Lesson 4.

Forms of Condensation and Precipitation

Introduction
Clouds, fog, and the various forms of precipitation are among the most
observable weather phenomena. The primary focus of this chapter is to provide a basic
understanding of each. In addition to learning how clouds are classified and named, you
will learn that the formation of an average raindrop involves complex processes
requiring water from roughly a million tiny water droplets
Cloud Formation
Clouds consist of billions of minute water droplets and/or ice crystals that are
suspended above Earth’s surface. In addition to being prominent and sometimes
spectacular features in the sky, clouds are of continual interest to meteorologists
because they provide a visual indication of atmospheric conditions. For condensation to
generate clouds, the air must reach saturation, and there must be a surface on which
the water vapor can condense to form liquid droplets.
How Does Air Reach Saturation?
Saturation occurs in air aloft in one of two ways. First, cooling air to its dew-point
temperature causes saturation, which results in condensation and cloud formation.
Clouds most often form when air rises and cools to its dew-point temperature by the
process of adiabatic cooling. When a parcel of air ascends, it passes through regions of
successively lower air pressure, causing the parcel to expand and cool adiabatically. At
a height called the lifting condensation level, the ascending parcel will have cooled to its
dew-point temperature, and saturation is reached. Saturation also occurs when cool,
unsaturated air passes over a warm water body and sufficient water vapor is added
from below. This process is mainly responsible for the formation of low clouds,
particularly those that form over the subtropical oceans.
The Role of Condensation Nuclei
Another requirement for condensation is that there must be a surface on which
water vapor can condense. Objects at or near the ground, such as blades of grass, are
such surfaces. When condensation occurs aloft, tiny particles known as cloud
condensation nuclei serve this purpose. Without condensation nuclei, a relative humidity
well in excess of 100 percent is necessary to produce cloud droplets. (At very low
temperatures —low kinetic energies—water molecules will “stick together” in tiny
clusters even in the absence of condensation nuclei.)
Dust storms, particulates from volcanic eruptions, and pollen from plants are
major sources of cloud condensation nuclei. In addition, condensation nuclei are
introduced into the atmosphere as by-products of combustion (burning) from such
sources as forest fires, automobiles, and coal-burning furnaces.
 The most effective particles for condensation aloft are hygroscopic (water-
seeking) nuclei. Common food items such as crackers and cereals are hygroscopic:
When exposed to humid air, they absorb moisture and quickly become stale. Over the
ocean, salt particles are released into the atmosphere when sea spray evaporates.
Because salt is hygroscopic, water droplets begin to form around sea salt particles at
relative humidity less than 100 percent. As a result, the cloud droplets that form on
hygroscopic particles such as sea salt are generally much larger than those that grow
on hydrophobic (water-repelling) nuclei. Although hydrophobic particles are not efficient
condensation nuclei, cloud droplets will form on them when the relative humidity
reaches 100 percent.
Because cloud condensation nuclei have a wide range of affinities for water,
cloud droplets of various sizes often coexist in the same cloud—an important factor for
the formation of precipitation.
Growth of Cloud Droplets
Initially, the growth of cloud droplets occurs rapidly. However, the rate of growth
slows as the large numbers of competing droplets consume the available water vapor.
The result is the formation of a cloud consisting of billions of tiny water droplets—usually
having radii of 20 micrometers (μm) or less. These cloud droplets are so minute that
they remain suspended in air by the smallest updraft.
Even in very moist air, the growth of cloud droplets by additional condensation is
quite slow. Furthermore, the size difference between cloud droplets and raindrops is
vast—it takes about 1 million cloud droplets to form a single raindrop. Thus, it is not
condensation that is responsible for the formation of raindrops (or ice crystals) large
enough to fall to the ground without evaporating.
Cloud Classification
In 1803, English naturalist Luke Howard published a cloud classification scheme that
serves as the basis of our present-day system. Howard’s system classifies clouds on
the basis of two criteria: form and height. We will look at the basic cloud forms or
shapes first and then examine cloud height.
Cloud Forms
Clouds are classified based on how they appear when viewed from Earth’s surface.
There are three basic forms or shapes:
Cirrus (cirriform) clouds are high, white, and thin. They form delicate veil-like patches or
wisplike strands and often have a feathery appearance. (Cirrus is Latin for “curl” or
“filament.”)
Cumulus (cumuliform) clouds consist of globular cloud masses that look like cotton
balls or sheep in the sky. Normally cumulus clouds exhibit a flat base and appear as
rising domes or towers. (Cumulus means “heap” or “pile” in Latin.) Cumulus clouds form
within a layer of the atmosphere where there is some instability leading to convection
and rising air.
Stratus (stratiform) clouds consist of sheets or layers (strata) that cover much or the
entire sky. Although there may be minor breaks in the layers, there are no distinct
individual cloud units. Stratus clouds form when the atmosphere is stable.
All clouds have at least one of these three basic forms, and some are a combination of
two of them; for example, stratocumulus clouds are mostly sheetlike structures
composed of long parallel rolls or broken globular patches. In addition, the term nimbus
(Latin for “violent rain”) is used in the name of a cloud that is a major producer of
precipitation. Thus, nimbostratus denotes a low, relatively flat rain cloud, whereas
cumulonimbus describes a puffy, tall rain cloud.
Cloud Height
The second aspect of cloud classification—height—recognizes three levels: high,
middle, and low.
High clouds form in the highest and coldest region of the troposphere and normally
have bases above 6000 meters (20,000 feet). Temperatures at these altitudes are
usually below freezing, so the high clouds are generally composed of ice crystals or
supercooled water droplets.
Middle clouds occupy heights from 2000 to 6000 meters (6500 to 20,000 feet) and
may be composed of water droplets or ice crystals, depending on the time of year and
temperature profile of the atmosphere.
Low clouds form nearer to Earth’s surface—up to an altitude of about 2000 meters
(6500 feet)—and are generally composed of water droplets, except in winter. These
altitudes may vary somewhat depending on season of the year and latitude. For
example, at high (poleward) latitudes and during cold winter months, high clouds
generally occur at lower altitudes. Further, some clouds extend upward to span more
than one height range and are called clouds of vertical development.
High Clouds
The family of high clouds (above 6000 meters [20,000 feet]) include cirrus, cirrostratus,
and cirrocumulus. Low temperatures and small quantities of water vapor present at high
altitudes result in high clouds that are thin, white, and made up primarily of ice crystals.
Cirrus (Ci) clouds are composed of delicate, icy filaments. Winds aloft often cause
these fibrous ice trails to bend or curl. Cirrus clouds with hooked filaments are called
“mares’ tails”.

A. Cirrus B. Cirrocumulus C. Cirrostratus.

Cirrocumulus (Cc) clouds appear as white patches composed of small cells or ripples.
These small globules, which may be merged or separate, are often arranged in a
pattern that resembles fish scales. When this occurs, it is commonly called “mackerel
sky.” Although high clouds are not precipitation makers, when cirrus clouds give way to
cirrocumulus clouds, they may warn of impending stormy weather. This observation has
given rise to an old mariners’ phrase: Mackerel scales and mares’ tails make lofty ships
carry low sails.
Cirrostratus (Cs) are transparent, whitish cloud veils with a fibrous or sometimes
smooth appearance that may cover much or all of the sky. These clouds are easily
recognized when they produce optical effects such as halos around the Sun or Moon.
Occasionally, cirrostratus clouds are so thin and transparent that they are barely
discernible.
Middle Clouds
Clouds that form in the middle altitude range (2000–6000 meters [6500– 20,000 feet])
are described with the prefix alto- (meaning “middle”) and include two types:
altocumulus and altostratus.
Altocumulus (Ac) clouds tend to form in large patches composed of rounded masses
or rolls that may or may not merge. Because they are generally composed of water
droplets rather than ice crystals, the individual cells usually have a more distinct outline.
Altocumulus are sometimes confused with cirrocumulus (which are smaller and less
dense) and stratocumulus (which are thicker).

A. Altocumulus tend to form in patches composed of rolls or rounded masses. B. Altostratus occur as
grayish sheets covering a large portion of the sky. When visible, the Sun appears as a bright spot
through these clouds.

Altostratus (As) is the name given to a formless layer of grayish clouds that
cover all or large portions of the sky. Generally, the Sun is visible through
altostratus clouds as a bright spot but with the edge of its disc not discernible.
However, unlike cirrostratus clouds, altostratus do not produce halos. Infrequent
precipitation in the form of light snow or drizzle may accompany these clouds.
Altostratus clouds, which are commonly associated with approaching warm
fronts, may thicken into a dark gray layer of nimbostratus clouds capable of
producing steady, continuous rain or snow.
Low Clouds
There are three members of the family of low clouds (below 2000 meters [6500
feet]): stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus.
Stratus (St) clouds form in low, horizontal layers that on occasion may produce
light drizzle or mist. White to light gray in color, stratus clouds have very uniform
bases and appear to blanket the entire sky.
Stratus-like clouds that develop a scalloped bottom that appear as long parallel
rolls or broken globular patches are called stratocumulus (Sc). Although
stratocumulus clouds are similar in appearance to altocumulus, they are located
lower in the sky and consist of broken patches that are generally much larger
than those of altostratus. A simple way to distinguish between these is to point
your hand in the direction of an individual cloud mass, and if the cloud is about
the size of your thumbnail, it is an altocumulus; if it is the size of your fist, it is a
stratocumulus cloud.

Stratocumulus clouds often cover vast stretches of the subtropical oceans,

which provide a ready supply of surface moisture. Because stratocumulus
clouds cover such large areas, they are extremely important for Earth’s energy
balance, primarily because they reflect considerable amounts of incoming solar
radiation.
Nimbostratus (Ns) clouds derive their name from the Latin nimbus, “rain
cloud,” and stratus, “to cover with a layer”. Nimbostratus clouds tend to produce
constant precipitation and low visibility. These clouds normally form under
stable conditions when air is forced to rise, as along a front. Such forced ascent
of stable air leads to the formation of a stratified cloud deck that is widespread
and that may grow into the middle level of the troposphere. Precipitation
associated with nimbostratus clouds is generally light to moderate (but can be
heavy), is usually of long duration, and covers a large area.
Clouds of Vertical Development
Clouds having their bases in the low height range and extending upward into
the middle or high altitudes are called clouds of vertical development. The most
familiar type, cumulus (Cu) clouds, are individual masses that develop into
vertical domes or towers having tops that resemble a head of cauliflower.
Cumulus clouds most often form on clear days when unequal surface heating
causes parcels of air to rise convectively above the lifting condensation level.

When cumulus clouds are present early in the day, we can expect an increase
in cloudiness in the afternoon as solar heating intensifies. Furthermore,
because small cumulus clouds (cumulus humilis) form on “sunny” days and
rarely produce appreciable precipitation, they are often called “fair-weather
clouds.” However, when the air is unstable, cumulus clouds can grow
dramatically in height. As such a cloud grows, its top enters the middle height
range, and it is called a cumulus congestus. Finally, if the cloud continues to
grow and rain begins to fall, it is called a cumulonimbus.
Cumulonimbus (Cb) are large, dense, billowy clouds of considerable vertical
extent in the form of huge towers. In late stages of development, the upper part
of a cumulonimbus turns to ice, appears fibrous, and frequently spreads out in
the shape of an anvil as rising air spreads out at the tropopause. Cumulonimbus
towers extend from a few hundred meters above the surface upward to 12
kilometers (7 miles) or, in the tropics, 20 kilometers (12 miles). These huge
towers, commonly known as thunderstorm clouds, are capable of producing
heavy precipitation with accompanying lightning, hail, and occasionally
tornadoes.

Cloud Varieties
The 10 basic cloud types can be further subdivided into varieties that are
named using adjectives that describe particular cloud characteristics. For
example, the term uncinus, meaning “hook shaped,” is applied to streaks of
cirrus clouds that are shaped like a comma resting on its side. This cirrus
uncinus are often precursors of bad weather.
When stratus or cumulus clouds appear broken (or fractured), the adjective
fractus is used in their description. In addition, some clouds have rounded
protuberances on their bottom surface, similar to a cow udder. When these
structures are present, the term mammatus is applied. This configuration is
usually associated with stormy weather and cumulonimbus clouds.
Stationary lens-shaped clouds, called lenticular clouds (formal name
altocumulus lenticularis), are common in rugged or mountainous topographies.
Although lenticular clouds can develop whenever the airflow develops a wavy
pattern, they most frequently form on the leeward side of mountains. As moist
stable air passes over mountainous terrain, a series of standing waves form on
the downwind side. As the air ascends the wave crest, it cools adiabatically. If
the air reaches its dew point temperature, moisture in the air will condense to
form a lenticular cloud. As the moist air moves down into the trough of the
wave, the cloud droplets evaporate, leaving areas with descending air cloud-
free.

A. These lens-shaped clouds are relatively common in mountainous areas. B. This diagram depicts
the formation of lenticular clouds in the turbulent flow that develops in the lee of a mountain
range.

Types of Fog
Fog is defined as a cloud with its base at or very near the ground. Physically,
there are no differences between fog and a cloud; their appearances and
structures are the same. The essential difference is the method and place of
formation. Whereas clouds result when air rises and cools adiabatically, fog
results from cooling or when air becomes saturated through the addition of
water vapor (evaporation fog) rather than the changes in pressure that cool
rising air.
Fogs Formed by Cooling
When the temperature of a layer of air in contact with the ground falls below its
dew point, condensation produces fog. Depending on the prevailing conditions,
fogs formed by cooling are called either radiation fog, advection fog, or upslope
fog.
Radiation Fog
As the name implies, radiation fog results from radiation cooling of the ground
and adjacent air. It is a nighttime phenomenon that requires clear skies, high
relative humidity, and relatively light wind. Under clear skies, the ground and the
air immediately above cool rapidly. Because of the high relative humidity, a
small amount of cooling lowers the temperature to the dew point. If the air is
calm, the fog is usually patchy and less than 1 meter (3 feet) deep. For radiation
fog to be more extensive vertically, a light breeze of 3 to 5 kilometers (2 to 3
miles) per hour is necessary, to create enough turbulence to carry the fog
upward 10 to 30 meters (30 to 100 feet) without dispersing it. High winds, in
contrast, mix the air with drier air above and disperse the fog.
Because the air containing the fog is relatively cold and dense, it flows
downslope in hilly terrain. As a result, radiation fog is thickest in valleys,
whereas the surrounding hills may remain clear. Normally, radiation fog
dissipates within 1 to 3 hours after sunrise—and is often said to “lift.” However,
the fog does not actually “lift.” Instead, as the Sun warms the ground, the lowest
layer of air is heated first, and the fog evaporates from the bottom up. The last
vestiges of radiation fog may appear as a low layer of stratus clouds.
Advection Fog
When warm, moist air blows over a cold surface, it becomes chilled by contact
with the cold surface below. If cooling is sufficient, the result will be a blanket of
fog called advection fog. (The term advection refers to air moving horizontally.)
A classic example is the frequent advection fog around San Francisco’s Golden
Gate Bridge.
Upslope Fog
As its name implies, upslope fog forms when relatively humid air moves up a
gradually sloping landform or, in some cases, up the steep slopes of a
mountain. Because of the upward movement, air expands and cools
adiabatically. If the dew point is reached, an extensive layer of fog will form.

Evaporation Fogs
When saturation occurs primarily because of the addition of water vapor to air,
the resulting fogs are called evaporation fogs. Two types of evaporation fogs
are recognized: steam fog and frontal (precipitation) fog.
Steam Fog
When cool, unsaturated air moves over a warm water body, enough moisture
may evaporate to saturate the air directly above, generating a layer of fog. The
added moisture and energy often make the saturated air buoyant enough to
cause it to rise. Because the foggy air looks like the “steam” that forms above a
hot cup of coffee, the phenomenon is called steam fog. Steam fog is a fairly
common occurrence over lakes and rivers on clear, crisp mornings in the
autumn when the water is still relatively warm but the air is comparatively cold.
Steam fog usually forms a shallow foggy layer because as it rises, the fog
droplets mix with the cool unsaturated air above and dissipate (evaporate).

Frontal (Precipitation) Fog

Frontal boundaries where a warm, moist air mass is forced to rise over cooler,
dryer air below generates frontal (precipitation) fog. The foggy conditions result
because the raindrops falling from relatively warm air above the frontal surface
evaporate in the cooler air below, causing the cooler air to become saturated.
Frontal fog, which can be quite thick, is most common on cool days during
extended periods of light rainfall. Although less common, it is possible for frontal
fog to form behind a cold front by the same process.
How Precipitation Forms
A typical raindrop has a volume 1 million times that of a cloud droplet. Two
processes are responsible for the formation of precipitation: the Bergeron
process and the collision–coalescence process.
The Bergeron process, which generates much of the precipitation in the
middle and high latitudes, is named for its discoverer, the highly respected
Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron.
The Bergeron process occurs in cold clouds, where water vapor is deposited on
ice crystals, lowering the relative humidity of the air. This causes the
surrounding water droplets to evaporate and replenish the lost water vapor.
The collision–coalescence process is the dominant process for generating
precipitation in warm clouds—clouds with tops warmer than −15°C (5°F).
Simply, the collision–coalescence process involves multiple collisions of tiny
cloud droplets that stick together (coalesce) to form raindrops large enough to
reach the ground before evaporating. One of the requirements for the formation
of raindrops by the collision– coalescence process is the presence of larger-
than-average cloud droplets.
As the larger droplets fall through a cloud, they collide with smaller, slower
droplets and coalesce. They become larger in the process and fall even more
rapidly (or, in an updraft, they rise more slowly), which increases their chances
of more collisions and growth.
Forms of Precipitation
Rain
In meteorology, the term rain is restricted to drops of water that fall from a cloud
and have a diameter of at least 0.5 millimeter. Most rain originates in either
nimbostratus clouds or in towering cumulonimbus clouds that are capable of
producing unusually heavy rainfalls known as cloudbursts.
As rain enters the unsaturated air below the cloud, it begins to evaporate.
Depending on the humidity of the air and the size of the drops, rain may
completely evaporate before reaching the ground. This phenomenon produces
virga, which appear as streaks of precipitation falling from a cloud that extend
toward Earth’s surface without reaching it.
Similar to virga, ice crystals may sublimate when they enter the dry air below.
These wisps of ice particles are called fallstreaks.
Fine, uniform droplets of water with diameters less than 0.5 millimeters are
called drizzle. Drizzle and small raindrops generally are produced in stratus or
nimbostratus clouds, from which precipitation may be continuous for several
hours or, on rare occasions, for days.
Precipitation containing the very smallest droplets able to reach the ground is
called mist. Mist can be so fine that the tiny droplets appear to float, and their
impact is almost imperceptible. Mist closely resembles fog. Meteorologists use
the word fog when the visibility is less than 1 kilometer (0.6 miles) and mist
when the visibility is greater than 1 kilometer.
Snow
Snow is winter precipitation in the form of ice crystals, or aggregates of ice
crystals. The size, shape, and concentration of snowflakes depend to a great
extent on the temperature profile of the atmosphere.
Sleet and Freezing Rain
Sleet, a wintertime phenomenon, consists of clear to translucent ice pellets.
Depending on intensity and duration, sleet can cover the ground much like a
thin blanket of snow. Freezing rain, also called glaze, in contrast, falls as
supercooled raindrops that freeze on contact with roads, power lines, and other
structures.
Hail
Hail is precipitation in the form of hard, rounded pellets or irregular lumps of ice
with diameters of 5 millimeters (0.20 inches) or more. Hail is produced in the
middle to upper reaches of tall cumulonimbus clouds, where updrafts can
sometimes exceed speeds of 160 kilometers (100 miles) per hour and where
the air temperature is below freezing. Hailstones begin as small embryonic ice
pellets or graupel that coexist with supercooled droplets. The ice pellets grow by
collecting supercooled water droplets, and sometimes other small pieces of hail,
as they are lifted by updrafts within the cloud.
Rime
Rime is a deposit of ice crystals formed by the freezing of supercooled fog or
cloud droplets on objects whose surface temperature is below freezing. When
rime forms on trees, it adorns them with its characteristic ice feathers, which
can be spectacular to observe. In these situations, objects such as pine needles
act as freezing nuclei, causing the supercooled droplets to freeze on contact.
On occasions when the wind is blowing, only the windward surfaces of objects
will accumulate the layer of rime.
Planned Weather Modification
Planned weather modification is deliberate human intervention to influence
atmospheric processes that constitute the weather—that is, to alter the weather
for human purposes. The desire to change or enhance certain weather
phenomena dates back to ancient history, when people used prayer, wizardry,
dances, and even black magic in attempts to alter the weather.
Snow and Rain Making
The first breakthrough in weather modification came in 1946, when Vincent J.
Schaefer discovered that dry ice, dropped into a supercooled cloud, spurred the
growth of ice crystals. Once ice crystals form in a cloud of supercooled droplets,
they grow larger (at the expense of the remaining liquid cloud droplets) and,
upon reaching a sufficient size, fall as precipitation. Scientists later learned that
silver iodide crystals could also be used for cloud seeding. Unlike dry ice, which
simply chills the air, silver iodide crystals act as freezing nuclei for the
supercooled droplets—that is, liquid droplets with temperatures below 0°C
(32°F). Because silver iodide can be easily delivered to clouds from burners on
the ground or from aircraft, it is a more cost-effective alternative than dry ice.
Fog and Stratus Cloud Dispersal
One of the most successful applications of cloud seeding involves spreading dry
ice (solid carbon dioxide) into layers of supercooled fog or stratus clouds to
disperse them and thereby improve visibility. Airports, harbors, and foggy
stretches of interstate highway are obvious candidates. Such applications
trigger a transformation in cloud composition from supercooled water droplets to
ice crystals. The ice crystals then settle out, leaving an opening in the cloud or
fog. Commercial airlines have used this method at selected foggy airports in the
western United States.
Frost Prevention
A frost, or freeze hazard, is a strictly temperature-dependent phenomenon that
occurs when the air temperature falls to 0°C (32°F) or below, killing flowers and
produce. The word frost is commonly used for ice crystals that form on surfaces
near the ground during the night. According to the World Meteorological
Organization, the correct term for the deposits of ice crystals is hoar frost or
white frost, which form only when air becomes saturated at subfreezing
temperatures.