ALGEBRA-IL : TOPICS IN ALGEBRA Second Edition Prepared By K.AMIRTHAVALLLM.Sc.,M Phil.,B.Ed., HOD&AsstProfessor Department of Mathematics, Reference Book:- LN.HERSTEIN, University of Chicago. Bharathi Women's Arts And Science college, BS Kallakurichi.EMESTER —-I PAPER—V/ ALGEBRA-I OBIECIVE: To Study field extension, roots of polynomials : f Jalois Theory, Finite fields, division rings, solvability of radicals and to develop computational skill in abstract algebra. UNIT-1 - 2 Extension fields - transcendence of e. Chapter 5: Section 5.185.2 . UNIT-IT Roots or Polynomials - more about root. Chapter 5: Section 5.3 &5.5. UNIT-111 x 39 Elements of Galois Theory. Chapter 5: Section 5.6. UNIT-IV Ee 33 Solvability by radicals - Finite Fields - wedderburn’s theorem on finite division rings. Chapter 5: Section 5.7. Chapter 7: Section 7.1 and 7.2 (only theorem 721) . UNIT-V ~ 60 Solvability by radicals - A theorem of frobenius - Integral quatemnious and the four-square theorem. Chapter 5:Section 5.7. Chapter 7: Section 7.3 & 74. Recommended Text LN.Herstein. Topics algebra (II Edition) Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi-1975. Prepared by: K.AMIRTHAVALLI M.Sc., M.p! B.Ed., HOD &Asst.Professor Department of Mathematics, Bharathi Women’s Arts science college, Kallakurichi.UNIT-I Defi Let F be a field; a field K is said to be an extension of F if K contains F (or) K c F. Equivalently, K is an extension of F if F is a subfield of K. Definition:- The degree of K over F is the dimension of K as a vector space over F. Note:- The degree of K over F by [K: F]. © [K: F]is finite. © K isa finite dimensional as a vector space over F. i.e.) K is a Finite extension of F. Theorem-5.1.1:- If L is a finite extension of K and if K is a finite extension of F, then L is a finite extension of F.Moreover [L:F]=[L:K][K:F]. Suppose that L, K, F are three fields in the relation L> K> F: ie) FCKCL Let [L:K] is a finite and [K:F] is a finite. ive.) [L:K] = m and [K:F] =n (say). Let (V1,V2, .--+--Vm) is a basis of L over K and. (w),Wa, ...W,) be a basis of K over F . Where Vj, Vo, -+.++-Vm€L and W1,Wa, «....-WaéK. But, KcL. D> WLW, «oe Wal, Consequently, . The mn elements v;w; where i =1,2,3, m and j=1,2,3....n are all in F. . Let t be any element in L, Since every of the element in L is a linear combination oF V1,V2,.-+-VmWith Coefficient in K, in particular t must be of the form. : Thus t= kivi+ kpvot....KmVm- -—-= (1) Where the elements ky,k ek. i.e.) kiek, for alli = 1,2....m But every element in K is a linear combination of w,,Ws. ‘Thus , f. With coefficient in F. ®= fiw + fw » Bw) + fw 9 fw + Swot... finW n Km = fmt 1 + fnoWate-.e Where every Fj is in F. substitute these eq’s (2) in eq’s (1) we get t= [firwitfiowstfinWalvit [far wit frawet....fonWalvo+---[fm Wit fn2W2t-- finn Wal Vm- Multiplying this using the distributiveand associative laws, we get, t= friviwi + fi2wavi +....-finviWat. fj Vist... finn VnWae Sincefj are in F, we have realized tasa linear combination of the elements v; w; over F. -. The elements vj w; generate the vector space L over F. i.e.) elements v; w; span all of L over F. We can proof further that vj w; are linearly independent over F. Suppose that , fur vi Wit fiaviWot.... fi vi Wyt i.e.)[fuwrtfiawet...fiewalvrtfaiwrtfinwot... Since W,¢F and F c K all the elements. Then, k; =f witfiz Wat....Hfis Wn — are in K, We have substitute eq’s (4) in eq’s (3) we get Kyvrtkvzt....ckmvne0 with ky, kp....kmek But by our assumption.v),V2....Vm form a basis of L over K. ©. They are linearly independent over K. Hence k=kx= kn=0. Fo Vg Wy 0- fonWa] Vo. ..+ [fini Wit fnaW2t..-fianWa]Vm=0.---(3) (4) Here k=0. Substitute these eq’s in (2) we get, fiy WrtfigWyt..+.-.fiy Wo=0,for i= 1, 2,3 ....m. Again w; are linearly independent over F. Hence fj = finr= 0. ie.) fy =0. ie.) we have proved that the viv; are linearly independent over F. Hence we can say that viw). Where i =1,2,.........m and j=1,2,.. Form a basis of L over F. i.e.) The dimension of L as a vector space over F is mn is a finite number. «.L is a finite extension of F. -.[L: F]=mn. =[L: K]IK: F]. o.[L: F] = [L: KJ[K: F]. Hence the proof. @ nCorollary:- | IfL is finite extension of F and K is a subfield of L which contains F, then{K: FY/[L+ F]. Proof: Given L,K.F are three fields such that F CK CL. . Also (L:F] is a finite. (say) vp) be a basis of L over i. Then (v),v9,.....V,)generate L over I Since F cK any linear combination of vj, V2,....Vp over F will also be a linear cate. Vivs n}generates L over K. Through i it may not belinearly independent over K. Since L(K) is a generated by a finite set. It is a finite dimensional vector space and so [L: K]is finite. So that K (F) is a subspace of L(F), but [L:F] is finite. 2. [K:F] is finite, Hence by the above theorem. “TfL is a finite extension of K and if K is a finite extension of F, then L is a finite extension of F . ThenS[L:F]=[L:K][K:F]”. ie.)[L:FJF[L:K][K-F]. ie.) [K:F]/ [L:F]. Hence the proof. 1) If Kis an extension of field F such that [Kc Hr 1 then K=F Proof IFK is an extension of field F. Itis given F CK--——(1) and [K:FJ-1. (2) Let {u} be a basis ofK, as a vector space over F,So that u #0 Let x be a element of K, Where x #0 2.x=hu, AEF � =heFcK ie.) Ae K. <.A= pu, Where A# 0 € F. Since #0 cc.) ' is exists and it is belonging to F. owiheueF ‘ ie)ueF ie) Aue F =xeF——-(I) and x € K---~(2) From eq’s (1)8 eqs (2) we get, uxeKeF. 9LIK GP (3) From eq’s (1) &eq’s (3) we pet instance it [LiF] is x prime number, then there can be no fields property between Fand Ly ! tis piven [L: ie.) p (say), Then we know by the theorem “ICL is a finite extension of K and if K is a finite extension of F, then L is a finite extension of F, then [LiF] = [L:K][K:E]". = either [K: F] = 1 or P(on[L:K] = 1 or P. If(K:F] = 1, Then K=F. If[L:K] =1, Then L=K. -. We can say that there can be no fields property between F and L. Algebraic over an clement: An element a € k is said to be algebraic over F if there exists elements q,0t),02,... not all zero, such that, ciga" toa"... at, 10+0t,=0, i.e.) ack is algebraic over F if there is non zero polynomial p(x) € F(x). i.e.) for which p(a)=0. isa prime number. sy in F Theorem 5.1.2: The element a € kis algebraic of F if and only if F (a) is a finite extension of F. Proof:- Suppose that F(a) is a finite extension of F. i.e.) [F(@) :F] is a Finite. =>[F(a) :F] = m (say) We Know that a €F(a), 1 € F (a) also to m+1 element 1,a,a”, linearly dependent over F. <-There are elements 0t9,¢t1,012, «....Om F, not all 0 Such that ctgl-+,ato0 Hence a is algebraic over F and satisfies the non zero polynomial. i.e.) P(x)= Optoyxtonx"+......+Oax™e F [x] of degree atmost m. i.e.) m= [F(a) : F] a / [This Proves the if part of the theorem. If “a” is a algebraic over F and P(x) is the irreducible polynomial of a over F, then show that F(a) =F(x)/P(x).Now to the “only if” part] Conversely, , Suppose that a € k is algebraic over F. ..a"e F(a).These elements are Oma™=0.. By assumption, a satisfies some non-zero polynomial in F [x]. Let p(x) be a polynomial in F [x] of smallest positive degree such that p(a)=0 We claim that,P(x) is irreducible over F. : GFor suppose that , PO) = £00). g(x) Where f0x),2(%) © Fx). Then, Pla) = fla). ela). [-p(x) € F(x), pla)=0) 0 (a). Sut f(a) and g(a) are elements of the field K. {(a)-0 (or) g(a)=0. Since p(x) is a lowest positive degree with p(a)=0. We must conclude that one of deg f(x) 2 deg p(x)(or)deg g(x) 2 deg p(x) must hold. Which is not possible. p(x) is irreducible. We define the mapping w From F[x] into F(a). i.e.) w:F[x] F(a) as follows. For any h(x) € F[x]. i.e.) h(x) w= h(a). Then y is a ring homomorphism of the ring F[xJinto the field F(a). Let V = Kerl y. h(x) € F[xJ/h(x) y =0}. h(x) € F[xJ/h(a) =0}. Then V is an ideal of F[x] and p[x]e V.Since p(x) is an element of lowest degree in ideal V of F [x]. Every elements of V is a multiple of p(x).Also p(x) is irreducible. By Lemma-3.9.6 - we know that, a “The ideal A= (p(x)) in F [x] is a maximal ideal if and only if p(x) is irreducible over F”. By Theorem 3.5.1 - we know that, “If R is a commutative ring with unit element and m is an ideal of R. Then M is a maximal ideal of R if and only ifR/M isa field”. => Vis a maximal ideal of F [x]. 2 fitlis a field.(or)FIxJ/Vis a field. Now by the general homomorphism theorem for ring. ies the image of F[x] under y(or)F[x/V = F[x] under y. ‘The image of F [xJunder is a subfield of F(a) . i.e.) Flx]yc F(a) .-——-(1) if x € F[x). [Also Ae F = xyea. ae F [x] => a € image of F[x] under y. ay = c. “F[x]y contains both F & a.=> F clFQ]y]- But F(a) is a smallest subfield containing both F and a. F[x]y> F @)- 0i.e.) F(a) c Fx}. - (2) From eq’s (1) and eq’s (2) we get, oF xd = F(a). ic.) The image of F[x] under w is all of F(a). ‘Then we can say that F[x] / v is isomorphic to F(a). Hence their dimensions are equal. " We know that V= (p(x))(or) The ideal generated by P(x). <. The dimension of F[x] /v as a vector space over F, is precisely equal to deg p(x). ~. Dimension of F(a) is a vector space over F is also equal to deg (P(x) is finite number. i.e.) [F(a) : F]= deg P(x) =a finite number. ©.{F(a) : F] = a Finite number. Hence F(a) is a finite extension of F. Hence the proof. Note :- Note that we have actually proved more namely that [F(a): a] = degree of the polynomial of leastdegree satisfies by a over F. Definition :- The element a € kis said to be algebraic of degreen over F if it satisfies a non-zero polynomial over F of degree n but no non zero polynomial of lower degree. THEOREM Ifa € kis algebraic of degree n over F, then [F(a) :F] =n. Proof:- By the definition “a” satisfies a minimal polynomial p(x) of degree over F. Let P(x) be a polynomial over F of lowest positive degree satisfied by ‘a’ such a polynomial is called a minimal polynomial for a over F. We may assume that its coefficient of the highest power of x is 1. ie.) It is monic. In that case we can speak of the minimal polynomial for a over F. For any two minimal, monic polynomials for a over F are equal. Suppose that p(x) is of degree n. Thus p(x) = x"+oyx"'+...+a, Where the o are in F. By assumption, ie.) p(a)=0 ie.) a'toya™ +... +n a’ oe, i.e.) a! =oya"-aa™! If we substitute the expression for a a" into ate right — handside a ul We realize a"! as a linear combination of the elements I, a, a°....... * over F. @Continuing this way we get that a”, For k 2 0 is a linear combination of the elements La,....a™! over F. Now, consider, T= {But Biat...-By-t a”! / BoB1-.----Bra€ F)- Clearly T is a non-empty subset of K. Also u,v € T. >utveT. 2. Tis closed under addition and u,v € T. ie)u.v eT. ©. Tis closed under multiplication. Let 0#u=BytPiat....B,.1a"'be in T and Let h(x) = Bot Bixt....By.ix"" © F[x] , Since u ¥ 0 and u=h(a). We have that h(a) # 0. Then p(x) + h(X), if not h(x) = p(x) r(x). i.e.) h(a) = P(a) r(a). Which is not possible. But p(x) is irreducible. ©. p(x) and h(x) are relatively prime. Hence we can find polynomials s(x) and t(x) in F [x] such that P(x) s(x) + h(x) tx) =1. ive.) p(a) s(a) + h(a) (a) =1. 0 + h(a) t(a) =1.[--p(a)=0 & h(a)= ul 7 h(a)t@)=1. ut(a=l. => The inverse of u is thus t(a). ie) ut =ta). In t(a) all power of a higher than n-1 can be replaced by linear combination of 1,a,2°, over F. t(a)eT. Jute T. .) Every non zero element of T has its inverse in T. ©. Ifu,ve T. Then, v#0. ie)uv'eT. «. Tis a subfield of K. Every ue T. =>ue F(a). Since F (a) is a field containing F and a. . Le) u eT CF (a). Oo~1) Alsoae Tandae F ae T.- From eq’s (2) and (3) we get. aeFotT ie) FT ic.) Tis a subfield containing F and a. But F (a) is the subfield of K containing F and a. Fia)c T- (4) From eq’s (1) and eq’s (4) we get. . T= F(a). Now T is spanned over F by the sclements 1, a, However the cements | Lava’. ..a™ in consequence [T:F]s n. -a” are linearly ince over F. For any relation of the form yotyia+.. esa” "with the elements ye F.Then the satisfies the polynomial YorNNt....-7o.19""' over F of degree less than n. Which is impossible. ©. Each y=0 = The set {1,a,a°,. “thaa’, --a°') is linearly independent. ..a°'} is basis of T over F. = degree of minimal polynomial satisfied by a.Since T= F(a). =a Finite number. ) F (a) is a finite extension of F.Then the degree of P(x). Hence theproof. THEOREM -5.1.4: Ifa,b in k are algebraic over F, then a + b,ab and a/b [if b # 0] are all algebraic over F. In other words, the elements in K. Which are algebraic over F from a subfield of K. Proo Given that a,b in k are algebraic over F. Suppose that “a” is algebraic of degree m over F and “b” is algebraic of degree n over F. By Theorem 5.1.3 — we know that , “Ifa € bis algebraic of degreen over F then[F(a) : F] =n". The subfield T= F(a) of K is of degree m over F. i.e.) [F(a) : F] = [T:F] =m. Now “b” is algebraic of degree n over F, then it is algebraic of degree atmost n over F. Which contain F. Thus the subfield W= T(b) is a finite extension of T of degree atmost n over T. ie.) [T(b) :T] opis algebraic over F. © ovis algebraic over F(G,). 7 © F (01) (62) which we write F(o1,02) isa finite extension of F(,). i.e.) F (61) CF(o1,02). (2) From eq’s (1) &eq’s (2) we get, Now we have, +: F< F(o1) < F(o1,02) and F (01,02) is a finite extension of F (o;) and F (o:) is afinite extension of F. <.F (61,62) isa finite extension of F. Proceeding in this manner successively adjoining ©1,63,..... Gq to F. We can find finally M = F(o},62,..... Gy)is a finite over F. i.e.) Misa finite extension of F. ASO G1,02,-0 On M. , *. We can say that u satisfies a polynomial x"+o,x"'+o,x"™ i.e.) u is algebraic over M. Again by the Theorem 5.1.2 - we know that, “The element a € k is algebraic of F if and only if F (a) isa finite extension of F". i.e.) M(u) is a finite extension of M. i.e.) We can having M(u) is a finite extension of M and M is a finite extension of F. @ 74+. to, Whose coefficient of M.Ry the theorem $,1.1- we know that, “IPL isa finite extension of K and if K is a finite extension of F, then L is a finite extension of E.Moreover [L:F] [LK ]IK ive.) [M(u) : MJ[M #1 Henee M(u) is => wis algebra IM (u): F] [+ Defintion 5.1] finite extension of F. over F, Since u is arbitrary L is an algebraic extension of F. Hence the proof. Defi ‘A complex number is said to be an algebraic number if it is algebraic over the field of rational numbers, Problems:- 1) Prove that F(a,b) = F(b,a). Soluti Let k be an extension of a field F. Let a,b © k, and let T= F(a) and Since F(a) is a subfield of K. <. kis also an extension of F(a). Let W be a subfield of k, obtained by adjoining b to F(a). Then W= (F(a))(b). We shall write (F(a))(b) as F(a,b). Illy, We can describe F(b,a). , We have, F(a,b) = (F(a))(b). = The Smallest subfield of K containing both F(a) and b. =The Smallest subfield of k containing F,a and b because any subfield ofk. which contains both F and a must contain F(a). IllyF(b,a)= The smallest subfield of k containing F, a and b. Since the subfield of k generated by F, a and b is unique. “.F(@,b) = F(b,a) Thus F(a,b) is a subfield of k obtained by adjoining both a and b to F. Illylf ay, a2, .....dg€ k, then (ay, ag, ....,) will be described as a subfield of k generated by F (a1, a3, «....a,). In other words F(a), a3, .....a,) will be the smallest subfield of k containing F as well as AY, 82, .. ne 2) Prove that the 2 minimal monic polynomials are equal for] Let a € k be algebraic over F, then any two polynomial monic polynomials for a over F are equal. Solutio: Let x*t0yx" +... tong xB ix +, over F, B, be two minimal monic polynomials for »Then at aga aga ht) =O a a pba +B ee cy = aM pal fia? fn Led aga’ sega}... toty-fya”| 04 -B)) a" 4013-8) a"? + satisfies the polynomial in q(x). $0.) Q(X) = (1B x) x" +(r2-B) xP es (cty-Bq) € F(X). =a(s) must be the 0 polynomial, because minimal polynomial for a over F is degree n. while (8) if it is not the zero polynomial is of degree a2=P, to Sut oqal ya On-Bn=0 =>On = Br. “xox Hh . This completes the proof. 3) Leta © k be algebraic over F and let p(x) be a minimal polynomial for a over F, then P(X) is irreducible over F. Solution:- Suppose p(x) is a polynomial in F[x] of smallest positive degree such that p(a) = 0 Suppose p(x) is not irreducible over F, Then p(x) can be resolved into non-trivial factors. Let p(x) = f(x) e(4). Where f(x), £(8) are polynomials of positive degree in Fx] and each of term is of degree (vta,) + vtaix) + (tax) +. Vetagtaxtagx’+, agtaxtax"+... +an.1(vtx"!) = V, aye F. (vita, x) =V.aytantayn > fix) =0. => agtaynt a(x) =n and so w ax” = agtayxt ie.) ag =O, ay SALWAR EN” V+x"" are linearly independent over F. Now we shall show that VEL VEX .v+x"!generate F[xJ/v over F. Let v+itx) be any element in F[x]//, then f(x) € F[x}. By division algorithm there exists q(x), 1(x) €F[x] such that A(X) = q(x) g(x) +1(x). When either 1(X) = O(or)deg r(x) < deg g(x). Now, VHX) = v+q(s) 96%) +(x) =[v+a(x) 960)] Hvt10)] [qt a) ev velver(x)] i.e.) vis zero vector.] = vir(x) Veagtapet....ctanix™), Where agatyeo.ndy.€ F ie.) V+) = adv 1) ay (WE) Hence v+l, v+x, nat (VER) te 0) 0 ordeprta) “a” satisfies a non zero polynomial P(x). ie.) p(X) = Oot Ox +.....4ttyx™ € Fl]. = “a” is algebraic over F. Hence K is an algebraic extension of F. 6) bis algebraic of degree n over F, then ‘b’ is algebraic-of degree atmost n over T= F(a). Solution:- ; Let g(x) = agtayxtagx™+....ta,x" tages x” tagax” AL duetsdaez € T, but not belongs to F] Assume b is algebraic of degree n+2 over T (say) ,then g(b) =0. a)Le.) ag taht... ccctayb" tay Le) Ot aged” Hagab"? = 0. ic of degree n over F. ise.) agtayb+......tagb"= 0. From eq’s (1) becomes, we get, bP" fager + bags] = 0. Age + bag.2= O=h(b). i.€.) ageit bager = h(b). Let h(X) = anes + Xaqe2.Which is of degree | satisfies a polynomial of degree 1 over T. a contradiction to b algebraic over T of degree n+2. The same is true, if we take the value, which is > n. «. bis algebraic of degree atmost n over T. i.e.) [T(b) : T] e +ni is transcendental.i is an algebraic number, since it is a root of x? + 1 overQ. An Gaussian number a+bi, where a,b € G is an algebraic number. Infact abi is a root of (x-a)’ +b? which is a polynomial over Q. Ina very well defined way there are more of the transcendental numbers then there are algebraic numbers. THEOREM -5.1.4:- Another proof :- Applied to algebraic numbers Proves the interesting fact that the algebraic numbers form a Field. (i.c.) the sum,Products and Quotient of algebraic numbers are again algebraic numbers. Proof: Let = the field of all complex numbers , and F = Q= the field of rational numbers . Leta, b €C are algebraic number. Then by definition. i.e.) a,b are algebraic over Q. Hence a+b, ab, a/b if b #0 are all algebraic over Q. [By theorem 5.1.4] ive.) a+b, ab, a/b if b #0 are algebraic numbers, i.e.) The sum,products and quotients of algebraic numbers are again algebraic numbers. {The set of all algebraic numbers}. = {The set of all complex numbers which are algebraic over Q}. The unit alement is 1 +10 cA. . ‘Since it is satisfying the polynomial x-1 over Q° <. Ais non empty subset of k= c. Also by the previous discussion a,b € A. =a, band ab[ifb#0] Qc/ Inwe ta --(1) ¢an clement in A. (2) Then it is complex number,which is algebraic over Q. Then it is algebraic over A. [. QCA] i lea ) That element is in C’ ie.) ae C- --(3) from eq’s (2) and eq’s (3) we get ie.) ace ACC Acco (4) From eq’s (1) andeq’s (4) we get, Hence Q CACC ©. By theorem 5.1.1-we know that, “IfL isa finite extension of K and if K is a finite extension of F, then L is a finite extension of F. Moreover [L:F]=[L:K][K:F]”. Here CUis an algebraic extension of A and A is an algebraic extension of Q. i.e.) CO is algebraic extension of Q. i.e.) Every element of C is algebraic over Q. Let x €CO, then it is algebraic number. i.e.) x is an algebraic number satisfying a non zero polynomial with co-efficient in A. ie.) x is a real of a polynomial whose co-efficient are algebraic numbers, is an algebraic numbers. . Hence the proof. Problem :- 1. Find the degree of Q (V2, V3) over Q.(or)What is the degree of V2 + V3over Q? prove it, Solution:- LetL=Q V2 Then L : Q=2. Also x?-3 is an irreducible polynomial over L satisfied by V3. o. [LV3:L]=2. Now, [L¥3 : Q]=[Lv3 : L] [L: Q]. = 2x2. =4, --—--(1) But L(V3) = (Qv2) (v3). = QZ, v3). =Q (v2 + V3). From eq’s (1) becomes,lO W24 V4):O]°4 ic.) V2 4 V3 is of degree 4 over O. 2) Show that V2 4 VSis algebraic over Q of degree 6. Leta» v2 4° V5, Vhis yields that, a-v2 = ¥5. =5i, Cube on both sides we get, (a-V2)'=5. a'+6a -3¥2a- 2V2 = 5. a'46a-5= 3V2074 2V2. = V2 (3a? + 2), Squaring on both sides. (a°+60 - 5)? = 2(302+2)?, =a is algebraic over Q of degree less than or equal to 6. To prove the second assertion. We claim thatQ(v2 + ¥5) = Q(v2, ¥5). Then involving the result to of exercise 1, we shall get the second part. Nowv2, VSe Q (V2, ¥5). -----—---(1) v2 + VS5e Q (v2 + ¥5). 2) From eq’s (1) and (2) we get, Q(V2 + ¥8)c Q (v2, V5). Further, v2 + V5 Q (v2 + ¥5). Squaring on both sides. (V2 + ¥5)*e Q (v2 + V5). V2.V2 + 2V2 V5 + (V5)"e Q(v2 + V5). 2+ VZV5 + V2 V5 + (V5)%e Q(v2 + V5). V2 V5 + v2 V5 + (V5) 0. In the relation eq’s (2) we get, Let us multiply the first eq’s by c; and the second eq’s by cz and so on last eq’s by y-Thenadding these eqs we get , CilF(1)-2F(0)]+ea{F2)-c7F(0)] +es{F(3)-¢°F(0)] +... eg [F(n)-e"F(O)]= c1& +eabat..tey i.e.) cyF(1) — ceF(0}+ cy F(2) — cxe”F(0) + F(3) — c3€°F(0)+...cy F(n}- ege"F(0)=c\&, togkgt..tEne i.e.) CyF(1) + cz F(2)+...+ cn F(n)-F(0) [cretexe+cye"+. +Gae"] SCE ten’ at. From eq’s (3) we get, ie.Joyetcze”+....ten se"! Hope" = -co. Substitute these values in eq’s (4) we get CAP(1) + 2 F(2)+ oo. eecsct Oy F(R)HF(O) (0) = C1E rt CaE at eo snctCabae i.e.) CoP(O) +eyF(1) + cp F(2)+..... ey F(M) = C18 teak gt es onctOyEg (5) From this eq’s we get , i,¢.) F(x) is an arbitrary polynomial f(x). — +eb_ —-(4)= fora very specific polynomial one fir i.e.) f(x) = a "(ex)" 2x)" Here p is any prime number. ie)prn& P> co. For this polynomial, we get, shall take a very close look at F(0), F(1), F(2).....F(n). and we shall carry out an estimate on the size Ej, 2e-eEne When expanded f(x) is a polynomial of the form. i = LP pty ox? ayxPtt | gy xpt? ie.) f(x) = A x Ply Sox = Os Ga a eat op where a9,a1,a2...... are integers. When i= p. We claim that (°(x)is a polynomial, with co-efficients, which are integers all of which are multiplies of p. Thus for any integer j, {° j) for i p is an integer and is a multiple of “P” Now f(x)has a root of multiplicity p at x = 1,2, Thus for j= 1,2,....0n 1)=0 geeee £°PG)=0. used by “Hermite” FO=AG)+ (G+ 1 GDe.... LPG) LOG) £().Where j=1,2,. i.e.) F() is an integer and is a multiple of P. To find F(0): Since f(x) has a root of multiplicity p-1 at x=0. tLe.) (O)= £90) = 1(0)=.....= £°(0)=0. | * For izp. i.e.)£(0) is an integer which is a multiple of P. But {°"(0)= (n!)",and Since p>n and is a prime number . ie.) pt (nt). So that f"(0) is an integer not divisible by p. Since F(0) = f(0)+£(0)+.....+£° (0) +f? '(0)+.... +£(0)+....+ £0). We conclude that F(0) is an integer not divisible by p. Because co>0 and p > co and because p + F(0) where as P/ F(1), P/ F(2)......P/F(n). We can assert that coF(0) +c)F(1) +.....caF(n) is an integer and is not divisible by p. From eq’s (5) we get, oF (0) +eyF(1)+ c2F(2)+...0.-+ CF (n) = cE took at. ..tCrEne To Find & From eq’s (2) becomes , F(i) — e'F(0) = -ie"'™ £(30,) =E. Since from eq’s (6) becomes, put x=FED = FAS GOLAN. 20)"......lni0y) Subst itute these value in the above equation is FG) cP) = ~ie" | 10)" Cio”... (py! ig = ) i0)"".(1-10,)" (2-10) y1- (n-i0,)"]. Where 0<0,<1. ite sili 2 (pr Thus, [fi] < rey AS po, : enn? LOG oli] + 0. When we can find a prime number larger than both c and n and large enough to forceladi+ C2824... En IST. But qd)+ 2824... GE n= CoF(0)+e,F(1)+......caF(n). So must be an integer since i Conclusion is that (1+ e€st... Consequently, coF(0)+e1F(1)+.....caF(n) = 0. we know that since p t [¢cF(0)+e)F(I)+ ie.) P10. This is contradiction from the assumption that e is algebraic. i.e.) e must be transcendental. Hence the proof is smaller than 1 in size our only possible, 0. F(n)]. 2)4A on 5.4 Roots of Polynomial Definition: TW) © Fly} then an clement a ying in some extension field of F is called a root of NAVI play oO, Lemma = §.3.1:- Remainder Theorem: THEY) cFIx} and if k is an extension of F, then for any element b € ky me ; A-b)q(X}+p(b) where q(x) € k[x] and where deg q(x) = deg p(x)-t. Proo! Ifk is an extension of F, ie) P Ck. IEF [x] is contained in k{x} , ie) FIs} Ks} = P(X) € F [x] = p(x) € k[x]-——-———(1) andb € k. oobekck [xp ite.) -b € k [x] (2) and x € F(x)c k[x]. ie.) x € k[x] . ————-—-(3) From ¢q's (2) andeq’s (3) we get i.e.) x-b € k[x] , (4) ’ From ¢q's (1) and ¢q's (4) we get. 2.p(s) xb € K[x]. Hence by the divisional algorithm for polynomial in k(x}. *. p(X) = (x-b) g(x) + 11). Where a(s), 1(x) € k{x] and r(x) = 0. i.e.) deg r(x) = O(or)deg 1(x)< deg (x-b) = I. [deg (x-b) = 1} 1(x) is constant say r. P(X) = (Xb) q(x) +45). Put x=b. ice.) p(b) = (b-b) q(b)+r. =Otr =r = T= p(b). Substiute these value in eq’s (5) we get, P(x) = (x-b) a(x) + pb). i.e.) deg p(x)= deg [(x-b) q(x)+p(b)]- = deg[(x-b)q(x)]+degp(). = deg [(x-b)q(x)]* 0. * [+ deg (ab) = deg a + deg b}, = deg(x-b) + degq(x). ! &= I+degq(x). 2. deg q(x) = deg p(x)-1. *. we can say that p(x) = (x-b)q(x)+p(b) Where q(x) € k[x]. ». deg q(x) = degp(x}-1 Hence the proof. Corollary:- Ifa eK isa root of p(x) € F[x] Where F ck, then in k{x], (x-a)/p(x). Proof:- Ifk is an extension of F. ie) FCk. and if F[x] is contained in k[x]. ie.) F[x] ckfx]. ©. p(x) € FIX]. = p(x) € k[x]. —(1) anda € k. sa eKcK[x]. i.e.) -a €K[x]. ——(2) and x € F(x) cK[x]. ie.) x € K[x]. ———_@) From eq’s (2) &eq’s (3) we get 2. x-a €K [x] (4) From eq’s (1) &eq’s (4) we get i.e.) p(x), x-a eK[x]. Hence by the divisional algorithm for polynomial in k[x]. -+ P(x) = (x-a).q(X) + (x) , Where q(x),r(x) € k{x] and r(x) =0. * .) deg r(x) = 0(or)deg r(x) < deg (x-a) = 1. ~.1(x) is constant say r. p(x) = (x-a) q(x) + (5) i,e.)p(a) = (a-a) q(a) +1. =O4r. =r oT =pfa). Substitute these values in eq’s (5) we get P(x) = (x-a) q(x) + pa). But here a is a root of p(x). <-p(a) =0. => p(x) = (x-a) q(x)+0. ie.) peo) Ga)aco. = = 50 kd. i.e.) (x-a)/p(x) in k[x]. Hence the proof.Definition :- a a The element a € k is a root of p(x) € F[x] of multiplicity m if (x-a)"/p0x), where as (x-a)""'} p(x). Lemma — 5.3.2: A Polynomial of degree n over a field can have atmost n roots in any extension field. * Proof:- We proceed by induction on n, the degree of the polynomial p(x). If p(x) is of degree 1. Then it must be of the form ox+,where a1, are in a field F and where a# 0. ie.) p(x) = ax +B. Any a such that p(a) = 0 must then p(a) = aa+B. 0= aarp. aa=-B. ye peg, i.e.) p(X) has the unique root 4c F. Hence it any extension of F. Assuming the result to be true in any field for all polynomials of degree 1 and is irreducible over F, then there is an extension E of F, such that [E:F] =n, in which p(x) has a root. 1(U.Q) Let p(x) € F[x] be irreducible and of degree n. show that F[x]/ PIX] is an extension of F of degree n (upto isomosphism)]. Proof:- Let F[x] be the ring of polynomial in x over F and Let V = (p(x)) be the ideal of F[x] generated by p(x). By Lemma — 3.9.6 —we know that, . “The ideal A = (p(x)) in F[x] is a maximal ideal if and only if p(s) is irreducible over F” Since p(x) is irreducible V is maximal ideal of F[x]. By Theorem — 3.5.1- we know that, “IFR is a commutative ring with unit element and M is an ideal of R, then M is a maximal ideal of R if and only if and only ifR/M is a field.” -. E=F[x]/ visa field. First we show that E is an extension of F. Let F be the image of F in E. ie.) F= (atviae F} Then F is subfield of E.We assert that F is a field of isomorphic to F. Infact if Fis the mapping from F[x] into fIx]/v = E. i.e.) W: F[x] — f[x]Wv = Ebe a mapping defined by f(x) ¥ = f{x)+v. Then the restriction of to F induces an isomorphism of Fonto F. ie.) Yr: F > F defined byap=at v fora e F. For every a,b € F. ©. (a+b) Y= (at) + v. = (atv) +(b+y). =@¥s) +0 %). Also (ab) Ye = ab + v.= (atw). (b+y). = (a1). CY). =. is a homomorphism. Also a ‘VY, = bY,. = atv=bty. =>a-btv=y. a-b ev, ~ - a-b = p(X) a(x) . —-—-(1)For some q(x) € F[X].{ -. P(x) is of degn and = q(x) = From eq’s (1) becomes.F(x) is anon zero polynomial then the product i.e.) a-b = O.constant polynomial is polynomial} =b. Hence ris one to one, clearly Yy is onto. “Wr is an isomorphism. i.e.) F is isomorphic to E. =F is the subfield of E. i.e.) E is an extension of F as a result of the above isomorphism. We identity each element o-+v of F with the corresponding element a of F. Let f(x) € F[x] such that f(x) = Bot Bixt......Byxt, Where Bo,Bi,-.-..-Bre F. Then, F(x) Y = [BotBixt......| Buxt] W. = BoP+Bix¥+....., BuxkP. We know that, WHLW=lty. XW = xtv. 2PP = Phy = (xt), . XW = xFby = (xtv). . a x8P = xhty = Oty) Also there is an identification of BY with B. fo) Y= Bot BiGcty)+BaGcty) + Bicxty)s. Byat. x Ve Eis a root of p(x). <-p(x) is the polynomial lying in v. = p(x) ev. . p(x) ¥ = 0. ¢.) p(x) Y = pla). 0 = pla). “. p(a) = Pa ae s a root in E. Tee that (1+v),(@c+v),(x+v)*.....actv)"! from a basis of E over F. Let a9,21,.-..aa-1€ F,Such that , ag(1+v) + ai(xty)tacctyy +. ag(1+v) + ay(xt+v)t+a2(x*+v)+..7 (apix™+y) = v. Le.) (aytv)+ agt ayxta, ay ayxta, yt ayxtay Dp. For some q(x) © F[x]. = pix) q(x). —(2) = q(x) = 0.{ IF q(x) # 0 then deg (p(x) q(x)) > deg(p(x))=n while the From eq’s (2) becomes, L.HS polynomial is of deg n-1} Sagt ayxtagx"+...tagix™! =O. i.e.) ag =a at = 0. n, ifany field and let {ix) is. a polynomial of degree n, Then by the above corollary, “IC{X) © Fx], then there is a finite extension E of F in which f(x) has a root then, [Es F] Sdeg yy”, F] Sn, in which fx) has a root c.Thus in Eo[x}, where q(x) is of degree n-L. is we can say that there is an extension E of Ey of degree umost (n-1)! in which q(x) has (n-1) root.Since any root of fx) is either a or a root of q(x) we obtain in E all n roots of f(x).Also E is a finite extension of Ep and Ep is an finite extension of ry Using induction hypoth +. Eisa finite extension of F, Further, = [E :E9] [Eo : F). ‘ . S(v-l) In, snl. “ (E:F] snl, ‘Thus there is an extension E of F degree atmost n! in which f(x) has n root. Hence the proof, Definitio If f{x) € F[x}, a finite extension E of Fis said to be a “splitting fick over E [i.e,) E linear factors, over F for f(x) if (x)] but not over any proper subfield of E, f(x) can be factored as a product of Definition;- is o “splitting field” of (x) over F if E is a minimal extension of F in which f(x) If has n roots, where n= deg f(x). Note: . Let F &F° be? fields and ¢ be an isomorphism of F onto F° For ae F let + (a) = a’, Show that defines an isomorphism t*: F[x] > F°[¢] with the property that t*(a) = a'for ae F. Proofs. Ba)Let F and "be two fields and let thea somorphism™ of F onto Vor convenience, let us denote the image of any ae F under thy a! iota’, Vhent is an isomorphism between Fx] and F"{t] the respective polynomial rings over f and F’, For any arbitrary polynomial {(x)= otox"40x"+...ly€ F[x] we define t* . Le RN)T*= Gor" Hox" +...) = oo't™Foy't™ ar, =f". Lemma ~ §.3.3:- * defines an isomorphism of F[x] onto F'{t] with the property that at* = a’ for ae F, Let fx) = aotayxt....toax"e F[x]. define t*by AO) = (ctotoyxtoux™+....ctox®) tt, Cott ott xt OTN TF tot ex Tt, = do'tay'tta,'? f(t). To prover* is one to one: Le.) f(x)t* = g(x)r*. Where g(x) = Bot Bixt....+Bax™ Le.) (aotaxt...ta,x")t* = (Bot Bixt. FBux™)t*, fe.) oto! toy'tt01y't +... tat” = Bol+By't+ BIE. 1B at, => n= mand q;' =’ for i= 1,2,. >n= = Bit*for i= 1,2,. => n=m and a= B; fori = 1,2 + £0) = g(x). -.T* is one to one. Then t* is onto Let f(t) = ao'+ay'tt.....ta,'t"e F'[t] , Then ao',c,)',.. But t*is an isomorphism. ~. There exists elements (to,(t),.....,0n€ F such that Ogt*= Oto',0tyT* = OL)',.....0pT*= Ol! S(t) = ag'toy't +... = (aot*)+(ayt*)(xit*)+. = (Gotayx +,.....09x") TH of) = fx) t*. Where f(x) = agtoyx + ..... + ogx"e F[x]. i.e.) Corresponding to each polynomial £'(t) €F"{t] there exists a polynomial fx) €F[x] such that f(x)r* = P(\). @ H(Oat*)(x"r*). * Preserves addition :Let AX) © aot nt aay oyntann"t and 20) = RA BIN. Bo / ; / For any two polynomial in F[S] without loss of generality we may asstme that n =N Fay” eH SHO AN coe aN Then, [Xd #OIT TP = foot eaNtoan? tc... tet N™ ANT Et etQN"] + [Par BN cot Bi] tt (cto Bo) + (C+ BAIN... 4 (tort BSH N eee HOLGN IEE Oot Bo)t® + CUFP INTE... (Clart Bin) NEM Ol = (cho Bo)! + (cer Br)'t +... (Chart Bn)U™ Helge Ce tg'+ Bro!) + (er FB M.A! EB I” Fee’ per ta'+ Bo!)+ (cu't+ By't)+ “fon Bt Fern vat" = [eto' to’ th....Otm't Ht tT tt" }+ [Bo!+ Bi't = [aot® Hct Xaxt*)+.. Haat") Ha, ee *)tagtt Katt )]+ + [Bor ® (Bie yart) +. t( Rar Xa") = [aot Haury +468") THe NYT HCA") CYB ABI Hct BaN") TT Cot AXt... HON] T* + [Bot Bixt.....t Box] flx)t* + 2(x) TY. t* Preserves Multiplication: Let f(x) = aot axt....-tot,x" and g(x) = Bot Bixt...+B,x" for any polynomial in F[x]. Now, [AQS) g9)] t= [ocotouxt.... tox") [Bot Bixt.....Bax"] T. [otoBo# (cB) = [ooPotH(arPi)xtt. [o10'Bo'+(cu'Br')t+. (ig! toy'tHanit™ + = fx)r*. g@x)r*. If fx) =a. then , f(x)t* = at* = at=a'. iejatt =a’. Hence t* is an isomorphism with the property that at* = a’ for every ae F. Hence the proof. Problem :- 1) If f(x) € F[x] we shall write f(x)t* = (0) lemma 5.3.3 immediately factorization of f(x) in F[x] result in like factorizations of f(t) and versa. In particular, f(x) is irreducible in F[x] if and only if f(t) is Fit). Solution:- If f(x) has a factorization in F[x] thenftx) = gy(x)-ga(x), Where g(x) and ga(x) are non. zero polynomial in F[x]. oft? = [e1).e200)]"*. This is possible. @ reducible in> fisytt = Oe. Oat. [<1 is homomorphism]. (0) ar'(D. fo". Where gy'(1) and y(t) are non-zero polynomial in (1). i.e.) (C1) has also a like factorization in F(t). Converse is also true : In particular f(x) is irreducible in F[x].Then we have to prove f(t) is irreducible in F’[t]. Ifnot, ((t) is irreducible in F’[t]. £"(t) = gy'(1). g2’(U).where g;'(t) and gy'(t) are non-zero polynomial in f(t). i.e.) Mx)" = gi(x)t* ga(x)t*. = (Bi(x).Ba(x)) 1. 18) = u(x). Box). [+t* is one to one]. = f(x) is irreducible in F[x]. Which is not the case and therefore f'(t) is irreducible in F’[t]. Whenever f(x) is irreducible in F[x] and also the vice versa, Lemma. There is an isomorphism t** of F[x] / (f(x) onto F’[t]/('(t)) with the property that for every ae F, at** =a’, [x+(f(x))}0** = t+(P(). Proo Let f(x) be irreducible in F{[x], then f(t) will be irreducible in F’{t]. Let V = (f{x)) be the ideal of F[x] generated by f(x) and v’ = (f(t)) be the ideal of F’[¢] generated by f(1).Both V and V’are maximal ideals because f{(x) and f(x) are irreducible. /-F[xJ/v and F'[t]/v' are both fields. We can identity F as a subfield of F[xJ/v, F’ as asubfield of F’[t}/v’. This is made possible by the monomorphism F — F[xJ/v, which is the restriction of the natural homomorphism F[x] — F[x]/v restticted to F. Define a mapping : Ife: F[xJv Fg. Then , [g(x)+ v] t** = g(x)rt+v'. = gi(t) tv’. For every g(x) F[x]. The mapping t** is well defined: In Fact, for g(x),h(x) € F[x]. Then ,[g(x) + v] = [h(x)+v]. (x)-h(x)+v =v. £(0)-h(x) € v. = k(x) f(x). for some k(x) € F[x] = [e(x)-h@)]t* = [k(x) fox)]*. g(x)t*-h(x)t* = k(x)t*.f(x)t*. [vt is an isomorphism ] ic.) ef()— hd) =k) CO. [ by def of «*] ie.) g(t) hi) € v. g'() -h' +v= vi. ogi(tv'= hi) tv. From eq's (1) becomes + (ex) tv]t** = [hot], [by def of 1**] (1). The mapping is well defined. The mapping t** is one to one : Let g(x).h(x) © F [x]. Then le(xptv]r*# = [h(x)tv]c*. [by def of = gt vv =hytv. g(t v'-h(tyev. / gi(t)- h(t) ev‘. e'(t)- h'(t) = k(t) P(t) . for some k'(t) € () a(x)t*- h(x)t* = k(x)t* f(x)t*. [e(x)- h(x)]t* = [k(x) f(x)]t*.—_[t* is homomorphism] i,e.)g(x) h(x) = k(x) (x) . [+ is one to one ] => g(x) —h(x) € v. eX) —h() +v=v. a(x) tv = h(x) + v. 2.1 is one to one. The mapping is one to one. The mapping t** is onto: Since the mapping +* is onto, corresponding to any polynomial g'(t) in F"{t]. we have a polynomial g(x) in F[x]. ©. g'(® +v'e F'[t}/v'implies that there exists,g(x) + v © F[x]/v such that[p(x)+v]t** = p'(t)+v'. 1** Preserves addition and multiplication : 1** Preserves addition: Letg(x), h(x) € Fix, 7 Then, [Lecx)+v] + [hOo+v]}e** = [e(x) + h(a) v]e* > 969 +] * = g0oet+ v = [e(x) + h(x) Jut+v'. = g(x)t* + h(x)ttty’. (x)t* +v'+ h(x)tt tv "(t) +v'+ hi(t)tv’. [e(x)+v]e** + [h(x)+v]x** [tis homomorphism] 1** Preserves multiplication : ‘Let g(x), h(x) € F[x]. Then [g(x)+ v] [h(x)+v]e** = [e(x) h(x) + v]t**. = [g(x) h(x)]t* + Vv’. = g(x)t*. h(x)t* + v', (HO tv. =[e'O+v] [h'(Otv')- = [e()tv]e** [h(x)+v]t**. Hence t** is an onto isomorphism. For any a in F. We have, at** =(aty)r**, C ie.) at** =(atv)r**. has been identified with a+v).=attt'. atv", [+a" has been identified with a'+v"] We have, [e(x) + v]ttt= g(xytttv'. = s(t Replacing the polynomial g(x) by x, we have, Doty] = xttey', = tty’, i.e.) [xt(fx))]}o*= t+(F (0). Hence the proof. Theorem- 5.3.3:- If p(x) is irreducible in F[x] and if v is a root of p(x), then F(v) is isomorphic to F’(w). Where w is a root of p'(t) ; Moreover, this isomorphic o can so be chosen that , i) vo=w. ii.) a0=a! for every ae F. Proof:- Let v be a root of the irreducible polynomial p(x). In some extension field k of F. ie.) P(v) =0. i.e.) v is algebraic over F. we can form the mapping if Y : F[x] > F(v) =k. Define the mapping by, qx) ¥ = qv). we have to show that \Y is homomorphism. Now, [a(x)#4(x)] ¥ = a(v) +1(v). = q(x) + 1). and [q(x) -r(x)]¥ = q(v). r(). = q(x)¥.1(x)¥. Then ¥ is an homomorphism of f(x) into F[v]. ie.)Kerl ¥ = (q(x) € F[xI/q(x) ¥ = 0, i.e.) q(v) = 0}. Let M = kerl ¥, then M is an ideal of F[x] and M # F[x].Since p(x) €M and is an irreducible polynomial. <. Every element in M is a multiple of p(x). _ie.) M=(p(%). If ® : G—> G with kerl k then G/k = G. Then by the fundamental homomorphism theorem for ring there is an homomorphism. ap L2H Ey Itis defined by [f(x) + M] ‘P* = f(v),where f(x) © FIxl. For f(x) =a We have, (a+M)Y* =a, ae F. otM = aly G)and fix) = x We have(x+M)W* =v i.e.) we can say that * is an isomorphism of fix)’ (p(x)}— Le.) yt :flx(p(x)) flv). leaving every element of F fixed and x+M) ¥* xt Maver)" Since p(x) is irreducible in F[x]. then p'(t) is irreducible in F'{t]. i.e.) p’(t) € F'(t) and so there is an isomorphism 8* of F'[t] / (p’(t)) onto F'(w). ie.) O* : Ft] /M’ > Fw). Then (f" (t)+M‘) 6° =f" (w). Now f’(t)=t. Where w is 2 root of p'(t) such that 0* leaves every element of F’ fixed and such that (tH) 8* = w. [by lemma 5.3.4] There is an isomorphism t** of F[x] /M onto F'[t] /M’ ie.) <** : FIx]/M— Ff] /M’ Which coincides with t and F and which takes, Then (f(x) + M) t** = £'(t) #M’ where fix) =x. c.(xeM) o8* = tM" Consider the mapping is ,o=(2*)'t** 6* ie) Fw) > ea) “ois an isomorphism of F(v) onto F'(w). Since all the mapping Y/*,:** and 6* are isomorphism and onto. Moreover,Since, vo = wey LVo=w. Also , for ae F. as =af(¥")*(7**6*)]. =(a¥"*) (x**0*). =[(a+Myr**]6". (a. +M ‘)0*. 2ag=a'. <. is an isomorphism satisfying all the requirements of the theorem. Corollary:- / If p(x) €F [x] is irreducible and if a,b are two roots of p(x), then F(a) is isomorphic to F(b) by an isomorphism which takes a onto b and which leaves every element of F fixed. @Proof:- Take F = Ft and p(x) = p'(t) and then by the previous theorem ie.) F(a) is isomorphic to F(b). Also ao = b anda = a = ) F(a) is isomorphic to F(b) by an isomorphic which takes “a” onto “b” and which leaves every clemeats of F fixed. Hence the proof Any splitting fields E and E’of the polynomials f(x) € F[x] and f(t)eF'[t] respectively, are isomorphic by an isomorphism @ with the property that ap = a for every ae F,[In particular, any two splitting fields of the same polynomial over a given field F are isomorphic by an isomorphism leaving every element of F field]. (or) Show that any two splitting fields of the same polynomial over F are isomorphic. Proof:- We prove this theorem by induction; on the degree of the splitting field over the field F. If £(0) is the polynomial in F'{t] corresponding to the polynomial f(x) ¢ F[x]. Now, E is the splitting field of f{x) over F and E’ is that of f(t) over F’. Suppose that the degree of E over F = 1. ie.) (E:FJ=1. Then E = F and f(x) splits completely into linear factor over F . By Lemma — 5.3.3 — we know that , “;* defines an isomorphism of F[x] onto F’[t] with the property that ocr* = a’ for every ae F” ‘.£"(t) also splits F’completely into linear factors overF’. Thus E' =F’. But we nowt: F > F’ isa isomorphism with the property that ot = a’. ie.) @=1:E> E’ is an isomorphism with the property that ap = ta. = a’ for every ae F. .. The theorem is true when the degree is 1. Suppose that the theorem is that for any field to any for any polynomial f(x) € Folx] provided the degree of the splitting field E of f(x) has degree 1.Where Eis a splitting field of f(x) over F. when f(x) is factored over F, there must exists atleast one non-linear factorsay p(x). Since n>1, f(x) has an irreducible factor p(x) of degree r>1. ie.)n2r>l. Let p'(t) be the corresponding irreducible polynomial off'(t) when it is factored over F". Then The degree of p'(t) is also r. Now f(x) splits completely into linear factors over E.This means that there is a root say V in E of p(x). ice.) p(v) =0. i.e.) v is algebraic over F. By Theorem — 5.1.3 — we know that, “fae k is algebraic of degree n over F, then [F(a) :F] =n, then the degree of p(x)”.ie) [F(V) FP] = deg pix) =r Ilythere is a root w © E’ for p(t) ie.) pv) =0 By Theorem- we know that , ie.) [FQw) 2 F'] =r. Also we now that there is an isomorphism o of F(v) onto F'(w). i.e.) 6: F(v) + F(w) , Such that vo = w and ac = a’ for every ae F. Since (Fv) :F]=r>1. Now, E is the extension of F(v) and F(v) is the extension of F. 2. {E:F)=[E : F(v)] [F(v) : F. n=[E: F(v)] [r]. ie) (E: Fwy] =21. Then there is an extension E of F degree atmost n! in which f(x) has n roots. Then [E : F] [F(2”) : : [+ [E:F]>n) Since F(2”) is a proper subset of E. ie.) [E:F]>3. — --(3) From eq’s (1), eq’s(2), eq’s(3) together the only possibility is [E:F <. The degree of the splitting field of the polynomial x°-2 over F= 6. 3) Let F be the field of rational numbers and let f(x) = x*+x"+1 € F[x]. Solution:- We claim that E = F(w). where, w= sans is a splitting field of f(x). Thus [E:F] = 2, for short of the maximum possible 4! = 24, Verification: HCH = x42 HL, = x442x74 1-7, = (441-7, = (A+14x) (x2+1-x). = (4x+1) (2x41), In some extension of F, if a is a root of x*+x+1, then a is a root of a@x?-x4+1 in that extension, Thus ifany extension of F splits (x? het 1), then it will also (2+ 1) equently if will split ¥1.Thus the splitting field of x! 4 x74 1 © F[x| is the hat of x? +x + EF |x]. =x? +x+ Ln the field of complex number the two roots of x? +x +1 are w, w*.Since {(x) is irreducible over F and deg {(x) = 2 in any extension off deg < 2.Then f(x) cannot have a root. So if E is the splitting field of x). Then [E :F] 2 2. By Theorem 5.3.2 - we know that , “Let f(x)eF[x] be of degree n 21. Then there is an extension E of F degree atmost n! in which f(x) has n roots. Then [I ie.)[E:F] < 2!=2. «. (E:F]=2. The field F(w) contain a root w of F[x].Since w € F(w), we F(w) i.e.) Fw) contain both the roots w and w* of f(x) thus fw) splits x2+x+1. The polynomial f(x) is irreducible over F degree of f(x) = 2.Also w is a root of f(x). <. wis algebraic over F of deg 2. = [F(w) : F]=2. Hence F(w) is a splitting field of f(w). Hence the proof. and cor Section 5.5. More about roots Let F be any field and let F[x] be the ring of polynomial in x over F. Defi yn . +tOqixtoy in F[x], then the derivative of f(x) written as f(x) is the polynomial. £ (x)= notox" + (n-oux™ 2+ Gq in F[x]. Lemma ts For any f(x), g(x) € F[x] and any ae F. i, (6) +g@))' = (af(x))’ (FG) BOD)" = £'(x) B(x) + 1) B') Let f(x) = ctox” + ox + and g(x) = Box™ + Byx™ +... + Bx™ 2. £1Q) = nox"! +(n- ox" and g' (x) = mBox™! + (m-1)Byx 0H With out loss of generality, assume that n < m (or)m2n. i) [fx)+eOd]' = £'G0) + g'@). low, [£G%) +8(%)] = [otox” + ogx™ + Lo. + ax. tatgaxtoea] + [Box™ + Bix™ +... + Bix™ +. BnaxtB ade @= Bux" +B ix" (Go x"+BornX") Fe +n AX+BmiX) +O +B mn) = (Ont Bm) + (nt + Bn-i)X +... 4(Go+ Bonen) x. +B x" +Box™, Then differentiate on both sides. (1) + BC0]'= Go Bram Be pe" ‘+. (me DDB “pox”! = [anat..A(n-1 cx” “age” “FB - MBX +(m-1)p)x"?-+mpox™']. =f'(x) + B'). ii) [af(x)]' = af (x). Now atf(x) = ofatox" + ax"! +... + Op xtot] = Lotyx" + LOY X™ +. .+OLOtg AFCO Then, [efx)]! = nceorgx™! + (n-1oxoyx" +. OL ae = a[naox™'+(n-1 ox” +... 0tn-t] [otf]! = of (x) iii) [£(x) g()]' = 2'(%) f) + £'C0) 2). Proof: If f(x) and g(x) are any two polynomial over F.Then the product of f(x) and g(x) will bea linear combination of 1, x, x’,...-and etc.Over the field F. To prove the third result. Let us consider the highly special case of f(x) as x! and g(x) as x! where both i and j are positive. ‘Then f(x) => f'(x) =f'"(x) eG) + e © f(x) . Hence the results. ic Zero :- A field F is said to be of characteristic zero if ma # 0 for a #0 in F and m> 0, an integer. If ma = 0 for some m > 0 and some a #0 € F, then F is said to be of finite characteristic. Lemma — 5.5. The Polynomial f(x) ¢ F[x] has a multiple root if and only if f(x) and f' (x) have a non trivial [ i.e.) of positive degree] common factor. (or)Show that if f(x) € F[x] has a multiple root, then f(x) and f(x) bas a common factor in f(x). Proof:- If fix) and g(x) in F[x] have a nontrivial common factor in k[x}, where k is some extension of F, then they must have a non-trivial common factor in F[x]. ‘Thus f(x) and g(x) are relatively prime and elements in F[x].We shall prove this result by contradiction. Suppose fix) and g(x) have a non trivial common factor in k{x]. but they have nontrivial common factor in F[x]. +. There exists two polynomials a(x) and b(x) in F[x] such that a(x) fix) + b(x)g(x) = 1—————1) Since k 2 F, a(x), b(x), f(x), g(x) can ali be taken as polynomials in kfx]. <. From eq’s (1) becomes , i.e.) f(x) and g(x) are relatively prime as elements in k[x], 2 contradiction. Hence f(x) and g(x) must have a non trivial common factor in F[x]. By the above result we just proved we may assume with loss of generality that the roots of f{x) all lie in F. [otherwise extend F to k, the splitting field of fix)]. If f(x) has a multiple root a. Then, 2 A(x) = (x-c1)® q(x) where q(x) #0, m>1. ££ 'G)F m(x-a)*" q(x) + a)" g! (x). = (X-0)"" [ma(x) + (a) q'@)] [= m>1.] = (x-0)"". [roo]. But this says that ffx) and f(x) have the same common factor (x-a).In this way we proved the lemma in one direction.On the other hand, if f(x) has no multiple root Then, ‘ Ux) = (x- 41) (X22)... (X04). Where theay’s are all distinct. [assuming fix) to be monic] But then, 7 £100) = DP (& — 0 Jeon EH)... Where the [symbol] A denoted the term is omitted. £(a) =[Myeila; — aj) #0. Since the roots are all distinct. However, if (x) and f"(x) have a nontrivial common factor. They have e common roots, namely, any root of this common factor. Thus a, is not 2 root of f"(x) for all i=1to n.Then f(x) and f'(x) can have no nontrivial common factor. Which is 2 contradiction to cur assumption. <- fx) has a multiple root. So the lemma has been proved in the other direction. Hence the proof. Corollary: If f(x) € F[xjis irreducible, then 1) If the characteristic of F is 0, f(x) bas no multiple roots. 2) If the characteristic of F is p #0, f(x) has a multiple root only if it is of the form f(x) = 22"). Proof:- &Ur tin) is irreducible its only factor in F[x} are Land fix) in which f(x) is the non trivial IF ix) has a multiple root. Then by the above lemma, “The Polynomial f(x) € F[x] has a multiple root if and only if fx) and f(x) have anon trivia | i.e) of positive degree] common factor”. ie.) f(x) and f(x) has a non trivial common factor that non trivial common factor should be Ax) ra). However, since the degree of f(x) is less than that of fx), the only possible way that this happen is for f(x) 10 be 0. i) In characteristi =>fix) is a constant which has no roots, this say that f(x) has no multiple roots. p20, f(x)=0. = fix) is of the form g(x"). Le.) fix) Ax"). Hence the proof Corallary-2 If F is a field of characteristic p #0, then the polynomial x°"— x € F[x] for n2 1, hasa distinct roots. Proof: Let fixe x?" — x <1 are relatively prime. I the characterise is p= 0. . = pa=0 VaeF. f(x) =p'xP 7 -1. =-l. Thus f(x) and f(x) have no factor in common factor. i.e.) They are relatively prime =-By the ebove lemma. Then x?"-x has no multiple roots. ie.) It is a distinct roots. The extension k of F is a “simple extension” of F ifk = F(a) for some a in k. Theorem- 5.5.1:- If F is of characteristic Gand if a,b are algebraic over F, then there exists an element c € fla, b) such that F(a, b) = F(c ) (or) F(c) c.- éProof: Let ffx) and g(x) of degree mand n be the irreducible polynomial over F satisfied by a and b respectively. k be an extension of F in which both f(x) and g(x) split completely. Since the ic of F is zero. is characteristic zero all the roots of f(x) are distinct, as are all those of g(x). Let the roots of f(x) be a = a, 29, a3, «.-.dm and those of g(x) be b= by, by,-..by. 1fj ¢ 1,Then b # by Hence the equation, i.e.) aj + Ab, = a, + Ab =a+Ab. has only one solution 4 ink, Namely, a+ Abj=at Ab. aj—a=Ab- by. ie) A=. ie a=as Since F is of characteristic 0 it has an infinite number of elements. So we can find an element ye F such that aj + 7b; # a+ ybVi and j #1. Letc=atyb. 2 apt yb #e. Since c € F[a,b] and c € F then ceF(c). ie.) ¢ € F(c) CF[ab]. “-F(¢) ¢ Fla,b]. ——--(1) We show that a and b are in F{c] from it follows that F[a,b] < F[c]. Letk=Fe). , . Now b satisfies the polynomial g(x) over F. : Hence b satisfies g(x) considered as a polynomial over k = F(c). Moreover, if h(x) = f(c-7x), then h(x) € k[x] and h(b) = f(c - yb). = fla). [.a=0-7b] 0. Thus in some extension of k, h(x) and g(x) have a common factor. ‘We assert that x-b-is infact their greatest common divisor. For, if bj # b is another root of g(x). Then ,h(b)= f(c - ybj). h(b)# fla). [sa=c-yb. #0. f{c - yb) # f(e - 7;) ~-h(b)# 0. i.e.) fla) # fle - yb))] Since by our choice of y, ¢ - 7b; for j # 1 avoids all roots a; of fx). Also, Since (x-b)"t g(x). ‘=.Q%-b)* cannot divide the greatest common divisor of h(x) and g(x). ‘Thus (x-b) is the greatest common divisor of h(x) and g(x). Over some extension of k. But then they have a non- trivial greatest common divisor over k, which must be a divisor of x-b. Since the degree of x-b is |.We say that the greatest common divisor of g(x) and h(x) in k{S] is exactly s-b Thus x-b € k[x]. =>b ck. ie.) b € Fle]. — but a=c-yb.where ¢ € k,b € k, ie) ye Fck. ayek. Then, ica “ae Fc). from q's (2) and eq’s (3) we get , ca, be Fle). Then a,b €F(a,b) . i.e.) a,b € F(a,b) ¢ F(c). ©. F(ab) c F(c) .—----(4) form eq’s (1) and eq’s (4) we get , 2.F(a,b) = F(e ). Hence the proof. Lemma A simple induction argument extends the result from 2 elements to any finite numbers. ie.) if 1, Oa,......0t are algebraic over F, then there is an clement © EF (Gt, C135.0..--0%q) such that F(c) = F(cty, 0t3).0-+..0)e Proof:- 4 Let a is algebraic over F. <.F (a) is a subfield and if it is a finite extension. Then ay is algebraic over F. Hence algebraic over F(a). “-F (a1) (2) = F(ct,, 0) is a subfield. Similarly, proceeding F(c, 012,......C,) is a subfield and it is a finite extension of F. Let k= F(0ty, Gtyees.. Oty) ie.)There exists a1€ F. = F(a))=k= F(a). Ifn=1, Then K = F(a). Suppose n> 1, and the theorem holds for all finite extension of F generated by less than n elements. Let Ky = F(t}, 042)0+4+-.0n.1)- * By the induction hypothesis there exists b € k; such that ky =F (ay, a,...=F (b. a). = F(c). 5 By The Theorem fo £FF(€) = F(Gtty 2ye----ta)- some c € F (b, ag) =k. Hence the proof. Corollary + aan nite extension of a field characteristic 0 is a simple extension. Proof:- Let K be a finite extension of the field F of characteristic 0. Then k is algebraic extension of F. Hence we can write k = F(04, 0... <. By the above argument there exists. C € F(a, ay,....-.0%,) Such that F(c) = F(t, c,..- i.e.) F)=k. :-kisa simple extension of F. Hence the corollary. a)» Where ct), 02,......0hare algebraic over F, in)