INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE TEACHING

Science and science education

Science can be defined as a way of obtaining knowledge about the environment. It is a body of organized
knowledge about the environment. Science is described: as a product, a process, and as an attitude.
Science as a product refers to a body of knowledge generated through empirical observations. It is thus
knowledge compiled having been generated by scientists. However such knowledge is always subjected to
modification.
Science is a process: This involves acquiring and refining scientific knowledge. This involves practical
activities or experimentation or research
Science as an attitude: This refers to the person’s perception of the world, how one thinks and behaves.
Scientists only believe in empirical evidence
Science education: This is a discipline /subject in the school curriculum with its body of knowledge
concepts, instruction and assessment methods. It is a subject that deals with both content and the way to
import knowledge, values, skills and attitude to the learners i.e. content and methodology
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Natural science (basic science): This is science which promotes practical investigation for purposes of
increasing knowledge and understanding about science .examples include:

 Physics: Study of properties of matter and  Biology: Study of living organisms

energy and how they are related  Ecology: Study of living organism and
 Chemistry: Study of structure and how they interact with their environment.
behavior of matter and how the structure  Geology: The study of earth’s crust
determines its chemical and physical  Astronomy: The study of universe
behaviour
Behavioural Sciences: These deals with scientific study of humans or animals behaviour, (how and why
behave that way).

 Psychology: Study of human mind and  Sociology: Study of human group

how the mind impacts on characteristics of behaviour
a person
Applied Sciences:These are sciences which seek to apply knowledge and skills to solve practical problems

 Agriculture:This deals with crop growing  Medicine and surgery: Deals with
and animal rearing treatment and curing of diseases /disorders
 Nutrition: Deals with intake of food  Industrial science: Deals with how to
nutrients develop and improve products
 Environmental sciences: deals with
environmental conservation
Science is made up of a collection of branches thus called integrated science. These branches interact for
instance, the general knowledge got from basic sciences helps scientists to:-

 Develop appropriate medicine  Identify ways of avoiding extinction…

 Make equipment
SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS
These are skills we employ while using our minds to work things out and to discover new things, these
include:-

 Experimenting/fair testing: Collecting develop it may include drawing,

information through practical activity, describing, classifying, feeling texture,
examining and conducting experiment tasting different foods, listening to sounds,
like; sinking and floating, water reading pictures etc
channeling, making bubbles, dissolving  Communication: This involves sending of
substances in water… information from one person to another,
 Inferencing: Drawing conclusion based on activities of communication; modeling,
information generated from experiments, drawing, debating, writing, storytelling,
or analysis/ synthesis of a given news telling
phenomenon. For example questions like, I  Counting numbers: This involves
am very big, I have tusks, I have fat legs, I quantifying discreet variables. Activities;
have a small tail and leave in the bush, counting, finding out numbers
who am I?  Measurement: This involves quantifying
 Classifying: Sorting and grouping of non discreet variable like time, weight,
things according to certain attributes, it length etc. Activities; finding time,
involves identifying and sorting. Activities weight, .length, measuring sizes of leaves,
include matching, sorting, grouping… measuring sizes of shadows at different
 Controlling and manipulating variables: times of the day
Involves keeping constant one variable and  Prediction: It is a probability estimation
observing its effects on another variable. based on statistical methods. Fore telling
E.g. what happens to the solution if one what will happen basing on observations,
keeps the solvent constant and steadily e.g. basing on the rate of poaching, some
increases the amount of solute? species will extinct in ten years to come,
 Using space and time relationship: This natural forests will cease in five years due
develops children’s idea that objects take to the rate of deforestation.
up space and events occur in time. E.g.  Hypothesizing: a supposition based upon
Finding time taken in studying a lesson, incomplete evidence. It is an assumption
interpreting time graphs taken to be true for the purpose of
 Interpreting data: Use of data given to argument or investigation. This is a
deduce information tentative conjuncture explaining an
 Curiosity: May involve asking questions observation, phenomenon or scientific
and finding answers. It is desire to explore. problem that can be tested by further
 Reflection: This refers to a careful thought observation, investigation or
about an experience or phenomenon. experimentation. E.g. the way I am feeling,
 Observation: This involves all senses to I have diarrhea. After diagnosis, this can
collect scientific information; activities to be a different disease say, dysentery.

What is the role of the teacher in developing science process skills?

What is the importance of developing science process skills?
Scientific knowledge
This refers to the information or understanding of the world in which we live. Ordinarily society believe in
four sources of knowledge; intuition, common sense, authority, and tradition.

Intuition: This is a quick and ready include; doctors, pope, kings etc.
insight that is not based on rational When they speak out of their realm of
thought, to intuit is to have a feeling knowledge, we usually take it for
of understanding something due to granted. No rigorous test of truth of
insight from unknown inner thoughts. knowledge given. Yet at time their
It is based on personal judgment information is biased and skewed in
which might occur when one nature or mystical, thus disqualified
understands something because of from being scientific knowledge.
insight from inner source. This is not
Tradition: Practices and beliefs passed
scientific.
down from generation to another are
Common sense: Refers to opinions still maintained in the present with
widely held to be true because they origin from the past e.g. language, way
seem so obviously correct. Common of dressing, foods we eat, circumcision
sense lead to common error of human etc. Tradition is rigid. Unlike culture,
enquiry usually called over tradition does not change over the
generalization. Researchers often years nor can its content change.
generalize when researching under People who believe in it as a source of
pressure. This leads to wrong results, knowledge are determined by
common sense do not give scientific tradition because tradition in a person
knowledge. enjoys the status of not being
subjected to criticism. They consider
Authority: People who have power or tradition as a flawless concept and as
believed to have special knowledge a result many people fall victims to it
that other people don’t have, are said in the name of tradition.
to be in authority. Such people

On the other hand, scientific knowledge is heuristic. It is achieved following a specific kind of process. It is
a kind of special computer code which starts with curiosity and wonder of the world we live in. The curiosity
turns into questions. Some of the questions can be tested because they are closely linked to some common
experiences. Others can be manipulated or juxtaposed with the other, whether related or not. This means the
other previously discussed sources of knowledge can be a starting point of enquiry.
Scientific knowledge is empirical. Empiricism refers to knowledge based on library research or observations
and experiments. To get scientific knowledge, a number of steps are followed. This process is called
scientific investigation or scientific research. Generally the procedure follows; observation, making
hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, data analysis, making deductions.

ELEMENT OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

  Fact; Something considered to be true in principles are guiding ideas in statement
the scientific world at the present time. It is form from which laws can be developed.
subject to change in case a new discovery They are usually not specific rules that you
is made can write down in mathematical terms, e.g.
 Concept: This is a perceived idea about principle of relativity (physical laws takes
something or phenomenon, mental image the same form in all systems of reference),
or picture. It can be abstract or concrete or Paul’s exclusion principle(no two particles
derived with the same quantum numbers can be at
 A law: A general rule which states what the same position in space at a time),
always happen when the same condition principle of equivalence (inertial and
happen. They are perfectly clear; they are gravitational mass are equal)
often expressed in quantitative  Theory: An established guess put forward
mathematical formulas. They relate to to explain or predict events and
physical reality and require justification. phenomena. It is a set of ideas that
E.g. Neutron’s law of moments, Ohm’s explains observed facts or phenomenon, it
law(I=V/R) etc is from which laws and principles are
 A principle: A rule that explains how derived e.g. evolution theory.
something works, unlike laws most

STEPS IN CARRYING OUT SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

To investigate is to try to find out information through fair testing, or experimentation. An
investigation/research is a systematic inquiry into a problem by clearly defining a problem, collecting and
analyzing data so as to generate knowledge or solutions to the problem. There are steps a researcher should
follow while using the scientific method/ investigation;
1. Identification and definition of the hypotheses are correct. Data can be
problem: The scientific study starts by collected using certain research
identifying and defining a problem that is instruments; like questionnaire, interview
to be investigated. A problem should be guides, observation checklist, or
defined in such a way that one can observe conducting an experiment whose
measure the problem. A problem is a felt observations are taken etc.
difficulty that keeps puzzling a researcher 4. Data analysis: This means examining
or is affecting the life and performance of data to ascertain its elements or nature in
individuals following an observation. order to deduce it. The data collected must
2. Formulation of a hypothesis: once a be analyzed in relation to the hypotheses
problem is identified, next is to formulate stated. At this stage the hypothesis is either
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative accepted or rejected. Hypotheses are tested
guess. This provides a possible likelihood using statistical analysis.
of what can happen in solving a problem 5. Data interpretation: This involves
after collecting data. It is a tentative explaining, or telling the meaning of the
statement predicting what is likely to be findings following the analysis of data. At
found out after data collection and this stage, it changes name from data to
analysis. For one to formulate it, must do information. Interpreted data is called
much reading on the information related to information. It is usually presented in
the problem. tables and graphs.
3. Date collection:This refers to the 6. Conclusion: This means making a final
gathering of all that is related to what one judgment basing on the findings or data
is researching about from reliable sources, analysis and interpretation. It is actually a
which is used to find out whether the
 deduced conclusion or ending. Also called in implementation. The researcher then
making deductions. identifies further study suggestions.
7. Recommendations: At this step, the 8. Report writing and presentation: The
researcher makes or proposes what he/she researcher then makes a report detailing
thinks can be done in averting the problem. what the research was about, how the
The solutions proposed should be practical research was conducted and the findings of
the research. And then presents them
Explain how you can investigate the following using fair testing;

 Classifying  Exploring  Developing systems or

 Identifying  Investigating models making things
SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES
An attitude is a feeling, an indication of a mood, emotion, temperament or inclination. An attitude is a
disposition. A child can have a negative or positive attitude towards science or a topic in science depending
on how the teacher has passed on concepts. Scientific attitudes highly emphasized that the teacher should
develop in learners include:

 Critical observations  Non belief in  Trust in correct

 Inquisitiveness superstitions and evidence
 Curiosity hearsay  Respect for other’s
 Open mindedness  Desire for accurate opinions
 Belief in cause and knowledge  Objectivity in approach
effect relationship  Belief in proof
Explain the attitudes above and identify some activities that you can engage learners in to develop them
What indicators would use to tell that learners have developed the attitudes?
Differentiate between misconception and preconception in science
What are the characteristics of children’s ideas?

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SCIENCE IN TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

Aims at enabling the student teachers;

 To demonstrate the necessary skills for  Use effectively the environment as a

teaching science in schools resource for teaching integrated science
 Analyze and effectively implement the  Prepare and use learning materials to
school science curriculum enhance the learning of science in the
 Organize and manage practical work in primary schools
schools
What are the objectives of teaching integrated science in primary schools?
Why would you support the inclusion of integrated science in the primary school curriculum?
NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION
1. To promote understanding and 4. To promote scientific, technical and
appreciation of the value of national unity, cultural knowledge, skills and attitudes
patriotism and cultural heritage, with due needed to enhance individual and national
consideration to internal relations and development
beneficial interdependence 5. To eradicate illiteracy and equip
2. To inculcate moral, ethical and spiritual individuals with basic skills and knowledge
values in the individual and to develop self to exploit the environment for self
discipline, integrity, tolerance and human development as well as national
fellowship development; for better health, nutrition
3. To inculcate into Ugandans a sense of and family life and the capacity for
service, duty and leadership for continued learning
participation in civil, social, and national 6. To equip learners with the ability to
affairs through group activities in contribute to the building of an integrated,
educational institutions and the community self sustaining and national economy.
INTEGRATED PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

UNESCO – UNICEF (1991) defined integrated science as an approach to the teaching/learning of science in
which concepts and principles are presented so as to express the fundamental unity of scientific thoughts and
avoid premature and undue stress on the distinctions between the various scientific fields. In his contribution
to the definition of integrated science, Willard (1995) describes it as a program which offers students
experiences which help them to develop an operational understanding of the structure of science that should
enrich their lives and make them more responsible citizens in the society. The concept of integration in
school science subjects lays emphasis on both concept/theme and teaching methods. D'Arbon (2002) noted
that: Integration; when applied to science courses, means that the course is devised and presented in such a
way that students gain concept of the fundamental unity of science; the commonality of approach to
problems of scientific nature; and are helped to gain an understanding of the role and function of science in
everyday life and the world in which they live. Brown (2007) describes integrated science under four broad
characteristic meanings
I. The unity of all knowledge…that integrated science has a holistic view of knowledge as essentially one
and undivided;
II. The conceptual unity of the sciences…that various conceptual units that make up the framework
areidentified;
III. A unified process of scientific enquiry…This characteristic places emphasis on the methodological
distinctions and similarities among the sciences;
IV. An interdisciplinary study…that the discipline is a collaborative venture between subjects and viewing of
topic or theme from logically different viewpoints with the learner left to synthesize in any way he chooses.
An integrated curriculum allows children to pursue learning in a holistic way, without the restrictions often
imposed by subject boundaries. it focuses upon the inter-relatedness of all curricular areas in helping
children acquire basic learning tools. It recognizes that the primary science curriculum for the primary level
includes; …. (Refer to branches of science and identify them in reference to primary curriculum topics). The
curriculum also incorporates investigative processes and technology. Integrated teaching and learning
processes enable children to acquire and use basic skills in all the content areas and to develop positive
attitudes for continued successful learning throughout the primary level. Rationale for Integration
acknowledges and builds on the relationships which exist among all things. An integrated curriculum implies
learning that is synthesized across learning areas and learning experiences that are designed to be mutually
reinforcing. This approach develops the child’s ability to transfer their learning to other settings. Research
also suggests that an integrated approach to learning is brain compatible. “The brain learns best in real-life,
immersion-style multi-path learning...fragmented, piecemeal presenting can forever kill the joy and love of
learning” (Jensen, 1996). The more connections made by the brain, the greater the opportunity for making
high level inferences. Integrating the curriculum is also reflective of developmentally appropriate practice.
The curriculum is integrated so that children’s learning occurs.

The primary school integrated science syllabus is divided into eight (8) themes; The environment, Human
health, The world of living things, Human body, Mater and energy, Managing changes in the environment,
Science in human activities and occupation, and Community population and family life. Use the topics in the
table to identify the science subjects that have been integrated

Topics in primary school curriculum (please enrich)

Term P.1 P.2 P.3

One  Our home  Our home and family  Our environment
 Human body and health  The human body and  Environment and weather
teeth
 Food and nutrition
Two  Weather  Our environment  Living things /plants
 Accidents and safety  Accidents and safety  Managing resources
 Food and nutrition
Three  Our environment  Measures  Our health
 Energy resources

P.4 P.5 P.6 P.7

 Plant life  Keeping poultry and  Classification of  Muscular and
 Growing crops bees animals skeletal system
 Weather changes in  Measurement  Sound energy  Electricity and
the environment  Immunization  Circulatory system magnetism
 Personal hygiene  Digestive system  Drugs  Energy resources in
the environment
 Our food  Components of the  Classification of  Simple machines
 Human body organs environment plants and friction
 The teeth  Heat energy  Keeping cattle  Excretory system
 Sanitation  Occupation in our  Resources in the  Light energy
community environment
 Bacteria and fungi  Respiratory system
 Communicable  Types of changes  Science at home and  Interdependence of
intestinal disease  Keeping goats, sheep in our community things in the
 Vectors and and pigs  Accidents and first environment
diseases  Food and nutrition aid  Population and
 Accidents and first  PHC  Sanitation health
aid  Reproductive system
 Animal life
What are the advantages of using the integrated primary science curriculum in the basic education levels?
Identify the challenges teachers face while implementing the integrated primary science curriculum
Suggest the remedies to the identified challenges

TEACHING
Teaching is defined as a process of passing on knowledge, values, skills and attitudes to learners. It involves
use of approaches, methods, techniques and tools (instructional media). It is also referred to as pedagogy.
A teaching Approach
An approach is a viewpoint towards teaching. It provides philosophy to the whole process of instruction. A
teaching approach may be defined as a combination of ways that a teacher uses when presenting the content
of lesson. Examples include Didactic approach, Expository approach, Empiricist approach,
Enquiry/Discovery approach and Constructivist approach among others. In teaching, the approaches are
generally grouped into two; Teacher centered pedagogy/ approaches and Child centered
pedagogy/approaches
Teacher centered approaches: These approaches emphasise that the teacher is the central source of
knowledge, where as learners’ brains is like a blank slate on which the teachers should fill knowledge. Since
teachers are the central source of knowledge, they engage students mainly through rote memorization of
concepts. Some of the approaches under this include;
Didactic Approach
This approach applies teacher-centered methods for example the lecture method. Under this method little or
no emphasis is placed on understanding. Emphasis is on cramming and memorization. Those who use this
approach believe that the human brain is a blank and therefore can just be filled with content. This is
sometimes known as the jug-mug system.
Expository Approach
This is another teacher-centered approach. It involves the kind of teaching that is characterized by
predominance of teacher talk and little or no involvement of learners on practical activities. The teacher
gives facts, explains concepts and gives illustrations. Anything that needs to be taught practically is done
through teacher demonstration. Student participation is limited to listening, asking questions and writing
notes as the lesson progresses.
LEARNER-CENTERED PEDAGOGY
Learner-centered pedagogy is an approach that informs the practices of teaching based on the belief that
people learn best by actively constructing knowledge rather than by passively adding memorised facts to an
existing store of knowledge. In learner-centered pedagogy, engaging students to think critically about
problems prevails over the transmission models where teachers are the central source of knowledge,
engaging students mainly through rote memorization. This approach defends the view that continuous,
competency-based assessment provides more useful information about student learning than summative
tests. Approaches under learner centered pedagogy include;
Empiricist Approach
This approach is based on empirical evidence. Emphasis is on acquisition of scientific knowledge through
observations. This approach promotes some participatory methods like discovery, observation and other
laboratory methods. Learners are given opportunity to handle apparatus and make observations and
conclusion.
The inquiry/Discovery Approach
This is a learner-centered approach with a high degree of involvement of all who participate. It is systematic
in that a set of activities is used, yet highly flexible in that the sequence of the activities can be changed and
others can be substituted at any time. The teacher involves students in activities that help in the development
of scientific skills such as the ability to make observations, perform experiments, collect data make
deductions and present results. A Chinese proverb says, when I hear, I forget, when I see, I remember
and when I do, I understand. To promote critical thinking, self-evaluation, and the integration of
knowledge across traditional subject areas, teachers need to foster students’ individual capacities to inquire
and reflect. This can be done through a range of activities such as group work, brain storming, research of
information in libraries or through the Internet, project-based learning, etc
The learners would carry out experiments then create concepts at first hand in the laboratory, as a means of
awakening original thought. With passage of time, it was realized that despite the many practical activities
many of the learners still face problems understanding science hence the, “I do and I am even more
confused”. The teacher’s role is to guide students by clarifying instructions where necessary and being
available to answer any questions that may arise in the course of the activities
Constructivist Approach
While not opposed to the use of scientific methods to create knowledge, constructivism assumes that
knowledge emerges through reflection on one’s experiences, ideas and interactions. In other words,
knowledge is created through a process of new information interacting with prior knowledge and
experiences of learners. Several prominent education scholars, such as John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Lev
Vygotsky demonstrate the relevance of constructivism to pedagogy. They show how knowledge is relevant
when it is ‘in use’ and linked to previous experience rather than when it is ‘delivered.’ Constructivism
suggests that teachers should create the conditions for learners to discover and actively construct knowledge
-to ‘learn to learn’- and to develop the higher order thinking skills of analysis and synthesis through inquiry
oriented activities.
The constructivists approach takes cognizance of the fact that by the time a learner enters formal education
he/she has already interacted with formal environment and has developed ideas and concepts in relation to
what he has experienced. As a child grows up, it continuously encounters new horizons in terms of
knowledge gained which require explanations either from its parents, family members, or peers. The entire
encounter is digested and stored in their memory and becomes knowledge. Learning therefore should be
built on the learners’ practical experience while at same time correcting any misconceptions or learners
alternative frameworks. According to Piaget, an individual interprets realty via intellectual structures
characterized by acting schemes that change as one grows. An individual therefore tries to attain structures
to make it consistent with the new experience. From this perspective, lessons should encourage learners to
draw upon, connect, and analyze their prior knowledge and experiences through self-discovery and
interaction with other learners and with the teacher
The role of a teacher is to provide guidance as facilitator by giving students challenges that will help to
correct their misconceptions and enable them to draw correct concepts. They can do this through;
  Class discussions (peer group learning)  Use of audio visual aids charts diagrams
 Students’ experiments and demonstrations models etc
In relation to the enquiry approach, this involves a wider range of activities centered on helping learner to
learn by;

 Gaining new insight from the outcome of their investigations

 Modifying their pre-existing ideas in the light of the new insights
 Construct their understanding of scientific concepts
The basic assumption is that students have their own explanations of the phenomena encountered in their
everyday life. This approach helps them to test their understanding using the scientific approach.
Learner centered pedagogy emphasizes that all the domains are catered for in the teaching learning process.
We as teachers therefore need to take into consideration Bloom’s taxonomy. Bloom’s taxonomy is a
classification of the learning objectives into hierarchical levels of complexity and specificity in the cognitive,
affective and sensory domains.

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David
Krathwohl published a framework for categorizing educational goals: Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives. Familiarly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy, this framework has been applied by
generations of K-12 teachers and college instructors in their teaching.

The framework elaborated by Bloom and his collaborators consisted of six major categories:
Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The categories
after Knowledge were presented as “skills and abilities,” with the understanding that knowledge
was the necessary precondition for putting these skills and abilities into practice.

While each category contained subcategories, all lying along a continuum from simple to complex
and concrete to abstract, the taxonomy is popularly remembered according to the six main
categories.

Original Bloom’s taxonomy

Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knwolegde

 Knowledge “involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and
processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting.”
  Comprehension “refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual
knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being
communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest
implications.”

 Application refers to the “use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations.”

 Analysis represents the “breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or

parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between
ideas expressed are made explicit.”

 Synthesis involves the “putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole.”

 Evaluation engenders “judgments about the value of material and methods for given
purposes.”

A group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists and instructional researchers, and testing
and assessment specialists published in 2001 a revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy with the title A
Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. This title draws attention away from the
somewhat static notion of “educational objectives” (in Bloom’s original title) and points to a more
dynamic conception of classification.

The authors of the revised taxonomy underscore this dynamism, using verbs and gerunds to label
their categories and subcategories (rather than the nouns of the original taxonomy). These “action
words” describe the cognitive processes by which thinkers encounter and work with knowledge:
Remember

 Recognizing  Recalling

Understand

 Interpreting  Summarizing  Explaining

 Exemplifying  Inferring
 Classifying  Comparing

Apply

 Executing  Implementing

Analyze

 Differentiating  Organizing  Attributing

Evaluate

 Checking  Critiquing

Create

 Generating  Planning  Producing

In the revised taxonomy, knowledge is at the basis of these six cognitive processes, but its authors
created a separate taxonomy of the types of knowledge used in cognition:

 Factual Knowledge
o Knowledge of terminology o Knowledge of specific details
and elements
 Conceptual Knowledge
o Knowledge of classifications o Knowledge of theories, models,
and categories and structures
o Knowledge of principles and
generalizations
 Procedural Knowledge
o Knowledge of subject-specific o Knowledge of subject-specific
skills and algorithms techniques and methods
 o Knowledge of criteria for appropriate procedures
determining when to use
 Metacognitive Knowledge
o Strategic Knowledge contextual and conditional
o Knowledge about cognitive knowledge
tasks, including appropriate o Self-knowledge

Mary Forehand from the University of Georgia provides a guide to the revised version giving a brief
summary of the revised taxonomy and a helpful table of the six cognitive processes and four types
of knowledge.

The authors of the revised taxonomy suggest a multi-layered answer to this question, to which the
author of this teaching guide has added some clarifying points:

1. Objectives (learning goals) are important to establish in a pedagogical interchange so that

teachers and students alike understand the purpose of that interchange.
2. Organizing objectives helps to clarify objectives for themselves and for students.
3. Having an organized set of objectives helps teachers to:
o “plan and deliver appropriate instruction”;
o “design valid assessment tasks and strategies”;and
o “ensure that instruction and assessment are aligned with the objectives

education and is frequently used to structure

While the affective and sensory domains have curriculum learning objectives, assessments and
been given less attention, the cognitive domain activities.
has been the primary focus of most traditional

Arranged vertically from lower thinking skills to higher thinking skills, And primary curriculum only utilizes
the first three
Teaching methods
Teaching methods may be defined as systematic way of passing on knowledge or process of currying out
actual teaching in a classroom. They are the means by which the teacher attempts to present the desired
learning or experience. A method is an organised, orderly, systematic, and well-planned procedure aimed at
facilitating and enhancing students’ learning. A method considers the abilities, needs, and interests of the
learners and is employed to achieve certain aims of instruction. To make it an effective instrument, it should
be presented with a certain amount of efficiency and ease. More so, the teaching method aims to achieve
greater teaching and learning output, thus saving time, efforts and even money on the part of both the teacher
and the learner. The concern is with the way the teacher organizes and uses the teaching techniques or skills,
subject matter teaching aids or resources to meet teaching objectives. Remember a method involves a
number of techniques. The particular method that a teacher uses is determined by a number of factors. These
may include;

 The content to be taught  Individual learner differences

 Evaluation and follow-up activities  Size of the class
 Objectives which the teacher plans to  Availability of teaching and learning
achieve resources
Methods direct and guide the teacher and the learners in undertaking any lesson or activity. Some methods
make teachers dominate the teaching/learning process and are therefore known as teacher-centered methods.
There are also those which keep the learner active during the teaching-learning process. They are known as
learner/participatory/active methods. Methods discussed in this write-up, can also be referred to as technique
under general methods of; problem based learning, learning contracts, project based learning and
learning stations. A technique is generally a specific way of implementing a method. Techniques enable
teachers and learners to put the chosen method of teaching or assessment into practice.
Therefore during the teaching learning process, some methods can be used as techniques. In this text, we
will only focus on methods that are learner centered. They include;
 Group Work  Simulation  Field work/excursion
 Brainstorming  Experimentation  Guided discovery
 Demonstration  Project method  Discussion etc
Demonstration method
To demonstrate means showing how something is done. The purpose of demonstration is to provide a means
by which the teacher can explain or clarify certain part of the context quickly and economically e.g.it can be
demonstrated that metals expand when heated; or that seeds exposed to unilateral source of light bend
towards light. It is essential that the students should be involved actively. One way in which this can be
achieved is through questioning as the demonstrations progresses. Whenever possible the teacher should also
give students an opportunity to set up the apparatus required for carrying out a certain procedure. The
students should be organized in such a way that every student is able to observe the demonstration.
Demonstration can also be used to explain an experimental set up before the students begin to set up their
own apparatus and/or materials to be used are not enough for the whole class; or when the materials are too
dangerous or equipments too delicate to be entrusted to the students e.g. use of high voltage capacitors,
experiments which involve a mixture of hydrogen and air.

Practical work/experiment method

This involves finding out how things work. The teaching/learning activities are conducted by the students
under the guidance/supervision of a teacher. The teacher provides the students, either singly or groups with
the materials and apparatus as well as the instructions to be followed in performing the activity (work sheet).
Deliberate effort should be made to enhance group work although individual participation must be assured.
The ability to follow instructions and the use of scientific methods and skills to solve problems with little
help from the teacher is an important aspect of learning science. Luck of laboratory facilities or equipments
should not be taken as an excuse to limit practical work The teacher (the students) should collect materials
and improvise as much as possible. Where improvisation is not possible, small scale or low cost
experimentation should be encouraged
There are certain skills that are essential in order for learners to carry out practical work safely and
successfully. Examples of such skills include;

 Ability to read instruments [measuring cylinders] accurately

 Correct use of equipment and apparatus [magnifying glass]
Successful practical work depends on a number of factors that include the following;
1. Preparation before the practical period 4. Effective guidance and supervision by the
2. Trying out of activities to make sure that teacher
the materials used will give the expected 5. Group size and composition
results 6. The ability of a teacher to establish a link
3. Clarity of the instructions –language between the practical work and the concept
should neither be ambiguous nor include to be learnt [bridge]
terms that are unfamiliar to the students. If 7. Briefing on any precautions to be taken to
such terms must be used, they should be ensure safety of the students and the
clearly defined equipment.
Project method
A project refers to a planned activity, usually with specific goals and accomplished in several steps or stages.
The stages or steps usually involve the scientific method of inquiry. Project work enables learners to actually
engage in investigation in an area of their own interest. The students learn to appreciate the basic steps in the
scientific method. Remember a scientific method is not a method of teaching, but rather a procedure
followed to obtain scientific knowledge. It combines the following skills; thus project method may not be
accomplished in a single lesson. There are many opportunities for students to learn through individual or
group project work. The problem to be investigated may arise from students own interest but they may also
be suggested by the teacher. Whatever the case the teacher should make sure that students have sufficient
background information before they embark on project work. Teacher supervision and guidance are
important pre-requisites for successful project work.
Fieldwork/excursions
This involves getting out of the classroom and study from a real life situation. Fieldwork method needs to
illustrate the natural development or technological application of certain topics dealt with in the classroom. It
provides students with first-hand evidence of scientific phenomena and how they impact on everyday life.
Students learn to appreciate the science and arts not only as subjects in the curriculum but also as part of the
real world. Students may also get an opportunity to interact with experts in particular fields of study.
Discussion method
This involves introducing a topic to the class, and learners give their ideas about it. Later the teacher
summarizes the lesson by critiquing the views given by different discussants. It ca be in groups or whole
class such as in debating. Discussion is an important component in any teaching/learning situation. It allows
students to share their ideas .It can be used at the beginning of the topic to a certain students pre conceived
notions of the subject matter or towards the end of the topic by presenting students with a new situation and
asking them to explain it in terms of what that they have just learned. However, discussion in groups might
not have much value unless it is followed by presentation of reports.
Group work method
Learners are divided in smaller groups and allocated particular tasks under the teacher’s supervision. After
group completion of the task; each group makes a presentation to the class, and the teacher
supplements.Group work technique is mainly used to generate ideas, increase learners’ confidence in their
answers, encourage broad participation in plenary session, promote higher level of reasoning and learn
concepts in-depth, develop skills such as teamwork, critical thinking, interpersonal communication and peer
teaching.

Brainstorming/ problem solving

This is like discussion; the teacher provides a problem or an activity to the learners and then directs them to
think about it in order to come out with the solutions.Brainstorming is a group or whole-class technique to
generate free-flowing ideas about a topic.This technique can be used at various stages of a lesson to
stimulate and enhance the creativity of learners, accelerate interactive, joyful learning and provoke thinking
skills. It also enhances peer support and fosters learner-centered practices

Guided discovery
The teacher makes statements directed towards the expected answers and leaves them hanging for learners to
unfold. Or the teacher may describe the steps followed in carrying out an experiment and leaves learners to
do it so as to unleash the conclusion
Simulation
Simulation is the setting-up of a realistic environment modeling a real life situation or a scientific process by
using role-play, models, games, virtual labs, etc.Simulation involves learners trying out situations, such as
future occupational experiences as it happens in reality. In this learning process, they will be able to learn by
doing, predict outcomes and express their feelings, perceptions and experiences. Simulation is useful to
analyse phenomena, objects or events. It can assist learners in identifying problems and solutions and
enables them to apply previously learned theory in a realistic way. Teachers can use simulations to illustrate
how things work so that learners get a better insight of complex processes

Generic methods: The word generic means very comprehensive; pertaining or appropriate to large classes
or groups as opposed to specific. Therefore generic methods refers to ones that comprehensively involve the
whole class or groups in the class. On the other hand, cooperative learning is highly emphasized in
teaching. This emphasizes that learners should be made ready to work with others. Thus all methods that
encourage learners to work with their colleagues are considered as techniques under cooperative learning
methodology.

When would you chose a particular method over the others

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of each method of teaching
Outline the tips or steps in using each method of teaching
SCHEEMES OF WORK
The totality or all the learning experiences of a learner in an educational organization constitution the
curriculum it may be core or co curriculum.
The core curriculum constitutes the planned aspects of what a learner is expected to learn. This may be sub
divided into subjects, disciplines, or course unit or learning strands. The expected learning outcomes of
particular subjects discipline or course unit are presented inform of a syllabus. It is impossible to achieve all
the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes prescribed in a particular syllabus in one year. Therefore the
syllabus is broken down into teachable units. This break down is called a scheme of work.
Format

WK P THEM TOPI S/TOPI COMPETENCES CONTE METH LIFE ACTIVIT IMS REF RMKS
D E C C SUBJE LANG. NT ODS SKILLS IES .
CT AND
VALUES

The primary school integrated syllabus is divided into themes; The environment, Human health, The world
of living things, Human body, Mater and energy, Managing changes in the environment, Science in human
activities and occupation, and Community population and family life; which are also subdivided into
particular topics .
In the scheme of work, the topics are broken into subtopic. A Sub topic must contain related content. It may
have content for one or more lessons (but not too many). The subtopic is divided into content which should
be appropriate for one period and arranged from simple to complex. The syllabus and teachers’ guides
estimates the number of periods for each topic .This is just an approximation, the actual may be more or less
than that depending on the ability of your learners .Competences are the cores of lessons; They define why
the lesson is taught. Competences of particular lessons lead to achievement of general objectives of topics
and latter national aims of education. Competences should cater for the3 domains (cognitive, psychomotor
and affective). The competences should follow content arrangement from simple to complex; they should be
“SMART”:
S-specific – no ambiguity
M-measurable—estimate the extent of achievement
A-achievable—some are advanced
R-realistic—some cannot be achieved under a class room condition e.g. establish a diary farm
T-time bound—achieve in specific time
Methods refer to ways through which content is delivered to the learners. Science emphasizes practical and
child centered methods. A lesson that employs only one method bores, thus use of more methods in the
same lesson is best. In the scheme, suggest methods responsibly not because they are science methods.
Instructional material should be chosen in consideration of content, methods and level of learners
Why scheme?

 Build confidence in the teacher  Help the teacher to read in adverse

 Helps the teacher to look for L/aids in  It is for reference purpose etc
advance

LESSON PLANNING
A lesson plan is a guide to the teacher on the steps to be followed in teaching a lesson. It begins with
developing a mental frame work of how a lesson should be delivered. A lesson plan shows how a lesson will
be delivered not what is to be taught. Content should be in the lesson notes. If well detailed, any other
teacher can use your lesson plan to teach that lesson
Why lesson planning?

 Make the work  selection of suitable  Making ims in time

systematic methods  To link up
 Builds confidence  Improves teachers’ appropriately with past
 Saves time creativity and future lessons
 Record for reference

NB: the lesson should be designed to elicit and sustain learners’ attention, interest and involvement. A good
lesson plan has three main sections:

 Preliminary  Lesson procedure  Self evaluation

information (steps of development)
Preliminary information includes: the preamble; this is often tabulated;

DATE TIME SUBJECT CLASS NO OF MEAN

LEARNERS AGE

This information is good for making reference to the lesson and get to the required no of 1ms.
It also includes; Theme, Topic, Subtopic, Competences, Life Skill, Values, Method, instructional
materials, and References.
Lesson procedure: This represents the actual teaching/ learning process. It involves introducing the new
content using the planned instructional interaction, doing practice and evaluating if the competences of the
lesson have been achieved.
Format: The lesson procedure in science can best be presented in a table form. The table specifies the phase
or steps, duration, the teacher’s activity, learners’ activity.

STEPS/PHASE DURATION TEACHER’S ACTIVITY L’NERS’ ACTIVITY

These steps are divided into 4 phases

 Introductory phase: In this phase the daily life of learners, clears learners’
teacher creates a learning atmosphere in misconceptions and pupils put the new
the class. Attracts learners’ interest by learnt content in practice. New content
carrying out a simple demonstration, sing a should cause change in behaviour.
song, recite a rhyme, reviewing previous  Evaluation phase: This is the phase in
work etc. The teacher links the which the teacher gathers information
introductory activity to the new content to whether the competence of the lesson have
teach (orientation stage) been achieved. Evaluation can be done
 Experiencing phase: This is the phase through oral questions, matching, drawing,
during which the new content is delivered modeling, painting, repeating
 Sharing of experiencing phase: The demonstration, answering writing
teachers relates the new concepts to the questions, naming parts of a drawing etc.
 In this phase learners clean up their place the science section or nature corner.
work, display some collected specimens in
Phases are mainly four as discussed above, but the steps may be more than that. However the steps should
contain a particular order of the phases in them. Self evaluation, after the lesson has ended, the teacher
objectively critiques the lesson to indentify the strengths, areas that need improvement and remedies to make
such lessons better.
Re-teaching a lesson: This means repeating a lesson that has already been taught. It results from self
evaluation that the competences were not achieved or the biggest number of learners was absent. At times a
teacher may not repeat the lesson, but may teach some pupils or re-emphasize some concepts. This is called
remedial teaching. On the other hand, Referring a lesson; means postponing a planned lesson to be taught at
a later time. This may result from change in programme or uncertainties.
NB: Do not plan a lesson to be referred. Like on public holidays. Do not plan lesson to be taught on such
dates.
Procedure for referring a lesson
Indicate in the specified date and period and state the reason for referring that lesson.eg lesson referred to
Friday 2:00-2:40 because the teacher took care of a pupil who was bitten by the snake in the school
compound. You may wish to adopt the same teaching procedure you planned to flow in the referred lesson.
In this case re-write the preliminary information for the lesson procedure write “as of –“ attach the two plans
together.
Whereas if you want to change the lesson steps to use in the new lesson. You write a new lesson plan, thus
no need of attaching them.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS /INSTRUCTIONAL MADIA

These are channels of conveying messages. They are things used by teachers and learners to aid the
teaching/learning process. L/aids are necessary because:

 Helps a teacher to attract pupils’ attention  Help learners develop a positive scientific
 Develop science process skills attitude
 Develop practical skills and manipulative  Provide for incidental learning
skill  Help explain abstract concepts etc
Types of Instructional Materials
Learning aids are at times referred to as tools. Examples include; charts & maps, diagrams,flashcards,
models, images, specimens, equipment, videos, films, realia, textbooks etc

They can be classified according to sense of stimulation, as projected and no projected, use of electricity or
according to being textual or not
Textual

 Text book materials –subject syllabus,  Non text book material –model,
pupil’s books -teacher guide specimens, reagent, chemicals etc
According to sense of stimulation
 Visual materials: Use sense of sight e.g.  Tactile materials: Use sense of tough e.g.
charts models… brail
 Aural (audio) material: Use sense of  Audio visual: Use both sense of hearing
hearing e.g. recorded instruction and sight e.g. films
Projected and non projected
 Projected instructional materials are those that focus images on to the screen e.g. films, projectors
 Non projected are those that do not focus images e.g. charts, boards, specimens etc
Use of electricity

 Electronic materials: these require  Non electronic: these do not require

electricity to operate e.g. Videos, projector. electricity e.g. Charts, specimens etc
Radios etc

Instructional materials can be adapted or adopted. Adaption means adjusting the existing materials to suit a
new teaching /learning situation. You can change the order or some content. Whereas adoption means
acquiring and using something as it is in its original or natural form. No change is made on it.
Developing instructional materials requires time and energy. Developing instructional materials refers to a
teacher producing own instructional materials using the available resources. Examples of instructional
materials to be used in science may include; real animals and plants, preserved specimen, wires, blades, soil
dry cell etc
At times developing instructional materials for bigger class can be challenging. Therefore the flowing
strategies can be employed while using limited resources.

 Group work  Asking learners to collect from the

 Demonstration environment
 Improvisation for not existing materials  Use of extracts (photocopies)
(using substitutes)  Displaying materials in the science section
Preparing of some instructional materials may include the following;
 Preservation of specimens of soft bodies –  Skeletonising a vertebrate –remove the
drying, salting adding chemicals flesh, regain -the joint -decompose and
 Texidemy. In this method your skin off the the rejoin joints
organism to removes off the flesh (which  Electrification
can be discarded) the skin is preserved and  Drawing charts /marking charts
sewed back  Modeling
Making charts: A chart is a representation in drawing. Characteristics of a good chart include; A B C D…

 A—accurate, activity that facilitate  C-colour contrast –clean, clearly written

learning, appropriate, accurate on
 B-bold, bright, brief, balanced  D-durable

SCIENCE RESOURCES IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Science section: This is an area inside or outside the class room in which science materials are displayed for
children to use on their own. Material in such a section include: charts, models, word bank, learners’ work,
experimental set ups etc.
The nature table / section: This is where real materials related to the topics being taught in science are
displayed. They can be natural material or manmade. Cells are created in which materials are displayed.
Cells can be made of clay, hard paper, timber etc. Materials that can be displayed in a nature section may
include, animal product, parts of plants, food item, soil, parasites etc
Tips for setting up science /nature section

 Materials should be orderly displayed  There should be regular replacement and

 Materials should be accessible to learners renewal of media
 Materials should be related to content  Learners should be assigned
being handled responsibilities to cater for the section
 Materials should be varied to sustain  Materials should be clean, bold or cells
learners’ interest should be large enough
 The area should be demarcated  Learners should be involved in its creation
 The place should be well light  Labels should be bold enough to be viewed
 Teachers should regularly refer to the section during lessons
 The nature table may also contain real materials used in other subjects
The botanical garden
The variability of plants on the school compound may be limited yet a number of topics in the primary
school curriculum are about plants. It is therefore reasonable for science teacher to set aside a piece of land
for growing particular plants which may not be available on the school compound or nearby. Such plants
may be desert plants like cactus spp, climbing plantlike passion fruits, water plants such as water lily, Nile
cabbage, papyrus sppetc
The aquarium
This refers to an artificial aquatic habitat. A Teacher may need it for keeping organism that live in water ,so
that learners may use it. This can be achieved through constructing ponds or using a transparent vessel /tool.
In such habitat a teacher may keep fish, amphibians, water plants…
Tips in setting up a botanical garden or aquarium

 Fence the site properly  There should be rules guiding the use of
 Label the plants (for botanical garden) the resource
 Keep the garden or aquarium clean  Ensure system or draining and refilling
(remove pollutants) ponds (aquarium)
 Control the population of organisms  Take care of predators and parasites
Laboratory: This is simply a scientific work place. An area with suitably controlled conditions where
aspects of scientific inquiry are introduced, developed and practiced, and where learners become part and
partial.
ADVANTAGES OF SCIENCE RESOURCES
These are instructional materials and thus have the following advantages:-

 For remedial and enforcement activities

 Aids incidental learning
 Encourage pear and group learning
 Provides a wide range of instructional materials
 Develops organization skills and responsibilities
 Are reference points for a teacher
 Makes the learning environment conducive
  Presents learners with realia with which they interact with etc

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

What is an assessment?

What's the definition of assessment in education? Assessment is the systematic process of

documenting and using empirical data to measure knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. By
taking the assessment, teachers try to improve the student's path towards learning. This is a
short definition of assessment.

What is evaluation?

What's the definition of evaluation in education? Evaluation focuses on grades and might
reflect classroom components other than course content and mastery level. An evaluation can
be used as a final review to gauge the quality of instruction. It’s product-oriented. This means
that the main question is: “What’s been learned?” In short, evaluation is judgmental.

Example:

You’re gifted a flower.

Evaluation: “The flower is purple and is too short with not enough leaves.”

Evaluation is judgmental

Assessment: “I’ll give the flower some water to improve its growth.”

Assessment increases the quality

Relationship between Assessment and Evaluation

Besides the differences, there are also some similarities between assessment and evaluation.
The both require criteria, use measures and are evidence-driven.

So, what’s the difference?

Assessment Evaluation
Is ongoing Provides closure

Improves learning quality Judges learning level

Individualized Applied against standards

Ungraded Graded

Provides feedback Shows shortfalls

Process-oriented Product-oriented

Educational assessment or educational evaluation is the systematic process of

documenting and using empirical data on the knowledge, skill, attitudes, and beliefs to refine
programs and improve student learning. Assessment data can be obtained from directly
examining student work to assess the achievement of learning outcomes or can be based on
data from which one can make inferences about learning. Assessment is often used
interchangeably with test, but not limited to tests. Assessment can focus on the individual
learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), a
course, an academic program, the institution, or the educational system as a whole (also
known as granularity). As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear
student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning
opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering,
analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches
expectations, and using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning.

The final purpose of assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework
of the practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human
mind, the origin of knowledge, and the process of learning.

Types

The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities teachers use to help students
learn and to gauge student progress. Assessment can be divided for the sake of convenience
using the following categorizations:

1. Placement, formative, summative and diagnostic assessment

2. Objective and subjective
3. Basis of comparison or Referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced)

4. Informal and formal

5. Internal and external
Placement, formative, summative and diagnostic

Assessment is often divided into initial, formative, and summative categories for the purpose
of considering different objectives for assessment practices.
  Placement assessment – Placement evaluation is used to place students according to
prior achievement or personal characteristics, at the most appropriate point in an
instructional sequence, in a unique instructional strategy, or with a suitable teacher
conducted through placement testing, i.e. the tests that colleges and universities use to
assess college readiness and place students into their initial classes. Placement
evaluation, also referred to as pre-assessment or initial assessment, is conducted prior
to instruction or intervention to establish a baseline from which individual student
growth can be measured. This type of an assessment is used to know what the
student's skill level is about the subject. It helps the teacher to explain the material
more efficiently. These assessments are not graded.
 Formative assessment – Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a
course or project. Formative assessment, also referred to as "educative assessment," is
used to aid learning. In an educational setting, formative assessment might be a
teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing feedback on a student's work and would not
necessarily be used for grading purposes. Formative assessments can take the form of
diagnostic, standardized tests, quizzes, oral question, or draft work. Formative
assessments are carried out concurrently with instructions. The result may count. The
formative assessments aim to see if the students understand the instruction before
doing a summative assessment.
 Summative assessment – Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of
a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically
used to assign students a course grade. Summative assessments are evaluative.
Summative assessments are made to summarize what the students have learned, to
determine whether they understand the subject matter well. This type of assessment is
typically graded (e.g. pass/fail, 0-100) and can take the form of tests, exams or
projects. Summative assessments are often used to determine whether a student has
passed or failed a class. A criticism of summative assessments is that they are
reductive, and learners discover how well they have acquired knowledge too late for it
to be of use.
 Diagnostic assessment – Diagnostic assessment deals with the whole difficulties at the
end that occurs during the learning process. (it is more of formative assessment)
Summative and formative assessment are often referred to in a learning context as assessment
of learning and assessment for learning respectively. Assessment of learning is generally
summative in nature and intended to measure learning outcomes and reports those outcomes
to students, parents and administrators. Assessment of learning generally occurs at the
conclusion of a class, course, semester or academic year. Assessment for learning is generally
formative in nature and is used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next steps
for individual learners and the class.

A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment

measures a student's current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying a suitable
program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves
students assessing themselves.
Objective and subjective

Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorized as either objective or

subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer.
Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct
answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of
objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false answers,
multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include
extended-response questions and essays.

Basis of comparison

Test results can be compared against an established criterion, or against the performance of
other students, or against previous performance:

 Criterion-referenced assessment, typically using a criterion-referenced test, as the

name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and objective)
criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a
person's competence (whether s/he can do something). The best known example of
criterion-referenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers are measured
against a range of explicit criteria (such as "Not endangering other road users").
 Norm-referenced assessment (colloquially known as "grading on the curve"),
typically using a norm-referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This
type of assessment is relative to the student body undertaking the assessment. It is
effectively a way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best known example of
norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or
universities) are norm-referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass
("passing" in this context means being accepted into the school or university rather
than an explicit level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to
year, depending on the quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not
vary from year to year (unless the criteria change).
Informal and formal

Assessment can be either formal or informal. Formal assessment usually implies a written
document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. A formal assessment is given a numerical score or
grade based on student performance, whereas an informal assessment does not contribute to a
student's final grade. An informal assessment usually occurs in a more casual manner and
may include observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, performance and
portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self-evaluation, and discussion.

Internal and external

Internal assessment is set and marked by the school (i.e. teachers). Students get the mark and
feedback regarding the assessment. External assessment is set by the governing body, and is
marked by non-biased personnel. Some external assessments give much more limited
feedback in their marking. However, in tests such as Australia's NAPLAN, the criterion
addressed by students is given detailed feedback in order for their teachers to address and
compare the student's learning achievements and also to plan for the future.

Standards of quality

In general, high-quality assessments are considered those with a high level of reliability and
validity. Approaches to reliability and validity vary, however.

Reliability

Reliability relates to the consistency of an assessment. A reliable assessment is one that

consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar) cohort of students. Various
factors affect reliability—including ambiguous questions, too many options within a question
paper, vague marking instructions and poorly trained markers.

Validity

Main article: Test validity

Valid assessment is one that measures what it is intended to measure. For example, it would
not be valid to assess driving skills through a written test alone. A more valid way of
assessing driving skills would be through a combination of tests that help determine what a
driver knows, such as through a written test of driving knowledge, and what a driver is able
to do, such as through a performance assessment of actual driving. Teachers frequently
complain that some examinations do not properly assess the syllabus upon which the
examination is based; they are, effectively, questioning the validity of the exam.

Validity of an assessment is generally gauged through examination of evidence in the

following categories:

1. Content – Does the content of the test measure stated objectives?

2. Criterion – Do scores correlate to an outside reference?
3. Construct – Does the assessment correspond to other significant variables?
A good assessment has both validity and reliability, plus the other quality attributes as
follows;
Objectivity – free from the examiners’ personal judgement
Practicability – administered and acceptable to average examiners
Interpretable – scores of the test should be used and interpreted in terms of a common
base
Easy to administer – test materials and instructions should be easy to follow
Assessment tools
Science uses a number of assessment tools as follows;
Journals
Activity logs
Portfolios
Projects
Tests
Assignments
With examples, explain the assessment tools listed above

Designing a test or exam

Steps:

 Determine the structure of the paper

 Identify the examinable areas to be tested. For example if you are to set a test for end
of P.7, primary has 8 themes from which you are expected to set questions. They have
different content weight usually measured in term of time spent while teaching them.
To get test items to b e picked from each theme;
time for teaching the topic x total no. of qns to be set
No. of qns to be set in a topic
Total time for teaching the whole syllabus

 Allocate marks for the different Bloom’s taxonomy levels, for primary consider;
knowledge, application and comprehension. Ideally percentages should be 50%, 30%
and 20% respective of knowledge, comprehension and application
 Construct a table of specification
Theme1 Theme2 Theme3 Theme4 Theme5 Theme6 Theme7 Theme8 Total
K 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 4 27
C 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 19
A 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 9
Total 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 55
Source; ISE for PTE
 Construct test items (preferably along with the expected answers)
 Reorganize the items
Describe the types of tests you can use to determine the level of performance among learners
Identify the qualities of a good test
Explain the methods of analyzing, recording and reporting assessment data
What challenges do teachers face while assessing learners?
Suggest the solutions to the above challenges
Which factors account for teachers’ misuse of assessment?

EXTRA – CURRICULAR SCIENCE

 Health parade: health parade is an assembly aimed at improving the health status of pupils.
This can be done by carrying out activities that promote /improve personal hygiene and
sanitation. A teacher checks pupils with for example long nails, un-brushed teeth, poor hair
etc.

Science club: this is an association in a school that has a core aim of promoting and engaging
pupils in scientific knowledge. It is also concerned about the health issues of the school and
the surrounding community. It may engage in activities like passing health information,
agriculture to produce food for malnourished, sensitizing the community on health through
MDD, talk shows etc.

Science news letter: a news letter is a report, open letter giving informal or confidential news
of interest to a special group. A science teacher can involve pupils in writing or compiling
information about new discoveries regularly and pass them to the school community. Or
engage in defining and explaining word bank of new discoveries. Learners can also be
engaged in looking for health news around the school constantly pass it to the school
community on assemblies or pass it to the school neighbors depending on the type of
information.

Science fair: the teacher may encourage individual pupils, pairs or groups to work on the
articles for purposes of exhibition or display. During the display, individual pupils, pairs or
groups each explain how they made the articles and how articles works and how it is useful in
the scientific world. The best can be announced but may not necessarily be rewarded.

Science competition: pupils are guided in making science articles for purposes of promoting
competitive skills. It thus aims at looking for the winner or the most creative learner or group
of learners. Usually the winner is usually rewarded.

Science themed week: a theme refers to subject matter of conversation or discussion.

Science themed week thus refers to a week where a particular topic/health issue is made a
main topic of discussion throughout that week. Every presentation, debate, newsletter, or
health news are directed to be from or related to that topic. A science teacher thus has a
responsibility of dividing and distributing topics of discussion through different weeks of the
term. Ideally, issues that are so touching like outbreaks which may require immediate
attention should be given priority, in the first weeks or may be brought in as they occur.

Advantages

 Promote leadership skills  Promotes health living

 Promotes creativity  Competitive skills
 Communication skills  Problem solving skills
 Inquiry skills  Social skills
 Observation skills  Develops talents