Solids and their mechanical properties

" Mechanical Properties of solids describe characteristics such as their strength and resistance to
deformation.
. It describes about the ability of an object to withs tandg o
the stress applied i Objects
to that object. y

also resist changing their shape.

Mechanical properties: -
1. Elasticity: -Elasticity is a property by virtue of which original shape is regained once the external force
is removed.

This means it tells us how much elastic a body is.

For example:- Aspring If we stretch a spring it changes its shape and whenithe external force is
removed spring comes back to its original position
2. Plasticity: - Plasticity is reverse of elasticity.
.Property means permanent deformation.
The object never regains its oriqinal shape even when the ecternal force is removed. These types
of objects are called as plastics
. For example:- Toys, Buckets made up of plastic
3. Ductility: - Property of being drawn into thin wir heets

For Example: Small chains of gold andsi

.Strength: - Ability to withstand applied stress without failure.

Stress: Stress is the restoring forceper unit area.

Whenever we apply an external force on the body to change its shape there is a restoring force
that develops r the body in the opposite direction.
Stress F/A
Mathema ficolly
estoring force develops in the body because of force we apply, Azarea
. SI UntN/m or Pascal(Pa)
" Dimersional formula is [ML-T]
Types of Stress
º Longitudinal stress: Longitudinal stress is defined as restoring force per unit area when the force
applied to the cross-sectional area of the cylindrical body.
This restoring force per unit area is known as longitudinal stress.
Experimentally we can observe the increase in length.
 If we tie a heavy object to the cylinder with the help of threads.
. Let Initial length of the cylinder is L
After it gets stretched its length increases by AL due to the stress. AL

As there is change in the length therefore this type of stress is known

as longitudinal stress.
Types of Longitudinal Stress:
1. Tensile Stress

2. Compressive Stress

Tensile Stress: Tensile stress is a longitudinal stress when the length of the cyinder increases.
For example:- When the force is applied to both sides of the cylinder, the cylinder gets stretched. As
a result there will be increase in its length.

Force is applied on both the sides as a result length of cylinde increases

Compressive Stress: Compressive stress is a longitudinel stress where the force is applied to
compress the cylinder

Tangential or Shearing Stress: Restoming force per unit area when the force applied is parallel
to the cross sectional area of the body

Relative displacement occursbetween the oppositefaces

of the body.
For example:-Consider acube.if we apply force parallel
to the cross sectional areatiere will be movement which
takes place between the opposite faces of the cube as
they have relatjve mation with each other.
This type of stressis known as tangential or shearing

º Hydraulic Stress: Hydraulic stress is the restoring force per unit area when force is applied by a
fluid on the body.

For example:-Consider a rubber ball and if it is dipped in the pond .Due to the pressure of water
from all directions force acts on the ball as a result, the ball seems to be slightly contracted.
Because of the force exerted by the water there is restoring force
which develops in the ball which is equal in magnitude to the force
applied by the water but in opposite direction
This type of stress is known as hydraulic stress.
 Strain: It is a measure of deformation representing the displacement between particles in the body
to a reference length.

It tells us how and what changes takes place when a body is subjected to
strain.

Mathematically: Strain = AL/L, where AL=change in length Lz original length

p o i n
It is dimensionless quantity because it is a ratio of two quantities.
For example: - If we have a metal beam and we apply force from both sides the
shape of the metal beam will get deformed.
This change in length or the deformation is known as Strain.
Types of Strain:
º Longitudinal Strain: Change in length to the original length of the body due to the longitudinal
stress

If we apply longitudinal stress to a body either the body elor

compresses this change along the length of the body. Thise
length is measured by Longitudinal Strain.
Longitudinal Strain = AL/L

Strain occurs as a result of stress.

7 Shearing Strain: Shearing strairis the measure of the relative displacement of the opposite faces
of the body as a result of shearing stress
If we apply force paralleltothe cross - sectional area because of which there was relative
displacement between the opposite faces of the body.
Shearinq strain neasures to what extent the two opposite
faces qot dispiaced relative to each other.
Shearing strain= tan @=x/L
tan is equal to e (as is very small)
Therefore, x/L = 0

Volume Strain: Volume strain is defined as ratio of change in volume to the original volume as a
result of the hydraulic stress.

When the stress is applied by a fluid on a body there is change in the volume of body without
changing the shape of the body.
Volume strain = AV/V

Conclusion: - Deformation is measured using strain.

 Hooke's Law
Hooke's law states that within the elastic limit, stress Uwtetchet
Sprins
developed is directly proportional to the strain produced in a
body. Fypring kx
A
. Mathematically: stress o strain

stress =kx strain

" Where k is the proportionality constant and is known as modulus of elasticity.

Stress- Strain Curve: It is a curve between stress and strain.

"A graph is plotted between the stress (wiichs aqual in magnitude to
Elastic limit
the applied force per unit area) and the strgin produced.
B
Fracture Point
Platle Rehadour Ihe curve between O and A, is a stralght line. This means stress is
directly x to strain. In this region Hoa ke's Law is applicable. In this
Stret Elastie Behaviaur
region the material behaves on clastic body.
Parmanent Set
" In the region from AtoB, stress and strain are not directly «, But
Strain
still the material rerurns to its original dimension.
. The point Bin the curve is known as yield point also kriown as elastic limit and the stress
corresponding to point Bis known as yield sthength (5)ef the material.
The reqion between O and B is called Bastie region.
" From point Bto point Dwe can see that strain increases rapidly even for small change in stress.
Even if we remove the for ce the material does not come back to its original position. At this point
stress is zero but strain is not zero as body has changed its shape.
From Dto E we can see thot stress decreases even if strain increases.
. Finaly at Efeacture occurs. This means the body breaks.

$ Elastic Modulus: Elastic modulus is ratio of stress and strain.

Elastic modulus isa charocteristic value of each material, This means gold will have specific value of
elastic modulus and rubber will have specific value of elastic modulus etc.
K= Stress/Strain, where k: Elastic modulus,

Types of Elastic Modulus

1. Young's Modulus: It is the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain.
It is denoted by Y.

" Mathematically: Y= longitudi nal stress/ longitudinal strain = o/e

 (F/AY (AL)
Y FL/AL

If Young's modulus is more, to produce a small change in length more force required.
SI. Unit is Nm² or Pascal (Pa).
Metals have comparatively greater Young's Modulus. To g
change the length
o of metals,i
greatern
force
is required.

Young's Modulus: Application

. In industrial constructions steel is preferred over copper. The reason behind this is steel is more
elastic than copper.

If there is slight deformation in steel due to contraction and expansion itwiM come back to its
original position.

" Steel is preferred over copper to construct bridges.

2. Shear Modulus (Modulus of Rigidity): Shear modulus is detined as shearing stress to shearing
strain.

It is denoted by 'G.
. sI. Unit: N/m² or Pascal(Pa)
" Mathematically. G= shearing stress/s aring strain (F/AY( Ax/L) =FL/AAx
" By the definition of shearing strgn /6 Ax)
Therefore, G=F/A
Relation between Young's Modulus and Shear Modulus
Shear modulus is less than Young's modulus.
For most naterials G= Y/3.

3. Bulk Modulus: Balk modulus is the ratio of hydraulic stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain.
Denotedb
B-p/(V)
Where p shydraulic stress, AV/V : hydraulic strain

(-) ive signs show that the increase in pressure results in decrease in volume.
S.I. Unit ;- N/m² or Pascal(Pa)
B(solids) B(liquids) >B(gases)
Conpresibility Compressibility is the measure of compression of a substance.
Reciprocal of bulk modulus is termed as 'Compressibility.
6

" Mathematically: k=1/B = - (1/p) (AV/V)

It is denoted by 'k.

k(solids) < k(liquids) k(gases)

Fluids: Fluids can be defined as any substance which is capable of flowing
They don't have any shape of their own.

Both liquids and gases can be categorised as fluids as they are capable of flowing
Pressure: It is defined as force per unit area o l a

Pressure = Force/Area

" Pressure is a scalar quantity.

" Dimensional Formula [ML'T

Unit: N/m or Pascal(Pa).
" Atmosphere unit (atm) is defined as pressure exerted by the atmospherc at
latme1.013x10 Pa

Pascal's Law: Pascal's law states that if the pressure is applied to uniform fiuids that are confined, the
fluids will then transmit the same pressure in all directions at the same rate
For a uniform fluid in equilibrium, pressure is same at all points in horizontal plane. This means
there is no net force acting on the fluid the pressure ssame at althe points.
Variation of pressure with depth
Consider a cylindrical object inside a fluid Fund is e therefore the force along the horizontal
direction is 0.

Forces along the vertical directio- Consider two positions 1and 2.

o Force at position 1is perpendicular to cross sectional area A,
F PA, Similarly Fz

TotolforceF-Fe

Thisnet force will be balanced by the weight of the cylinder(m).

Cylinder is inside the fluid.
equilibrium condition
mg weight of the cylinder weight of the fluid displaced.
Fnet p Vg (where prdensityzvolume of the fluid)
phAg (where V=hA, hzheight and Az area)
Therefore (Pa-Pi) A=phAg
P-P: phg.
Then Pas P, phg (P: =Pa. where P. is atmospheric pressure )
Conclusion: The pressure
ssure P,P, atat depth below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is
greater than atmosph pressure by an amount tgphg.
Hydrostatic Paradox: It means: hydro =water, static = at rest, Paradox z something takes place
surprisingly.
As pressure is dependent only on height therefore in all the 3
vessels the height reached by the water is same irrespective of
difference in their shapes.
This experiment is known as Hydrostatic Paradox, p o i n t

Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere is known as atmospheric
pressure.

Pressure is always measured by taking sea level as the reference level. At sed leyd P= 01"10 Pa.
l atm = 1.01 x 10 Pa
l atm = 76cm of Hg column
1 torr 133 Pa
1 bar = 10 Pa

Gauoe Pressure: Pressure difference between the system and the atmosphere.
From relation P P. pgh (where P press rany point, P, =atmaspheric pressure)
P-Pa= pgh (where hpg -Gauge pressure)
Absolute Pressurg: It is sum of atmospherie esSure and gauge pressure.
It is the actual pressure which osubstance has.
P=Phpg
It is measured with of barometer.

Pascal's law for trensmissiorn of fluid pressure: It states that the pressure exerted anywhere in a
confined incompressible floid is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions throughout the fluid.
1 Hydraulic lift: kydeeulic lift is a lift which makes use of a fluid.
heyare sedin car service stations to lift the cars.
Ins ydraulic lift there are 2 platforms,one has a
Small area and the other one has a larger area. P1

It is a tube like structure which is filled with uniform

fluid.

There are 2 pistons (Pi and Pz)which are attached at both

the ends of the tube.
fluld
Cross-sectional area of piston Pi is A, and of piston Pz is
A:
 If we apply force Fi on P, pressure gets exerted and according to Pascal's law the pressure gets
transmitted in all the directions and same pressure gets exerted on the other end Asa result the
Piston P: moves upwards

Mathematically:- Fa: PAz

Fa (Fi/Ai)Az (where P=Fi/A)
F; (Az/AJF,

Because of Pascal's law the input gets magnified.

2. Hydroulic Brakes: Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal's law
Therefore when we apply force on a small piston, pressure gets created which
through the fluid to a larger piston As a result of this larger force, unifte gapplied on all
four wheels.

As braking force is generated due to hydraulic pressure, they are known as hydraulic brakes.
" Liquids are used instead of gas as liquids are incompressible.

Steady Flow: The flow of a fluid is said to be steady, if at any point

the velocity of each passing fluid
particle remains constant within that interval of tirme
Streamline is the path followed by the fluig
Steady flow is termed as 'Streamline flow and Lominar flow.
No two streamlines can intersect,
If two streamlines intersect each other, the particles won't know which path to follow and what
velocity to attain, That is hy no two streamlines intersect.

Equation of Continuity liquid is flowing in streamline flow in apipe of non-uniform cross

section area, therate af How of liquid across any cross-section remains constant
i l e Fud

rom Equation of continuity we can say that

Av constant (A is cross section Area, and Vis veloity)
A

. We can conclude that A; VË Az vz. This is the equation of V1

continurty.
This equation is also termed as "Conservation of mass of
incompressible fluids

Turbulent Flow: Afluid flow is said to be turbulent if the velocity of the particles vary at any point
erratically.
Eddies are qenerated by this flow.Eddies are same as ripples.
All the particles are moving here and there randomly.
 Bernoulli's Principle: For a streamline fluid flow, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per
unit volume (ov'/2) and the potential energy per unit volume (pgh) remain const ant
Mathematically: - P pv/2 pgh = constant
Derive: Bemoullis equation
Assumptions: Fluid flow through a pipe of varying width, Pipe is located at changing heights, Fluid is
incompressible, Flow is laminar and No energy is lost due to friction.
Consider the fluid initially lying between Band D. In an infinite small time interval At, this fluid would
have moved.

" Suppose v, speed at B and v speedot D, inital

A distance moved by fluid fromto CfvAt.
. In the same interval At fluid distarice moved by Dto
Vat
E vAt.

W;PA(vAt).

he Wa =PrAvAt)
W.et W WPAÊnat- PzAzvzAt)
By the Equatjon of continuity Av = constant.
PAV-PaAV where Avat : AV and AzvzAt =AV)
W: (P:-P) AV equetion(a)
o Part of this work goes in charging Kinetic energy. AK ()m (va-v) and part in
gravitational potential energy,AU =mg (he -hi).
The total change in energy E- AKAAU =()m (v2 -v) " mg (hz - h:) eq. (0)
p m/V or

Am=pAV put in eq (0)

AE =1/2 pAVv)pgav (he- hi) equation.. (b)
By ásing vork-energy theorem: W
= AE
AV=(1/2) pAV(v²- v²) "pgav (he - he) (From (a) and (b))
P-P 1/2pva- 1/2pv'*pghz -pgh:
P, (1/2) p v Pg hË = (1/2) p v pg he
P"(1/2) pv*pg h = constant. (Bernoullis equation)

Torricelli's law: Torricelli law states that the speed of flow of fluid from an orifice is equal to the
speed that it would attain if falling freely for a distance equal to the height of the free surface of the
liquid above the orifice.
 Let the distance between the free surface and the slit =h
Agv
Pressure p
Velocity with which the fluid flows is equal to the velocity
with which afreely falling body attains if it is falling froma height=h
height h
Derivation of the Law: poin AV1 Amospheric
Pressure P

Let Aj= area of the slit (it is very smallI), v,= Velocity with
which fluid is flowing out, A:Area of the free surface of the
fluid,v,*velocity of the fluid at the free surface.
From Equation of Continuity Av, = AzV2. (AgmA,, This implies vev;)
Using Bernoulli's equation, P (1/2) pv pgh constant.
at the slit: P, (1/2) p v Pgy .(eql)
at the surface: Ppgyz ,where as va=0 .(eq2)
By equating(1) and (2). Pa (1/2) pv'* pgy1 =P+pyz
(1/2) p v.²= (P-P.) "pglyz-y)
=(P-P.) pgh
(2P-Pay
v'= 2gh

v, is known as Speed of Efflux. This heans the speed of the fluid outflow.
The vessel is not closed it is opento gtmesphere that means P:Pa.
Tas is the speed of a freely falling body.
Venturimeter: Venturime Vice to measure the flow of incompressible liquid.
The U-tubeis flled with fluid whose density isp.
As eross-sectional areaat the broader end, vË =velocity of the fluid.
cooss-sactional area at constriction, vz velocity of the fluid.
Venturineter: determinino the fluid speed
By Equation of Continuity: -A;v=Azvz.
This implies vz () (Equation(1))
" By Bernoulli's equation:- P, (1/2) pv' pg h P, (1/2) pv' +" pg h
P- Pa (1/2) p(va'- vi)
1/2 p(A'/A'v'- ) (Using equation(1)
=1/2pv'(A:/A; -1)
 (P-Pz) =hp-g (where pm is density of the fluid inside the manometer).
1/2pv(A:/A-1) =hp-ng
VI 2hp-g/p[A,/A-1]- /2
" Proctcal Applicatign of Vsntueimete:Spray Gun or perfume bottle- They are based on the
principle of Venturimeter.

Dynamic Lift: It is the normal force that acts on a body by virtue of its motion through a fluid.
i n t

" Dynamic lift is most popularly observed in aeroplanes.

Examples:
o Airplane wings

o Spinning ball in air

Dynamic lift on airolong wings:
" Consider an aeroplane whose body is streamline. Below the wings of the oeroplane there is air which
exerts an upward force on the wings. As a result aeroplane experiences dynamic lift.
Magrus Effect: Dynamic lift by virtue of spinning is known as Magnus etfect.
" Example:-Spinning of a ball.

Viscosity: Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to flow.
" It is analogous to friction in solids
Coefficient of Viscosity: Coefficient of yiscosity is the measure of degree to which a fluid resists flow
under an applied force.
"Ratio of shearing stress to the strain rate.
It is denofed by
"Mathematically At=time,Ax: displacement
Hshearing stress/strain rate
(F/A)/(Ax/\at) = (F)/vA where Ax/tsv
Therefore n (FI) / VA

o Unit:- Poiseiulle (PI) and Dimensional Formula: [MLT']

Stokes Law: The force that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is directly octo the velocity
and the radius of the sphere, and the viscosity of the fluid.
Mathematically: - F = 6mnrv
 Stokes law is applicable only to laminar flow of liquids. It is not applicable to turbulent law.

o Example:- Falling raindrops

Terminal Velocity: Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity of a body moving througha viscous fluid.
It is attained when force of resistance of the medium is equal and opposite to the force of gravity.
p o i n
" It is denoted by 'v.Where,terminal,
Mathematically.- 6nnrv =mg
6nnrv = densityxVg (densitysm/).
densityp - where p and o are the densities of the sphere and the viscous medium respectively.
6nrv (p-o)x4/3r'g (V z4/3mr)
-(p- olgx4/3r'x1/(6n)
=2r( - og/9 n .This is the terminal velocity.

Reynolds Number: Reynolds number is a dimensionless number, whose value gives an idea whether the
flow would be turbulent or laminar.

Reynolds number helps us to determine whethec the flow is laminar or turbulent,

. It is denoted byR. where shows Reynole
Expression: R, = pvd/ n:
If the value of Reynold's numbcn(R.) reaches 1000 then the flow is laminar.
When the value of Reynoldsnumber(R.Jis greater than 2000 then the flow is turbulent.
If the value of (Re) is bet en 1000and 2000 then the flow is unstable, The flow is in intermediate
stage.

Liquid Sunfaces: Whenever liquids are poured in any container they take the shope of that container in
which they ane poured and they acquire a free surface.
Liquids have free surfaces. As liquids don't have fixed shope they have only fixed volume.

Surface Eneroy: This means liquid molecules at the surface have greater energy as compared to
molecules inside it

Case 1: When molecules are inside the liquid:- large amount of energy is required by the molecules
which are inside the liquid.
Case2: When the molecules are at the surface:- the molecule has some excess energy
As more surface area will require more energy as a result liquids tend to have least surface area.
 Surface enerey for two fluids in contact: Whenever there are two fluids, in contact, surface energy
depends on materials of the surfaces in contact.

Surface energy decreases if the molecules of the two fluids attract. Surface energy increases if
molecules of the two fluids repel

Surface Tension: Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface which arises due to the fact
E d u s t p
n d
o y
i n

that surface molecules have extra energy.

Surface energy is defined as surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.
" Denoted by 'S.
Mathematically :- S - F/2d

Surface tension is the surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface

Angle of Contoct: Angle of contact is the angle at which a liquid interface meets a solid surface.
It is denoted by.

It is different at interfaces of different pairs of liquids and solids

Significance of Angle of Contact: Angle of contact determines whether aliquid will spread on the surface
of a solid or it will form droplets on it.

. If the Angle of contact is obtuse:then droplet will be formed.

. If the Angle of contact is acute: then the woter will spread.
" Casel: When droplet is formed
o Consider we have asolid surfoce, droplet of water which is liquid and air.
The solid liqujd interface denoted by Ss, solid air interfoce denoted by Ss and liquid air
interface denoted by 5
The ahgle S. makes with Si It is qreater
than the 90
erefore droplet is formed. (a
Case 2When water just spreads

The angle which liquid forms with solid surface is less

than 90,

Sst

Drops and Bubbles

Whenever liquid is left to itself it tends to acquire the least possible surface area so that it has least
surface energy so it has most stability.
Therefore for more stability they acquire the shape of sphere, as sphere has least possible area.
Distinstion between Drop. Cavity and Bubble
1. Drop: - Drop is a spherical structure filled with water.
There is only one interface in the drop.
The interface separates water and air.
Example:Water droplet Water droplets
2. Cavity: -Cavity is a spherical shape filled with air.
Cavity filled with air In the surroundings there is water and in middle there is cavity
filled with air.
There is only one interface which separates air and water
Water Example: - bubble inside the aquarium.

3. Bubble: - In a bubble there are two interfaces. One is air water and another is water and air.
air
Inside a bubble there is air and there is air out side. -Watet
But it consists of thin film of water.
ai
Soap bubble

Pressure inside a drop and a covity

"Pressure inside a drop is greater than the
Suppose there is aspherical drop of water of rodius which is in eguilibrium. Consider there is
P.
increase in radius which is Ar.

.Therefore Extra Surface erergy Suntace Tension(S) x area

4m(r"Ar - Sux4n
Extra Surface energy 8r Ar Su
At Equilibrium, Exto Suntoee energy Energy gain due to the pressure difference
8nr Ar S-(P- P) 4mr xAr where P= Pressure inside the drop and P, =Pressure outside the drop.
After calculation P. - P, = 2 SJr

Pressure inside a Bubble

" Pressure inside a bubble is greater than the pressure outside.
As bubble has 2 interfaces, P-P, =25/rx2
Therefore, P,-P,=4S/r

Capillary Rise: Due to the pressure difference across a curved liquid-air interfoce the water rises up i
a narrow tube in spite of gravity.

hpg= (P, - Po) = (2S cos )a

Therefore the capillary rise is due to surface tension, It is larger, for a smaller radius.