THE SCIENCE OF THE HUMAN MOVEMENT

INTRODUCTION
The human movement is a combination of many sciences like kinesiology,
biomechanics, anatomy and physiology. In studying the human movement, people move in
different contexts, and the other sciences will be involved and connected in studying the
human movement.
In this module, you will learn the two important in human movement, the skeletal
system which works as a support structure of our body and muscular system which is
responsible for the movement of the body. Also, you will learn the health – related fitness
parameters and fitness battery, global recommendations on physical activity and exercise
principle.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
a. know what is skeletal and muscular system;
b. identify the different parts of the bones and muscles of the body;
c. define functions of bones and muscles;
d. learn how muscle works;
e. classify what insertion and origin of muscles;
f. distinguish health-related fitness parameters and fitness test battery;
g. describe principles of exercise; and
h. apply the functions of skeletal and muscular system.
DISCUSSION PROPER
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system works as a support structure for our
body. It gives the body its shape, allow, movement, makes
blood cells, provide protection for organs and store minerals.
The skeletal system is also called musculoskeletal system.
Skeletal system is your body’s central framework. It
consists of bones and connective tissue, including cartilage,
tendons and ligaments. Altogether, the skeleton makes up
about 20 percent of a person’s body weight.
An adult’s skeleton contains 206 bones. Children’s
skeletons actually contain more bones because some of them,
including those of the skull, fuse together as they grow up.
There are also some differences in the male and female
skeleton. The male skeleton is usually longer and has a high
bone mass. The female skeleton, on the other hand, has a
broader pelvis to accommodate for pregnancy and child
birth.Regardless of age or sex, the skeletal system can be
broken down into two parts, known as the axial skeleton and
the appendicular skeleton.

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DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON
1. AXIAL SKELETON
The 80 bones of the axial skeleton form the vertical axis of the body. They include the
bones of the head, vertebral column, ribs and breastbone or sternum.

CRANIAL BONES
 Parietal (2)
 Temporal (2)
 Frontal (1)
 Occipital (1)
 Ethmoid (1)
 Sphenoid (1)

FACIAL BONES
 Maxilla (2)
 Zygomatic (2)
 Mandible (1)
 Nasal (2)
 Platine (2)
 Inferior nasal concha (2)
 Lacrimal (2)
 Vomer (1)

AUDITORY OSSICLES
 Malleus (2)
 Incus (2)
 Stapes (2)

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 Cervical vertebrae (7)
 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacrum (1)
 Coccyx (1)

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 THORACIC CAGE
 Sternum (1)
 Ribs (24)

2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
It consist of 126 bones and includes the free appendages and their attachment
to axial skeleton.

PECTORALIS GIRDLES
 Clavicle (2)
 Scapula (2)

UPPER EXTREMITIES
 Humerus (2)
 Radius (2)
 Ulna (2)
 Carpals (16)
 Matacarpals (10)
 Phalanges (28)

PELVIC GIRDLE
 Coxal, innominate, or hip
bones (2)

LOWER EXTREMITIES

Femur (2)

Tibia (2)

Fibulla (2)

Patella (2)

Tarsals (14)

Metatarsals (10)

Phalanges (28)
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

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The skeleton has six main functions:
1. Movement – the skeleton allows movement of the body as a whole and its individual
parts. The bones act as levers and also form joints that allow muscles to pull on them
and produce joint movement.
2. Support – the skeleton keeps the body upright and provides a framework for muscle
and tissue attachment.
3. Protection – the bones of the skeleton protect the internal organs and reduce the risk
of injury on impact. For example, the cranium protects the brain, the ribs offer
protection to the heart and lungs, the vertebrae protect the spinal cord and the pelvis
offers protection to the sensitive reproductive organs.
4. Production Of Blood Cells – certain bones in the skeleton contain red bone marrow
and the bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.
Examples of bones that contain marrow are the pelvis, sternum, vertebrae and
clavicle.
5. Mineral Storage – the bones themselves are made of minerals and act as a mineral
store for calcium and phosphorus, which can be given up if the body requires the
minerals for other functions.
6. Structural Shape – the skeleton provides the human shape and determines the height
of a person.

TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

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 1. CARTILAGE
Cartilage could be describe as smooth elastic tissues or a rubber like padding that is
covering and protecting the long bones, from the ends at the joints, however, it is a
structural component of the ear, nose, rib cage bronchial, inter-verbal disc, the tubes,
the other body components also have cartilage.
2. LIGAMENT
A ligament is a band of tissue that connects bones to each other, and ensures the joint
is stable, whereas cartilage is line of connective tissue that works as a padding
between the bones.
3. TENDON
A tough band of fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone and is capable
of withstanding tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments; both are made of collagen.

TYPES OF BONES
1. FLAT BONES
 The function of flat bones is to protect internal organs such as brain, heart,
and pelvic organs.
 Flat bones are somewhat flattened, and can provide protection, like shield; flat
bones can also provide large areas of attachment for muscles.
 There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal,
and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium,
ischium, and pubis).
2. LONG BONES
 The function of the long bones is to support the weight of the body and
facilitate movement.
 Long bones consist of a long shaft with two bulky ends or extremities. They
are primarily compact bone but may have a large amount of spongy bone at
the end or extremities.
 Long bones are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones
in the lower limbs (tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals and phalanges) and bones
in the upper limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals and phalanges).
3. SHORT BONES

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 Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions
approximately equal. Consist primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by a
thin layer of compact bone.
 Located in the wrist and ankle joints, short bones provide stability and some
movement.
 The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform,
capitate, trapezoid and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus,
talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform and medial
cuneiform) are examples of short bones.
4. IRREGULAR BONES
 Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any
other category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid).
 They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect internal organs.
For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the
spinal cord. The irregular bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium and ischium)
protect organs in the pelvic cavity.
5. SESAMOID BONES
 Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round bones are
commonly found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet.
 Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons from stress and wear. The patella,
commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.

TYPES OF FREELY MOVEABLE JOINTS

A joint is defined as a connection between two bones in the skeletal system.
Hinge – permits movement in one plane – usually flexion and extension.
Example: the knee or elbow. The joint can go backward and forwards, but not
side-to-side. This allows flexion and extension.
 Saddle – named due to its resemblance to a saddle on a horse’s back. It is
characterised by opposing articular surfaces with a reciprocal concave-convex shape.
Example:
 Plane – the articular surfaces are relatively flat, allowing the bones to glide over one
another.
 Pivot – allows for rotation only. It is formed by a central bony pivot, which is
surrounded by a bony-ligamentous ring.
Example: the joints in your spine that let you shake your head. This joint is
between the atlas ad axis bones in your neck.
 Condyloid – contains a convex surface which articulates with a concave elliptical
cavity. They are also known as ellipsoid joints.
Example: the wrist. The joint can move forwards and backward, left to right –
but it can't rotate.
 Ball and Socket – where the ball-shaped surface of one rounded bone fits into the
cup-like depression of another bone. It permits free movement in numerous axes.
Example: the hip or shoulder. The joint can move in all directions, and it can
rotate as well. So this allows flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and
rotation.

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ANATOMICAL PLANES
A plane is a 2D slice through 3D space, which can be thought of as a glass sheet. The
anatomical planes are different lines used to divide the human body. You will commonly see
them when looking at anatomical models and prosections. Using anatomical planes allows for
accurate description of a location, and also allows the reader to understand what a diagram or
picture is trying to show.
There are three planes commonly used; saggital, coronal and transverse.
 Sagittal plane – a vertical line which divides the body into a left section and a
right section.
 Coronal plane – a vertical line which divides the body into front (anterior) section
and back (posterior) section.
 Transverse plane – a horizontal line which divides the body into an upper
(superior) section and a lower (inferior) section.

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ANATOMICAL TERMS OF MOVEMENT
Anatomical terms of movement are used to describe the actions of muscles upon the
skeleton. Muscles contract to produce movement at joints, and the subsequent movements
can be precisely described using this terminology.
The terms used assume that the body begins in the anatomical position. Most
movements have an opposition movement – also known as an antagonistic movement. We
have described the terms in antagonistic pairs for ease of understanding.
FLEXION AND EXTENSION
Flexion and Extension are movements that occur in the sagittal plane. They refer to
increasing and decreasing the angle between two body parts:
Flexion refers to a movement that decreases the angle between two body parts.
Flexion at the elbow is decreasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus. When the
knee flexes, the ankle moves closer to the buttock, and the angle between the femur and tibia
gets smaller.
Extension refers to a movement that increases the angle between two body parts.
Extension at the elbow is increasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus. Extension
of the knee straightens the lower limb.

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 Hyperextension is the abnormal or excessive extension of a joint beyond its normal
range of motion, thus resulting in injury. Similarly, hyperflexion is excessive flexion at a
joint. Hyperextension injuries are common at hinge joints such as the knee or elbow.
In Cases of “whiplash” in which the head is suddenly moved backward and then
forward, a patient may experience both hyperextension and hyperflexion of the cervical
region.

ABDUCTION AND ADDUCTION

Abduction and Adduction are two terms that are used to describe movements towards
or away from the midline of the body.
Adduction is a movement away from the midline – just as abducting someone is to
take them away. For example, abduction of the shoulder raises the arms out to the sides of the
body.
Adduction is a movement towards the midline. Adduction of the hip squeezes the
legs together.
In fingers and toes, the midline used is not the midline of the body, but of the hand
and foot respectively. Therefore, abducting the fingers spreads them out.

CIRCUMDUCTION
Circumduction can be defined as a conical movement of a limb extending from the
joint at which the movement is controlled.
It is sometimes talked about as a circular motion, but is more accurately conical due to
the ‘cone’ formed by the moving limb.

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MEDIAL AND LATERAL ROTATION
Medial and lateral rotation describe movement of the limbs around their long axis:
Medial Rotation is a rotational movement towards the midline. It is sometimes
referred to as internal rotation. To understand this, we have two scenarios to imagine. Firstly,
with a straight leg, rotate it to point the toes inward. This is medial rotation of the hip.
Secondly, imagine you are carrying a tea tray in front of you, with elbow at 90 degrees. Now
rotate the arm, bringing your hand towards your opposite hip (elbow still at 90 degrees). This
is internal rotation of the shoulder.
Lateral Rotation is a rotating movement away from the midline. This is in the
opposite direction to the movements described above.

ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION

Elevation refers to movement in a superior direction, Depression refers to movement
in an inferior direction. The upward movement of the scapula and shoulder is elevation, while
a downward movement is depression. These movements are used to shrug your shoulders.

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Similarly, the elevation of the mandible is the upward movement of the lower jaw used to
close the mouth or bite on something, and depression is the downward movement that
produces opening of the mouth.

OPPOSITION AND REPOSITION

A pair of movements that are limited to humans and some great apes, these terms
apply to the additional movements that the hand and thumb can perform in these species.
Opposition brings the thumb and little finger together.
Reposition is a movement that moves the thumb and the finger away from each other,
effectively reversing opposition.
PRONATION AND SUPPINATION
This is easily confused with medial and lateral rotation, but the difference is subtle.
With your hand resting on a table in front of you, and keeping your shoulder and elbow still,
turn your hand onto its back, palm up. This is the supine position, and so this movement is
supination.
Again, keeping the elbow and shoulder still, flip your hand onto its front, palm down.
This is the prone position, and so this movement is named pronation.
These terms also apply to the whole body – when lying flat on the back, the body is
supine. When lying flat on the front, the body is prone.

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DORSIFLEXION AND PLANTARFLEXION
Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion are terms used to describe movements at the ankle.
They refer to the two surfaces of the foot; the dorsum (superior surface) and the plantar
surface (the sole).
Dorsiflexion refers to flexion at the ankle, so that the foot points more superiorly.
Dorsiflexion of the hand is a confusing term, and so is rarely used. The dorsum of the hand is
the posterior surface, and so movement in that direction is extension.Therefore we can say
that dorsiflexion of the wrist is the same as extension.
Plantarflexion refers extension at the ankle, so that the foot points inferiorly.
Similarly there is a term for the hand, which is palmarflexion.
INVERSION AND EVERSION
Inversion and eversion are movements which occur at the ankle joint, referring to the
rotation of the foot around its long axis.
Inversion involves the movement of the sole towards the median plane – so that the
sole faces in a medial direction.
Eversion involves the movement of the sole away from the median plane – so that the
sole faces in a lateral direction.

PROTRACTION AND RETRACTION

Protractionand retraction are anterior- posterior movements of the scapula or
mandible. Protraction of the scapula occurs when the shoulder is moved forward, as when
pushing against something or throwing a ball. Retraction is the opposite motion, with the

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scapula being pulled posteriorly and medially, toward the vertebral column. For the
mandible, protraction occurs when the lower jaw is pushed forwards, to stick out the chin,
while retraction pulls the lower jaw backward.
EXCURSION
Excursion is the side to side movement of the mandible. Lateral excursion moves
the mandible away from the midline, toward either the right or left side. Medial excursion
returns the mandible to its resting position at the midline.

EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. Condition of bone becomes stronger.
2. Density and size of bone increased.
3. More minerals salts are deposited and more fibers are produced.
4. More resistant to injuries and faster recovery of fractures caused by mechanical stress
on bones.
5. Regulation of calcium metabolism is maintained between blood and the bone.
6. Helps to overcome osteoporosis in old age.
POSTURE
The ability to stand erect: to handle the body easily, gracefully and efficiently under all
circumstances. Muscular strength is involved in correct posture and emotional condition is
frequently reflected in the movement of the body.
Causes of Poor Posture:
 Heredity
 Muscle imbalance
 Poor circulation
 Over-training, poor training methods of exercise regime
 Pressure on joints and chronic stress
 Lack of flexibility
 Continued fatigue
POSTURAL EXAMINATION

Posture is tested by reference to the rating guides for 13 different segment identified
in the posture rating chart

POSTURAL DEFORMITIES

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1. KYPHOSIS
Exaggeration or increase in the amount of normal convexity of the thoracic
region of the spine.
Causes:
 Lack of strength or tension of extensors of spine.
 Weight of the body parts such as forward head or forward position of the arms
may cause stretching of the posterior muscles – Excessive relaxations may
allow gravitational forces to flex the spine too much. Example: Tall people –
slumping.
Correction:
 Extensor muscles to be strengthened and tonus improved with specific
exercises.
 Excess gravitational stress must be removed by alignment of head, arms and
shoulder girdle by a variety of occupational positions.

2. LORDOSIS
Exaggeration or increase in the amount of normal concavity of the lumbar
region of the spine.
Causes:
 Relaxation and poor tonus of abdominals may allow the curve to collapse.
 If the hips are thrust forward the curve increases in order to throw the upper
trunk back into balance.
Correction:
 Strengthening the abdominal muscles.
 Hip flexor stretches, pelvic tilt, abdominal crunches, knees to chest stretches
and heel slide

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3. SCOLIOSIS
This is the lateral curvature of the spine when the bodies of the vertebrae are
usually rotated to the convex side and the spinal processes rotated to the concave side
and is known as right or left scoliosis.
Causes:
 Congenital or acquired
 Lack of postural tone
 One – sided occupations
 Rickets, infantile paralysis
 Unilateral lung diseases
 One leg being shorter than the other.
Correction:
 Exercises aimed at stretching the strong muscles on the concave side thereby
contracting the weak, unstretched muscles on the corvex side.

4. BOW LEGS
This is a deformity in which the legs are bowed outwards with the thighs in
normal alignment but often the thigh is arched outwards as well. This throws weight
on the inner side of the knee.
Causes:
 As a children start walking; rickets is a common cause;

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  Muscular weaknesses
 Napkins tightly applied
 Bowing of femur
 Horse riding
 Greater width of hips
Correction:
 Stretching movements to adduct the knee
 Standing with cushion between the angles and drawing the knees together
5. KNOCK KNEE
Abnormal curvature of the lower legs, resulting in a large gap between the feet
and ankles when the knees are touching. The weight will be on the outer side of knee
and inner side of foot.
Causes:
 Rickets
 Bad posture
 Excessive walking
 Overweight
Correction:
 Passive stretching of over-contracted muscles.

NORMAL BOW LEGS KNOCK KNEES

6. FLAT FOOT
This is a condition in which the inner longitudinal arch of the foot is depressed
or collapsed from its normal position causing various degrees of pain, swelling and
tiredness according to the disability.
Causes:

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  Congenital – (inherited or at birth) usually not noticed until the infant begins
to walk.
 Acquired condition due to excessive standing/ walking – overweight –
muscular weakness – paralysis – fracture – sprains – rheumatism – rickets –
badly fitting shoes – bad postures and illness.
Correction:
 Wear more supportive shoes
 Passive movement of inversion, plantar and dorsiflexion.
 Walking on outer border and with feet turned, rolling leg and ankle, balancing
in half crook position
 Towel scrunch

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system is composed of muscle cells and tissues held tightly together in
bundles.
There are about more than 600 muscles in our body and make up more than half of
our body weight.

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 Movement is brought about by the contraction and relaxation of muscles.

THREE TYPES OF MUSCLES

1. SKELETAL MUSCLE/ VOLUNTARY MUSCLE

 Attached to the skeleton
 Used for movement
 Under your control

2. SMOOTH MUSCLE/ INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE

 Found in organs such as the intestines, and blood
vessels.
 They allow organs like the stomach to stretch and
then return to their original size.
 Work without conscious effort from you.
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
- Only in heart.
- Contract and relax continuously.
- WorkPhysical
withoutActivity Towards
conscious Health
effort Fitness I - MOVEMENT ENHANCEMENT
andyou.
from 17
 3. CARDIAC MUSCLE
 Only in heart.
 Contract and relax continuously.
 Work without conscious effort from you.

ORIGIN and INSERTION OF MUSCLES

ORIGIN
- The place where the muscle’s
attached to the stationary bone.

INSERTION
- The place where the muscle’s
attached to the moving bone.

ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLE work in PAIRS

Muscle can only do one thing – pull. To

make a joint move in two directions, you
need two muscles that can pull in opposite
directions.

1. Antagonistic muscles are pairs of muscles

2. One muscle contracts (shortens) while the other one relaxes (lengthens) and vice
versa.
3. The muscle that’s doing the work (contracting) is the prime mover or agonist.
4. The muscle that’s relaxing is the agonist.

SOMATOTYPE
Somatotype means the basic shape of your body. Your somatotype can have a bog effect on
your suitability for a particular sport. Being the right shape is no guarantee of success, but it
helps.

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3 BASIC SOMATOTYPES
1. ENDOMORPH
- Wide hips but relatively narrow shoulders.
- A lot of fat on body, arms and legs.
- Ankles and wrists are relatively slim.

2. MESOMORPH
- Wide shoulders and relatively narrow hips.
- A Muscular body.
- Strong arms and thighs.
- Very little body fat.

3. ECTOMORPH
- Narrow shoulders, hips and chest.
- Not much muscle or fat.
- A thin face and high forehead.
- Thin legs and arms.
- Very little muscle or body fat.

GLOBAL RECOMMENDATIONS ON PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR HEALTH

Physical inactivity is now identified as the fourth leading risk factor for global
mortality. Physical inactivity levels are rising in many countries with major implications for
the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and the general health of the population
worldwide.

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 The significance of physical activity on public health, the global, mandates for the
work carried out by WHO in relation to promotion of physical activity and NCDs prevention,
and the limited existence of national guidelines on physical activity for health in low- and
middle- income countries (LMIC) make evident the need for the development of global
recommendations that address the links between the frequency, duration, intensity, type and
total amount of physical activity needed for the prevention of NCDs.
The focus of the Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health is
primarily prevention of NCDs through physical activity at population level, and the primary
target audience for these Recommendations are policy-makers at national level.
RECOMMENDED LEVELS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY FOR HEALTH
5 – 17 years old
For children and young people of this age group physical activity includes play,
games, sports, transportation, recreation, physical education or planned exercise, in the
context of family, school, and community activities. In order to improve cardiorespiratory
and muscular fitness, bone health, cardiovascular and metabolic health biomarkers and
reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression, the following are recommended:
1. Children and young people aged 5 – 17 years old should accumulate at least 60
minutes of moderate to vigorous – intensity physical activity daily.
2. Physical activity of amounts greater than 60 minutes daily will provide additional
health benefits.
3. Most of daily physical activity should be aerobic. Vigorous-intensity activities
should be incorporated, including those that strengthen muscle and bone, at least
3 times per week.
18 – 64 years old
For adults of this age, group, physical activity includes recreational or leisure – time
physical activity, transportation (e.g. walking or cycling), occupational (i.e. work), household
chores, play, games, sports or planned exercises, in the context of daily, family, and
community activities.
In order to improve cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, bone health and reduce the
risk of NCDs and depression the following are recommended:
1. Adults aged 18 – 64 years should do at least 150 minutes of moderate – intensity
aerobic physical activity throughout the week, or do at least 75 minutes of
vigorous – intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week, or an
equivalent combination of moderate – and vigorous – intensity activity.
2. Aerobic activity should be performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration.
3. For additional health benefits, adults should increase their moderate – intensity
aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes per week, or engage in 150 minutes of
vigorous – intensity aerobic physical activity per week, or an equivalent
combination of moderate – and vigorous – intensity activity.
4. Muscle – strengthening activities should be done involving major muscle groups
on 2 more days a week.
65 years old and above

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 For adults of this age group, physical activity includes recreational or leisure – time
physical activity, transportation (e.g. walking or cycling), occupational (if the person is still
engaged in work), household chores, play, games, sports or planned exercise, in the context
of daily, family, and community activities. In order to improve cardiorespiratory and
muscular fitness, none and functional health, and reduce the risk of NCDs depression and
cognitive decline, the following are recommended:
1. Adults aged 65 years and above should do at least 150 minutes of moderate –
intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week, or do at least 75 minutes
of vigorous – intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week, or
equivalent combination of moderate – and vigorous – intensity activity.
2. Aerobic activity should be performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration.
3. For additional health benefits, adults aged 65 years and above should increase
their moderate – intensity aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes per week, or
engage in 150 minutes of vigorous – intensity aerobic physical activity per week,
or an equivalent combination of moderate – and vigorous – intensity activity.
4. Adults of this age group with poor mobility should perform physical activity to
enhance balance and prevent falls on 3 or more days per week.
5. Muscle – stretching activities should be done involving major muscle groups, on 2
or more days a week.
6. When adults of this age group cannot do the recommended amounts of physical
activity due to health conditions, they should be as physically active as their
abilities and conditions allow.
Overall, across all the age groups, the benefits of implementing the above
recommendations, and of being physically active, outweigh the harms. At the
recommended level of 150 minutes per week of moderate – intensity activity,
musculoskeletal injury rates appear to be uncommon. In a population – based
approach, in order to decrease the risks of musculoskeletal injuries, it would be
appropriate to encourage a moderate start with gradual progress to higher levels of
physical activity.

PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE
1. OVERLOAD
A principle of exercise that states that the only way to improve fitness is to
increase overtime. This can mean increasing the amount of resistance, increasing the
amount of time, or increasing the speed.
2. PROGRESSION

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 A principle of exercise that states that a person should start slowly and
increase exercise gradually.
3. SPECIFICITY
A principle of exercise that states that specific kinds of exercises must be done
to develop specific aspects of the fitness. Basically, exercise in a manner that will get
you to your goals.
4. REVERSIBILITY
This principle states that if you don’t maintain a regular exercise program,
your state of physical fitness will regress. In other words, use it or lose it!
5. INDIVIDUALITY
This principle maintains that no two individuals will benefit from exercise
exactly the same way physically or psychologically. Difference in genetics, age,
experience, body size, and health status can all affect the outcomes of a workout.

VARIABLES OF TRAINING
1. Frequency – How often are training? How many days a week are working on it?
2. Intensity – how much effort are you giving while training? Are you going through the
motions or are you really pushing yourself?
3. Duration – How long are you training for? Are you giving it 10 minutes or 90
minutes or 6 hours?
4. Recovery–are you resting an appropriate amount of time? Your body and your mind
cannot be going 24 hours, it needs time to adjust to the work you have done.
5. Reflection – is your current system working? How would you rate your effort? What
can be improved?

REFERENCES

 https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/skeletal-system#axial-anatomy
 https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z2gyrdm/revision/2
 https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/skeletal/tissue.html
 https://teachmeanatomy.info/the-basics/anatomical-terminology/terms-of-movement/

Physical Activity Towards Health and Fitness I - MOVEMENT ENHANCEMENT 17

 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ap1/chapter/types-of-body-movements/
 https://teachmeanatomy.info/the-basics/anatomical-terminology/terms-of-movement/
 https://teachmeanatomy.info/the-basics/anatomical-terminology/planes/
 https://teachmeanatomy.info/the-basics/anatomical-terminology/terms-of-location/
 https://teachmeanatomy.info/the-basics/joints-basic/classification-of-joints/
 http://www.kfupm.edu.sa/departments/pe/Documents/PE%20102%20Course
%20Material.pdf
 https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/global-PA-recs-2010.pdf

Physical Activity Towards Health and Fitness I - MOVEMENT ENHANCEMENT 17