D IR E CTOR

The programs authorized by the Creating Helpful Incentives

to Produce Semiconductors (CHIPS) for America Act provide
a historic opportunity to expand our domestic manufacturing
capacity, help grow the research and innovation ecosystem for
microelectronics and semiconductors in the U.S., and restore
T HE

U.S. leadership in semiconductor manufacturing. The Depart-

ment of Commerce and NIST are fully committed to ensuring
the successful implementation of these programs.
F R O M

Successful implementation of the CHIPS Act programs will

require close coordination and input from industry and key
stakeholders. As an important first step to engage industry and
M ES S AGE

critical stakeholders, NIST sponsored a series of Semiconduc-

tor Metrology Workshops in April 2022 seeking input on how
NIST can help address key measurement challenges facing the
semiconductor industry. These workshops brought together
over 800 attendees from industry, academia, and government.
This report provides a summary of your input from the work-
shops on key measurement challenges facing the semiconduc-
tor ecosystem, strategies for addressing those challenges, and
key areas where NIST can help.

As we heard from you, metrology challenges impacting the

U.S. semiconductor industry are at a critical stage and urgently
need to be addressed. The strategic opportunities outlined in
this report will enable us to provide critically needed measure-
ment services, advanced metrology R&D testbeds, innovative
manufacturing metrologies, novel assurance and provenance
technologies, and standards, and build even stronger partner-
ships with industry.

I want to thank you for your input and participation, and I look
forward to continued engagement as we begin to build out
and implement the metrology and standards programs to ad-
dress the key strategic challenges outlined in the report.

Sincerely,

Laurie E. Locascio, Ph.D.

Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology &
Director, National Institute of Standards and Technology

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Executive Summary NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Semiconductors are critical to our Nation’s economic growth,

national security, and public health and safety. Revolutionary
advances in microelectronics continue to drive innovations in
communications, information technology, health care, military
systems, transportation, energy, and infrastructure. The po-
tential for microelectronics to create transformational change
is growing exponentially as they become smaller, faster, and
A key CHIPS Act
more sophisticated—delivering unprecedented performance. priority is metrolo-
Next-generation systems, devices, and related technologies are
gy research at the
critical to addressing society’s most urgent needs.
National Institute
The nation that leads in microelectronics research, of Standards and
Technology;
development, and manufacturing will lead in specifically, the
defining and reaping the benefits from dynamic statute calls for
shifts in technology. NIST to “carry
out a microelec-
The ability to cost-effectively manufacture complex next-gen-
tronics research
eration microelectronics devices and integrate them in novel
systems and packages is a growing challenge, compounded by program to en-
ever-greater requirements for performance, functionality, and able advanc-
security.
es and break-
To strengthen the U.S. position in semiconductors, Congress
authorized a set of programs known as the Creating Helpful
throughs….that
Incentives to Produce Semiconductors for America Act (CHIPS will accelerate
Act) as part of the William M. (Mac) Thornberry National De-
fense Authorization Act (NDAA) for Fiscal Year 2021 (Pub. L. No.
the underlying
116-283). These programs would help restore U.S. leadership R&D for metrol-
in microelectronics manufacturing and ensure America’s supply
of leading-edge products by providing incentives and encour-
ogy of next-gen-
aging investment to expand production capacity and grow eration microelec-
the innovation ecosystem for microelectronics research and tronics and ensure
development (R&D).
the competitiveness
Leveraging decades of experience in next-generation devic-
es, systems, and related technologies, NIST has a specific role
and leadership of the
authorized under the CHIPS Act to undertake critical metrology United States….”
R&D that will strengthen the domestic semiconductor industry.

iii
 Metrology challenges impacting the
U.S. semiconductor industry are at a
Microelectronics in this report refers to inte-
critical stage and urgently need to be
grated electronic devices and systems gener-
ally manufactured using semiconductor-based
addressed.
materials and related processing (i.e., in a semi-
conductor fabrication manufacturing facility, or Metrology, the science of measurement and its applica-
“fab”). tions, plays a key role in up to 50 percent of semiconductor
manufacturing steps to ensure quality, yield, and perfor-
Such devices and systems include analog and mance. As devices become more complex, the ability to
digital electronics, power electronics, optics and measure, monitor, predict, and ensure quality in manufac-
photonics, and micromechanics, for memory, turing becomes much more difficult. For example, modern
processing, sensing, and communications. chips may contain over 100 billion complex nanodevices
that are less than 50 atoms across—all must work nearly
identically for the chip to function. Today, the domestic
semiconductor industry faces these metrology challenges
using workarounds and insufficient tools. The results are re-
duced in quality and manufacturing yields, increased costs
for manufacturing, and slower product innovation.

Addressing metrology grand challenges

will support increased production, in-
novation, and competitiveness in the
domestic semiconductor industry.
Recognizing that metrology is critical to enabling future
microelectronics innovation, NIST has worked with stake-
holders to identify the critical challenges requiring R&D.
Information gained by NIST through a series of workshops,
a request for information, and discussions with major com-
A photodiode pulse generator connected to a wafer panies has informed a proposed strategic path forward
probe to measure electrical pulses up to 110 GHz. This
tool is used to calibrate oscilloscopes, vector signal focused on seven Grand Challenges.
analyzers, arbitrary waveform generators, large signal
Executive Summary

network analyzers, and light wave component analyz- The Grand Challenges outline metrology R&D needed to
ers. Many manufacturers of high-speed measurement strengthen the domestic semiconductor industry. Metrol-
equipment have purchased photodiode calibrations ogy is needed at all stages of semiconductor technology
from NIST.
development, from basic and applied R&D in the laborato-
Photo Courtesy of Curt Suplee, NIST ry to demonstrating proof of concept, prototyping at scale,
factory fabrication, assembly and packaging, and perfor-
mance verification prior to final deployment.

iv
This report is a call to action.
Metrology underpins our ability to address the challenges faced by semiconductor manufacturers. Making invest-
ments in metrology capabilities today will future-proof technology needs and support U.S. leadership for the next
generation of microelectronics.

There is not a moment to lose in accelerating R&D on urgently needed metrology advances—and many high-im-
pact outcomes to be gained, specifically by:

• Advancing U.S. leadership in documentary standards development to strengthen U.S. global competitiveness
in advanced microelectronics materials, design, manufacturing, and packaging.

• Developing and deploying critically needed measurement services (reference materials, reference data, calibra-
tions) to drive U.S. leadership in microelectronics manufacturing and related technologies.

• Developing and deploying innovative manufacturing metrologies to enable U.S. industry to increase manufac-
turing yield, improve performance, and accelerate time to market for next-generation microelectronics.

• Developing and deploying novel assurance and provenance technologies to reduce microelectronics security
risks across supply chains, from design and development to manufacturing, packaging, and end-of-life.

• Establishing advanced metrology R&D testbeds with state-of-the-art equipment and tools to drive measure-
ment science innovations for next-generation microelectronics.

• Building and sustaining collaborative partnerships with industry to accelerate the transfer of technology from
the laboratory to the commercial marketplace and support talent development and deployment.

Executive Summary

v
 GRAND CHALLENGE STRATEGY

Meet increasingly stringent Develop measurement

requirements for semiconductor technologies, properties data,
Metrology for Materials materials purity, physical prop- and standards focused on defect
Purity, Properties, and erties, and provenance across a and contaminant identification to
Provenance diverse supply chain through de- support uniform materials quality
velopment of new measurements and traceability across the supply
and standards. chain.
Ensure critical metrology advanc- Advance the physical and com-
Advanced es keep pace with cutting-edge putational metrology tools adapt-
Metrology for Future and future microelectronics and able to next-generation manu-
Microelectronics semiconductor manufacturing, facturing of advanced complex,
Manufacturing while maintaining a competitive integrated technologies and
U.S. advantage. systems.
Provide enabling metrology Develop metrology for complex
Enabling Metrology spanning multiple length integration of sophisticated
for Integrating scales and physical properties components and new materials
Components in for acceleration of advanced to support a strong domestic
Advanced Packaging packaging for future-generation advanced microelectronics
microelectronics. packaging industry.
Improve tools needed to ef- Create advanced design simula-
Modeling and Simulating fectively model and simulate tors using multi-physics models
Semiconductor future semiconductor materials, and next-generation concepts
Materials, Designs, and processes, devices, circuits, and such as artificial intelligence and
Components microelectronic system designs. digital twins, empowering U.S.
microelectronics designers.
Seamlessly model and simulate Develop advanced computation-
Modeling and the entire semiconductor manu- al models, methods, data, stan-
Simulating facturing process, from materials dards, automation, and tools to
Semiconductor inputs to chip fabrication, system enable domestic semiconductor
Manufacturing assembly, and end products. manufacturers to improve yields,
Processes accelerate time to market, and
enhance competitiveness.
Standardize the methods that will Create standards, validation tools,
Standardizing New support and accelerate the de- and protocols for next-generation
Materials, Processes,
Executive Summary

velopment and manufacturing of materials, processes, and equip-

and Equipment for microelectronics and advanced ment, paving the way for acceler-
Microelectronics information and communications ated innovation and cost-compet-
technologies. itiveness in U.S. industry.
Create the metrology advances Pursue a comprehensive approach
needed to enhance the security to hardware security protection
Metrology to Enhance and provenance of microelectronic that includes standards, protocols,
Security and Provenance components and products across formal testing processes, and
of Microelectronic supply chains and increase trust advanced computational technol-
based Components and and assurance. ogies while providing avenues for
Products assurance and provenance of mi-
croelectronic components across
the supply chain and end products.
vi
 TABLE OF

CONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 The Role of Metrology
4 A Call to Action

5 Strategic Opportunities for

Semiconductor Manufacturing
6 Metrology for Materials Purity, Properties,
and Provenance

8 Advanced Metrology for Future

Microelectronics Manufacturing

10 Enabling Metrology for Integrating

Components in Advanced Packaging

12 Modeling and Simulating Semiconductor

Materials, Designs, and Components

14 Modeling and Simulating Semiconductor

Manufacturing Processes

16 Standardizing New Materials, Processes, and

Equipment for Microelectronics

18 Metrology to Enhance Security and Provenance of

Microelectronic-based Components and Products

21 Path Forward

23 Acknowledgements
24 Stakeholder Engagement

25 Acronyms
 Foreword
This report was developed with input from renowned experts in the field of microelectronics through a series of
NIST-hosted workshops, a request for information, and other sources. Major U.S. companies also provided their
unique insights on this important topic.

This document provides a high-level perspective of the metrology challenges facing the U.S. semiconductor manu-
facturing industry and the associated strategic research and development (R&D) that is needed.

The report will be used by both public and private stakeholders to inform decisions about the metrology R&D and
standards that should be pursued to transform and strengthen domestic semiconductor manufacturing.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of NIST or the United States Govern-
ment. Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this document to illustrate a point or
concept adequately. Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by NIST, nor is it
intended to imply that the entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

Official contribution of the National Institute of Standards and Technology; not subject to copyright in the United States.
viii
Introduction
Advances in microelectronics by the semiconductor in-
dustry underpin U.S. economic strength, security, and
technological standing. Semiconductors are the foundation
of modern technologies and are embedded in a wide range
of products, from communications to automobiles, aircraft,
computers, medical devices, security systems, and others. The
innovations made possible by advances in semiconductor
technology have expanded the Nation’s economy, enabled job
growth, and transformed our way of life.

Moving forward, the nation that leads in microelectronics de-

velopment will lead in defining and reaping the benefits from
the industries of the future, such as artificial intelligence (AI),
autonomous vehicles, advanced communications, internet of
things, quantum computing, and many more.

The future of the chip industry is going THE LANGUAGE OF

MICROELECTRONICS
to be made in America. Front End semiconductor
President Joe Biden, August 9, 2022 manufacturing is the first
step in wafer manufacturing,
For over 50 years, reducing the size of transistors has allowed where wafer-based devices
engineers to make circuits that are more complex and high-
like transistors, poly capaci-
er-performing, require less power, and are cheaper to produce.
tors, non-metal resistors, and
As geometric scaling reaches its practical limits, material-driv-
diodes are formed.
en innovations at the nanoscale have become essential to the
development of advanced devices. Today, complex integration Back End refers to the last step
of electronic and photonic technologies with the highly sophis- of the manufacturing, where
ticated CMOS (complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor)
the wafer is cut, assembled, and
platform found in many computer microchips has emerged as
placed into various packages.
a key driver and differentiator of performance and global com-
petitiveness. Ultimately, ever-greater device- and system-level The convergence of Front End
innovations will be needed as performance requirements and Back End for improved per-
continue to evolve along with modern technologies. formance places unprecedented
The ability to cost-effectively manufacture and test complex demand for rapid innovation in mea-
microelectronics devices at the nanoscale is a growing chal- surements and standards.
lenge, requiring concomitant advances in design, processing,
and integration to ensure quality and performance. These
systems are growing in complexity even as their components
are shrinking in size. Increasingly, precision of materials, di-
mensions, and placement is integral to system performance,
reliability, security, and safety. Metrology, the science of
measurement and its applications, underpins our ability to
address these challenges.

1
 ”We will see increased The Role of Metrology
complexity in many Metrology research and development (R&D) is fun-
advanced packaging damental to all aspects of the semiconductor supply
chain. In some cases, over 50 percent of semiconductor
options now and in the manufacturing involves measurement to ensure quality,
future—there is an urgent yield, and performance. The importance of metrology
increases as devices become smaller and more highly
need for advancements in integrated and operate at higher frequencies or data
metrology for all options.” rates. Today's semiconductors can have tens of billions of
transistors on a square-centimeter-sized chip, all working
together to meet specifications, requiring measurements of
E. Jan Vardaman, President, TechSearch International,
NIST Semiconductor Manufacturing Metrology R&D structure and composition at the atomic scale.
Workshop, April 2022
Through its leadership in standards and measurement
science, the National Institute of Standards and Technology
WHAT IS METROLOGY? (NIST) has been a crucial partner in helping the U.S. mi-
croelectronics industry in the the development and manu-
Metrology is the science of measurement and its facturing of next-generation devices. The companies that
application. At NIST, work in metrology focuses supply equipment, design, and materials to major semicon-
on advancing measurement science and related ductor producers are largely U.S.-based and also critical to
standards to enhance economic security and technology development.
improve quality of life.
Breakthroughs in measurement science, standards, materi-
Physical metrology—measurements of dimen- al characterization, instrumentation, testing, and manufac-
sional and physical properties for materials, turing capabilities are necessary to realize the potential of
devices, systems, and processes. emerging 3D devices and 3D heterogeneous integration.
Computational metrology—physics-based As devices become more complex, highly integrated, and
modeling, reconstruction, and visualization of smaller, ensuring performance becomes more challenging.
multi-dimensional information combined with Meeting dimensional tolerances, performance, and reli-
physical metrology to analyze, predict, and con- ability over a range of environments becomes increasingly
trol the performance of systems and processes. difficult.

Virtualization and automation—data collection, The needs encompass a broad spectrum of technology
management, processing, and analytics com- maturity from pilot scale prototyping and validation to
bined with machine learning (ML), and other production and commercialization, bridging work in the
information for manufacturing process control, laboratory and the manufacturing plant.
security, and authentication.

Measurement services—calibrations of machines

and equipment, Standard Reference Materi-
als (SRMs), standard reference data (SRD), and
standard reference instruments (SRIs) to ensure
traceability of manufacturing data to an estab-
Introduction

lished benchmark, i.e., the International System

of Units (SI).

Measurement and documentary standards—

specify definitions, dimensions, materials,
processes, practices, performance, products,
systems, services, test methods and sampling
procedures, or classifications of components.

2
 Introduction

Metrology has a significant impact on the semiconductor ecosystem, consuming a large portion of steps in chip
manufacturing (50% and growing). As many as 30% of tools in fabrication are metrology/defects toolsets.

3
 A Call to Action
Future applications of microelectronics will be transfor-
mative. Next-generation devices will enable extraordinary
gains in advanced communications, intelligent systems,
and high-speed computing that are hard to imagine today.
U.S. competitiveness in this critical field is fundamental to
the Nation’s long-term economic growth, national defense,
health, and safety.

While the U.S. once led the world in semiconductor man-

ufacture, it now accounts for about 12 percent of global
production and produces none of the most advanced
chips. Countries around the world are investing in semicon-
ductors, with China striving to become a global leader. All
nations will depend heavily on information and computing
technologies fueled by semiconductors.

The U.S. government has enacted authorizing legislation

and appropriated funds to strengthen America’s semicon-
THE CHIPS ACT ductor industry and supply chains and spur robust invest-
ments in innovation. The CHIPS Act lays out a number of
Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semicon- goals: to protect and extend U.S. semiconductor technolo-
ductors for America Act (CHIPS Act), part of the gy leadership, ensure a secured supply of chips for critical
William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense sectors, and promote the long-term economic viability of
Authorization Act (NDAA) for Fiscal Year 2021 this important U.S. industry. Programs under the CHIPS Act
(Pub. L. No. 116-283). would expand manufacturing capacity for both advanced
and mature microelectronics technologies. They would
CHIPS Act Section 9906(e):
also help grow the research and innovation ecosystem for
“MICROELECTRONICS RESEARCH AT THE NA- microelectronics and semiconductor research and devel-
TIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECH- opment R&D in the U.S.
NOLOGY. The Director of the National Institute of
This report outlines a set of strategic grand challenges for
Standards and Technology shall carry out a micro-
metrology and related R&D that is necessary to enable
electronics research program to enable advances
innovation and bolster competitiveness in the domestic
and breakthroughs in measurement science,
semiconductor industry. NIST has a specific role authorized
standards, material characterization, instrumen-
under the CHIPS Act to undertake this essential metrology
tation, testing, and manufacturing capabilities
R&D, which is part of the foundation for leading innova-
that will accelerate the underlying research and
tions and advances in domestic microelectronics.
development for metrology of next-generation
microelectronics and ensure the competitiveness Metrology is foundational to semiconductor manufactur-
and leadership of the United States within this ing. Making investments in metrology capabilities now will
sector.” future-proof our technology needs and ensure that do-
Introduction

mestic producers are cost-competitive in driving the rapid

evolution of microelectronics.

The opportunity is now. There is not a moment to lose in

accelerating R&D on critically needed metrology—enabling
advances and breakthroughs and supporting our Nation’s
leadership in next-generation microelectronics.

4
 “The greatest risk is not investing
in semiconductor R&D for our
Strategic Opportunities future…. Metrology advances
are needed to reduce cycle
for Semiconductor time, obtain insight, and
push the frontier.”
Manufacturing Todd Younkin, President and Chief Executive
Officer, Semiconductor Research Corporation,
NIST Semiconductor Metrology R&D Work-
shop, April 2022
Advances and innovations in microelectronics will yield
revolutionary new products but will require advanced
metrology. The highly complex, integrated devices emerging for
sophisticated future products present challenges for semicon-
ductor manufacturing. Addressing the most critical of these
challenges will help ensure that the U.S. leads global innovations
NIST is at the forefront of metrol-
and maintains a robust semiconductor industry.
ogy for semiconductor manufac-
Metrology is fundamental to microelectronics design, manufac- turing via industry partnerships.
turing, and packaging, as well as the critical materials and sub-strate
NIST operates two nanofabrica-
supply chain. Physical and computational metrology are needed not
tion facilities producing custom
only to aid in design, but also to assess, test, characterize, and
microfabricated devices for
inspect components during all phases of manufacturing. Metrology
research and measurements to
is required to identify, characterize, and mitigate defects and other
support electrical standards,
issues that impact performance and quality and provides product
quantum computing, and
assurance at many stages of manufacturing. Metrology is key for
communications. Researchers
certifying materials at the beginning of manufacturing, as well as
also create custom devices for
quality of the end products.
partner institutions to test new
The requirements to characterize, test, and inspect next-generation concepts. The facilities each
devices, integrated circuits, and packaging are moving beyond the house about 50 instruments
limits of today’s measurement techniques. These complex devices that deposit very thin layers
require advanced nanoscale and subsurface measurement capabil- of materials on silicon wafers,
ities, including the ability to identify the type and position of atoms and transfer patterns to the wafers,
assess buried layers. In some cases, metrology must also be suitable and precisely and selectively
for in-line high-volume production, be non-destructive, subtract material to make custom
and be able to provide results in real time. nanoscale devices and structures.

Recognizing that metrology is critical to enabling future in-

novations in microelectronics, NIST has worked with industry
stakeholders to identify the most pressing technical challenges
requiring R&D. Information gained by NIST through a series of
workshops, a request for information, and discussions with ma-jor
companies has helped to inform a proposed strategic path
forward focused on seven Grand Challenges.

The Grand Challenges outline the metrology R&D needed

to strengthen the domestic semiconductor industry. Metrol-ogy
is needed throughout all stages of technology develop-ment, from
fundamental science through applied R&D, demon-stration,
manufacturing, and deployment.
A custom UHV plasma chamber ex-
poses device wafers to O2 plasma in the
NIST nano-fab facility. 5
 Metrology for Materials Purity,
Properties, and Provenance
MATERIALS ADVANCES IN
MICROELECTRONICS New measurements and
• Metals to replace copper in ultrasmall inter-
connects—Materials such as cobalt and rutheni-
standards are needed to sat-
um are being explored for tiny interconnects as
scaling of devices continues to 3 nm and below,
isfy stringent requirements
where layers must be very thin and conductive.
for the purity, physical
• Dielectrics for 6G packaging—Higher radio
frequencies (several hundred gigahertz) require properties, and provenance
of materials.
new types of dielectric materials. Materials must
be temperature-resistant to withstand manufac-
turing processes and heat generation caused
Industry has seen explosive growth in both the diversity
by signal loss in complex devices.
and global sourcing of materials for semiconductors over
Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

• 2D metal chalcogenides—promising materials the past decade. As demand grows for faster, smaller
for broadband and high-performance photode- integrated circuits, scientists have incorporated many new
tectors due to higher carrier mobility, absorp- types of materials. Some companies report using hundreds
tion coefficient and narrow bandgap range. of materials and chemicals during chip fabrication.

• Wide-bandgap semiconductors—permit devices As devices become smaller, new paradigms in materials

to operate at much higher voltages and tempera- are required—new metals, dielectrics, etch gases, photo-
tures than conventional semiconductor materials resists, antireflective coatings—and purity is of paramount
like silicon. Wide-bandgap semiconductors are importance. The properties and behavior of some of these
the key component used for solid-state lighting, materials are not well-characterized.
power electronics, and radio frequency (RF) appli-
Supply sources for microelectronics materials have also
cations, such as cell phones and radar.
become highly diversified and global. The market for semi-
conductor materials is enormous, reaching over $50 billion
NIST “grows” semiconductor nanowires that in 2018 and projected to be $70 billion by the end of
emit ultraviolet light as part of a project to make 2025.1 The introduction of new materials along with global
prototype nano-lasers and other devices and the sourcing has led to greater potential for contamination—
measurement tools needed to characterize them. and a need for consistency in purity, physical properties,
and provenance of materials. Semiconductor fabricators
need tools and metrology capability to verify the integrity
of the materials being purchased. Materials can have mul-
tiple touchpoints along the chain of production, storage,
transport, and delivery where contaminants can be gener-
ated or added.

1 International Roadmap for Semiconductor Manufacture. IEEE.

2020. https://irds.ieee.org/topics/semiconductor-materials

6
New measurements and standards are needed to
ensure purity, physical properties, and provenance. Provenance records the journey of a ma-
Without these, atomic-scale defects or inadequate terial from production to end use. The path
microscopic properties can severely limit yield, perfor- can involve people (organizations, teams,
mance, and reliability of next-generation devices and individuals); locations (facilities, production
integrated systems. Contamination control standards lines within facilities, storage, equipment,
and the instrumentation to validate them, for example, warehouses, mines, barrels, etc.); and physi-
would improve quality while reducing wafer defects—a cal contact items (additives, solvents, gases,
large contributor to high costs and lower yields in etc.). Provenance could record, for example,
semiconductor manufacturing. interactions with places and people who in-
Different materials manufacturers might not have spected the material, moved it, owned it, and
the same accuracy in measurements or have unique stored it, along with its physical travels.
methods for assessing if materials conform to quality
or specifications. For example, semiconductor manu-
facturers want to be sure the dielectric properties of a material meet specifications—and may be uncertain about
the accuracy of the supplier’s methods. Some type of certification or accreditation, for example, would help assure
manufacturers receiving materials of the provenance and consistency in the quality when purchased.

Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

7
 Advanced Metrology for Future
Microelectronics Manufacturing
THE LANGUAGE OF MICROELECTRONICS
Breakthroughs in physical
• DRAM and NAND—high-volume, commodity
memory semiconductor components that work and computational metrology
together but have different functions. DRAM
manages data and requires power (volatile);
NAND flash stores data and requires no power
are needed for advanced man-
(non-volatile). ufacturing of future-genera-
• Field-effect transistor (FET)—a type of transistor
that uses an electric field to control the flow of tion devices.
current in a semiconductor. The latest advances in microelectronics are incorporating
• Manufacturing yield—a quantitative measure more complex 3D devices and nanostructured materials.
of the quality of microelectronics processing. It These multifaceted devices have many advantages, such as
lower power consumption and smaller size.
Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

is the fraction of product not discarded during

manufacturing and packaging. Rapid growth of advanced node CMOS and other wafer-scale
• Transistor—a semiconductor device used to advanced devices and circuits (e.g., high frequency, silicon
amplify or switch electrical signals and power. photonics) is expected in the future. CMOS scaling is increas-
The transistor is one of the basic building blocks ingly focused on low voltage, cost-effectiveness, and higher
of modern electronics. performance. Advanced CMOS has gone from planar to 3D
• 3D transistor—a transistor architecture formed via integration techniques, and new transistor architectures
vertically (three-dimensional) rather than hori- have emerged, such as fin field-effect transistor (FinFET) and
zontally (planar) for improved performance and others. A promising approach for nanoscale transistors is the
increased density. gate-all-around (GAA) FETs, in horizontal or vertical configura-
tions, particularly for advanced nodes at 3 nm and beyond.

As devices become more complex, the metrology be-

comes more challenging. Measuring and characterizing
structures is the traditional approach for identifying prob-
lem areas and ensuring yields in semiconductor manufac-
turing. However, when applied to 3D structures, metrology
tools are more expensive and often exhibit significant gaps
in capabilities.

Advanced node manufacturing is approaching the point

where each atom’s position and type within a 3D device
needs to be known to meet the ever-increasing require-
ments for continued gains in system performance.

8
Part of the challenge is to character-
ize the inner or buried portions of 3D
structures that comprise various mate-
rials/films, many layers and tiny channel
holes—the more layers, the more diffi-
cult the metrology becomes. Further,
no single metrology tool is able to
make all the needed measurements. A
suite of tools used for 2D characteriza-
tion is often employed (e.g., electron
microscopes, optical systems)—but
these fall short in being able to pene-
trate layers adequately and at the small
scale required. A concerted effort that
combines R&D with standards development is needed to address this challenge.

Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

9
 Enabling Metrology for Integrating
Components in Advanced Packaging
ADVANCED PACKAGING CONCEPTS

• Heterogeneous integration—refers to the

New metrology will enable
integration of separately manufactured compo-
nents into a higher-level assembly that, in the
complex integration of
aggregate, provides enhanced functionality and
improved operating characteristics. sophisticated components
• Multi-chip modules—multiple integrated circuits
(ICs)/dies integrated into a single package or
and novel materials for
module to reduce required board space.

• 3D integrated circuit—an IC formed by stack-

advanced microelectronics
ing wafers and/or dies vertically (three-dimen-
sional) and connecting them electrically using packaging.
through-silicon vias (TSVs).
Advanced packaging has emerged as a critical element for
• System-in-package—method to bundle multiple continued performance gains in microelectronics. Ad-
Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

ICs in a single package, compared to system on vanced packaging enables a multitude of devices with dif-
chip (SoC) where functions on chips are integrat- ferent functions (logic, memory, GPS, power, accelerome-
ed in the same substrate.
ters, etc.) to be integrated and packaged together to meet
• Fan-out wafer packaging—package where application-specific requirements. While improvements
connections are fanned out of the chip surface to inside the chip have been used for decades to increase
enable more external inputs/outputs; uses epoxy functionality, advances in packaging have emerged as an
mold compound to embed the die instead of innovative, cost-effective approach.
placement on a substrate.
Increasingly, consumers are seeking higher-performing and
• Integrated photonics—an emerging branch of
photonics in which waveguides and devices are multi-functional devices that exhibit greater speed but are
fabricated as an integrated structure onto the smaller and cost less; advanced packaging is an effective
surface of a flat substrate, or flat surface. way to achieve these features. Significant improvements in
system performance are obtained through the co-design and
• Optical interconnects—refers to transmission of
signals from one part of an integrated circuit or integration of disparate components within the package.
system to another using light.
The combination of components will vary depending on the
• Known good die—chips that have been fully advanced function desired and can include multiple dies
charaterized before being placed into their pack- integrated in the same package (smaller footprint). Packag-
ages. ing pulls all the components together, resulting in a more
powerful, higher-performing heterogeneous system and po-
tentially reducing time to market. Heterogeneous integration
is an enabling approach and critically important to future
devices where higher performance, smaller and lighter form,
lower power requirements, and lower cost are essential.

Integration of different materials and components requires

new measurement standards and capabilities that span
multiple length scales and physical properties with validat-
ed accuracy to ensure high yield and performance.
10
The processes and techniques used
to create advanced packaging occur
post-fabrication and impact both metrol-
ogy and inspection. Materials may not be
standard, or packages may use different
types of materials, impacting inspection
requirements. Advanced packaging
also presents unique measurements for
back end processes and technologies,
such as measurement of bump spacing
and dimensions and detection and
characterization of buried defects. These
rapidly emerging advanced packaging Advanced packaging allows multiple systems and materials—such as
basic logic, memory, and RF communications (Next G, WiFi, Blue-
concepts will require flexible, adaptable
tooth)—to be incorporated in one package.
measurement systems for controlling vari-
ous parameters (both 2D and 3D).

Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

11
 Modeling and Simulating
Semiconductor Materials, Designs,
and Components
”We need to invest in Advanced metrology
modeling and electronic
design automation for
tools are needed for effec-
reduced costs and increased tively modeling and sim-
throughputs… ...govern- ulating next-generation
ment investment is critical
for U.S. semiconductor man-
semiconductor materials,
ufacturing capabilities.” processes, devices, cir-
Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

Bill Deal, Consulting Engineer, Northrop Grumman, cuits, and system designs.
NIST Semiconductor Manufacturing Metrology
Workshop, April 2022 Hardware design is becoming more complex and multi-dis-
ciplinary, involving software, manufacturing, and new
materials. Modeling and simulation are key elements used
by the semiconductor industry to decrease the develop-
ment time required to get new technologies to market.
New models are continuously emerging as requirements
for faster compact circuits and systems become more strin-
gent. Models and simulations must analyze sophisticated
device features and perform rigorous testing and opti-
mization under a variety of environmental and operating
conditions.

Physics-based models are intended to enable selection

of optimal device features and performance when oper-
ating in a variety of conditions. While these models are
relatively accurate, the calculations may not be fast enough
for higher-level analysis, including circuit design. In that
case, empirical models (computer-based models based
Microprocessor with visible silicon core and on experimental data) are applied. The result is a trade-off
cache chip. between the accuracy of the device model and computa-
tional speed.

12
With more complex and future technologies,
systems are pushed to operate at higher fre-
quencies, resulting in higher packaging density
and disparate components. With these devices,
designers need to focus more on effects such
as electromagnetic coupling between circuits
or thermal issues due to greater component
density. Electrical performance may degrade
as speed and density increase, resulting in the
need to model and control signal, power, and
thermal integrity. Smaller and higher-frequen-
cy device profiles require greater accuracy
of dopant and stress profiles, as well as other
JARVIS is a repository for standardizing computational tools
parameters that are important during manufac-
for materials modeling including force fields (FF) and ML for
turing. The greater the number of interacting density functional theory (DFT). JARVIS has over 6,000 users
components, the larger the issue becomes. and 300,000 downloads. For more information: jarvis.nist.gov
Simulators for future designs must have the
capability to model multiple physical effects in large heterogeneously integrated systems.

Significant improvements in model characterization methods, data handling, and verification are needed across
the semiconductor value chain to maximize their effect.

Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

13
 Modeling and Simulating
Semiconductor Manufacturing
Processes
”When conflicts and distur- Breakthroughs are needed
bances occur in physical space,
virtual models can be tested in to enable tools to seamlessly
real time, predict future events, model and simulate the entire
feed the information back to the
physical space, identify where to
semiconductor manufactur-
improve the design, and provide ing process.
efficient communications be- Modeling and simulation are critical to the manufacturing
tween customers and designers.”
Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

of microelectronics and semiconductors, from materials

inputs to wafer fabrication and system assembly. Effective
Dr. John Allgair, Program Technical modeling of manufacturing processes enables better con-
Vice President, BRIDG
trol of essential performance parameters, identification of
flaws, defects and their root causes, quality assurance, and
predictive equipment maintenance.

Semiconductor manufacturing can have literally thou-

sands of steps, as chips with multiple layers, components,
and systems are integrated and assembled into complex
architectures. Metrology plays a key role in every step of
manufacturing, and computational metrology (models built
on data) can be especially critical.

Breakthroughs in measurements and development of

consensus standards are critical to improvements in data
handling, analytics, virtualization, and automation to enable
greater efficiency in manufacturing and accelerated time
A digital twin virtually represents a device or pro- to market. Inadequate manufacturing process models and
cess across its lifecycle; relies on simulation, ML, metrology can contribute significantly to poor yields, result-
and AI to make decisions; and is updated contin- ing in fewer chips and systems that are viable for integra-
uously with real-time data. Digital twins enable tion into end products and delaying overall production.
manufacturers to reproduce and model an entire
process, enhancing quality, reliability, productivi- While simple physical models are commonly applied due
ty, and trust and assurance. to their faster computation times, these do not meet the
demands of more complex and sophisticated manufac-
turing processes. Models that can can accurately simulate
next-generation device manufacturing parameters and
processes are needed.

14
Digital twins are one approach that shows great promise. For example, a robust virtual twin of a fabrication facility
could model the operation of each piece of equipment and all related operations. This enables optimization of
manufacturing processes and parameters to improve yield and reliability. For maintenance, a virtual twin could
provide feedback about potential equipment failures or preventive maintenance scheduling, enabling technicians
to make repairs before equipment breaks down.

Massive amounts of disaggregated or poorly utilized data (as much as 15 TB/day/fab) are created and collected
daily throughout the semiconductor value chain. Significant breakthroughs are needed to enable tools to seam-
lessly model and simulate the entire semiconductor manufacturing process and effectively utilize (and make deci-
sions upon) these large, disparate data sets.

Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

15
 Standardizing New Materials, Processes,
and Equipment for Microelectronics
New standards and valida-
tion methods are needed
to accelerate the develop-
ment of future informa-
tion and communication
technologies.
Standards provide technical specifications, performance
criteria, and other requirements to guide the design and
Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

production of materials, processes, and equipment. Man-

ufacturing to a standard enables compatibility and in-
teroperability across the supply chain and ensures product
performance, quality, reliability, safety, and security. The
use of standards can even drive industry innovation, cost
reduction, and holistic solutions.

As new materials and highly integrated microelectronics

products emerge, standardization is critical to ensuring the
continued growth of the domestic semiconductor indus-
try. In 1973, the proliferation of over 2,000 semiconductor
wafer specifications led to major inefficiencies. Faced with
these barriers, wafer manufacturers collaborated to devel-
op consensus wafer specifications, and within a few years,
over 80% of wafers conformed to the newly developed
NIST maintains the U.S. National Standards for standards. Establishing consistency in wafer size allowed
RF quantities, including power, scattering equipment companies to focus on product differentiation
parameters, thermal noise, antenna gain, and
and innovations that improved performance and lowered
the Josephson Volt. Calibrated electrical mea-
surements, traceable to the SI, are critical for all costs.2
aspects of microelectronics from the character-
ization of components and design of circuits
through production test.
Photos courtesy of NIST

2 The Semiconductor Industry’s Secret to Success. Semiconduc-

tor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI). August 12,
2019. https://www.semi.org/en/blogs/technology-trends/
the-semiconductor-industrys-secret-to-success

16
Today, the integration of new materials, processes, and
equipment for both front- and back-end semiconductor
manufacturing calls for a modernized set of standards to
improve accuracy, traceability, validation, and the security
of critical microelectronic systems. Standards cover a
broad spectrum and include SRMs, SRD, equipment cali-
bration standards, and written protocols and guidelines.

Verification and validation (V&V) refers to independently

testing that a product or system meets its specifications
and intended purpose. In manufacturing, V&V takes data
from process design through production to scientifically
demonstrate that the process or device consistently
NIST staff using EUV reflectometer at NIST’s SURF-III
delivers as intended. synchrotron facility to calibrate specialized optics for
EUV lithography systems.

Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

17
 Metrology to Enhance Security and
Provenance of Microelectronic-based
Components and Products
“Security begins before chip Advances in metrology
design even starts…”
are needed to enhance the
“There is a critical need for a
structured and uniform approach
security and provenance of
to security across the manufac- microelectronic components
turing lifecycle…” and products across supply
Matthew Areno, Senior Director of Security Assurance
and Cryptography, Intel, NIST Semiconductor chains and to improve trust
Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

Metrology R&D Workshop, April 2022

and assurance.
Securing the tiny, intricate semiconductor chips essential to
TRACKING CHIPS THROUGHOUT THE many electronic systems can be challenging. The increas-
SUPPLY CHAIN ing complexity involved in the development, integration,
and post-deployment use of microelectronics presents new
Suppliers to the U.S. Department of
security risks and vulnerabilities. Microelectronics manufac-
Defense must comply with strict
turing has a complicated global supply chain with produc-
requirements for defense and
tion and use across multiple continents. Systems in which
critical infrastructure through the
safety and reliability are critical—defense, aviation, auto-
Rapid Assured Microelectronics
mobiles, medical devices, telecommunication, the electric
Prototypes (RAMP) using Advanced
grid—are especially vulnerable.
Commercial Capabilities Project. RAMP provides
a secure, scalable platform for microelectronics Recent chip shortages have exacerbated counterfeiting, IP
design, manufacturing, and supply chain manage- theft, the reverse engineering of designs, and the produc-
ment. A coalition of industry leaders are building tion of low-quality and defective chips. Without the means
capabilities to support RAMP including Microsoft, of verifying the provenance of the semiconductor, mali-
Applied Materials, Inc., BAE Systems, Battelle Me- cious circuits could be added anywhere along the supply
morial Institute, Cadence Design Systems, Global- chain, allowing bad actors to bypass defense mechanisms,
Foundries, Intel Corporation, Nimbis Services, Inc., disrupt devices, and steal user information. Robust hard-
Northrop Grumman, Siemens EDA, Synopsys, Inc., ware security has become a requirement rather than a
and Zero ASIC Corporation. feature.

To meet these challenges, the U.S. Department of De-

fense is adopting “zero trust” policies, meaning that
microelectronics can be considered safe only once they
are validated. Trust and assurance is also required by the
private sector to ensure resiliency of essential markets and

18
infrastructure, such as the financial market, electric grid, healthcare system, transportation, and communications.
Advanced imaging technologies, forensics, and other methods are being used to detect counterfeits and mali-
cious circuits. Semiconductor components are being authenticated via markings and tags to track supply chain
movements and provide provenance of the product.

However, the challenge of hardware security protection goes across the supply chain, covering manufacturers and
material suppliers, as well as a wide spectrum of commercial sectors. The Nation’s reliance on microelectronics for
so many critical technologies requires a comprehensive, robust approach to hardware security.

Many aspects of security must be considered to create protected hardware environments. For example, integrated
chiplets could have embedded malware, and assembled parts could have compromised components. New meth-
ods and standards are needed to create a semiconductor ecosystem that is rooted in trust and assurance, from
input materials to the finished products where systems are coupled and integrated. The approach includes stan-
dards and guidelines for security analytics, combined with a broad vulnerability strategy for testing and verification
throughout the product life cycle.

Strategic Opportunities for Semiconductor Manufacturing

19
 “We're going to con-
struct an entire semi-
Path Forward conductor ecosystem
Semiconductors are critical to our Nation’s economic growth,
national security, and public health and safety. Revolutionary
right here in the
advances in semiconductors continue to drive innovation in
communications, information technology, health care, military
United States of
systems, transportation, energy, and infrastructure. The potential for America.”
semiconductors to create transformational change is multiplying as
they become smaller, faster, and more sophisticated, delivering Commerce Secretary Gina Raimondo,
August 9, 2022
unprecedented performance.

Metrology plays a key role in semiconductor manufacturing. As

devices become more complex, smaller, and multi-layered, the
ability to measure, monitor, predict, and ensure quality in
manufacturing becomes much more difficult and uncertain.
Today, the domestic semiconductor industry faces some of these
metrology challenges with workarounds and inadequate tools,
limiting production yields, impacting quality, and increasing costs.
As greater demands are put on semiconductor device performance
and material requirements, these challenges will continue to
intensify. The metrology challenges impacting the U.S.
semiconductor industry are at a critical stage and urgently need to
be addressed.

Addressing metrology challenges now will

strengthen the Nation's semiconductor industry.
This report has outlined the metrology grand challenges facing
the rapidly changing semiconductor sector. Addressing these
challenges now will create a stronger domestic industry and
help position the United States as a global leader in metrology Modern high-tech robot arm
essential for next-generation microelectronics. There are many holding chip for contemporary
high-impact outcomes to be gained, specifically by: supercomputer processor.

• Advancing U.S. leadership in documentary standards

development to strengthen U.S. global competitiveness in
advanced microelectronics materials, design, manufactur-
ing, and packaging.

• Developing and deploying critically needed measurement

services (reference materials, reference data, calibrations) to
drive U.S. leadership in microelectronics manufacturing and
related technologies.

• Developing and deploying innovative manufacturing me-

trologies to enable U.S. industry to increase manufacturing
yield, improve performance, and accelerate time to market
for next-generation microelectronics.
21
 • Developing and deploying novel assurance and prove-
“We can’t improve what nance technologies to reduce microelectronics security
risks across supply chains, from design and develop-
we don’t measure.” ment to manufacturing, packaging, and end of life.

“We must lead in both • Establishing advanced metrology R&D testbeds with
state-of-the-art equipment and tools to drive measure-
technology and work- ment science innovations for next-generation micro-
electronics.
force development to
• Building and sustaining collaborative partnerships with
emerge as true front- industry to accelerate the transfer of technology from
runners.” the laboratory to the commercial marketplace and sup-
port talent development and deployment.
Todd Younkin, Semiconductor Research Corporation,
Metrology advances are foundational to accelerating inno-
speaking on the 2030 Decadal Plan for Semicon-
ductors at the NIST Semiconductor Manufacturing vations in the semiconductor industry. As the U.S. national
Metrology R&D Workshop, April 2022 measurement institute, NIST has a key role to play in the
development of enabling metrology tools, standards, and
methods for semiconductor manufacturing.

This report is an important roadmap for NIST to establish

and expand metrology R&D programs to support the
strategic priorities of the U.S. semiconductor industry for
next-generation microelectronics. This strategic approach
NIST is working with the semiconductor industry is aligned with NIST’s mission: to promote U.S. innovation
to overcome the approaching physical limita- and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement
tions to chip improvement. NIST partnered with science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance
semiconductor companies through the Nano- economic security and improve our quality of life.
electronics Research Initiative (NRI) to identify
and tackle the biggest research challenges facing Through the CHIPS Act, the U.S. government has autho-
the industry. More than 700 students trained for rized incentives and programs to support U.S. semiconduc-
high-tech professions through the NRI, and 60 tor manufacturing, R&D, and supply chain security. Con-
patent applications were filed based on the work gress has explicitly authorized and appropriated funding
leveraging NRI. to accelerate metrology R&D for next-generation microlec-
tronics at NIST to achieve the objectives of the legislation.
NIST will work synergistically and in close coordination with
the other CHIPS Act programs, i.e., Incentives, National
Semiconductor Technology Center, National Advanced
Packaging Manufacturing Program, and Manufacturing
USA Institute(s).
Path Forward

Photo of a high-speed, amplified probe tip used to

collect reliability data in the NIST Advanced Device
Characterization and Reliability laboratory.
Credit: Photo by Erik Secula

22
Acknowledgements
This strategic report was prepared through the collaborative insights of semiconductor stakeholders from industry,
academia, and government who presented information at two well-attended NIST-hosted workshops in April 2022
(acknowledged below). We also appreciate contributions from the over 800 workshop participants, including NIST
technical experts, and those who responded to a Federal Request for Information. Additional thanks go to Energetics
for preparation of this report.

INDUSTRY ACADEMIA
Ofer Adan, Applied Materials Peter Aaen, Colorado School of Mines
John Allgair, BRIDG Suman Datta, University of Notre Dame
Andy Antonelli, Onto Innovation, Inc. Alain Diebold, State University of New York (SUNY)
Matthew Areno, Intel Corporation Polytechnic Institute
Norman Chang, ANSYS Bongtae Han, University of Maryland
William Deal, Northrop Grumman Space Systems Carol Handwerker, Purdue University
Chris Deeb, Intel Corporation Amy Marconnet, Purdue University
Regina Feed, Applied Materials Michael Shröter, Technical University of Dresden
Nelson Felix, IBM Mark Tehranipoor, University of Florida
Laurie Giandomenico, MITRE
Michael J. Hill, Intel Corporation
GOVERNMENT
Gerard John, Amkor Technology, Inc.
National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Matt Kelly, IPC U.S. Department of Commerce (Organizers/Authors)
Deepak Kulkarni, AMD
Anita Balachanhdra
Raj Kumar, TTM Technologies
David Gundlach
Roya Lahiji, Intel Corporation
Paul D. Hale
Dale Lee, Plexus Corporation
Kevin K. Jurrens
Serge Leef, Microsoft
R. Joseph Kline
Qinghuang Lin, Lam Research
Timothy McBride
Pilin Liu, Intel Corporation
Ndubuisi George Orji
Dale McHerron, IBM Research
Sanjay (Jay) Rekhi
Victor Moroz, Synopsys
David G. Seiler
Rama Puligadda, Brewer Science
Sivaraj Shyam-Sunder
Marc Swinnen, ANSYS
Zhengquan Tan, KLA
Stuart Tison, Entegris
Bill Tonti, IEEE
Alok Vaid, GlobalFoundries
References

E. Jan Vardaman, TechSearch International, Inc.

Ganesh Vijayaraghaven, Air Products
Todd Younkin, Semiconductor Research Corporation

23
 Stakeholder Engagement
NIST conducted Semiconductor Manufacturing Me-
trology R&D Workshops on April 6–7 and 20–21, 2022,
to gather insights from stakeholders on the important
metrology needs for manufacturing. Both events includ-
ed full-day plenary and roundtable panel discussions,
followed by breakout sessions guided by professional
facilitators.

The workshops were attended by over 800 stakehold-

ers and experts from the semiconductor and micro-
electronics community, including representatives from
industry, government, academia, and private research
institutions. Over 50% of attendees represented private
companies, trade associations, research institutes, and
universities involved in the semiconductor manufactur-
ing supply chain and related research.

Participating stakeholders encompassed a wide range

of semiconductor interests and expertise across the Distribution of Semiconductor Manufacturing Metrology
supply chain, including design, materials, manufacturing R&D Workshop attendees.
processing and equipment, packaging, and security.

The information gained through the workshops and extensive stakeholder engagement was instrumental in identi-
fying the critical metrology challenges that must be addressed for next-generation microelectronics and provided
a foundation for this report on strategic opportunities.
Acknowledgements

24
Acronyms
2D Two-Dimensional
3D Three-Dimensional
AI Artificial Intelligence
CHIPS Act Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semiconductors for America Act
CMOS Complementary Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor
Cu Copper
DFT Density Functional Theory
DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
EUV Extreme Ultraviolet
FET Field-Effect Transistor
FF Force Fields
GAA Gate All Around
GHz Gigaherz
GPS Global Positioning System
IC Integrated Circuit
IP Intellectual Property
ML Machine Learning
NRI Nanoelectronics Research Initiative
NDAA William M. Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act
NAND Most common type of flash memory
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
nm Nanometer(s)
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
R&D Research and Development
RAMP Rapid Assured Microelectronics Prototypes
RF Radio Frequency
SI International System of Units
SIP System-in-Package
SoC System on Chip
SRD Standard Reference Data
SRI Standard Reference Instrument
SRM Standard Reference Material
TB Terabyte
TSV Through-Silicon Via
V&V Verification and Validation

25
 PHOTOS
(unless already credited)
front/back cover main AdobeStock 297362425
(from top) front cover inset 1 AdobeStock 201891922
front cover inset 2 AdobeStock 206119643
front cover inset 3 AdobeStock 283992784
front cover inset 4 iStock Photo 000016963250
page 1 AdobeStock 123424452
page 4 iStock Photo 000014939237
page 5 National Institute of Standards and Technology
page 6 National Institute of Standards and Technology
page 8 Lam Research Corporation
page 9 AdobeStock 240748820
page 12 AdobeStock 405124231
page 14 AdobeStock 473628150
page 17 National Institute of Standards and Technology
page 18 AdobeStock 352217571
page 20 AdobeStock 51490712
page 21 AdobeStock 289023550
27