PRINCIPLES

OF
SCIENCE & SYSTEMS
 What is Science?
Science is a process for producing
knowledege methodically and logically.

a cumulative body of knowledge produced by

informed, learned scholars.

a process based on careful observation and hypothesis

testing.

a way for us to explain how the natural world works.

 Basic Principles of Science
EMPIRICISM UNIFORMITARIANISM
We learn about the world by careful Basic patterns and process are uniform
observation of empirical (real, observable) across time and space; the forces at work
phenomena; we can expect to understand today are the same as those that shaped
fundamental processes and natural laws by the world in the past, and they will
observation. continue to do so in the future.

PARSIMONY UNCERTAINTY

When two plausible explanations are Knowledge changes as new evidence

equally reasonable, the simpler (more appears, and explanations (theories)
parsimonious) one is preferable. change with new evidence.
 Basic Principles of Science
REPEATABILITY PROOF IS ELUSIVE
Tests and experiments should be repeatable; We rarely expect science to provide
if the same results cannot be reproduced, absolute proof that a theory is correct,
then the conclusions are probably incorrect. because new evidence may always
undermine our current understanding.

TESTABLE QUESTION

To find out whether a theory is correct, it

must be tested; we formulate testable
statements (hypotheses) to test theories.
 SCIENCE DEPENDS ON SKEPTICISM AND ACCURACY

Ideally scientists are skeptical and unbiased

Scientists strive for:
~accuracy- correctness of
measurements

~reproducibility- repeatability
of results (repeating studies or tests is called
replication)
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning from many observations to produce a
general rule.

Deductive Reasoning
logical reasoning from general
rule to specific
Ex: “if all organisms are made of cells, and
humans are organisms, then humans should be
composed of cells’
Hypotheses and
Scientific Theories
Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for a set of
observations that can be tested through additional
observations or experiments.

Scientific Theory - a description or explanation that has

been supported by a large number of tests and is
considered by experts to be reliable.
PROBABILITY

probability is a measure of how

likely something is to occur.

probability does not tell you

what will happen, but it tells you
what is likely to happen.

scientists often increase

confidence in a study by
comparing results to a random
sample or a larger group
 Natural Experiment
a study of events that have
already happened.

Manipulative Experiment
Experimental is a type of scientific investigation in
Design which the researcher deliberately
manipulates one or more independent
variables to observe the effect on a
dependent variable.
Experimental Design

Blind Experiment
researcher doesn't know which group has been treated until
after the data have been analyzed

Double-blind Experiment
neither the subject nor the researcher knows who is in
the treatment group (often used for health studies)
 Variables
Independent Dependent
Variable Variable

The independent variable is the variable The dependent variable is the

that is manipulated or controlled by the variable that is being measured or
researcher. It is the presumed cause or observed in an experiment. It is the
factor that is hypothesized to have an outcome or response variable that
effect on the dependent variable. In may be influenced by the changes in
experimental design, researchers the independent variable. The
deliberately change the values of the dependent variable depends on the
independent variable to observe its independent variable.
impact on the dependent variable.
 Models
Models are simple representations of phenomena. They
can be physical models, model organisms, mathematical
models, or other types of models.
Models are indispensable tools in scientific study,
providing a means to simplify complex systems, test
hypotheses, make predictions, and enhance our
understanding of the natural world. They are versatile
tools that contribute to the advancement of
knowledge and the application of scientific principles in
practical contexts.
When multiple models agree, scientists gain
confidence.
Systems
Systems are networks of interdependent components
and process with materials and energy flowing from
one component to another.

are a central concept in environmental

science
examples include ecosystem, climates
systems, transportation systems,
economic systems
 System Characteristics

a system can be closed or

Closed open
Exchanges no energy or
matter with its
surroundings. Open
Exchanges matter and
energy from
surroundings.
Positive feedback loop Negative feedback loop
self perpetuating, as an suppresses change within a
increase in a variable leads to system, helps to maintain
further increases in it stability in systems
~amplifies the process

increases increases

predation

herbivory + -

reproduction decreases
increases
 Stability of Systems
Equilibrium - the dynamic state in which system is stable
over time.

Disturbance - periodic destructive events such as fire

or flood

Resilience - the ability of a system to recover quickly

from disturbance

State Shift - a severe disturbance in which the system

does not return to normal but instead results in
significant changes in some of its variables
 System Characteristics

Emergent Properties

:are characteristics of a whole,

functioning system.

emergent properties are like the

surprising and new qualities that appear
when you combine things together
Consensus and
Conflict
Scientific consensus refers to the collective agreement
among a substantial majority of scientists in a particular
field regarding a specific scientific proposition, theory, or
phenomenon. It represents the current state of knowledge
and understanding based on extensive research, evidence, and
peer-reviewed studies within the scientific community.

Paradigm Shift occur when a majority of scientists

accept that the old explanation no longer explains
new observations very well.

a paradigm shift is a fundamental change in how we

view and understand the world, often driven by new
discoveries, ideas, or ways of thinking that challenge
the established norms.
 Recognizing
Pseudoscience
"Pseudoscience" refers to practices, beliefs, or claims that are
presented as being scientific but lack the rigorous methodology,
evidence, and scientific support that characterize genuine scientific
endeavors. Pseudoscientific ideas often mimic the language and
appearance of real science but fail to adhere to the principles of the
scientific method.

Examples of pseudoscience include certain alternative

medicine practices, astrology, homeopathy, and some
paranormal or supernatural claims. Distinguishing
between genuine science and pseudoscience is
important for critical thinking and making informed
decisions based on reliable evidence.
 Environmental Science
vs
Environmentalism
Environmental science is a scientific discipline that studies the
natural environment and the interactions between living
organisms and their surroundings. It encompasses a wide
range of topics, including ecology, geology, atmospheric
science, biology, and more.

Environmentalism is a social and political movement that

advocates for the protection and improvement of the
environment. It involves individuals, groups, and organizations
working to address environmental issues, promote
conservation, and encourage sustainable practices.