, and consider the special issues they face concerning the death of a child
or parent.

® Discuss how older adults face the loss of a child, grandchild, or partner.

Ntswaki and Thabo have a six-year-old daughter, to believe that death is temporary and magical, something
Thoriso, whose grandmother has just died. dramatic that comes to get you in the middle of the night
Thoriso and her grandmother were very close, as like a burglar or a ghost. Not until children are five to seven
the two saw each other almost every day. Other years of age do they realise that death is permanent, that
adults have told her parents not to take Thoriso it eventually happens to everyone, and that dead people
to the funeral. Ntswaki and Thabo aren’t sure no longer have any biological functions.
what to do They wonder whether Thoriso will Why does this shift occur? There are three major
understand what happened to her grandmother, areas of developmental change in children that affect their
and they worry about how she will react. understanding of death and grief (Rosengren et al., 201 4a;
Webb, 2010a): cognitive-language ability, emotional/
Coming to grips with the reality of death may be one of psychosocial development, and coping skills. In terms of
the hardest things we have to do in life. Western society cognitive-language ability, think back to Chapters 4 and 6,
do not help much either, as it tends to distance itself from especially to the discussion of Piaget's theory of cognitive
death through euphemisms, such as ‘passed away’ or development. Consider Thoriso, the six-year-old daughter
‘dearly departed; and by eliminating many rituals from the of Ntswaki and Thabo in the opening story Where would
home (for example, viewings no longer take place there, she be in Piaget's terms? In this perspective, the ages five
no more official mourning visits to the bereaved’s house) to seven include the transition from preoperational to
These trends make it difficult for people such as concrete-operational thinking. Concrete-operational
Ntswaki, Thabo, and Thoriso to learn about death in its thinking permits children to know that death is final and
natural context. Dying itself has been moved from the permanent. Therefore, Thoriso is likely to understand
home to hospitals and other institutions such as nursing what happened to her grandmother. With this more
homes. The closest most people get to death is a quick mature understanding of death comes a lower fear of
glance inside a nicely lined casket at a corpse that has death, too (Gutiérrez et al., 2014; Rosengren et al., 2014b)
been made to look as if the person were still alive. Children’s expressions of grief at the loss of a loved
What do people, especially children such as Thoriso, one vary with age, too (Halliwell & Franken, 2016; Webb,
understand about death? How do Ntswaki and Thabo 2010b). Several common manifestations of grief among
feel? How do the friends of Thoriso’s grandmother feel? children are shown in @ FIGURE 16.7. Typical reactions
In this section, we consider how our understanding of in early childhood include regression, guilt for causing
death changes throughout the life span. the death, denial, displacement, repression, and wishful
thinking that the deceased will return. In later childhood,
Childhood common behaviours include problems at school, anger,
and physical ailments. As children mature, they acquire
Parents often take their children to funerals of relatives and more coping skills that permit a shift to problem-focused
close friends. But many adults, such as Ntswaki and Thabo coping, which provides a better sense of personal control.
in the opening story, wonder whether young children really Children will often flip between grief and normal
know what death means. Children’s understanding of death activity, a pattern they may learn from adults (Stroebe
must be understood in terms of their cultural background et al., 2005), and they may be more likely to disclose
and the fact that it changes with their development their true feelings online (Halliwell & Franken, 2016).
(Rosengren, Gutiérrez, & Schein, 2014a). Preschoolers tend Sensitivity to these feelings and how they get expressed is

165 DYING AND BEREAVEMENT EXPERIENCES ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 539

@ FIGURE 16.7 Children show their grief in many ways, including physiological (somatic), emotional (intrapsychic),
and behavioural
From Oftjanbeuns, K.A 2001) Developmental comest of cwidhood Geel and regta! phenomena inh S Swoebe, A. O. Harason,W. Sroebe, & H. Schut, (Eda), Hanboot of Baroowenent
Fasaatchy Consequences, Coping,
and Care (Fig. 8-1 p 177). Viashingtan,
DC Americas Paychologcal Association Copyright
© 200! by the American Paychalagical Assocation.

Cuarprer 16 DyInG AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copscd, scammed, oe duplicated. m whole ce in part. Dur to clectrosic nghts, some third party costest mory he suppecased thor the cftook andice oC hapter(s).
Edttomad sewew box deemed that any wuppromed crevient docx sot mustcnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal creviont af any time if subsequent nights setnctioes neqeie it.
It is important for children to know that it is okay ones and try to find ways to keep them in their lives
for them to feel sad, to cry, or to show their feelings in (Barrera et al., 2013; Collins-Colosi, 2016). However, few
whatever way they want. Reassuring children that it’s nonbereaved peers were willing to talk with the bereaved
okay to feel this way helps them deal with their confusion students about their experience or even felt comfortable
at some adults’ explanations of death. Young adults being with them (Balk, 2014).
remember feeling uncomfortable as children around However, grief does not interfere with normative
dead bodies, often fearing that the deceased person developmental processes Bereaved adolescent siblings
would come after them. Still, researchers believe it is very experience continued personal growth following the death
important for children to attend the funeral of a relative of a loved one in much the same way as adolescents who
or to have a private viewing (Miller & Rosengren, 2014; did not experience such a loss (Balk, 2014; Malberg, 2014).
Webb, 2010b). They will process the experience in age-
appropriate ways, especially if they have understanding
adults available to answer questions. Adulthood
Because young adults are just beginning to pursue the
family, career, and personal goals they have set, they
SARA AREER ee emma ee E EERE EERE eRe eA EEE DEED EERE eR EEA SEEDED EERE EE ED
tend to be more intense in their feelings toward death
How could parents use knowledge of child When asked how they feel about death, young adults
development to help children understand death? report a strong sense of those who die at this point in
their lives would be cheated out of their future (Attig,
1996). Complicated grief and mental health problems are
Adolescence relatively common (Bolton et al., 2016, Mash, Fullerton, &
Adolescents have more personal experience with death Ursano, 2013).
and grief than many people realise (Balk, 2014). Surveys Wrenn (1999) relates one of the challenges faced by
of college students indicate that between 40 and 70% bereaved university students 1s learning ‘how to respond to
of traditional-aged college students will experience the people who ignore their grief, or who tell them they need
death of someone close to them during their college to get on with life and it’s not good for them to continue to
years, such as a parent, sibling, or friend. grieve’ (p. 134) University students have a need to express
Adolescence is a time of personal and physical their grief like other bereaved people do, so providing
change, when one is trying to develop a theory of self. them the opportunity to do so is crucial (Fajgenbaum,
When teenagers experience the death of someone Chesson, & Lanzl, 2012; McCoyd & Walter, 2016).
close to them, they may have considerable trouble Experiencing the loss of one’s partner in young
making sense of the event, especially if this is their first adulthood can be traumatic, not only because of the
experience (Oltjenbruns & Balk, 2007). The effects loss itself but also because such loss is unexpected. As
of bereavement in adolescence can be quite severe, Trish Straine, a 32-year-old widow whose husband
especially when the death was unexpected, and can was killed in the World Trade Center attack put it’
be expressed in many ways, such as chronic illness, “I suddenly thought, ‘I’m a widow. Then I said to
enduring guilt, low self-esteem, poorer performance myself, ‘A widow? That’s an older woman, who's
in school and at work, substance abuse, problems in dressed in black. It’s certainly not a 32-year-old like
interpersonal relationships, and suicidal thinking me™ (Lieber, 2001). One of the most difficult aspects
(Malberg, 2014; Morgan & Roberts, 2010). for young widows and widowers is they must deal
An important aspect of adolescent development is with both their own and their young children’s grief
wanting to be perceived as part of the peer group. As a and provide the support their children need, and
result, younger adolescents are particularly reluctant that can be extremely difficult. ‘Every time I look
to discuss their grief (for instance, over the loss of a at my children, I’m reminded of Mark, said Stacey,
sibling), mainly because they do not want to appear a 35-year-old widow whose husband died of bone
different from their peers (Balk, 2014). This reluctance cancer. ‘And people don’t want to hear you say you
leaves them particularly vulnerable to psychosomatic don't feel like moving on, even though there is great
symptoms such as headaches and stomach pains that pressure from them to do that.
signal underlying problems. The death of a girlfriend or boyfriend in young
Adolescents often do not demonstrate a clear end adulthood is often unacknowledged as bereavement.
point to their grief over the loss of a sibling or parent; Leichtentritt and colleagues (2013) found that girlfriends
they continue to miss and to love their dead loved of soldiers killed in battle felt socially isolated and lonely in

16.5 DYING AND BEREAVEMENT EXPERIENCES ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 541

Copyraghs2009 Comgages Lowseng. All Rights Reserwod Moy act be copand, scammed or dapicred m whol of i= part. Der to clectrormc rages, scene Gand party contrat ery be exppecsend een fae eBook andive of Tespecr’s)
Edecwed arverw bos doomed Gos any eappromed comme dam act sxsxmodly affect he overall komemy cupemences. Congage Leazang scarves the mete wm someve adéteoeal coment af any tone of rateeguent reise aotectoes coger t
The loss of a young adult child for a middle-aged
parent is experienced differently but is equally devastating
(Maple et al., 2013; Schneider, 2013). Complicated grief
is more common among bereaved parents than in other
groups, most likely due to the very different nature of the
parent-child relationship (Zetumer et al., 2015).

Death of one’s parent

Most parents die after their children are grown. But
whenever parental death occurs, it hurts. Losing a parent
in adulthood is a rite of passage as one is transformed
from being a ‘son’ or ‘daughter’ to being ‘without parents’
(Abrams, 2013; McCoyd & Walter, 2016). We, the
& Becoming a widow as a young adult can be especially traumatic. children, are now next in line.
dealing with their loss. Clearly, this is a missed opportunity The loss of a parent is significant. For young adult
women transitioning to motherhood, losing their own
to be sensitive to people's loss and to provide support.
mother during adolescence raises many feelings, such
as deep loss at not being able to share their pregnancies
Death of one’s child
with their mothers and the fear of dying young
The death of one’s child, for most parents, brings themselves (Franceschi, 2005). Death of one’s parent in
unimaginable grief (McCoyd & Walter, 2016; Stroebe adulthood has understandable effects on adult children,
et al., 2013) Because children are not supposed to die largely depending on the quality of the relationship with
before their parents, it 1s as if the natural order of things the deceased parent (Stokes, 2016).
has been violated, shaking parents to their core (Rubin & The feelings accompanying the loss of an older parent
Malkinson, 2001). Mourning and relationship stress are reflect a sense of letting go, loss of a buffer against death,
always intense; some parents never recover or reconcile better acceptance of one’s own eventual death, and a sense of
themselves to the death of their child and may terminate relief the parent's suffering is over (Abrams, 2013; Igarashi
their relationship with each other. Others find comfort and et al., 2013; McCoyd & Walter, 2016). Yet, if the parent died
strength in each other (Albuquerque, Pereira, & Narciso, from a cause such as Alzheimer’s disease, which involves
2016). The intensity of feelings is due to the strong parent- the loss of the parent-child relationship along the way, then
child bond that begins before birth and lasts a lifetime bodily death can feel like the second time the parent died
(Maple et al., 2010; Rosenbaum, Smith, & Zollfrank, 2011) (Shaw, 2007). Whether the adult child now tries to separate
Young parents who lose a child unexpectedly from the deceased parent's expectations or finds comfort in
report high anxiety, a more negative view of the world, the memories, the impact of the loss is great.
and much guilt. These feelings result in a devastating
experience (Seyda & Fitzsimons, 2010). The most Late adulthood
overlooked losses of a child are those that happen through
stillbirth, miscarriage, abortion, or neonatal death (Earle, In general, older adults are less anxious about death and
Komaromy, & Layne, 2012; McCoyd & Walter, 2016). more accepting of it than any other age group (Kastenbaum,
Attachment to the child begins before birth, especially for 1999). They may believe that their most important life tasks
mothers, so the loss hurts deeply For this reason, ritual have been completed. However, that is not to say that older
is extremely important to acknowledge the death and to adults are unaffected by loss. Far from it.
validate parents’ feelings of grief (Nuzum et al., 2015).
Yet parents who experience this type of loss are Death of one’s child or grandchild in late life
expected to recover quickly. The lived experience of The loss of a child can happen at any point over the adult
parents tells a different story (Seyda & Fitzsimons, life span. Older bereaved parents tend to re-evaluate their
2010). These parents talk about a life-changing event grief as experienced shortly after the loss, and years and
and report a deep sense of loss and hurt, especially when decades later. Even more than 30 years after the death of
others do not understand their feelings. Worst of all, if a child, older adults still feel a keen sense of loss and have
societal expectations for quick recovery are not met, the continued difficulty coming to terms with it (Malkinson
parents may be subjected to unfeeling comments. As one & Bar-Tur, 2004-2005). The long-lasting effects of the
mother notes, parents often just wish somebody would loss of a child are often accompanied by a sense of guilt
acknowledge the loss (Okonski, 1996). that the pain affected the parents’ relationships with the

542 Carrer 16 DYING AND BEREAVEMENT

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening. All Rights Reserved. May net be copied, scanned, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Duc to electronic nghes, some thind party costeat muy be wupprexacd teem te effiook anche oC raptors)
Dabtowed review hee deemed that sey wappremed content dacs set eustcmally affect the overall komm, cxpenence. Congage Leareung reserves the night wo nomove additaoeal coment af any Gane if submepant regi peairictioms renpaene
surviving children. Loss of a child in young adulthood sometimes last for years (Naef et al., 2013) Given that, you
may also result in lower cognitive functioning in late life might wonder whether having a supportive social network
(Greene et al., 2014) can help people cope However, research findings on this
The loss of a grandchild results in similar feelings: topic are mixed. Some studies find that social support
intense emotional upset, survivor guilt, regrets about the plays a significant role in the outcome of the grieving
relationship with the deceased grandchild, and a need process. For example, some research shows that during
to restructure relationships with the surviving family. the first two years after the death of a partner, the quality
However, bereaved grandparents tend to control and hide of the support system - rather than simply the number of
their grief behaviour in an attempt to shield their child friends — is especially important for the grieving partner
(the bereaved parent) from the level of pain being felt. In Survivors who have close confidants are better off than
cases in which older adults were the primary caregivers survivors who have many acquaintances (Hansson &
for grandchildren, feelings can be especially difficult. For Stroebe, 2007). In contrast, other studies find that having
example, custodial grandparents in South Africa whose a supportive social network plays little role in helping
grandchildren in their care died from AIDS go through people cope (DiGiacomo et al., 2013). Issues may include
emotionally difficult times due to the loss and to the whether there is a complex relationship involving the
social stigma regarding the disease (Boon et al., 2010). bereaved person, whether he or she wants to have contact
with others, who in the social network is willing to provide
Death of one’s partner support, and whether that support is of high quality
Experiencing the loss of one's partner is the type of loss When one’s partner dies, how he or she felt about the
in late life we know most about. The death of a partner relationship can play a role in coping with bereavement. For
differs from other losses. It clearly represents a deep instance, widowed older adults who felt worsening regret
personal loss, especially when the couple has had a long about unfinished aspects of their marriages over time had
and close relationship (Lee, 2014). In a very real way, the hardest time dealing with grief (Holland et al., 2014).
when one’s partner dies, a part of oneself dies, too.
There is pressure from society to mourn the loss of
one’s partner for a period of time and then to ‘move on’
(Jenkins, 2003). Typically, this pressure is manifested if Why do many older adults continue to ‘talk’ to
the survivor begins to show interest in finding another their deceased partners?
partner before an ‘acceptable’ period of mourning has
passed. Although most Western societies no longer
specify the length of the mourning period, many believe Several studies of widows document a tendency for
that about a year is appropriate. The fact that such pressure some older widows to ‘sanctify’ their husbands (Lopata,
and negative commentary usually do not accompany 1996). Sanctification involves describing a deceased
other losses is another indication of the seriousness with spouse in idealised terms, and it serves several functions:
which most people take the death of a partner validating that the widow had a strong marriage, is a
Older bereaved spouses may grieve a great deal for a good and worthy person, and is capable of rebuilding
long time (Lee, 2014), research has shown that grief can
her life. European American women who view being
a wife as above all other roles a woman can perform,
are somewhat more likely to sanctify their husbands
(Lopata, 1996) In fact, the higher the quality of the
relationship, the more bereaved spouses long for their
lost spouse (Stroebe, Abakoumkin, & Stroebe, 2010).
Older bereaved spouses who can talk about their
feelings concerning their loss demonstrate reduced
levels of depression and functional impairment (Pfoff,
Zarotney, & Monk, 2014) Cognitive-behavioural therapy
is one especially effective intervention to help bereaved
people make sense of the loss and deal with their other
feelings and thoughts (Lichtenthal & Sweeney, 2014) A
key to this process is helping people make meaning from
the death (Neimeyer & Wogrin, 2008).
Gay and lesbian couples may experience other feelings
4 The loss of a Spouse or partner can be especially traumatic after a
and reactions in addition to typical feelings of grief (Clarke
long relationship

165 DYING AND BEREAVEMENT EXPERIENCES ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 543

Test yourself 16.5

Recall Interpret
1. Children realise that death is permanent when e What similarities and differences would
they are years of age. you expect to find between the survivors in
heterosexual marriages and in gay or lesbian
2. Younger adolescents want to be perceived as
relationships when the spouse or partner dies?
part of the peer group, so they are particularly
reluctant to : Apply
3. In general, older adults are less and © How do the different ways that adults view death
more accepting of it than any other age group. relate to the stages of Erikson’s theory discussed
in Chapters 10, 13, and 15?
4. Gay or lesbian partners may feel by
family members of the deceased at the funeral, Check your answers to the Recall questions at the
making it hard for the partner to bring closure end of the chapter.
to the relationship.

544 CuHartrer 16 DyING AND BEREAVEMENT

Copryraght 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. m whole ce in part. Duc to clectronic nghts, some third party comtest mury be suppressed feo the cock andioe oChapter(s).
Edtonal seview bon deemed that any wuppromed comicat dacs act musicrally affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Leartung rescrvex the ngbt to remove additional coment af any time if autmequent nghe acdnchoes myer it.
16.1 Definitions and ethical issues How do people deal with their own death?
© Kiibler-Ross’s approach includes five stages: demal, anger,
How ts death defined?
bargaining, depression, and acceptance. People may be in
© Death 1s a difficult concept to define precisely Different more than one stage at a time and do not necessarily go
cultures have different meanings and rituals surrounding through them in order.
death. e A contextual theory of dying emphasises the tasks
a dying person must face. Four dimensions of these
What legal and medical criteria are used to determine tasks have been identified. bodily needs, psychological
when death occurs? security, interpersonal attachments, and spiritual energy
e For many centuries, a clinical definition of death and hope A contextual theory incorporates differences
was used: the absence of a heartbeat and respiration in reasons people die and the places people die.
Currently, whole-brain death 1s the most widely used
definition It 1s based on several highly specific criteria What is death anxiety, and how do people show it?
that are assessed by trained healthcare professionals. The © Most people exhibit some degree of anxiety about
condition of persistent vegetative state often creates a death, even though 1t is difficult to define and measure
complicated situation for determination of death. Terror management theory 1s a common frame for
understanding death anxiety Young adults show greater
What are the ethical dilemmas surrounding brain activity when exposed to death-related concepts
euthanasia? than do older adults.
© Two types of euthanasia are distinguished. Active © The main ways death anxiety is shown are by avoiding
euthanasia consists of deliberately ending someone's death (for example, refusing to go to funerals) and
life, such as turning off a life-support system. Passive deliberately challenging it (for example, engaging in
euthanasia 1s ending someone's life by withholding dangerous sports) The many components of death
some type of intervention or treatment (for example, by anxiety affect many different aspects of behaviour
stopping nutrition). © Death education has been shown to be extremely
© Active euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are effective in helping people deal with death anxiety
controversial and are illegal in South Africa.
It 1s essential for people to make their wishes known 16.3 End-of-life issues
through either a healthcare power of attorney or a living
will, although this document 1s not considered legally How do people deal with end-of-life issues and
binding in South Africa. create a final scenario?
© The personal and financial costs of prolonging life when © Managing the final aspects of life, after-death disposition
the patient would have preferred another option are of the body, memorial services, and distribution of assets
significant, as are the ethical issues regarding prolonging are important end-of-life issues Making choices about
life without considering quality of life what people want and do not want done constitute
making a final scenario. One of the most difficult parts
16.2 Thinking about death: Personal aspects of a final scenario 1s separation from family and friends.
Jointly creating a final scenario among the dying person,
How do feelings about death change over adulthood? family, and healthcare professionals 1s optimal.
© Cognitive developmental level 1s important for
understanding how young adults view death and the What ts hospice?
lessening of feelings of immortality © The goal of a hospice 1s to maintain the quality of
© Middle-aged adults usually experience the death of life and manage the pain of terminally ill patients.
their parents and begin to confront their own mortality, Hospice clients typically have cancer, AIDS, or a
undergoing a change 1n their sense of time lived and tme progressive neurological disorder Family members
until death. tend to stay involved in the care of hospice clients. Pain
e Older adults are less anxious about and more accepting management can also be achieved in ways other than
of death. through hospice.

SUMMARY 545

Copyright
2019 Cengage Leaeming. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated. m whole or in part. Due to clectronic nights, some thind party comtest mary he wppeeased teem the cock andice cChapter|s).
Exttomad semew boo deaned that any wuppromed content docs sot sustcrially affect
the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to memnowe additeoeal crevicnt af any Gane if subsequent nett sextnctioes neqenre it.
How does one make one’s end-of-life desires and What are the types of ambiguous loss?
decisions known? e Ambiguous loss refers to situations of loss in which
© End-of-life decisions are made known most often there 1s no resolution or closure. There are two types
through a living will, healthcare power of attorney, and of ambiguous loss. The first type refers to a missing
specific medical requests such as a do not resuscitate person who 1s physically absent but still very present
order. It is important family and healthcare professionals psychologically to family and friends. The second
are aware of these decisions. type refers to situations in which the loved one ts
psychologically absent but still physically present.
16.4 Surviving the loss: The grieving process
What ts the difference between normal and
How do people experience the grief process? complicated grief?
© Grief is an active process of coping with loss. Four aspects © Complicated grief involves symptoms of separation
of grieving must be confronted: the reality of the loss, the distress and traumatic distress Separation distress 1s
emotional turmoil, adjusting to the environment, and preoccupation with the deceased to the extent that it
loosening
the ties with the deceased. When death 1s expected, interferes with everyday functioning. Excessive guilt and
survivors go through anticipatory gnef; unexpected death 1s self-blame are common manifestations of traumatic grief.
usually more difficult for people to handle
© ‘Recovery’ may be a misleading term, as the process of What is disenfranchised grief?
adjusting and readjusting to life following a loss never © Disenfranchised grief, in which a loss 1s downplayed
ends. by others in a bereaved person's social network, 1s an
© The mode of death, personal factors, and extent of social important consideration in understanding grief.
support make a difference in dealing with grief.
© Anticipatory grief does not appear to make the grieving 16.5 Dying and bereavement experiences
process any easier. However, the degree of attachment to across the life span
the person who died does.
What do children understand about death? How
What feelings do grieving people have? should adults help them deal with it?
© Dealing with grief, called grief work, usually takes more e The cognitive and psychosocial developmental levels of
time than society wants to allot. Grief 1s equally intense children determine their understanding of and ability
for both expected and unexpected death. Normal grief to cope with death This 1s especially evident in the
reactions include sorrow, sadness, denial, disbelief, guilt, behaviours children use to display their grief.
and anniversary reactions. © Research indicates that there are few long-lasting effects
© How people demonstrate grief varies across cultures. of bereavement in childhood.

How do people cope with grief? How do adolescents deal with death?
e Three general approaches help explain how people cope e Adolescents may have difficulty making sense of
with grief. death and are often severely affected by bereavement.
e The four-component model is based on the processes Adolescents may be reluctant to discuss their feelings of
of the context of the loss, continuation of subjective loss, and peers often provide little support.
meaning of the loss, changing representations of the
lost relationship over time; and the role of coping and How do adults deal with death? What special issues
emotion regulation processes. However, the grief work as do they face concerning the death of a child or parent?
rumination hypothesis rejects the need for grief as a basis © Young and middle-aged adults usually have intense
for recovering form loss. feelings about death. Attachment theory provides a
e The dual process model integrates existing ideas about useful framework for understanding these feelings.
stress into the context of loss and restoration. These © Midlife is a time when people usually deal with the death
stressors operate in a dynamic relation. of their parents and confront their own mortality.

546 Cuartrer 16 DyiInG AND BEREAVEMENT

(Copyraght
2099 Congape Losrseng All Rights Reserved Mizy not be coped, scammed or duphicted m whol of on port. Dur so clectrrenc mpbes, some thord party comicet mary be sappecsacd een dar clock andie of hapecs|+)
Edecrad srvicw tos deemed tot ary eappromed coment doc: act mumriadh affect the overall kormmy cupenceee. Congage Loatung roacrve the net © nomeve addmiosal come of any tae of sateoguem: rgb aenchase mga 2
© The death of one’s child is especially difficult to cope © The death of a grandchild can be traumatic for older
with. adults, and the feelings of loss may never go away
© The death of one's parent deprives an adult of many © The death of one’s partner represents a deep personal
important things, and the feelings accompanying tt are loss, especially when the couple had a long and close
often complex. relationship. The history of the relationship influences
the grief process.
How do older adults face the loss of a child,
grandchild, or partner?
e Older adults are usually less anxious about death and
deal with it better than any other age group.

Key terms Test yourself: Recall

thanatology (513) bereavement (530) answers
clinical death (515) grief (530)
whole-brain death (515) mourning (530)
16.1 1. whole-brain death 2. persistent vegetative state
persistent vegetative state anticipatory grief (532) 3. helping, assisting, aiding, or encouraging someone
to commit suicide 4. financial, personal, and moral
(515) grief work (532)
bioethics (515) anniversary reaction 16.2 1. Midlife 2. older adults 3. Elisabeth Kiibler-Ross
euthanasia (516) (533) 4. Death anxiety
active euthanasia (516) four-component model
passive euthanasia (516) (534) 16.3 1. End-of-life issues 2. Palliative care 3. living will
physician-assisted suicide grief work as rumination
16.4 1. how we express those feelings 2 role of coping and
(517) hypothesis (534)
emotion-regulation processes 3. dual process model
death anxiety (522) dual process model
(DPM) 4. ambiguous loss
terror management (DPM) (534)
theory (522) model of adaptive 16.5 1. five to seven 2. discuss their grief 3. anxious about
end-of-life issues (525) grieving dynamics death 4. disenfranchised
final scenario (525) (MAGD) (535)
hospice (526) ambiguous loss (536)
palliative care (526) complicated or prolonged
living will (528) grief disorder (536)
healthcare power of separation distress (536)
attorney (528) traumatic distress (536)
do not resuscitate (DNR) disenfranchised grief
order (528) (538)

SUMMARY 547

Copyright
2019 Cengage Learming. All Rights Reserved May mot be copscd, scammed, ce duplicated. m whole oc in part. Dur to clectrosic nghts, some therd party contest mory be suppecased thorn the cltook andice oC hapter|s).
Edtomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed creriont dacs sot muztnally affect the overall kammg expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the night $0 remove additional coesient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctoes noqese a.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scammed, of duplicated, m whole oe in part. Dur to clectroemc rights, some thend party costest mory be suppecesed fom the cfiook andive eC hapter|s).
Exitomad seview boo deemed that any wuppromed comient docs sot musically affect the overall kammng experience. Cengage Learsing reserves the ngbt to nemove additional crevient af any Game if subsequent nefits sextrictions neqpeine it.
Chapter 1 Page 90: © dblight/E+/Getty Images
Page 2: © Tinpixels/istockphoto.com Page 91 © PHILIPPE MERLE/AFP/Getty Images
Page 3: © Daily Sun/Samson Ratswana/Gallo Images Page 94: © Dexter Gormley
Page 7: © Mathias T Oppersdorff/Science Source Page 96: © Britta/E+/Getty Images
Page 9: © 7382489561/Shutterstock.com Page 96: © Sujay_Govindaraj/istockphoto.com
Page 10: © Featureflash Photo Agency/Shutterstock.com Page 97: © Lucarelli Temistocle/Shutterstock.com
Page 11. © Adil Bradlow/ Africa Media Online Page 99: © Medioimages/Photodisc/Getty Images
Page 13: © 2019 Cengage Page 100: © Dion Ogust/The Image Works
Page 14: © 2019 Cengage Page 101 © Jenifer Harrington/Stockbyte/Jupiter Images
Page 15: © 2019 Cengage Page 103: © Mark Richards/PhotoEdit
Page 15: © 2019 Cengage Page 104: © Robert Glusic/Getty Images
Page 16: © Rob Marmion/Shutterstock.com Page 104: © T.W. van Urk/Shutterstock.com
Page 17: © 2019 Cengage Page 106: © Guy Stubbs/Independent Contributors/ Africa
Page 17: © 2019 Cengage Media Online
Page 20: © 2019 Cengage Page 108: © Pauline Breijer/Shutterstock.com
Page 21 © Gjon Mili/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images Page 111 © Sean Sprague/Alamy Stock Photo
Page 25: © Stegerphoto/Photolibrary/Getty Images
Page 27: © Paul Doyle/Alamy Stock Photo Chapter 4
Page 31 © Amy Etra/Photo Edit Page 116 © Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com
Page 119: © michellegibson/istockphoto.com
Chapter 2 Page 121 © David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit
Page 36: © FatCamera/istockphoto.com Page 123: © Lew Merrim/Science Source
Page 38: © The Science Picture Company/Alamy Stock Photo Page 124: © Weekend Images Inc./ istockphoto.com
Page 38: © Biophoto Associates/Science Source Page 127 © ValeryMinyaev/Shutterstock.com
Page 42: ® Moodboard Stock Photography Ltd./Canopy/Getty Images Page 131 © Rich Townsend/istockphoto.com
Page 44: © digitalskillet/iStock.com Page 131 © shupian/Shutterstock.com
Page 47: © trackS/iStock.com Page 132: © Courtesy of Dr. Carolyn Rovee-Collier
Page 47: © E+/Gallo Images SA Page 132 © Dishant_S/istockphoto.com
Page 49: © Eye of Science/Science Source Page 135- © Portra/istockphoto.com
Page 51 © Anatomical Travelogue/Science Source Page 137. © John Birdsall /The Image Works
Page 52: © SuperStock/Science Faction Images/Age Fotostock Page 137. © fatihhoca/iStock.com
Page 52: © MedicalRE.com/Getty Images Page 139- © mapodile/ istockphoto.com
Page 54: © Petit Format/Science Source Page 140: © Andy Cox/The Image Bank/Getty Images
Page 56: © Zurijeta/Shutterstock.com Page 142: © patrickheagney/iStock.com
Page 56: © The Times/Times Media Digital Archive/ Africa Page 145: © Courtesy of Robert V Kail
Media Online Page 148: © Susan Johns/Science Source
Page 58: © Betty Udesen KRT/Newscom Page 149: © UntitledImages/istockphoto.com
Page 62: © Keith Brofsky/Photodisc/Getty Images
Page 65: © James Marshall/The Image Works Chapter 5
Page 66: © Jenny Matthews/Alamy Stock Photo Page 154: © Wavebreakmedia/istockphoto.com
Page 69: © Abid Katib/Getty Images News/Getty Images Page 157: © Sean Sprague/The Image Works
Page 159: © Dorothy Littell Greco/The Image Works
Chapter 3 Page 159: © Mary Kate Denny/PhotoEdit
Page 74: © Laura Dwight/PhotoEdit Page 160: © Jan Mika/Shutterstock.com
Page 76: © Robert V Kail Page 161 © monkeybusinessimages/istockphoto.com
Page 77: © Picture Partners/Alamy Stock Photo Page 164: © lostinbids/istockphoto.com
Page 78: © Eye Ubiquitous/Newscom Page 164: © Courtesy of Robert V Kail
Page 78: © Per-Anders Pettersson/Getty Images News/Getty Images Page 169: © Vanessa Davies/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images
Page 80: © National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Page 170: © Blend Images KidStock/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images
Page 81 © Stuart Monk/Fotolia Page 171 © kali9/istockphoto.com
Page 82: © Richard Lord/The Image Works Page 172: © David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit
Page 86: © David Page Photography/Photolibrary/Getty Images Page 176: © Somwaya/Fotolia
Page 87: © Burger/Phanie/Superstock Page 180: © Image Source/Alamy Stock Photo
Page 90: © Cengage Argosy Publishing Inc. Page 183: © David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc/Alamy Stock Photo

C-1

Copyraght
2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copied, scanned, ce duplicated. im whole or in part. Dur to clectrosic nghts, some therd party contest mary he suppressed trom the cfiock andlor chapters)
Edaonad review boo deemed that any wuppromed cresion! dacs sot sastcially affect the overall kame cupenenee. Cengage Leareeng reacrwex the npbt to remove additonal coeiomt af any Game if subsequent neh sednchoes rogaine ot
Chapter 6 Page 316: © Mark Baker/AP Images
Page 186: © subman/istockphoto.com Page 320: © John C. Cavanaugh
Page 188: © Ableimages/Jupiter Images Page 322: © The Herald/Times Media Digital Archive/Africa Media
Page 190: © JPC-PROD/Shutterstock.com Online
Page 195: © David R. Frazicr/The
Image Works Page 332: © Nicola Katie/istockphoto.com
Page 197: © Denise Hager, Catchlight Visual Services/Alamy
Stock Photo
Page 198: © Mike Derer/AP Images Chapter 11
Page 203: © Csaba Peterdi/Shutterstock.com Page 342: © GeoffGoldswain/istockphoto.com
Page 205: © Catherine Ledner/Stone/Getty Images Page 345: © Dem10/iStock.com
Page 209: © ZUMA Press, Inc/Alamy Stock Photo Page 347: © Courtesyof John C. Cavanaugh
Page 210: © [DC/Corbis/Getty Images Page 350: © John Birdsall/The Image Works
Page 213: © Michael J. Doolittle/The Image Works Page 356: © Andrew Harrer/Bloomberg/Getty Images
Page 213: © Shuter and Shooter/Africa Media Online Page 358: © Sandy Huffaker/Getty Images News/Getty Images
Page 361 © Rohit Seth/Getty Images
Chapter 7 Page 362: © David Rogers/Getty Images Sport/Gallo Images SA
Page 222: © Hero Images/Getty Images Page 362: © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
Page 227: © Rob Marmion/Shutterstock.com
Page 228: © Simon Winnall/Taxi/Getty Images Chapter 12
Page 229: © Stock Connection Blue/Alamy Stock Photo Page 370: © Peoplelmages/istockphoto.com
Page 232: © Charlie Edward/Shutterstock.com Page 372 © Bienjamien Karlie/Independent Contributors/ Africa
Page 235: © Kayte Deioma/PhotoEdit Media Online
Page 240: © Muhammad Subky Latef Ayob/123RF Page 376: © Marc Romanelli/The Image Bank/Getty Images
Page 242: © Africalmages/ istockphoto.com Page 378 © Guy Stubbs/Independent Contributors/Africa
Page 243: © kali9/ istockphoto.com Media Online
Page 244: © Jennie Woodcock; Reflections Photolibrary/Corbis Page 384 © Bongiwe Gumede/Foto24//Gallo Images
Documentary/Getty Images Page 386: © Dennis Wise/ Digital Vision/Getty Images
Page 246: © 1995 Martha F Campbell. Reprinted with permission. Page 390 © Siphiwe Sibeko/Reuters/Gallo Images SA
Page 248: © CIOT/BSIP/
AGE Fotostock Page 393: © Mike Greenlar/The Image Works
Page 252: © Photoshot Page 395: © Purestock/Getty Images
Page 396: © Mauro Rodrigues/Shutterstock.com
Chapter 8
Page 258: © Wavebreakmedia/istockphoto.com Chapter 13
Page 259: © Justin Pumfrey/Getty Images Page 402: © Juanmonino/istockphoto.com
Page 262: © lakov Filimonov/Alamy Stock Photo Page 409: © Big Cheese Special/Big Cheese Photo LLC/Alamy
Page 263: © Roger de la Harpe/Africa Media Online Stock Photo
Page 266: © PNC/Getty Images Page 411 © Susan Vogel/UpperCut Images/Getty Images
Page 267: © Bubbles Photolibrary/Alamy Stock Photo Page 412: © Pressmaster/Shutterstock.com
Page 269: © Ed Suter/Independent Contributors/Africa Media Online Page 412: © Blend Images/Shutterstock.com
Page 270: © Brooke Whatnall/Shutterstock.com Page 412: © Arena Creative/shutterstock.com
Page 272: © Janine Wiedel/Photolibrary/Alamy Stock Photo Page 415: © Markus Gann/Shutterstock.com
Page 276: © Peter Hillebrecht/
AP Images Page 423: © Photographee.eu/Shutterstock.com
Page 277: © The Herald/Times Media Digital Archive/ Africa Media Online Page 428: © graytown/istockphoto.com
Page 277: © Paul Conklin/PhotoEdit Page 430: © Jed Share/Taxi/Getty Images
Page 432: © Brian Skyum/Alamy Stock Photo
Chapter 9
Page 280: © subman/istockphoto.com Chapter 14
Page 282: © Juice Images/Alamy Stock Photo Page 436: © Deepak Scthi/istockphoto.com
Page 284: © Scan Murphy/The Image Bank/Getty Images Page 442: © Jack Hollingsworth/Photodisc/Getty Images
Page 288: © Akhenaton Images/Shutterstock.com Page 450: © Scott Camazine/Science Source
Page 291 © Greg Ceo/The Image Bank/Getty Images Page 450: © Jack.Q/Shutterstock.com
Page 293: © Mark Richard/PhotoEdit Page 455: © Kathy Hutchins/Shutterstock.com
Page 295: © Peoplelmages/ istockphoto.com Page 457: © Jose Luis Pelaez Inc_/Blend Images/Getty Images
Page 296: © Marinda Louw/Independent Contributors/Africa Page 460: © Lisa F Young/Shutterstock.com
Media Online
Page 298: © Eric Miller/Independent Contributors/ Africa Media Online Chapter 15
Page 299: © StHelena/iStock.com Page 476: © Pippa Hetherington/Earthstock Images/ Africa
Page 302: © Image Source/Age Fotostock Media Online
Page 478: © kali9/E+/Getty Images
Chapter 10 Page 482: © Science History Images/Alamy
Stock Photo
Page 308: © Tinpixels/istockphoto.com Page 485: © Christopher Furlong/Getty
Images News/
Page 310: © Robert Harding Images/Masterfile Gallo Images SA
Page 314: © Kevin Winter/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images Page 486: © RicAguiar/iStock.com

C-2 Crepits

Copyraght 2019 Cengage Lowsing. All Rights Reserved May set be copsnd, xcmmed, or duplicoted m whole of im part. Dur righes, patty cosscat ery be supp meee te: <fiock sadive ADapeers)
Echtored seview bow doomed thet any eappremed comient dors set sxsicmally affect the overall keommg cxpenence. Congage Leasing seacrves the night oomowe additweal coment af any Gree if seteequent mghe ainchoss aque
Page 486: © Niderlander/Shutterstock.com Page 518: © Netwerk24/Jaco Marais/ Media 24 PTY LTD (Newspapers)/
Page 489: © Xavier Arnau/iStock.com Gallo Images SA
Page 492: © Mike Greenlar/The Image Works Page 524: © Kaninstudio/123RF
Page 496: © poco_bw/Istockphoto Page 526: © Emipress/Shutterstock.com
Page 498: © Colin Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit Page 527: © ZUMA Press Inc/Alamy Stock Photo
Page 501 © John Birdsall/The Image Works Page 531 © DreamPictures/Blend Images/Getty Images
Page 503: © SusanHSmith/E+/Getty Images Page 533: © Eva Lotta-Jansson/Africa Media Online
Page 542: © Monashee Frantz/OJO Images/Getty Images
Chapter 16 Page 543: © PHOVOIR/Alamy Stock Photo
Page 512. © Philimon Bulawayo/Reuters/Gallo Images SA
Page 514: © Max Milligan/AWL Images/Getty Images

Crepits C-3

(Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved Mizy mot be copied, xcammed, or duplicated, im whole of in port. Dur toclectreenc mghts, some therd party contest muy he suppecesed form tae cfiook andice oC hraptcr|e).
Edaomal seniew bos deemed that ary euppromed comicnt docs sot musicmadly affect the overall keane cxpenence. Cengage Learning rescrves the night t momove addmosal comicnt af any tre of adeequent ngh scenctioss noqene a.
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learzing. All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scammed, of duplicated, m whole oe in part. Dur to clectroemc rights, some thend party costest mory be suppecesed fom the cfiook andive eC hapter|s).
Exitomad seview boo deemed that any wuppromed comient docs sot musically affect the overall kammng experience. Cengage Learsing reserves the ngbt to nemove additional crevient af any Game if subsequent nefits sextrictions neqpeine it.
Index

A alleles 39
abusive relationships 350-2 altruism 172-4
academic skills 206-14 Alzheimer’s disease 467-71
accommodation 118, 119 ambiguous loss 536
achievement 282-3 amniocentesis 62-3
active euthanasia 516 amnion 52
active life expectancy 442 amniotic fluid 52
activities of daily living (ADLs) 500-1 analytic ability 194
adaptation level 479 animism 121-2
ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder) 203-5 anniversary reactions 533
ADLs (activities of daily ving) 500-1 anorexia nervosa 266-7
adolescence anticipatory grief 532
cognitive development 271-7 antiretroviral (ARV) medication 289-90
and death 541 anxiety disorders 466-7
physical development 259-70 Apgar score 76-7
socioemotional development 281-304 appearance and reality 123
adolescent egocentrism 283-4 appraisal 412-13
adolescent-limited antisocial behaviour 301 arthritis 406-8
adoption 233-4 ARV (antiretroviral) medication 289-90
adoptive parents 363 ASD (autism spectrum disorders) 111-12
adulthood aspirin 57
cognitive development 324-34 assimilation 118, 119
and death 541-4 assisted living facilities 504-5
emerging 309-14 assortative mating 346
late 437-73, 477-507 atherosclerosis 449
middle 343-67, 403-33 attachment 156-62
role transitions 309-11 attention 130
young 309-38 attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 203-5
aerobic exercise 415 AUD (alcohol use disorder) 318-20
age discrimination 386-7 authoritarian parenting 226
age of viability 54 authoritative parenting 226
ageing autism spectrum disorders (ASD) 111-12
biological theories 445-6 autobiographical memory 132-3, 459
demographics 437-40 autonomy 156
and emotions 486-7 autosomes 38
physiological changes 447-53 average longevity 440, 442-4
in place 502-3 avoidant attachment 158
psychosocial 477-81 axons 87
age-related macular degeneration 451
aggression 243-5 B
agreeableness 422 babbling 141
air pollution 59 Babinski reflex 76
alcohol consumption 57-8, 297-8, 317-20 backup care 392
alcohol use disorder (AUD) 318-20 balance 94
alert inactivity 77 Bandura, Albert 14
Ah, Muhammad 10 basic emotions 163
alienation 378 behaviour 8, 45-8

1-1

1-2 INDEX

(Copyraght
201 Cengage Lawmag All Rights Reserved May act be copand, xcanmed, or duplicated m whole or im part. Duc to clectromc rights, some thend party content mary be supproand form the cBiock andive cChapter(s).
Edtorad avacw bee doomed hos aay eappromed comamt das act usamolly affect the overs kommg ctpenenee. Congage Leaeang roerves the nett wm coraeve adéaeal coment at any Gre if sofeequent meh netnchoes supe
corrective adaptations 480-1 disenfranchised grief 538
correlation coefficients 26 disgust 165
correlational studies 26 disorganised attachment 158
co-rumination 241 disoriented attachment 158
co-sleeping 79, 80 divergent thinking 201
counterimitation 228 divided attention 457-8
counting 134-5 divorce 234-5, 365-6
covenant marriages 365 dizygotic twins 44
crack cocaine 61 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 38
creative ability 194 do not resuscitate (DNR) orders 528
creativity 461-2 docility 479
crime 301-3 dominance hierarchy 241
CRISPR 63 dominant alleles 39
cross-sectional studies 28-30 Down syndrome 41
crowds 241 DPM (dual process model) of coping with bereavement 534-5
crowning 64 drugs 57-8
crying 77-8 dual process model (DPM) of coping with bereavement 534-5
crystallisation 293, 294 dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) test 406
C-sections 67 dynamic systems theory 94
CTE (chronic traumatic encephalopathy) 471-2 dysphoria 464
culture 8
culture-fair intelligence tests 198 E
custody 234 eating disorders 266-7, 268
CVAs (cerebral vascular accidents) 449 ecological theory 17
CVS (chorionic villus sampling) 62-3 ectoderm 51
cyberbullying 248 Eden Alternative 505
edgework 311
D education 312
dating 291-2 ego resilience 237
death 514-24, 539-44 egocentrism 121-2, 283-4
death anxiety 522-4 elaboration 190
deductive reasoning 188 elder abuse 506-7
dementia 467-72 electroencephalography 89
demographers 437 electronic media 245-8
dendrites 87 embryos 51-2
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 38 emerging adulthood 309-14
dependent life expectancy 442 emotional expression 165-6
dependent variables 27 emotional intelligence 194
depression 298-9, 300, 464-6 emotional regulation 167
depth 103-5 emotion-focused coping 413-14
DES (diethylstilbestrol) 61 emotions 163-7, 484, 486-7
despair 483-4 empathy 173
developmental coaches 376-7 enabling actions 171
developmental research 22-32 endoderm 51
diabetes mellitus 453 end-of-life issues 525-9
diabetic retinopathy 451 environment and heredity 45-8
diethylstilbestrol (DES) 61 environmental press 18-19, 478-80, 482
differentiation 95 environmental teratogens 58-9
diffusion 282-3 epigenetic principle 13
direct instruction 227 episodic memory 459
disability 201-5 equal pay 385
discontinuity 6 equilibration 118-19
discrimination 300, 384-7 Erikson, Erik 12-13

INDEX 1-3

Copyraght2019 Cengage Learsing. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copsed, scammed, or duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosmc nights, some thend party comtest muy he suppressed thorn dre cftook ancice oC hapter|s).
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed cretion! dacs mot mastcnally affect the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal coevient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctioms roqene at.
essentialism 127, 128 gender and occupational selection 381-3
ethics 31-2, 515-18 gender discrimination 384-6
ethnic diversity 361-2 gender identity 181-2, 291
ethnicity 8 gender roles 182-3
eugenics 50 gender stereotypes 176-8
euthanasia 516-17, 518 gender typing 179-82
evolutionary psychology 156 gender-related differences 178-9
exchange theory 356 gender-schema theory 181
exercise 415-16 generativity 424-6
exosystems 18 genes 39
experience-dependent growth 91 genetic counselling 61-2
experience-expectant growth 91 genetic disorders 41-2
experiments 27-8 genetic engineering 63
expertise 419 genetics
explicit memory 459 and behaviour 45-8
expressive style of language-learning 145 and health 8
extended families 360 and parenting 226
external memory aids 460-1 genotypes 39, 45
extraversion 422 germ discs 49
extremely low birth weight 69 gifted children 201
eyewitnesses glass ceilings 384
children as 133 glass cliffs 384
glaucoma 451
F grammatical development 146-8
face-recognition 106 grammatical morphemes 146
families 223-39, 362-4, 391-5, 427-33 grandparenthood 430-3
FASD (foetal alcohol spectrum disorder) 57-8 grasping 96-7, 98
fast mapping 142-6 great-grandparenthood 499
fihal obligation 428-30 Green House Project 505
final scenarios 525-6 grief 530-8
fine motor skills 93, 96-9 grief work 532
five-factor model of personality 421-4 groups 241-2
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) 89-90 growth 83-7, 215, 260-2
foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) 57-8 guided participation 136
foetal surgery 63 guilt 156
foetal therapy 63
foetuses 52-4 H
foreclosure 282-3 habituation 130
foster parents 363 handedness 97-9
four-component model of grief 534 harassment 385-6
Fourth Age 444 HDLs (high-density hpoproteins) 321
frail older adults 500-2 health 265-70, 316-23
free radicals 446 healthcare 323, 507
Freud, Sigmund 12 healthcare powers of attorney 528-9
friendships 239-41, 343-5, 494 healthy ageing 477-8
frontal cortex 88 hearing 101, 451-3
functional health 503 hemispheres 88
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 89-90 heredity 37-48
functional neuroimaging 448-9 heritability coefficient 45-6
heterozygous alleles 39
G heuristics 272-3
Gardner, Howard 193-4 high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) 321
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences 193-4 HIV 269, 289-90

1-4 INDEX

INDEX 1-5

Copyright 2009 Cengage Lewning All Rights Reserved May set be copand xcommed of duplicoted m whole of im part. Dur to electronic rights, some thand party costcat mery be suppemend een te cfiock andive of hapter’s)
Echtored seview bow doomed thet any eappremed comient dors set sxsicmally affect the overall keommg cxpenence. Congage Leasing seacrves the night oomowe additweal coment af any Gree if seteequent mghe ainchoss aque
M model of adaptive grieving dynamics (MAGD) 535
MA (mental age) 196 monozygotic twins 44
McAdams’ life-story model 335-6 moodiness 264
macrosystems 18 moral reasoning 274-7
macular degeneration 451 moratorium 282-3
MAGD (model of adaptive grieving dynamics) 535 mothers
make-believe 169-70 age of 56-7
malnutrition 86-7 motion parallax 104
Mandela, Nelson 11 motor skills 92-9, 215-16
marijuana 57 mourning 530
marital relationships 230 MS (Microsoft) Office Outlook 420
marital success 355 multi-ethnic families 362
marriage 355-8, 495-6 multiple intelligences 193-4
mate selection 347-8 myelin 89
maternal depression 68
maternity leave 361 N
mathematical skills 210-12 naive theories 125-7
maturation 260-4 narratives 425
mature students 312 naturalistic observation 23
maximum longevity 440 nature-nurture issue 5
meaning-mission fit 372 negative reinforcement trap 228
measurement 23-6 nervous system 87-92
mechanics of intelligence 418 neural plates 89
memory 131-3, 189-91, 458-61 neurofibrillary tangles 447
memory aids 460-1 neurommaging 448-9
menarche 261, 263 neurons 87
menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) 409, 410 neuroscience 10
menopause 408-10 neuroticism 422
menstruation 45 neurotransmitters 87, 447-8
mental age (MA) 196 newborn babies 75-82
mental hardware 130 niche-picking 46, 47
mental health 464-72 nicotine 57, 61
mental operations 187 non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) 63
mental software 130 non-REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep 79
mentors 376-7 nonshared environmental influences 47
mesoderm 51 nuclear families 360
mesosystems 18 number skills 133-5
meta-analysis 31 nursing homes 505
metabolism 320, 454 nurture 5
metacognitive knowledge 190 nutrition 55, 85-7, 265-7, 320-2, 454
metacognitive skills 272
metamemory 190 o
methylation 45 obedience orientation 274-5
MHT (menopausal hormone therapy) 409, 410 obesity 265-6
Microsoft Office Outlook 420 object permanence 120
microsystems 18 object recognition 105-6
middle adulthood 343-67, 403-33 observational learning 14
middle childhood 187-218, 223-53 occupational choice 372-5
midlife corrections 426 occupational development 375-7, 383
mind occupational insecurity 388-9
theory of 109-12 occupational selection 381-3
mindfulness-based stress reduction 415 occupational transitions 387-91
mistrust 155-6 one-to-one principle 134-5

1-6 INDEX

Copyright 2019 Cengage Lesening All Rights Reserved. May met be copied, scammed, or duplicated. m whole of in part. Dur to clectromic nights, some thend party costent muy he wupprenaed teen dw eflioek madi eCTuapter( +)
Fihtoned nevhew hon deemed thet any suppremed content dacs sot musterially affect the overall kammng expenence. Cengage Learsing rescevex the ght t0 remove additional comer! at ay tame if submecpacnt rigivis wvatrictions meypeine
open adoption 234 physician-assisted suicide 517
openness to experience 422 physiological measures 24-5
operant conditioning 13, 14, 131 Piaget's theory 15, 117-27
oral communication 148-50 pictorial cues 104
organisation 189-90 Pioneer Network 505
orienting responses 130 PKU (phenylketonuria) 41, 45
osteoarthritis 406-8 placentas 49-50
osteoporosis 404-6 play 168-72
Outlook 420 PLIMs (physical limitations) 501-2
overextension 144 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 59
overregularisation 146-7 polygenic inheritance 43
popularity 242-3
P population pyramids 437
palliative care 526 populations 25-6
parallel play 168 possible selves 336-7
parental behaviour 227-9 post-conventional level reasoning 275
parental conflict 230 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 414-15
parental leave 392-3 posture 94
parental role 359-62 poverty 302
parenthood 66-7 practical ability 194-5
parenting 171-2, 225-9, 302, 363-4 practical intelligence 417-19
Parkinson's disease 471 pragmatics of intelligence 418
passion 379 pre-conventional level of reasoning 274-5
passive euthanasia 516 preeclampsia 67
paternity leave 361 pregnancy 290
patient autonomy 529 preimplantation genetic screening (PGS) 50
Pausch, Randy 520 prejudice 252-3
pay equality 385 premature births 67-9
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) 59 prenatal development 49-64
PCP (Preventive and Corrective Proactivity) model 480-1 prenatal diagnosis 62-3
peer pressure 242 preoperational thinking 121-3
perception 99-107 presbycusis 451-2
perimenopause 409 presbyopia 450
permissive parenting 226 preterm births 67-9
persistent vegetative state 515 preventive adaptations 480-1
personal control beliefs 337-8 Preventive and Corrective Proactivity (PCP) model 480-1
personal fables 283-4 primary appraisal 412-13
personality 335-8, 421-6 primary control 337-8
personality adjustment 423-4 primary sex characteristics 261
personality growth 423 private speech 137-8
personality-type theory 294-5 proactivity 479-81
perspective taking 251 problem-focused coping 413
Pew Research Center 4 problem-solving 272
PGS (preimplantation genetic screening) 50 processing speed 271-2
phenotypes 39-40, 45 prolapsed umbilical cord 67
phenylketonuria (PKU) 41, 45 prolonged grief disorder 536-8
phonological awareness 206-7 prosocial behaviour 172-4
phonological memory 144 proximodistal principle 52
photographs 24, 33 psychodynamic theories 12-13
physical development 83-92, 214-17 psychological capital theory 377
physical fitness 216-17, 267-9 psychological forces 7, 8
physical limitations (PLIMs) 501-2 psychometricians 192
physical maturation 260-2 psychosocial ageing 477-81

INDEX 1-7

Copryright 2019 Cengage Lenening. All Rights Reserved May met be copied, scammed, of duplicated. m whole or in part. Dur to electronic rights, some thend party contest mury he wappresmed fern tre efenek mackie eCTeapser(s).
Eadhtorted review hon decreed thet aay suppremed coment dar sot matonally affect the overall kammg cxpencnce. Congage Learning reserves the right to remove additzonal coerterst af nary tirne if nedmeuparrnt rigivis eeirietboms rexyeuny
psychosocial development 12-13, 155-6 same-sex partnerships 495-6
psychosocial theory 12-13 samples 25-6
PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) 414-15 sampling behaviour 24, 33
puberty 259-64 sandwich generation 428
punishment 14, 228-9 scaffolding 136-7
purpose 156 SCCT (social cognitive career theory) 295-6, 373
scenarios 335
Q schemes 118
qualitative research 28 Schindler, Oskar 276
quarter-life crisis 313-14 schoolwork 212
secondary appraisal 413
R secondary control 338
race 8 secondary sex characteristics 261
racial discrimination 300 secure attachment 158
Ramatse, Johanna 3 seeing 101-6
rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep 79 selective oestrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) 406
reaching 96-7 selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) model 19-20
reading 206-8 self-awareness 108-12
reading comprehension 204 self-efficacy 14
reality 123 self-esteem 285-6
reality shocks 375 self-reports 24
reappraisal 413 Selman's stages of perspective taking 251
reasoning 272-7 semantic memory 459
recessive alleles 39 sense of place 502
recursive thinking 252 sensorimotor period 120-1
referential style of language-learning 145 sensory information 106-7
reflexes 75-6 separation distress 536
regular sleep 79 sequential design 30-1
reinforcement 13, 228 SERMs (selective oestrogen receptor modulators) 406
rejection 242-3 sex characteristics 261
relational aggression 179 sex chromosomes 38, 42
relationships 343-67 sexual behaviour 289-90
reliability 25 sexual harassment 385-6
religion 4 sexual maturation 261-2
REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep 79 sexually transmitted infections (STIs) 289-90
remarriage 235, 367 sexual-minority youth 291
reporting of research results 32 shame 156
reproductive changes 408-11 sibling relationships 231-4, 345, 494-5
research 22-32 sickle-cell disease 39-40
resihence 303-4 SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) 80
resistant attachment 158 simple social play 169
retinal disparity 104 single parents 362-3
retirement 489-92 singlehood 353
retraining workers 388 skeletal maturity 404
returning adult students 312 Skinner, B. F 13-14
rheumatoid arthritis 406-8 sleeping 78-9, 454
rites of passage 310-11 sleeping position 80
role transitions 309-11 smell 100-1
romantic relationships 288, 349 smiles 164
rooting reflex 75-6 smoking 57, 61, 298, 316-17
SOC (selective optimisation with compensation)
model 19-20
same-sex couple parenting 363-4 social clock 335
same-sex marriage 356 social cognitive career theory (SCCT) 295-6, 373

1-8 INDEX

Copyraght2019 Cengage Learsing. All Rights Reserved. May mot be copsed, scammed, or duplicated m whole of in part. Dur to clectrosmc nights, some thend party comtest muy he suppressed thorn dre cftook ancice oC hapter|s).
Edttomad sewew boo deemed that any wuppromed cretion! dacs mot mastcnally affect the overall kame expenence. Cengage Leareing reserves the ngbt to remove additeosal coevient af any tame if subsequent neh sednctioms roqene at.
social cognitive theory 14 teen pregnancies 290
social contract 275 telegraphic speech 146
social convoys 493-4 teleological explanations 127
social grants 507 television 246-8
social learning theory 14 telomerase 445
social media 248 telomeres 445
social policy 32 temperament 81-2, 231
social referencing 166 teratogenic diseases 58
social roles 176 teratogens 57-61
social smiles 164 terminal buttons 87
social system morality 275 terror management theory 522
socialisation 223 TESSERA framework of adult personality development 424
sociocultural forces 7, 8 texture gradient 104
socioemotional selectivity 495 TGNC (transgender and gender nonconforming) individuals
software changes 420 354-5, 496
solitary play 170 thalidomide 57
specification 293, 294 theories 12
speed dating 346 theory of mind 109-12
speed of processing 457 Third Age 444
spermarche 261, 263 TIAs (transient ischemic attacks) 449
spina bifida 55 time-outs 229
spinituality 485, 488 toddlers 94
sports 217, 267-9 toddling 94
stable-order principle 134-5 touch 100-1
stagnation 425 transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) individuals
Stanford-Binet test 196 354-5, 496
step-parents 363 transgender youth 291
stepping 94-5 transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) 449
stepping reflex 76 traumatic distress 536-7
stereotype threats 199 trust 155-6
Sternberg, Robert 194-5 tuberculosis (TB) 269
STIs (sexually transmitted infections) 289-90 twins 44
storm and stress 286-7 Type 1 diabetes 453
stranger wariness 164-5 Type 2 diabetes 453
stress 55-6, 230, 286-7, 411-15
stress and coping paradigm 412-14 U
strokes 449 ultrasound 62
structural neuroimaging 448-9 umbilical cord 52, 67
structured observations 23 underextension 144
subjective well-being 484 unemployment 296, 389, 390
sucking reflex 75-6 uninvolved parenting 226
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) 80 universal and context-specific development issue 6
suicide 299-301 universal ethical principles 275
Super's theory of career development 293-6
swaddling 78 Vv
symbols 120, 142 validity 25
synaptic pruning 89 vascular dementia 449
systematic observation 23 vernix 53
very low birth weight 69
7 viability 54
taste 100-1 video games 247
TB (tuberculosis) 269 violence 291-2, 301-3, 350-2
teaching 212-14 virtual dating 346-7

INDEX 1-9

(Copyraght
2079 Congage Losrmng. All Raphes Reserved May not be coped. xcammed or dupbicted mm whol or om port. Dur so clectreenc mphes, some thesd pany comtcet mory he suppecencd foe tac cfiook andive of hapecs|+)
Edecead srvice toe doomed thot ary eapgromed common docs act mumcmadhy affect the overall kormmy cxpeneeee. Congage Loamang roar: the nett somos addmosal coon at ay tne of bequest nghe aenchons ogee 2
vision 101-6, 450-1 word learning 144-5
visual acuity 101-2 word recognition 206-7
visual cliffs 103-4 work 293-6, 371-95
visual expansion 104 work-family conflict 393-5
visual-spatial skills 247, 248 workforce attainment 312
vocational maturity 373-4 working memory 189, 271-2, 458-9
volunteering 492 working mothers 161-2, 392-3
vulnerability-stress-adaptation model 357 writing 208-9
Vygotsky’s theory 16-17, 135-8
Y
w young adulthood 309-38
waking activity 77 youth unemployment 296
Watson, John 13
well-being 484 Zz
whole-brain death 515 zone of maximum comfort 479
widowhood 498-9 zone of maximum performance potential 479
will 156 zone of proximal development (ZPD) 17, 136
wisdom 462-3 zygotes 49-50
withdrawal reflex 76

1-10 INDEX

New SYL Card 2025
No ratings yet
New SYL Card 2025
3 pages
Magic Surgery Notes
No ratings yet
Magic Surgery Notes
54 pages
Mine Boy (PDFDrive)
No ratings yet
Mine Boy (PDFDrive)
260 pages
GOALS Brian Tracy
100% (1)
GOALS Brian Tracy
1 page
Functional Emotional Growth Chart Parent (Caregiver) Questionnaire
No ratings yet
Functional Emotional Growth Chart Parent (Caregiver) Questionnaire
4 pages
Principles of Classroom Management
100% (2)
Principles of Classroom Management
4 pages
Stewardship Syl
100% (1)
Stewardship Syl
19 pages
6 Guide Workbook 2021
No ratings yet
6 Guide Workbook 2021
3 pages
Advanced Pathfinder Leadership Award
No ratings yet
Advanced Pathfinder Leadership Award
76 pages
Voyager Manual
No ratings yet
Voyager Manual
64 pages
2025 Stewardship Revival Week- Sermons Original Version 1-English
No ratings yet
2025 Stewardship Revival Week- Sermons Original Version 1-English
36 pages
Children Ministry Philosophy
No ratings yet
Children Ministry Philosophy
136 pages
SYL Assessment Form
No ratings yet
SYL Assessment Form
5 pages
En Adventurer Matero Mission District Abst
No ratings yet
En Adventurer Matero Mission District Abst
32 pages
Nutrition Test 2024
No ratings yet
Nutrition Test 2024
6 pages
AY LEADERSHIP TRAING PPT
No ratings yet
AY LEADERSHIP TRAING PPT
132 pages
Pastoral Counselling Reading Report
No ratings yet
Pastoral Counselling Reading Report
6 pages
Health and Temperance
No ratings yet
Health and Temperance
6 pages
DirectorsGuide Web CompanionLevel
No ratings yet
DirectorsGuide Web CompanionLevel
1 page
BSC Psychology
No ratings yet
BSC Psychology
4 pages
LEADERSHIP FOR MASTER GUIDES IN TRAINING (1)
No ratings yet
LEADERSHIP FOR MASTER GUIDES IN TRAINING (1)
105 pages
Adventurers Manual
No ratings yet
Adventurers Manual
67 pages
Family Health Outcomes Project - Resources For Program Evaluation and Performance Monitoring - 2016-10-31
No ratings yet
Family Health Outcomes Project - Resources For Program Evaluation and Performance Monitoring - 2016-10-31
6 pages
5 - Nutrition Honor
No ratings yet
5 - Nutrition Honor
7 pages
There Is Hope For Me: An Interactive Trauma Recovery Journal For Youth
No ratings yet
There Is Hope For Me: An Interactive Trauma Recovery Journal For Youth
21 pages
CMME 100 Communication Theory and Listening Skills
No ratings yet
CMME 100 Communication Theory and Listening Skills
52 pages
Infancy & Childhood
No ratings yet
Infancy & Childhood
3 pages
FM - Planbook 2016-Eng PDF
No ratings yet
FM - Planbook 2016-Eng PDF
114 pages
L1 - Introduction To Counseling
No ratings yet
L1 - Introduction To Counseling
40 pages
Positive Youth Development Module
No ratings yet
Positive Youth Development Module
7 pages
Counselling Finals
100% (1)
Counselling Finals
18 pages
MENTORSHIP
No ratings yet
MENTORSHIP
20 pages
Manual Voyager
100% (1)
Manual Voyager
91 pages
Homeland Crisis Institute 2007 Rates
No ratings yet
Homeland Crisis Institute 2007 Rates
3 pages
MMD Manifesto 2006
100% (1)
MMD Manifesto 2006
79 pages
Spiritual Development in Children and Adolescents: April 2016
No ratings yet
Spiritual Development in Children and Adolescents: April 2016
4 pages
Christian Counseling Notes
No ratings yet
Christian Counseling Notes
83 pages
IPSAS 31 Intangible Assets PP
No ratings yet
IPSAS 31 Intangible Assets PP
8 pages
Effective Meetings
100% (1)
Effective Meetings
6 pages
Daily Realities In Christ
No ratings yet
Daily Realities In Christ
62 pages
WAD HEALTH MINISTRIES 1000 MISSIONARIES PROGRAM Final Online
No ratings yet
WAD HEALTH MINISTRIES 1000 MISSIONARIES PROGRAM Final Online
27 pages
Theo 500 Long Test
No ratings yet
Theo 500 Long Test
9 pages
Pathfinder Application Form
100% (1)
Pathfinder Application Form
2 pages
Adolescence
No ratings yet
Adolescence
21 pages
Journey With Wisdom - Sirocnotes
No ratings yet
Journey With Wisdom - Sirocnotes
15 pages
ELi Character Sketch
No ratings yet
ELi Character Sketch
2 pages
BSBMGT616 - Presentation Week 1
100% (1)
BSBMGT616 - Presentation Week 1
40 pages
How To Set Up and Run An Evangelization
No ratings yet
How To Set Up and Run An Evangelization
49 pages
Module 1 Leader
100% (1)
Module 1 Leader
148 pages
3 TLT Master Guide Part 1 Record Journal 2 Sided Print
No ratings yet
3 TLT Master Guide Part 1 Record Journal 2 Sided Print
101 pages
Tutorial Letter 102/0/2022: Personology
100% (1)
Tutorial Letter 102/0/2022: Personology
38 pages
Moving Out of Your Comfort Zone
No ratings yet
Moving Out of Your Comfort Zone
15 pages
HONOR in Conflect Resolution
100% (1)
HONOR in Conflect Resolution
49 pages
Programming Pathfinder
No ratings yet
Programming Pathfinder
22 pages
Full Download Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity An Introduction to Worldview Issues Philosophical Foundations and Models of Integraiton 3rd Edition David Nelson Entwistle PDF DOCX
100% (1)
Full Download Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity An Introduction to Worldview Issues Philosophical Foundations and Models of Integraiton 3rd Edition David Nelson Entwistle PDF DOCX
51 pages
Draft Constitution and by Law - NWZC
No ratings yet
Draft Constitution and by Law - NWZC
34 pages
Youth Development Characteristics PDF
No ratings yet
Youth Development Characteristics PDF
22 pages
5 Voyager Workbook 2021a
No ratings yet
5 Voyager Workbook 2021a
48 pages
Adult Education - Course Modules - Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka
No ratings yet
Adult Education - Course Modules - Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka
202 pages
PM 16 Pre Marital Counseling
No ratings yet
PM 16 Pre Marital Counseling
23 pages
An Appraisal of The Legal Framework For Child Justice 2m62b3nwld
No ratings yet
An Appraisal of The Legal Framework For Child Justice 2m62b3nwld
16 pages
Disciplines of Counseling
No ratings yet
Disciplines of Counseling
16 pages
Human Development: A Life Span View 8th Edition, (Ebook PDF) 2024 Scribd Download
100% (1)
Human Development: A Life Span View 8th Edition, (Ebook PDF) 2024 Scribd Download
51 pages
Human Development: A Life Span View 8th Edition, (Ebook PDF) pdf download
100% (37)
Human Development: A Life Span View 8th Edition, (Ebook PDF) pdf download
48 pages
ENG 2 AB Study Guide
No ratings yet
ENG 2 AB Study Guide
15 pages
2A June 2021 Exam MEMO
100% (1)
2A June 2021 Exam MEMO
20 pages
2a June 2021 Exam
No ratings yet
2a June 2021 Exam
16 pages
Syllogisms in Education
No ratings yet
Syllogisms in Education
6 pages
Motivation MGMT - S
No ratings yet
Motivation MGMT - S
24 pages
Day 3 - Rock Solid Belief System
No ratings yet
Day 3 - Rock Solid Belief System
15 pages
Lesson 1 - Intro To Psychology
0% (1)
Lesson 1 - Intro To Psychology
5 pages
2.10.priosys V4
No ratings yet
2.10.priosys V4
22 pages
Resilience Thesis PDF
100% (2)
Resilience Thesis PDF
4 pages
CBSE MOCK PAPER psych 12
No ratings yet
CBSE MOCK PAPER psych 12
6 pages
KINDERGARTEN DLL Week 5
No ratings yet
KINDERGARTEN DLL Week 5
5 pages
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT and FACILITATING LEARNING
No ratings yet
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT and FACILITATING LEARNING
5 pages
66-Article Text-135-2-10-20200922
No ratings yet
66-Article Text-135-2-10-20200922
9 pages
Behavioral Management Assessment 1
No ratings yet
Behavioral Management Assessment 1
11 pages
Learn To Train U11U12 Coaching Handbook PDF
67% (3)
Learn To Train U11U12 Coaching Handbook PDF
90 pages
Grade 9 Small Summative 6 GulshanAnar
No ratings yet
Grade 9 Small Summative 6 GulshanAnar
1 page
PEAC INSET FOR SHS - July 8-10, 2021
No ratings yet
PEAC INSET FOR SHS - July 8-10, 2021
2 pages
Integrative Learning in The 21st Century Education
100% (2)
Integrative Learning in The 21st Century Education
31 pages
Bibliografi Full Tesis
No ratings yet
Bibliografi Full Tesis
6 pages
Effective Communicating
No ratings yet
Effective Communicating
2 pages
Individual Development Plan: & Work - Life Integration Strategy
No ratings yet
Individual Development Plan: & Work - Life Integration Strategy
7 pages
The Mind at Night by Andrea Rock
No ratings yet
The Mind at Night by Andrea Rock
7 pages
Activity 6 Finals (PC)
No ratings yet
Activity 6 Finals (PC)
2 pages
Stanford Prison Worksheet
No ratings yet
Stanford Prison Worksheet
2 pages
Deweyan Pragmatism and The Epistemology of Contemporary Social Constructivism
No ratings yet
Deweyan Pragmatism and The Epistemology of Contemporary Social Constructivism
25 pages
English Language SBA
100% (1)
English Language SBA
11 pages
Are You A Product of Nature or Nurture
No ratings yet
Are You A Product of Nature or Nurture
1 page
Serving Military and Veteran Families: Theories, Research, and Application 3rd Edition Blaisure - The full ebook version is ready for instant download
100% (4)
Serving Military and Veteran Families: Theories, Research, and Application 3rd Edition Blaisure - The full ebook version is ready for instant download
67 pages
PBL Assessment 2
No ratings yet
PBL Assessment 2
23 pages
Dhyanam by P V Krishna Rao PDF
No ratings yet
Dhyanam by P V Krishna Rao PDF
92 pages