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Thermodynamic Cycles Chapter 1

This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics that will be covered in a course on thermodynamic cycles, including: - Thermodynamics is the study of relations between heat and other forms of energy. A primary interest is how to generate power. - The course will cover the first and second laws of thermodynamics, properties of pure substances and mixtures, ideal gases, thermodynamic cycles like Carnot and Rankine, and steam and nuclear steam cycles. - Key concepts introduced are systems and control volumes, properties of systems, states and equilibrium, processes and cycles, temperature scales, pressure, and density.

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Arnab Banerjee
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40 views

Thermodynamic Cycles Chapter 1

This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics that will be covered in a course on thermodynamic cycles, including: - Thermodynamics is the study of relations between heat and other forms of energy. A primary interest is how to generate power. - The course will cover the first and second laws of thermodynamics, properties of pure substances and mixtures, ideal gases, thermodynamic cycles like Carnot and Rankine, and steam and nuclear steam cycles. - Key concepts introduced are systems and control volumes, properties of systems, states and equilibrium, processes and cycles, temperature scales, pressure, and density.

Uploaded by

Arnab Banerjee
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Thermodynamic Cycles

NUCL 2010
Instructor: Dr. M.H. Kaye
[email protected]
Chapter 1 – Basic Concepts
Chapter 1 – Introduction and Basic Concepts
• Thermodynamics is defined as Science of relations between heat and
other forms of energy.
• Early work by people like Joule and Watt explored methods of
converting heat often into mechanical energy.
• So, our primary interest will be how to generate power.

• Fundamental Law: Conservation of Energy.


• Energy can’t be created or destroyed
Course Calendar Description
NUCL 2010U – Thermodynamic Cycles
A study of the basic concepts involved in thermodynamics, including:
nature of thermodynamics; First Law of Thermodynamics; Second Law
of Thermodynamics; properties and behaviour of pure substances; ideal
gases and mixtures; equation of state for a perfect gas; Carnot and
Rankine Cycles; thermodynamic efficiency; steam tables and charts;
superheating and reheating; regenerative feedwater heating; conventional
and nuclear steam cycles; heat exchanger thermal balance; steam turbine
expansion lines; and steam generator thermal characteristics.
Seven Fundamental Units (SI)
1. Length metre m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s
4. Temperature kelvin K
5. Electric Current amp A
6. Amount of light candela cd
7. Amount of matter mole mol
While you, as Engineers, should be familiar with Imperial units, in this
course we will stick to SI units.
Some Important Short Forms (Secondary Units)
Force is a mass times acceleration: 1 kg·m·s-2 = 1 N (newton)
Work is a force times a distance: 1 N·m = 1 J (joule; unit of energy!)

Rate of energy: 1 J·s-1 = 1 W (watt; unit of power)


Electrical energy often expressed as kilowatt-hour (kWh)
And 1 kWh = 3600 kJ

Don’t confuse kW (a unit of power) with kWh (a unit of energy)


Systems and Control Volumes
• System – the region or quantity that
is being studied; it is separated
from the rest of the universe (the
surroundings) by a boundary.
• Systems can be closed or open
Closed System
• No mass in or out
• Energy can enter or leave

Boundary
can move!
Open System
• Notice that the boundaries in these examples,
can be real or imaginary; fixed or moving.

Notice that mass is


moving into and out
of the system as well
as energy and heat
Properties of a System
• Intensive Properties – independent of the mass of the system;
• For example: temperature (T), pressure (P), density
• Usually denoted by a lowercase letter (temperature & pressure being exceptions)

• Extensive Properties – dependent on the size (extent) of the system;


• For example: total mass, total volume, total momentum
• Usually denoted by an uppercase letter

• Specific Properties – an extensive property per unit mass


Some words about Density of Matter
• Density (r) = mass/volume (i.e., kg/m3)
• In general density is a function of temperature and pressure. This is
certainly true for gases: proportional to pressure and inversely
proportional to temperature:
• Recall ideal gas law: PV = nRT
𝑛𝑛 𝑃𝑃
•R = In the numerator, therefore directly proportional
𝑉𝑉 𝑇𝑇
In the denominator, therefore inversely proportional

Almost density NOTE: For Liquids and Solids (condensed species),


density varies very little with pressure.
Specific Gravity – a cousin of density
• Specific gravity is defined as the “ratio of the density of a substance to
the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature
• A convenient reference is H2O at 4°C: 𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 = 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝑚𝑚−3 at 4°C

𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• So, the specific gravity (SG) is given by: 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂

For a few more details, refer to the bottom of page 13 and top of page 14 of text.
State and Equilibrium
• When we completely describe a system (i.e., specify temperature, pressure),
the system is said to be in a specific state. At any given state, all properties
are defined; if we change a property (e.g., raise the temperature) then we
move to a new (different) state.
• Equilibrium is a specific state, where there aren’t any unbalanced driving
forces in the system (the system is in a state of balance);
• Thermal Equilibrium – constant temperature;
• Mechanical Equilibrium – constant pressure;
• Phase Equilibrium – mass of each phase present remains constant;
• Chemical Equilibrium – chemical composition remains constant.
Independent Properties
• Two properties are independent if changing one does not affect the
other. An example is temperature and specific volume.

• More on this in Chapter 3.


Processes and Cycles
• Process – something that drives a change from State 1 to State 2.
• The path is how the process travels

A process that proceeds sufficiently


slowly that it remains virtually in
equilibrium at all times is called a
quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium
process. (this is idealized)
Processes and Cycles
• Process – something that drives a change from State 1 to State 2.
• The path is how the process travels

Isothermal – constant T
Isobaric – constant P
Step 1
Isochoric or Isometric – constant V
Step 2
When a process returns to the initial
state, it is termed a cycle.
Temperature
• There are many scales for measuring temperature. We will use the
Celsius scale and the absolute temperature scale (Kelvin scale).
• Incremental unit is equivalent; but…
• Recall that: K = 273.15 + °C
• Usually in calculations involving temperature, we use the absolute
temperature scale. It is a good practice to ALWAYS use the absolute
temperature scale, unless a formula specifically states otherwise.

Other important scales are Fahrenheit scale, and Rankine scale, which is
the equivalent absolute temperature scale.
Pressure
• Force per unit area – unit is Pa (or N/m2)
• 1 Pa is a rather small unit.
• Usually measure pressure of gases in kPa or MPa.
• For example, atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa (= 1 atm)
• Another unit used is the bar. 1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa
• Actual Pressure of a system is Absolute Pressure;
• Most pressure measuring devices find the difference between the
absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
• This is the gage pressure.
• If the pressure is less than the local pressure, sometimes called vacuum pressure
Devices to Measure Pressure
• The text outlines various pressure measuring devices
• in NUCL 3740 – Scientific Instrumentation, 3rd Year Fall, these are
explored in more detail;
• I leave it as a reading exercise. Section 1-10 of the text (Pages 26-33)
Questions
• Ask now. Please state name before asking.
• Or, e-mail me at: [email protected]

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