Solar System

The solar system consists of the Sun and its eight main planets, their satellites,

asteroids, comets, meteors and other dwarf planets. The Sun is at the one of the two

“centers” of the Solar system and the planets revolving around it in elliptical orbits. Let

us take a look at some quick facts about the Solar System:

● The closest planet to Sun is Mercury and the farthest is Neptune.

● Pluto is a dwarf planet – relegated from its status as the ninth planet.

● The eight planets of the solar system are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,

Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

● You can remember the order using the mnemonic: My Very Energetic Mother

Just Showed Us Night-sky.

The Sun
The Sun is the primary source of energy for life on Earth. It is the closest star to the

Earth, about 150 million kilometers from earth. The temperature of the Sun’s visible

surface (photosphere) is about 6000 degree Celsius. However, the outer layer of Sun’s

atmosphere, known as the Corona, is, on an average, about 2 million degree Celsius. The

core of the sun is the center, and is about 15 million degree Celsius
The Sun is made up of 73% hydrogen and 25% helium. It also has trace amounts of

oxygen, carbon, iron and other elements. It is classified as a G-Type Main Sequence

Star. It is about 4.6 billion years old and will continue to shine for another 5 billion years.

After that it will grow into a Red Giant and then finally end its life as a white dwarf.

The Planets
There are a total eight planets in the solar system –

● The planets are divided in the two groups – Inner planets and Outer planets.

● Inner planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. These are also known as

terrestrial planets or rocky planets. These are denser and have a shorter

periods of revolution.
 ● Outer planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. These are also known as

Gas Giants or Gaseous planets. They are big in size and have a longer periods

of revolution.

● Jupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System and Mercury is the smallest

Mercury
● Closest planet to the Sun.

● Orbits the Sun the quickest.

● No significant atmosphere.

● Rotation period is longer than its orbital (revolution) period.

● No natural satellites (moons).

● Spacecrafts to Mercury: Mariner 10, MESSENGER, BepiColombo.

● Can be seen from the earth only before sunrise and after sunset.

Venus
● Known as Earth’s twin.

● Longest rotation period of any planet.

● Rotation period is longer than its orbital (revolution) period.

● Hottest planet in the solar system.

● Dense atmosphere of gases and chemicals including sulphuric acid clouds.

● Revolves around the sun in clockwise manner while most others are revolving

in anti-clockwise.
 ● Second brightest natural object in the night sky (after Moon).

● Can be seen from the earth only before sunrise (Morning Star) and after

sunset (Evening Star).

● No natural satellites (moons).

● First planet visited by a spacecraft.

● Spacecrafts to Venus: Mariner 2, Venera 7, Magellan etc.

Earth
● Only planet in the solar system to be known to support life.

● Has water in all three states – liquid, solid and gas.

● Gasses present in the earth’s atmosphere are Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen,

Carbon Dioxide etc

● It takes 23 hour 56 minutes 46 seconds to rotate around its axis.

● It takes 365.26 days to revolve around the Sun.

● The Ozone layer present in the Earth’s atmosphere protects it from the ultra

violet rays.

● Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth.

Mars
● Known as the ‘Red Planet’ due to presence of iron-rich red soil.

● Despite its red colour, it is cold because it has lost most of its atmosphere.

● Phobos and Deimos are the two moons of Mars.

 ● Has polar ice caps and traces of sub-terrestrial liquid water has been found.

● Has the largest known volcano (and second tallest mountain) in the solar

system – Mons Olympus.

● Spacecrafts to Mars: Mariner 4, 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Orbiter Mission

(India), MAVEN etc.

● Rovers on Mars: Opportunity, Curiosity, Spirit (decommissioned).

Jupiter
● Largest planet of the solar system.

● Has two and a half times the mass of all other planets put together.

● Has the shortest rotation period.

● A gas giant, primarily composed of hydrogen and helium with no discernible

solid surface.

● Has a giant storm (three times the diameter of earth) since 1831 called the

‘Great Red Spot’.

● Has a faint ring around it.

● Has 67 moons.

● 4 largest moons discovered by Galileo – Ganymede (largest moon in the solar

system – bigger than Mercury), Callisto, Io (volcanic), Europa (has water-ice).

● Missions to Jupiter: Galileo, Juno (upcoming).

Saturn
 ● Second largest planet in the Solar system.

● Its density is less than the water.

● Has a band of concentric rings revolving around it made up of tiny rocks and

pieces of ice.

● Has 62 moons.

● Moons of Saturn: Titan is the largest (has a major atmosphere, complex

organic chemistry and ICE VOLCANOES‼), Rhea (may have its own ring

system), Enceladus.

● Missions to Saturn: Cassini-Huygens.

Uranus
● Discovered by Sir William Herschel.

● Blue-green (cyan) in colour.

● Third biggest planet of the solar system.

● Composed of Hydrogen, Helium, Water, Ammonia, Methane.

● It is tilted sideways so that its poles lie where most other planets have their

equators.

● Has faint rings.

● Has 27 known moons (5 main – Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, Oberon).

● Spacecraft Flyby: Voyager 2.

Neptune
 ● Discovered by mathematical predictions and disturbances in Uranus’ orbit.

● First proposed by Alexis Bouvard, and first observed by Johann Galle.

● Farthest planet from the Sun.

● Primarily composed of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, water, ammonia, methane.

● Is blue in colour because of methane.

● Has a storm called ‘Great Dark Spot’.

● Has 14 known moons (Triton – largest)

● Spacecraft Flyby: Voyager 2.

Pluto
● Used to be the ninth planet.

● Demoted to status of “Dwarf Planet”.

● Icy and cold.

● Has five moons – Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, Hydra.

Asteroids
● Almost like planets but smaller in size.

● Not spherical in appearance.

● Revolve around the Sun.

● Most of them are found in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.

● The largest asteroid in the Asteroid Belt is Ceres.

Meteorites
● Meteoroids are formed due to the collisions between asteroids.

● They are fragments of rocks floating about in space.

● Sometimes they come across earth and fall into the earth’s atmosphere.

That’s when they become meteors or “shooting stars”.

● Most of these meteors can’t reach earth’s surface and burn up in the

atmosphere due to the friction with air.

● The meteors that do reach the earth’s surface are known as meteorites.

● There was a latest Meteor shower named Geminid that was seen from some

parts of the world on 14th December 2018.

Comets
● Tiny icy and rocky bodies that travel in highly elliptical orbits around the sun.

● When they pass close to the sun, they water and gases heat up.

● This leads to the formation of a tail behind the rocky core in the direction

opposite to the sun.

● Most famous comet is Halley’s Comet which reappears every 75-76 years.

● Last appeared: 1986. Next appearance: 2061.

 Biosphere

Biosphere refers to the narrow zone of the earth in which all life forms exist . this is the zone
in which all the three essentials things which are required for susteinance of life are found in
a right mixture. They are land (lithosphere), air (atmosphere) and water (hydrosphere). In
other words, this narrow zone is a place where lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere
meet .

COMPONENTS OF BIOSPHERE:

Biosphere has three basic components. These are

(A) abiotic (physical and inorganic) components;

(B) biotic (organic) components and

(C) energy components.

Let us discuss about these three components in detail.

(A) Abiotic Components: These components broadly consist of all non-living elements
which are essential for the survival of all living organisms. These are :-

(i) lithosphere (solid part of the earth crust),

(ii) atmosphere and

(iii) hydrosphere.

Mineral nutrients, certain gases and water are the three basic requirements of organic life.
Soils and sediments constitute the chief reservoir of mineral nutrients. Atmosphere
constitutes the chief reservoir of gases essential for organic life. Ocean consitutes the chief
reservoir of liquid water. where all these three reservoirs intermingle and that area becomes
the most fertile area for organic life. The upper layer of the soil and shallow parts of the
ocean constitute the most important areas, box sustaining organic life.
The upper layer of soil, permits easy penetration of gases and percolation of moisture, while
shallow parts of oceans, allow penetration of sunlight, intermingling of dissolved gases and
nutrients from land surface and ocean bottoms.

(B) Biotic Components: Plants, animals and human beings including microorganisms
constitute the three biotic components of environment. In a way these can be called as the
three sub-systems.

(i) Plants: Plants are most important among biotic components. They are the only primary
producers as they produce their own food through the process of photo synthesis and hence
are called autotrophs. Not only plants alone produce all kinds of organic matter but also
help in cycling and recycling of organic matters and nutrients. Thus, plants are the major
source of food as well as energy for all organisms.

(ii) Animals: While plants are the primary producers, the animals are the main consumers.
Therefore, animals are heterotrophs. There are three main functions of animals:

(a) to use organic matter made available by plants as food.

(b) to transform the food into energy and

(c) to utilise the energy for growth and development.

(iii)Micro-organism: They act as decomposers of dead plants and animals.

(C) Energy: This is the third and vital component of the biosphere without which life could
not have been possible on this planet. It is essential for generation and reproduction of all
biological life on this planet. All organisms in the

biosphere are like machines which use energy to work and also to convert one form of
energy into another. Sun is the major source of energy without which we can not think
about the existence of the biosphere.

Structure and composition of Biosphere

Ecological System: Interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors

within a particular habitat resulting in particular habitat resulting in clearly defined energy
flows and material cycles on land, water & air.
Ecology: Derived from Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning house and ‘logy’ means science. Ernst
Haeckel used the term in 1869 for the first time. The study of interactions between life
forms and physical environment is known as science of ecology. So, it is the study of abiotic
and biotic interactions.

Habitat: It is the totality of physical and chemical factors that constitute the general
environment.

Ecosystem: System of biotic and abiotic components inter-related and interact with each.
Therefore, an ecosystem involves interactions among different components and flow of
energy among these components.

Ecological adaptation: Plants and animals species have got adapted through evolution to
different types of environmental conditions.
 Lithosphere

What is Lithosphere?
The lithosphere is the rigid, outermost shell on Earth. It is composed of the crust and the portion of
the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater. The
outermost shell of a rocky planet, the crust, is defined on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy.

This includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which constitute the hard and rigid outer layer of
the Earth. The uppermost part of the lithosphere that chemically reacts to the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere through the soil-forming process is called the pedosphere.

Lithosphere Composition
The earth’s crust is not a homogeneous substance; it has different layers of rocks including
sedimentary rocks on top, granitic and metamorphic rocks in the middle, and basaltic rocks on the
bottom.
The earth’s crust also consists of several large dynamic tectonic plates. These tectonic plates move
slowly but continuously at an average rate of around 10 cm. Considering this, there was no Atlantic
Ocean, and North America and Europe together were one continent 180 million years ago. The
Atlantic Ocean came into being because of the drifting apart from the Eurasian and North America
plates.

Types of Lithosphere
There are two types of lithosphere:

● Oceanic: Which is associated with oceanic crust and exists in the ocean basins.
● Continental: This is associated with continental crust.
 Hydrosphere

What is Hydrosphere?
The hydrosphere is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of the earth.
It has been estimated that there are 1386 million cubic kilometres of water on earth. This includes
water in liquid and frozen forms in groundwater, oceans, lakes and streams approximately 75% of
Earth’s surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometres is covered by ocean.

Hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle transfers water from one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs include
atmospheric moisture including snow, rain and clouds, streams, oceans, rivers lakes, groundwater,
subterranean aquifers, polar icecaps and saturated soil.

The Solar energy is the source of heat and light and gravity causes the transfer from one state to
another over periods from hours to thousands of years. Most evaporation comes from the oceans
and is returned to the earth as snow or rain.
Importance of Hydrosphere
It consists of all bodies of water, icebergs and water vapour in the earth’s atmosphere. Oceans
contain 97 per cent of water in the hydrosphere, while rivers, lakes and other water bodies on land
and underground water contains a small percentage of total water in the hydrosphere.

Here is the importance of the layer-

● Helps to maintain the hydrological cycle.

● Good means of transport of water
● Plays a vital role in the earth’s climate.

Hydrosphere Facts

● The amount of water on the Earth’s surface remains constant over time. This
signifies that the amount of water available on the Earth today is the same as it
was when dinosaurs were roaming the Earth.
● 68.7% of the freshwater exists in the form of permanent snow.
● The total amount of water on Earth is about 333 million cubic miles or 1,386
million cubic kilometres.
 Atmosphere

The composition of Atmosphere is said to be a mixture of different gases. It envelops

around the Earth. 99% of total mas of atmosphere is confined to highest of 32 km from
the Earth’s surface.

Permanent gases of the Atmosphere

● Atmosphere is consists of various gases, water vapour and dust particles.

● The presence of oxygen becomes negligible at the height of 120 km from the
surface of earth with regards to the composition of atmosphere.
● Carbon dioxide and water vapour occur only upto 90 km.
● Carbon dioxide is meteorically very important as it is transparent to incoming
solar radiation but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation. It is also responsible
for greenhouse effect.
● Ozone gas: 10-50 km above earth surface and acts as filter, absorbing ultraviolet
rays from the sun. Ozone prevents the rays from reaching the surface of earth.
● Water vapour is variable gas, decreases with altitude.
● It also decreases from equator towards the poles.
● Acts like blanket allowing the earth to neither to become too cold nor too hot.
Also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.
● Dust particles: are in higher concentration in subtropical and temperate regions
due to dry winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions.
● Dust particles act as a hygroscopic nuclei over which water vapour of
atmosphere condenses to produce clouds.
The composition of atmosphere varies with local environmental factors also.

Structure of Atmosphere:
There are five layers in the structure of atmosphere depending upon temperature.

I. Troposphere:

● It is the lowermost layer.

● 13 km height average with 8 km at poles and 18 km at equator (lesser at poles
and greater at equator).
● The thickness is 18 km at equator because heat is transported to great heights
by strong convectional currents.
● This layer has adult particles and water vapour.
● Climate and weather changes occur here.
● Temperature decreases at rate of 1 degrees celcius for every 165 m of height.
● Zone separating troposphere from stratosphere is called tropopause.
● Temperature at tropopause is minus eighty degrees celcius over equator and
minus forty five degrees celcius over the poles. This remains constant through
the year.
II. Stratosphere

● It is found above the troposphere.

● extends upto 50 km of height.
● Has ozone layer – absorbs ultraviolet radiation and shields life on earth from
harmful energy.

III. Mesosphere:

● Above stratosphere
● reaches till 80 km height.
● Temperature decreases with altitude here, by 80 km it reaches minus hundred

degrees celcius .
● The upper limit is called mesopause.

IV. Ionosphere or Thermosphere:

● 80 to 400 km above mesopause.

● Ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
● Radio waves which are transmitted from the earth are reflected back by this
layer.
● Temperature here increases with height.

V. Exosphere:

● It is the outermost layer.

● Not much is known about this layer.
●
 Latitude & Longitude

What is Latitude & Longitude?

The first person to calculate the size of the earth was Eratosthenes. He realized that
Earth can be divided into a basic grid of lines called Longitudes and Latitudes which
would help in pinpointing a location.

Latitude is a geographical coordinate that specifies a point on the Earth's surface, it

tells whether a point is either north or south.

Latitude is an angle between 0° at the Equator and 90° at the poles (North or South).

Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies a point's east-west position on

the surface of the Earth, or a celestial body's surface.

It is an angular measurement that is usually expressed in degrees and denoted by

the Greek letter lambda. Meridians connect points with the same longitude (lines
running from pole to pole).

Latitude:

Latitude is the angular distance of a point measured in degrees from the center of
the earth on the surface of the earth.

As the earth at the poles is slightly flattened, the linear distance at the pole of a
degree of latitude is slightly longer than at the equator.

For example, it is 68,704 miles at the equator (0°), 69,054 miles at 45 ° and 69,407
miles at the poles. The average of 69 miles (111 km) is taken.
Note: 1 mile = 1.607 km

Some Important Parallels of Latitudes:

There are four important parallels of latitudes besides the equator (0°), the north
pole (90° N) and the south pole (90° S).

● Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern hemisphere

● Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the southern hemisphere
● The arctic circle at 66½° north of the equator
● The Antarctic circle at 66½° south of the equator

Longitude:

On all latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, the
midday sun is exactly overhead at least once a year. Consequently, this area
receives the maximum heat and is called the torrid zone.
On no latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Capricorn Tropic, the midday
sun never shines overhead.

The angle of the rays of the sun continues to decline towards the poles. As such, the
areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle in the northern
hemisphere, and the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic circle in the southern
hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. These are called temperate zones.

Areas in the northern hemisphere between the Arctic circle and the north pole and
the Antarctic circle and the south pole in the southern hemisphere are very cold. It's
because the sun isn't raising much above the horizon here. These are called frigid
zones.

Longitude is an angular distance, measured in degrees along the Prime (or First)
Meridian east or west equator.

Longitude on the globe is shown as a series of semi-circles running through the

equator from pole to pole.

This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all other meridians move up from 180 °
east to west.

They have one very important function, determining local time in relation to G.M.T. or
Greenwich Mean Time, sometimes called World Time.

The relation between Longitude & Time:

Because the earth makes a complete 360 ° revolution in one day or 24 hours, it goes
through 15° in one hour or 1° in four minutes.Earth rotates from west to east, so every
15 degrees we go east, local time is 1 hour higher. If we go west, the local time will be
delayed by 1 hour.
Thus, we may conclude that places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain
time, whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.

Time Zones & Standard Time:

In order to keep their appointments, travelers going from one end of the country to the
other would have to keep changing their watches. This is very inconvenient and
impractical.

In larger countries such as Canada, U.S.A., China, and U.S.S.R, it would be

inconvenient to have a single time zone. So these countries have multiple time zones.

There are five time zones each in both Canada and the USA — the Atlantic, Eastern,
Central, Mountain, and Pacific Time Zones.

The difference between the Atlantic and Pacific coastal local time is almost five hours.

There are a total of 11 time zones in Russia

 Different Heat Zones of the Earth
Torrid Zone
1. This is also referred to as Tropical zone. The Tropics is a region on the Earth
surrounding Eqauator by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at 23°26'16" N
(approx) and the Tropic of Capricorn in the sourthem hemisphere at 23° 26' 16" S
(approx). The Tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the sun reaches a point
directly overhed at least once in a year.

2. This area receives maximum heat and is called the Torrid (hot) Zone.

Frigid Zone
1. Near the polar regions, the rays of the Sun are very slanting and so it is very cold.

2. The region / area between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in the Northern
Hemisphere is called the Frigid Zone.

3. There are similar regions in the Southern Hemisphere between the Antarctic Circle
and the South Pole, also called the Frigid Zone (frigid means cold).

Rotation of the Earth

1. The Earth spins (rotates), west to east on its axis once in 24 hours approximately.

2. The Earth's axis is not vertical. It makes an angle of 23° 30' with the vertical or 66°
30' with the plane of the. Earth's orbit.

3. The Earth's axis always remains pointed in the same direction (towards the Pole Star)
as the Earth moves around the Sun. The tilt of the Earth's axis is known as the inclination
of the Earth's axis.
 Motion of the Earth
1. The Earth spins (rotates), west to east on its axis once in 24 hours approximately.

2. The Earth's axis is not vertical. It makes an angle of 23° 30' with the vertical or 66° 30'
with the plane of the. Earth's orbit.

3. The Earth's axis always remains pointed in the same direction (towards the Pole Star)
as the Earth moves around the Sun. The tilt of the Earth's axis is known as the inclination
of the Earth's axis.
 Effect of the Tilted Axis on Day and Night

Rotation

● Earth rotates along its axis from west to east. (Axis is the imaginary line connecting the
two poles running through the centre of the earth)
● Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the
normal i.e. it makes an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane.

● It takes approximately 24 hours to complete one rotation. (23 hours 56 minutes 4

seconds precisely)
● Days and nights occur due to rotation of the earth. When a place on Earth faces the sun,
it has daytime. When it faces away from the sun, it has night.
● The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
What would happen if the earth did not rotate ?

● The portion of the earth facing the sun would always experience day, thus bringing
continuous warmth to the region.
● The other half would remain in darkness and be freezing cold all the time.
● Life would not have been possible in such extreme conditions.

Effect of the rotation of the Earth

● Formation of days and nights

● Change in the direction of winds, ocean currents, etc. (concept of Coriolis force)
● Occurrence of sunrise, noon and sun set.
● Flatness at the poles and bulge at the equator
● Concept of time and dates
● Apparent movement of the sun, the moon and the stars
● Magnetic field of the earth

Revolution

● The second motion of the earth around the sun in its orbit is called revolution. It takes
365¼ days (one year) to revolve around the sun.
● Six hours saved every year are added to make one day (24 hours) over a span of four
years. This surplus day is added to the month of February.
 ● Thus every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366
days is called a leap year.

The Earth in its orbit around the sun moves in a constant plane. This plane is called the PLANE
OF THE ECLIPTIC. The plane of the Earth’s equator makes an angle of 23½° with the plane of
the ecliptic. Thus the imaginary Earth axis[1], being perpendicular to the equator, has a constant
ANGLE OF INCLINATION, as it is called, of 66½° with the plane of the ecliptic.

In addition to a constant angle of inclination, the Earth’s axis maintains another characteristic
called PARALLELISM. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, the Earth’s axis remains parallel to
its former position. That is, at every position in the Earth’s orbit the axis remains pointed
towards the same spot is close to the star we call the NORTH STAR or POLARIS. Thus, the
Earth’s axis is fixed with respect to the stars system, but not with respect the Sun.
The path on which it describes its motion is called orbit. The shape of the orbit is an ellipse and
not a circle. The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is 150 million km but because of the
elliptical shape of the orbit the distance varies from time to time. On or about January 3, the
Earth is closest to the Sun. At this time the Earth is said to be in Perihelion (nearest) and its
distance from the Sun is 147 million km. Similarly, the Earth is at its farthest point from the Sun
on or about July 4. In this position the Earth is said to be aphelion and is at a distance of 152
million km. It should appear that there is summer in perihelion because the Earth is the closest
to the sun. But reverse is the case. It is summer in aphelion and winter in perihelion.

Effect of the Revolution of the Earth

● Change of seasons
● Length of days and nights
● Shifting of wind belts

The Seasons

It has been made clear that the Earth revolves around the Sun with two characteristics:

(i) Its axis of rotation is inclined to the orbital plane at an angle of 66½ degree.

(ii) The northern end of the axis of rotation points towards the pole star wherever the Earth
is in the orbital path.
There is one important effect of this type of revolution. The northern and southern hemispheres
in turn are tilted towards the Sun while at two places both the hemispheres are equally inclined
to the Sun.

Duration of Seasons

From the point of view of the Earth’s inclination, there are four positions of SOLSTICES and
EQUINOXES. Hence, there are the following four seasons according to the positions of the
Earth in one complete revolution of the Earth around the Sun.

Solstice

● On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall
directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. So, areas
near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.
● The North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle
experience continuous daylight for about six months.
● Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is
summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at
these places occur on 21st June.
 ● At this time in the southern hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter
season there. The nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called the
summer solstice.
● On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the South
Pole tilts towards it. As the sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S), a
larger portion of the southern hemisphere gets light.
● Therefore, it is summer in the southern hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights.
The reverse happens in the northern hemisphere. This position of the earth is called the
winter solstice.

Equinox

● On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this
position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences
equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox.

● On 23rd September, it is autumn season (season after summer and before the beginning
of winter) in the northern hemisphere and spring season (season after winter and before
the beginning of summer) in the southern hemisphere. The opposite is the case on 21st
March, when it is spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the southern
hemisphere.
 ● Thus, you find that there are days and nights and changes in the seasons because of the
rotation and revolution of the earth respectively (Rotation= Days and Nights; Revolution =
Seasons)

Varying Length of Day and Night-

● The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane in which the earth
orbits round the sun) at an angle of 66½°, giving rise to different seasons and varying
lengths of day and night.
● The revolution of the Earth and its inclination to the plane of the ecliptic cause the
variation in the length of day and night at different times of the year.

Why regions beyond the Arctic Circle receive sunlight all day long in summer?

● Reason- Tilt of the earth

● Earth’s axis at the North Pole is tilted towards the sun in summer.
● So the whole of Arctic region falls within the ‘zone of illumination’ all day long in summer.

Why Arctic Circle is popularly referred as Land of the mid night Sun’?

● In the northern hemisphere in winter (December) as we go northwards, the hours of

darkness steadily increase.
● At the Arctic Circle, the sun never rises and there is darkness for the whole day in
mid-winter on 22 December.
 ● Beyond the Arctic Circle the number of days with complete darkness increases, until we
reach the North Pole (90° N) when half the year will have darkness. In summer (June)
conditions are exactly reversed. Daylight increases as we go polewards.
● At the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets at the midsummer (21 June) and there is a
complete 24 hour period of continuous daylight. In summer the region north of the Arctic
Circle is popularly referred to as ‘Land of the mid night Sun’.

Why do the poles experience about six months day and six months night?

● Reason- The tilt of the Earth on its axis.

● Because of this tilt, each Pole is tilted towards and away from the Sun for about six
months each.
● When the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, it experiences continuous daylight for six
months. It is night for the same time period at the South Pole.
● These conditions are reversed when the South Pole is tilted towards the Sun.

Why does the Southern Hemisphere experience winter and Summer Solstice in different times
than that of the Northern Hemisphere?

● When the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, the northern Hemisphere experiences
Summer Solstice. At this time, since the South Pole is tilted away from the Sun, the
Southern Hemisphere experiences Winter Solstice.
● When the North Pole is tilted away from the Sun, the Northern Hemisphere experiences
Winter Solstice. At this time, since the South Pole is tilted towards the Sun, the Southern
Hemisphere experiences Summer Solstice.
● Why summer is usually associated with much heat and brightness and winter with cold
and darkness?
● In summer, the sun is higher in the sky than in winter. When the sun is overhead its rays
fall almost vertically on the earth, concentrating its heat on a small area; temperature
therefore rises and summers are always warm.
● In winter the oblique rays of the sun, come through the atmosphere less directly and
have much of their heat absorbed by atmospheric impurities and water vapour. The sun’s
rays fall faintly and spread over a great area. There is thus little heat and temperatures
remain low.
● The days are longer than nights in summer and more heat is received over the longer
daylight duration. Nights are shorter and less heat is lost. There is a net gain in total heat
received and temperature rises in summer.
Temperature distribution on earth

● Sun is the ultimate source of heat. And the differential heat received from sun by
different regions on earth is the ultimate reason behind all climatic features.
● The patterns of distribution of temperature in different seasons will help in
understanding various climatic features like wind systems, pressure systems,
precipitation etc.

Insolation

Earth intercepts only one in two billion parts of solar radiation. This intercepted radiation is
called Insolation.
● Definition- Insolation is the proportion of solar energy received or intercepted by earth.
● Some heat within the core and mantle is transferred to the surface and ocean bottoms
through volcanoes, springs and geysers. But this heat received at the surface form
interiors of the earth is negligible compared to that received from sun.
● Earth receives Sun’s radiation (heat) in the form of short waves which are of
electromagnetic nature. The earth absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and
reflects back the heat received into space as long-wave radiation i.e. infrared radiation
during night.
 Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point on the surface of the Earth due to the
weight of the column of air above that point.
Measurement and Units of Atmospheric Pressure

1. The mercury barometer is the standard instrument for measuring atmospheric

pressure.

2. Pressure is expressed in centimeters or inches of mercury, a true measure of the

height of the mercury column.

3. Standard sea level pressure is 76 cm or 29.92 inches on this scale.

4. Another pressure unit used by meteorologists in drawing weather charts is millibars

(mb).

5. One bar is divided into 1000 millibars.

6. Millibars are now known as hectopascals.

Winds
1. Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun.

2. Sometimes wind blows gently, refreshing us. At other times, it blows strongly
creating storms that cause widespread damages.

3. We need measurements of two quantities : direction and speed, to give a description

of the wind.

Trade Winds
1. They blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt to the Equatorial Low Pressure
Belt in the tropics between 30°

2. North and 30° South latitudes.

3. They blow as the N.E. Trades in the Northern Hemisphere and as the S.E. Trades in
the Southern Hemisphere.

4. The name "Trade" is derived from a nautical expression " to blow tread" meaning to
blow along a regular path or "tread."
Westerlies
1. They blow from the Sub-tropical high Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar low Pressure
Belt in the temperate latitudes between 30° and 60°, on either side of the Equator.

2. They are more constant and stronger in the Southern Hemisphere because there are
no large landmasses to interrupt them.

3. In places they become so strong that these winds are known as the Roaring Forties or
the Brave West Winds and the Furious Fifties.

4. The belts of the Westerlies move north and south following the Sun's movement.
These are known as Westerlies because they blow out of the west.

Polar Winds
1. They blow from the Polar High Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt
between latitudes 60° and the poles on both sides of the Equator.

2. These winds blow from the east to form the Polar Easterlies.

3. They are more regular in the Southern Hemisphere.

4. Polar winds are extremely cold and dry.

5. Climatic Winds or Periodic Winds

6. These winds change their direction along with change in time or change in climate.
Land and sea breezes and the Monsoon winds are typical examples of periodic winds.

Monsoon Winds
1. Monsoon winds are seasonal winds characterised by a complete reversal in their
direction from one season to another.

2. They blow from the sea to the land in summer.

3. They blow from the land to the sea in winter.

 Weather And Climate

Weather

It refers to the sum total of the atmospheric conditions in terms of temperature,

pressure, wind, moisture etc of a given place and time.

● It refers to the sum total of the atmospheric conditions in terms of temperature,

pressure, wind, moisture etc of a given place and time.

● It is very dynamic as it may change several times even in a day.

● It changes each day because the air in our atmosphere is always moving,

distributing energy from the Sun.

● In most places in the world, the types of weather events also vary throughout the

year as season’s change.

Climate

It is the average weather condition or atmospheric condition of a region over a

considerable period of time.
 The regional climate is the average weather in a place over more than thirty years.

It depends on many factors :

1.the amount of sunlight it receives

2.its height above sea level,
3.the shape of the land, and
4.how close it is to oceans.
Since the equator receives more sunlight than the poles, climate varies depending on
distance from the equator.

However, Global climate is a description of the climate of a planet as a whole, with

all the regional differences averaged.

Global climate depends on :

1. the amount of energy received by the Sun and

2. the amount of energy that is trapped in the system.

These amounts are different for different planets. Scientists who study
Earth’s climate and climate change study the factors that affect the climate of the
whole planet. While the weather can change in just a few hours, climate changes over
longer time-frames.
 Internal Structure of The Earth

The interior of the earth can be divided into 3 different layers – crust, mantle, and core. The crust is
the outermost layer of the earth, and the core is the innermost layer of the earth, located at a depth
of 2900 Km. This article briefly throws light on these 3 different interior layers of the earth.

Structure of the Earth:

● The Crust
● The Mantle
● The Core

The Crust:
● The crust is the outermost solid part of the earth.
● It is fragile.
● The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
● Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust.
● The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems.
● The crust is made up of heavier rocks having a density of 3 g/cm3.
● The kind of rock seen in the oceanic crust is basalt.
● The mean density of material in the oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.
● Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) are major constituent minerals. Hence it is often termed as
SIAL. Also, sometimes SIAL is used to refer to the Lithosphere.

The Mantle
● The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.
● It is in a solid-state.
● It has a density higher than the crust portion.
● The thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
● The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
● The asthenosphere is the upper portion of Mantle.
● It is the chief source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.
● The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called the lithosphere.
● The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it is
also termed as SIMA

The Core
● The core-mantle boundary is positioned at the depth of 2,900 km.
● The inner core is in the solid-state whereas the outer core is in the liquid state.
● The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and iron. Hence it
is also called the “nife” layer.
 Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Earthquakes
1. The sudden tremors or shaking of the earth's crust is called an earthquake. When a
part of the earth's surface moves backward and forward or up and down, the earth's
surface 'quakes', and these are called the 'earthquake'.

2. The earth's crust is made up of different parts of various sizes. They are called plates.

3. Most of the earthquakes in the world are caused by the movements of the plates.

4. 'Seismology' the special branch of Geology, It deals with the study of earthquake.

5. 'Richter scale' and 'Mercalli scale' are the instruments to measure / record the
magnitude and the intensity of an earthquake respectively.

Seismic Waves
1. The place where the seismic waves originate beneath the earth's surface is called the
focus of the earthquake.

2. The epicenter is that point on the ground surface which is closest to the focus.

3. Seismic waves are recorded on the seismograph. Seismic waves are mainly of three
types—(i) Primary waves (ii) Secondary waves and (iii) Surface or Long waves.

4. The earthquake zones in India

5. The Indian plate is moving from south to north. That is why there are earthquakes in
the Himalayan region.

6. Earthquakes occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur,

Mizoram, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Jammu and Kashmir, the north-western region
of Uttar Pradesh, the northern region of Bihar etc.

7. During the last few years, there have been several earthquakes of varying intensities
in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Volcanic Activity
1. Magma or molten rock is formed beneath the ground surface due to various reasons.
2. This molten rock ruptures the ground and pours out. Sometimes, it cools down
beneath the ground surface instead of pouring out.

3. All these activities are called volcanic activities.

4. Volcanic activities have been taking place since times immemorial.

5. There are three types of Volcanoes : (i) Active Volcanoes (ii) Dormant Volcanoes
(iii) Extinct Volcanoes.

Volcanic eruptions
1. The pouring out of the magma or molten rock through ground surface is called a
volcanic eruption.

2. At the time of eruption, the magma, steam, fragments of rock, dust and gaseous
substances are ejected with great force from under the ground surface through a pipe like
passage.

3. The opening of this pipe on the earth's surface is known as the vent which forms a
crater.

4. The lava which is thrown into the sky during an eruption, falls to the ground in the
form of solid fragments. Dark clouds gather in the sky and it begins to rain heavily.

5. The volcanic ash and dust mixes with the rainwater giving rise to hot mud flows.

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

1. Volcanic eruptions are classified into two types depending on the manner of ejection
of the magma : (i) Central eruption, (ii) Fissure eruption.

Central eruption
1. This type of eruption is sometimes very explosive, because lava, steam, gas, dust,
smoke, stone fragments are ejected from a narrow pipe from under the ground with
greater intensity. This type of eruption gives rise to conical or dome-shaped hills.

2. Some examples of volcanic mountains formed due to central eruption are Mt.
Kilimanjaro in Africa, the Fujiyama in Japan and the Vesuvius and Mount Etna in Italy.

3. It is basically poured acidic lava.

Fissure eruption
1. A very long fissure (cracks) develops in the ground surface and so, the molten rock,
rock fragments, steam and gases within, pour out slowly.

2. These eruptions take place at a very slow speed. Since this lava is more fluid, it
spreads over longer distances.

3. The lava cools down on the ground over a period of time, increasing the thickness of
the surface in that area. Basalt plateaus are formed due to these eruptions.

4. Basalt plateaus are also found in Brazil in South America and Saudi Arabia in West
Asia and Deccan plateau in India.

5. In Maharashtra, the fertile black regur soil has been formed from basalt rocks. It is
also called black cotton soil.
 Various Landforms
Mainly there are three types of landforms—Mountains, Plateaus, Plains.

Mountains
The height of mountains are over 600 m and have conical peaks. On the basis of origin
there are four types of mountains : Block Mountains, Residual Mountains, Accumulated
Mountains and Fold Mountains.

Block Mountains
1. The middle part of such mountains is lower and the parts on both the sides are
higher. The middle lower portion is called as Rift valley. The longest rift valley is the
valley of the Jordan river.
2. Black Forest (Germany), Vindhyachal and Satpura (India), Salt Range (Pakistan) are
some examples of block mountains.

Residual Mountains
Such mountains are formed as a result of weathering. Examples— Aravalli, Nilgiri,
Parasnath, Hills of Rajmahal (India), Siera (Spain).

Accumulated Mountains
These are formed due to accumulation of sand, soil, rocks, lava etc. on the Earth's Crust.,
e.g. Sand Dunes.

Fold Mountains
These are formed because of the folds in the rocks due to internal motions of the earth.
These are wavelike mountains which have numerous peaks and lows, e.g. Himalayas,
Ural, Alps, Rockies, Andes etc.

Plateaus
Plateaus are extensive upland areas characterised by flat and rough top surface and steep
walls which rise above the neighbouring ground surface at least for 300 m.

Generally the height of plateau ranges from 300 to 500 feet.

Inter mountainous Plateaus : Plateaus formed between mountain, Example-Tibetan
Plateau.

Mountain step Plateaus : The flat region between a plain and the base of a mountain.

Continental Plateaus : These are formed when the Lacolith inside the Earth comes to
the surface due to weathering, e.g. the Southern Plateau

Bank Plateaus : These are the plateaus on the banks of the oceans.

Domelike Plateaus : These are formed due to the movement of man and animals on the
surface, e.g. Ramgarh Plateau.

Plains
Plains can be defined as flat areas with low height (below 500 ft.)

Weathered Plains : The plains formed due to weathering by rivers, glaciers, winds etc.

Loess Plains : These are formed by the soil and sands brought by winds.

Karst Plains : Plains formed due to the weathering of limestone.

Erosional Plains : Plains near the river banks formed by river erosion.

Glacial Plains : Marshy plains formed due to the deposition of ice.

Desert Plains : These are formed as a result of the flow of rivers.

Deposition Plains : Large plains are formed due to the silt brought by the rivers. Such
plains are plains of Ganga, Sutlej, Mississipi, Hwang Ho.

Forests
They are of the following types :

(a) Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests : Such forests are found in the equatorial and the
tropical regions with more than 200 cms annual rainfall. The leaves of trees in such
forests are very wide. Ex— Red wood, palm etc.

(b) Tropical Semi Deciduous Forests : Such forests recieve rainfall less than 150 cms.
Saagwan, saal, bamboo etc. are found in such forests.
(c) Temperate mixed Forests : Such forests are a mixture of trees and shrubs. Corks,
Oak etc. are the major trees of these forests.

(d) Coniferous Forests or Taiga : These are evergreen forests. The trees, in these
forests, have straight trunk, conical shape with relatively short branches and small
needlelike leaves. Example—Pine, Fir etc.

(e) Tundra Forests : Such forests are covered with snow. Only Mosses, a few sladges
and Lichens grow here in the summers. This type of vegetation is chiefly confined to the
northern hemisphere (e.g. in Eurasia, North Americal and Greenland Coast).

(f) Mountainous Forests : Vegetation varies according to altitude.

Pastures (or Grasslands)

They can be divided into two types :

(i) Tropical Pastures and

(ii) Temperate Pastures

(i) Tropical Pastures : They have different names in different countries. Savanna in
Africa, Campos in Brazil, Lanos in Venezuela and Columbia.

(ii) Temperate Pastures : They are known by the following names-Praries in USA and
Canada, Pampas in Argentina, Veld in South Africa, Rangelands or Downs in Australia
and Newzealand, Steppes in Eurasia (Ukraine, Russia).

Land forms created by the river system

V-shaped valley
1. A river flows with a greater velocity in the mountainous region and big, pointed
fragments of rock also flow with a great speed along with the water.

2. The river bed is scoured and downcutting starts, ultimately giving rise to a deep
valley with steep sides. This valley is called a v-shaped valley.

3. These valleys are found in mountainous regions.

4. A deep and narrow valley with steep sides is called a gorge.

5. The gorge of the river Ulhas in Thane district in Maharashtra and the gorge of the
river Narmada at Bhedaghat near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh are well known.
6. There are many gorges in the Himalayas.

Waterfall
1. If there are both hard (resistant) and soft (less resistant) rocks in the course of the
river, the less resistant rock is eroded faster.

2. The resistant rock does not erode so easily. That is why, the river falls with a great
speed from a cliff-like part of hard rock. This is called a waterfall.

3. The Niagara Falls on the Niagara river is in North America.

Potholes
1. In areas where the river bed consists of hard rock, the stones carried along with the
river water due to the whirling impact of water.

2. That is why holes of various shapes are formed in the rocky river bed. Such holes are
called potholes.

3. Many patholes are observed in the river bed of the Kukadi, Krishna, Godavari etc. in
Maharashtra.

Meanders and ox-bow lakes

1. Meanders are formed by lateral erosion. As the erosion increases over a period of
time, the meanders in the river again starts flowing in a straight line.

2. The loop previously formed then separates from the main course of the river. Water
accumulates in this separated part.

3. As this loop resembles on ox-bow it is called ox-bow lake. It formed due to

impounding of water in the abandoned meander loop.

Fan-shaped plains
1. In the region near the source of a river the tributaries joining the main river deposit
materials carried by them on the banks of the main river.

2. This deposition creates fan-like plains. They are called fan-shaped plains or alluvial
fans.

Flood plains
1. When, during the floods, the river-water overflows its banks and spreads in the
surrounding areas, the silt carried by the water gets deposited in those areas. This creates
flat plains on both the banks of the river. Plains created by this depositional work done
during floods are called flood plains.

2. The Gangetic Plain is a flood plain.

Natural levees
1. When a river is over flooded, its water crosses its banks. At that time, the speed of
the water is reduced, and the pebbles and stones carried by the river get deposited near
the banks.

2. On account of frequent floods, the area where these sediments are deposited near the
bank of the river rises higher than the flood plain. This high wall is called a natural levee
or natural embankment.

3. Such levees are found on the banks of the Mississippi, the Huang-ho etc., Southern
bank of river Ganga.

Delta
1. Delta was coined by Herodotus (the 'Father of History') after the Greek letter delta
(A) because of the deltoid shape at the mouth of the Nile.

2. A delta is a land form that is formed at the mouth of a river where that river flows
into an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, flat arid area or another river.

3. Deltas are formed from the deposition of the sediment carried by the river as the flow
leaves the mouth of the river. Over long periods of lime, this deposition builds the
characteristic geographic pattern of a river delta.

Delta-region
1. A river meets a sea or a lake. The silt carried by the river is deposited on the bed near
its mouth.

2. The area near the mouth of the river gets gradually filled up by this deposition and
gets raised causing an obstruction for the river to flow in a single channel. It, therefore,
splits into two branches and meets the sea.
3. Over a period of time, there is deposition also at the mouth of the sebranches. In this
manner, the main course of the river gets split into a network of small channels. These
sub-channels are called distributaries.

4. A triangular region of innumerable such distributaries is formed near the mouth of

the river. This region is called the delta region.

5. There are delta regions near the vent (opening) of the rivers Godavari, Ganga, Nile,
Mississippi etc. Deltas are very fertile.

6. The largest delta of the world is 'Sunderbans Delta' (350 km.).

Glacier
1. A mass of ice sliding down the slope from a snow-clad region is called a glacier. On
an average a glacier moves 1 to 15 metres a day.

2. While a glacier is moving, the friction of the ice at the bottom slows down the
movement of the bottom layers.

3. There are two main types of glaciers : (i) Continental Glacier and (ii) Alpine Glacier.

Continental Glacier
1. An extensive sheet of ice spreading across a vast region sometimes begins to move
due to the pressure of the ice.

2. This moving sheet of ice is called a continental glacier.

3. Such glaciers are seen in Antarctica and Greenland.

Alpine or mountain glacier

1. There are snow-field in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas, the Alps, the
Andes, the Rocky mountains etc.

2. The ice accumulating in these areas starts sliding down the slopes.

3. This mass of ice sliding down from the mountains is called a mountain glacier or an
alpine glacier.

Iceberg
1. Blocks of ice break off from the continental glaciers and float away into the sea.

2. A block of ice floating in the sea is called an iceberg. These icebergs are huge in size.

3. The density of ice being slightly less than that of water, a very little portion of an
iceberg is seen above the water and the rest of it is submerged under water.

Land forms of glaciation

1. Various land forms are created on account of the transportation, erosion and
depositional work of a glacier. Let us consider the major land forms thus created.
Cirque

1. When the snow from the mountain peaks slides, it gets deposited in a hollow, if there
is one on any side of the peak.

2. The accumulated snow starts sliding down the slope. This causes friction at the floor
and at the sides of the hollow, thus enlarging it further. This is called a cirque.

3. The back wall of a cirque is like a high cliff and the floor is concave and huge in
size. The total shape resembles an armchair.

4. When a glacier melts completely, water accumulates in the cirque and forms a lake
which is known as tarn.

Fiord
1. Where the lower end of the trough is drowned by the sea it forms a deep steep-side
inlet called 'Fiord' as on the Norwegian and South Chilean Coasts.

U-shaped valley
1. When a glacier is flowing through a valley in a mountainous region, the sides of the
valley get eroded. Ice causes friction on the sides of the valley.

2. As the erosion of the sides is greater than that of the floor, a valley is formed with
vertical sides and a wide floor. This valley is called a U-shaped valley.

Hanging valley
1. In the mountainous region, many tributaries join the main glacier.
2. The quantity of ice in a tributary is comparatively smaller. Hence, it causes less
friction.

3. The valley of a tributary is at a higher level than a valley of the main glacier, the
valley of the tributary appears to be hanging. That is why, such a valley is called a
hanging valley.

Moraine
1. The material transported and deposited by a glacier is known as moraine.

2. Moraines are made up of pieces of rocks that are shattered by frost action and are
brought down the valley.

Moraines are of the following types

(1) lateral moraine, (2) medial moraine (3) terminal moraine and (4) ground moraines.

1. After a glacier has melted, different land forms of deposition are seen.

2. The oval-shaped hills of lesser height are called drumlins.

3. Zig-zag hills, with many steep slopes, made up of long stretches of sand and gravel
are called eskers.
Land forms created by the action of wind

Mushroom rock
1. The wind blowing in desert regions erodes the rock near the ground surface to a great
extent. At the same time, the upper part of the rock gets eroded to a lesser extent.

2. As this is a continuous process, the foot of the rock becomes narrow.

3. The top portion of the rock then looks like an umbrella. This land form is called a
mushroom rock.

Sand dunes
1. Sand gets transported from one place to another along with the wind.

2. At a spot where the wind meets an obstruction or where the speed of the wind
reduces, dunes are formed out of the sand which gets deposited.
3. The side of the dune facing the wind has a gentle slope and the opposite side has a
steep slope.

4. Because of the slow speed of the wind, the sand on the gentle slope gets carried to
the top and comes down the steep slope on the other side. Sand dunes gradually move
forward in this manner.

Barkhan
1. The fine sand particles carried by the wind get deposited when the speed of the wind
is reduced forming crescent shaped dimes. Such hills are called barkhans.

Loess
1. Loess is a soil finer than sand.

2. Loess is a silt transported by the wind from the desert regions and deposited much
further way.

3. Loess transported from the desert regions of Central Asia has been deposited in
layers in China. The plain they form is known as the Loess plain.

Groundwater
1. Some water from the rainfall received on the earth's surface seeps through the
ground.

2. This water trickles down until it reaches an impervious rock.

3. Water accumulated under the ground surface in this manner, is called ground water.

4. Some rocks on the earth's surface are porous and some have cracks or joints. Water
seeps in through these pores or joints.

5. Groundwater gushes out in the form of springs.

Land forms created by the actions of groundwater

Sink holes
1. Water on the ground surface seeps through limestone. Some portion of the limestone
dissolves in that water. If this process takes place continuously, it makes holes in these
rocks.
2. As this process continues over a number of years, these holes get enlarged. These
holes are called sink holes.

Caves
1. In limestone region, water goes very deep through sink holes.

2. If there is a layer of impervious and hard rock underneath, water flows horizontally
on the impervious rock instead of going deeper.

3. Hence, soft rocks get eroded and a cave is formed.

Stalactites and stalagmites

1. Inside the cave created by groundwater under the ground surface in a limestone
region, water is always seeping through the roof. This water contains calcium carbonate.

2. As the seeping water evaporates, some of the calcium carbonate, it contains, is

deposited on the cave's roof. This deposition continues to grow very slowly. Hence a
column is seen growing from the roof towards the floor. It is called a stalactite.

3. The water dripping on the floor of the cave also evaporates leaving behind calcium
carbonate which accumulates over a period of time.

4. A column then starts growing from the floor to the roof. This column which grows
upwards is called a stalagmite.

5. Stalactites and stalagmites are observed in the Parner Taluka of Ahmadnagar district,
in Bastar District in Chhattisgarh and also in the Karst region of former Yugoslavia now
Serbia and Montenegro.
Land forms created by the actions of sea waves

Sea Cliff
1. The base of the rocks on the coast get eroded because of the impact of the ocean
waves and notches develop in these rocks.

2. The crest of the rock overhangs the notch. These notches in the rocks gradually
extend landwards over a period of time. Then the crest falls and a steep cliff, which has
receded away from the sea is formed.

Sea cave
1. Rocks on the coast have many cracks. They become wider and wider with the impact
of the waves, creating small caves. They are called sea caves.

2. Such sea cliffs and sea caves are observed at Shrivandhan, Ratnagiri, Malvan,
Vengurle etc.

Beach
1. The fine sand and other material that flows along with the waves get deposited in a
direction parallel to the sea coast.

2. This deposition of sand is called a beach.

3. There are extensive beaches in the coastal regions of the states of Maharashtra, Goa,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and West Bengal in India and in other countries like
Bangladesh and Canada.

Sand bar
1. A deposition of sand which results in a long, narrow embankment in the sea near the
coast is called a sand bar.

Lagoon
1. A shallow lake is formed between the sand and the sea coast. It is called a lagoon.
Such a lake is called Kayal in Kerala.
 Climatic Diversity in the Indian Subcontinent
1. Due to the vastness of the country and a variety of relief features there are regional
variations in the climate of India.

2. The interior of the country, specially in the north, has a continental type of climate.

3. The coastal areas have a more equable climate. In mountainous areas, altitude
determines the climate. There is a great deal of variation in the amount of annual rainfall.

4. In June, the highest temperature in Rajasthan may go up to 55°C.

5. But, in Drass and Kargil the night temperature in January may go down to -45°C to -
50°C.

6. Mawsynram or Cherrapunji in Meghalaya has an annual rainfall of 2500 cm.

7. But, in the Thar Desert the annual rainfall is less than 13 cm.

8. Along the Malabar Coast (Kerala) the annual range of temperature is about 3°C.

9. But, it is 20°C in Hissar, Ambala and other parts of the interior.

 Rocks
1. The solid parts of the earth's crust are called rocks. Most of the rocks are made up of
two or more minerals.

2. In the same type of rocks, the proportions of minerals may be different in different
areas.

3. Rocks may not always necessarily be hard.

4. Minerals are obtained from rocks.

5. Rocks are classified in three main types depending on the process of their formation :
(a) Igneous, (b) Sedimentary, (c) Metamorphic.

Igneous rocks

1. Hot lava pours out at the time of volcanic eruptions and cools down later on, forming
rocks.

2. The molten materials known as magma, sometimes cool down beneath the earth's
crust, again forming rocks.

3. Both these types of rocks are known as Igneous rocks.

4. When the earth's surface first became solid after it cooled down from its hot liquid
state, the original rocks of the earth's crust were formed. They are the Primary Igneous
rocks, which are usually not found today.

5. Igneous rocks are generally harder and granular.

6. There are no layers in Igneous rocks.

7. Fossils are not found in Igneous rocks.

8. The formation of Igneous rocks takes place beneath and above the surface of the
earth.

9. Rocks formed by the cooling of molten matter beneath the earth's surface are called
intrusive igneous rocks. 'Granite' and 'Gabbro' are the main examples of these rocks.

10. The intrusive rocks are thus crystalline rocks.

11. Sometimes, the molten matter oozes out through cracks in the earth's crust and
spreads on the surface, forming extrusive igneous rocks.

12. Gabbro, Obsidian, Basalt etc. are examples of extrusive igneous rocks.

13. A very large area of the Deccan Plateau consists of basalt rocks.

14. These rocks contain silica from 40 to 80%, others are felspar, magnesium and iron
etc.

15. Other examples of Igneous rocks are-Granite, Pumic stone, Basalt and Gabbro.

Sedimentary rocks

1. They are formed by the deposition, sedimentation and lethification of sediments over
a long period of time.

2. As layers over layers get deposited, over a period of time, unified sedimentary rocks
are formed on account of the tremendous pressure exerted by the layers above.

3. Sometimes the remains of plants, dead animals etc. are found in the deposited
material. Such fossil containing sedimentary rocks are useful for studying life on earth.

4. Sandstone, limestone, shale are some examples of sedimentary rocks.

5. Limestone is white as well as black.

6. Sandstone is dull white, pink, bright red or sometimes black.

Metamorphic rocks

The nature of igneous and sedimentary rocks changes due to the effects of tremendous
heat or pressure, and new, transformed rocks, called metamorphic rocks, are formed.
Minerals in the rocks get restructured on account of heat and pressure. This brings about
a change in the original formation of the rocks.
 Land use Pattern of India
1. The total geographical area of India is 32.88 crore hectares.

2. Of this, data is available for only 92.5% land area. Though land is put to different uses,
but cultivation of land is its most important use.
 Continentes and Oceans
The Earth - Shape and Size

Shape of the Earth

Pythagoras (572-500 B.C.), a Greek philosopher and mathematician, was among the first
to suggest that the Earth was shaped like a globe.

The Earth is not flat

1. If the Earth were a flat disc, then the rising Sun would have been seen at all places at
the same time. But this does not happen. Places in the east see the rising Sun earlier.

2. When a ship approaches land, its funnel or mast is seen first and then the hull. If the
Earth had been flat, the whole ship would have been seen at the same time.

The Earth is a sphere

1. The Earth is rarely oriented in the same position during successive eclipses but it
always casts a circular shadow, thus proving that the Earth is a sphere. A sphere is the
only solid body that will always cast a circular shadow.

2. At the North Pole, the Pole Star can always be observed at 90 degrees in the sky,
since the star lies in the line with the axis of the Earth.

3. As one travels southwards, the angle of Pole Star decreases.

4. At the Equator the angle becomes zero degree.

5. This observation proves that the path of travel is an arc of a circle.

6. The Sun, Moon and all the heavenly bodies appear to be spherical when viewed from
different positions. It seems logical to conclude that the Earth is no exception.

7. The photographs of the Earth taken from the space prove beyond any doubt that the
Earth is a sphere.

The Earth as an Oblate Spheroid

1. Refined measurements of the Earth have proved that the true form of the Earth
resembles a sphere that has been compressed at the poles and made to bulge at the
Equator. This form is known as an oblate spheroid.
2. The various factors which make the earth suitable for

3. life to evolve and survive are

4. The earth has all the essential elements like carbon (in the form of C02), hydrogen
(H2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (02) which act as building blocks for the origin of life.

5. The earth is neither too hot nor too cold. It has the right temperature range for
carrying out the life-sustaining chemical reactions.

6. The earth has a lot of water in the form of lakes, rivers and oceans for the growth and
survival of life.

7. The earth has enough oxygen gas in its atmosphere for the survival of living beings
through breathing.

8. The earth has a protective blanket of ozone layer high up in its atmosphere to save
life from harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun.

Oceania

Australia with New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and the Pacific Islands
(Micronesian, Melanesian and Polynesian Islands) is called Australasia by some
geographers while some others call it "Oceania", which includes proximate islands
(Caribbean countries etc.).

Oceans on The Earth

There are four oceans. In order of their size, they are : Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean and Arctic Ocean.

Pacific Ocean

1. The explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who circumnavigated the Earth, named the ocean
"Pacific" meaning calm or peaceful.

2. The Pacific Ocean (Area : 166,240,000 sq. km.) is the largest ocean of the world.

3. It is the deepest ocean with an average depth of 4,200 m.

4. The Mariana Trench is the world's deepest trench with a depth of 11,033 metres
(36,201 feet).

5. Most of the islands of this ocean are of volcanic or coral origin.

Atlantic Ocean

1. The Atlantic Ocean (Area : 86,560,000 sq. km.) is the second largest ocean in the
world

2. Its name is derived from Atlas, a Titan (giant) in Greek mythology.

3. The Atlantic Ocean has the longest coastline.

4. The Atlantic Ocean is the busiest ocean for trade and commerce since its shipping
routes connect the two most industrialized regions, namely Western Europe and N.E.
United States of America.

5. The Atlantic Ocean was formed millions of years ago when a rift opened up in the
Gondwanaland and the continents of South America and Africa separated. The separation
continues even today and the Atlantic Ocean is still widening.

6. The continental islands of Newfoundland and British Isles are the major ones.

7. Volcanic islands are fewer and they include those of Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico.
Iceland is the largest island of volcanic origin.

Indian Ocean

1. The Indian Ocean (Area : 73,430,000 sq. km.) is the only ocean named after a
country.

2. The Indian Ocean is deeper than the Atlantic Ocean.

3. It contains numerous continental islands, Madagascar and Sri Lanka are being the
largest ones.

4. Some of the islands of volcanic origin are those of Mauritius, Andaman and Nicobar,
Seychelles, Maldives and Lakshadweep are of coral origin.

South Indian Ocean

1. Warm currents : 1. South Equatorial 2. Mozambique 3. Madagascar 4. Agulhas.

2. Cool Currents : 1. Antarctic drift 2. West Australian currents.

Arctic Ocean

1. The Arctic Ocean (Area : 13,230,000 sq. km.) is the smallest of all the oceans.
2. It lies within the Arctic Circle, hence the name Arctic Ocean.

3. The North Pole lies in the middle of the Arctic Ocean.

4. Most of the parts of Arctic Ocean remains frozen with thick ice for most of the days
every year.

5. It is the shallowest of all oceans, with an average depth of 1,500 m.

6. It has the least salinity of all the oceans. It has a salinity of 20 unit per thousand.

Ocean Currents

1. The flow of a large amount of water in a definite direction with a great intensity is
known as Ocean Current.

2. Ocean Currents are of two types-Hot and Cold.

Hot Currents

1. The currents flowing from tropical zones of lower latitudes to higher temperate and
sub polar zones are known as hot water currents.

Cold Currents

1. The currents flowing from higher latitudes to lower latitudes are known as cold water
currents.

2. The only exception to the conduction of ocean currents is found in the Indian Ocean.
The flow of currents changes here with a change in the direction of the Monsoon Winds.
The hot currents flow towards cooler oceans and the cold currents flow towards the
warmer oceans.
 Geography of the Indian Subcontinent
(Pakistan and Bangladesh)
Introduction : India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Sri Lanka,
collectively constitute the Indian subcontinent.

These six countries are India's closest and nearest neighbours and share a common
heritage of history and geography.

Pakistan
Location : Pakistan is our western neighbour.
It is bordered by Iran in the west, India in the east the Arabian Sea in the south and
Afganistan in the North.

Latitude : Pakistan lies between 24°N and 37°N latitudes.

Longitude : It lies between longitudes 61°E and 75°E.

Area and composition : Pakistan has an area of about 3,12,685 sq. km. It comprises of
West Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, N.W.F.P. and a few tribal areas.

Physical Divisions of Pakistan : Pakistan may be divided into following four physical
divisions :

The Northern and Western Highlands : The Hindukush mountains which extend from
the Pamir Knot form a mountain wall in the north of Pakistan. Tirich Mir (7690 m) is the
highest peak of the Hindukush.

1. The famous Khyber pass lies in this region.

2. Other important mountain ranges are Sulaiman range and Kirthar range.

3. These ranges spread in north-south direction.

The Baluchistan Plateau : Situated in the south-west of Pakistan.

4. It is a dry and rocky plateau with little vegetation.

The Indus Plain : Without the Indus, Pakistan would have been a complete desert.
It is a 2700 km long fertile plain in the eastern Pakistan made by rich alluvial soil brought
down by Indus and its five tributaries.
The Thar Desert : It is located in south-eastern part of Pakistan and continues into India.

Climate of Pakistan : The climate of Pakistan is one of the extremes.

5. It is very hot in summer and very cold in winter.

6. It gets little rainfall in summer.

7. The average rainfall in Pakistan is less than 25 cm in a year.

8. There is some rainfall in winter brought by the Western disturbances coming from
the Mediterranean Sea.

Natural Vegetation

1. In plateaus, plains and desert mostly bushes, shrubs and coarse grasses are found.

2. In mountainous area in the north and west temperate deciduous trees, coniferous
trees and alpine vegetation is found.

Language-Urdu, Currency-Rupee, Religion-Islam.

Economic Development

1. Agriculture : Rainfall in this agricultural country is very low and unreliable.

2. Rivers and a developed network of canals make irrigation possible. Pakistan is

known as the 'Land of Canals'. Mangla Dam and Tarbila Dam in Pakistan are very
famous.

3. Wheat, millets, cotton, rice, sugarcane and oil seeds are cultivated.
Animal Rearing : People of Pakistan rear milch cattle.

4. Drought animals are also reared. Sheep and goats are reared in dry Baluchistan
Plateau and the mountainous areas.
Mining : Mineral position of Pakistan is not satisfactory.

5. It has some deposits of petroleum, coal, iron and copper.

6. The gas fields of Sui is important.

7. Salt deposits near Khewra are well known.

Industrial Development : Industrial Pakistan is now well developed. Cotton textile,
woolen textile, chemicals, cement, sugar, paper, etc. are important industries of Pakistan.
Carpets, embroidered goods, pottery and handicrafts are also manufactured here.
Population : Pakistan has a population of 153,960,000 (2005) excluding 4 million
residents of Pakistan ruled Jammu and Kashmir and 01 million Afghan refugees.

8. The density of population is 170 persons per sq. km.

9. 90% people are Muslims, who follow Islam. Urdu is the state language.
Bangladesh

Bangladesh is our eastern neighbouring country.

Location : It is bordered on the north, west and east by India and on the south by the Bay
of Bengal.

Latitude : Bangladesh lies between latitudes 21°N and 26°30'N. The Tropic of Cancer
passes through the middle of it.

Longitude : It lies between longitudes 88°E and 92°30'E.

Physical Division of Bangladesh : Nearly whole of Bangladesh lies in the largest delta
of the world.

1. It is a vast flat alluvial plain. It is a land of big rivers, lakes, swamps and marshes.

2. A large part of Bangladesh is flooded every year during rainy season.

3. It has an area of 1,47,570 sq. km.

4. The Jamuna (Brahmaputra), Padma (Ganga) and Meghna are the important rivers.

5. A small hilly area in the south-east forms the Chittagong Hill tract.

Climate

1. It has hot and humid climate.

2. Rainfall varies from 250 to 40 cm. It has distinct dry and rainy season.

3. In early summer, Bangladesh experiences cyclone storms.

Natural Vegetation

1. In the fringes of delta Mangrove forests are found.

2. Sundari and bamboo trees are found in these Sunderbans.

Agriculture

1. Because of fertile alluvial soil and abundant water supply, rice is the main crop of
Bangladesh as it covers 85% of the cultivated area.

2. Jute the main cash crop.

3. Tea plantations are found in some areas in the north.

4. Sugarcane, cotton and tobacco are also grown.

Animal Rearing

1. Most of the animals reared in Bangladesh work as beasts of burden.

2. Bangladesh has become a leading supplier of animal hides and skins.

Fishing

1. Large number of rivers and nearness to the sea make fishing an important activity in
Bangladesh.
Language—Bangla, Currency—Taka, Religion—Islam

Minerals

1. Bangladesh is not rich in mineral resources.

2. Coal, natural gas and oil are mined in a small quantity.

Industries

1. The important industries of Bangladesh include jute and cotton textiles, cement,
fertilizers, sugar, paper, glass etc.
Population, Language and Religion

1. The population of Bangladesh is about 137,636,000 (2005).

2. The density of population here is 763 persons per sq. km.

3. Bengali is the official language of Bangladesh.

4. Most of the people follow Islam.

5. Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Narayanganj are some of the important cities of
Bangladesh.
 Indian Soil

Types of Soil

● India is an Agrarian country & Soil is its prime resource. It plays a vital role in
the economy of India as our industries are mainly Agro-based.
● About 65 to 70% of the total population of the country is depended on
agriculture.

Generally, there are six types of soil found in India

● Alluvial Soil
● Regur or Black Soil
● Red Soil
● Laterite Soil
● Desert Soil
● Mountain Soil

1. Alluvial Soil

● Deposition of materials by sea and river is called alluvium and the soil formed
due to deposition of alluvium is called as alluvial soil.
● This type of soil mainly found in the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plain i.e.
the whole northern plain and in some parts of the river basin in the south and
some plateau region.
● This soil is also found in the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Cauvery and
Krishna.
● Alluvial soil can be broadly categorised in two types i.e. New alluvial soil and
old alluvial soil.
 ● Old alluvial soils are found in slightly elevated areas far away from the river
and are clayey and sticky.
● The new alluvial soil is found in the floodplain of the river and is much fertile in
comparison to the old alluvial soil.
● Crops Grown: Alluvial soil is suitable for the rabi and Kharif crop like cereals,
cotton, oilseeds and sugarcane.

2. Regur or Black soil

● The regur or black soils have developed extensively upon the Lava Plateaus
of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh mainly Malwa and are formed due
to volcanic activities.
● These soils are very fertile and contain a high percentage of lime and a
moderate amount of potash.
● The type of soil is especially suited for the cultivation of cotton and hence
sometimes called ‘black cotton soil.’
Crops Grown: Cotton, Jowar, Wheat, Linseed, Gram, Fruit and Vegetable.

3. Red Soil

● Red soils develop on granite and geneses rocks under low rainfall condition
i.e. due to weathering of the metamorphic rocks.
● These soils are red in colour due to the high concentration of Iron Oxide.
● These soils are friable and medium fertile and found mainly in almost whole
of Tamil Nadu, South-eastern Karnataka, North-eastern and South-eastern
Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand the major parts of Orissa, and the Hills and
Plateaus of North-east India.
● These soils are deficient in Phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous
material.
● Crops Grown: Wheat, Rice, Millet's, Pulses.

4. Laterite Soil
 ● Laterite is a kind of clayey rock or soil formed under high temperature and
high rainfall and with an alternate dry and wet period.
● Laterite and lateritic soils are found in South Maharashtra, the Western Ghats
in Kerala and Karnataka, at places in Odisha, small parts of Chottanagpur
and in some parts of Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and in western West
Bengal (particularly in Birbhum district).
● Crops Grown:
● This type of soil is unsuitable for agriculture due to the high content of acidity
and inability to retain moisture.

5. Desert soil

This type of soils found in Rajasthan, Haryana and the South Punjab, and are sandy.

● In the absence of sufficient wash by rainwater, soils have become saline and
rather unfit for cultivation.
● In spite of that cultivation can be carried on with the help of modern irrigation.
● Wheat, bajra, groundnut, etc. can be grown in this soil.
● This type of soil is rich in Phosphates and Calcium but deficient in Nitrogen
and humus.

6. Mountain Soil

● Soil found in higher altitude on the mountain is called Mountain soil.

● The characteristics of this type of soil are changed according to the altitudes.
● This type of soil is suitable for the cultivation of potatoes, fruits, tea coffee and
spices and wheat.
 Agriculture In India
1. About 65-70% of the total population of the country is dependent on agriculture.

2. Role of agriculture is paramount in the economy of India.

3. About two-third of our population derives its livelihood from agriculture.

4. It provides food to the second biggest population and the biggest population of cattle
in the world.

5. Our agro-based industries are fully dependent on raw material provided by

agriculture.

6. Agriculture with its allied activities accounts for 45% of our national income.

Types of Agriculture in India

Subsistence Farming

1. In this type of agriculture, farmers work hard to grow enough food to survive only.

2. In this type of farming the produce is consumed mainly by farmer and his family.

3. There remains no surplus to sell in the market.

Mixed Farming

1. The combination of agriculture and pastoral farming is called mixed farming.

2. In this type of farming, cultivation of crops and rearing of animals are done together
on the same farm.

Shifting Cultivation

1. This is a primitive form of agriculture, in which a plot of land is cultivated for a few
years and then is deserted.

2. This slash and burn method of farming is carried on in jungles of northeastern part of
India.

3. A plot of land is cleared for cultivation. As the yield decreases after two or three
years, the plot is abandoned and a fresh clearing is made.
Extensive Farming

1. This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses a limited amount of labour
and capital on relatively large area.

2. This type of agriculture is practised in countries where population size is small and
land is enough.

3. Here, per acre yield is low but overall production is in surplus due to less population.

4. Agriculture is done with the help of machines.

Intensive Farming

1. This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses large amount of labour and
capital on a relatively small area.

2. In countries where the size of population is big but land is less, this type of farming
is done.

3. Annually two or three crops are grown due to the demand of food for the large size
of population.

4. Agriculture is done with the help of manual labour.

Plantation Agriculture

1. In this type of agriculture, trees or bushes are planted on huge estates.

2. A single crop like rubber, sugarcane, coffee, tea or banana is grown.

3. These crops are major items of export.

Problems of Indian Agriculture

1. The low productivity of our agriculture is mainly due to the difficulties faced by our
peasants.

2. Indian agriculture is chiefly of subsistence type where a large manual labour is

employed to work on farms to grow just enough food for the needs of the family and very
little is left for marketing.

3. A major part of the Indian soil has been impoverished because it has been under
plough for the last 4000 or 5000 years.
4. Deforestation, overgrazing and heavy rainfall have led to soil erosion.

5. Divisions of land have led to fragmentation.

6. The size of land holding is very small and uneconomic.

7. The farmers are poor, illiterate and ignorant.

8. They use primitive tools and out-dated method.

9. They lack financial credit and investment.

10. Good seeds, fertilizers and improved technology are not available to them.

11. They lack irrigation facilities and are still on the mercy of nature.

12. Most of the farmers have no security against crop failure or loss caused by nature.

13. Generally farmers are uneducated and have no scientific approaches.

Different Crop Seasons in India

1. There are three crop seasons in India :

(i) Rabi (ii) Kharif and (iii) Zayad.

Rabi

1. This season starts after the rainy season.

2. Sowing begins in September-October and harvesting takes place in February-March.

3. Rabi season is cooler and drier than the Kharif season.

4. Wheat, barley, pulses and some oil seeds are grown in the Rabi season.

Kharif

1. The Kharif season begins with the onset of the monsoons in June-July.

2. The crop grows in the rainy season and harvesting takes place after the retreat of
monsoon in September-October. Rice, maize, millets, groundnuts, cotton and jute are
grown in the Kharif season.

Zayad
1. This is the summer season for growing crops which remain till April, May and June.

2. Products are mainly vegetables and fruits.

Green Revolution

1. The increase in agriculture productivity of cereals that has taken place since the
1960s mainly as a result of introduction of high yielding varieties of wheat and rice and
use of fertilizers, machines and irrigation etc., is known as green revolution.

2. Green revolution has made us self-sufficient in food production.

3. This has not only saved our much precious foreign exchange but has also made us
self-reliant.

4. But green revolution has proved more beneficial to rich farmers only, because it
involves a lot of investment.
 Water Resources and Their Utilization in India
1. Water resources of India can be divided into two parts : (i) Surface Water Resources
and (ii) Underground Water Resources.

Surface Water Resources

1. According to the estimate, India receives an average of 109 cm of rainfall annually.

2. This rainfall amounts to 37,000 million cubic metre. Out of this, 12,500 million cubic
metres evaporates and another 7,900 million cubic metres is absorbed by land. Only
16,600 million cubic metres water is available in our rivers.

3. Out of this, only 6,600 million cubic metres of water can be used for irrigation.

Underground Water Resources

1. Out of total rainfall, only 7900 million cubic metres of water percolates
inside/beneath the earth.

2. Out of this, only 4300 million cubic metres of water is able to reach the upper layer
of the soil.

3. This water is more important for agricultural production.

4. Rest 3600 million cubic metres reaches the impervious rocks which can be used by
digging wells or tubewells. Out of this only 2250 million cubic metres of water is
economically viable.

Power Resources of India

1. India uses a large amount of fossil fuels as a source of energy alongwith a number of
renewable sources of energy, viz., hydroelectric power, thermal power, petroleum,
nuclear or atomic power, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, bio-gas etc.
 Multipurpose River Valley Projects
Important dams in India:

Dam

● The dam is a barrier constructed to store water, the resulting reservoir being
used in the generation of electricity and Irrigation etc.
● Dams are classified according to structure, intended purpose etc.
(a) By Structure- Arch dam, Gravity dam, Embankment dams etc.
(b) By Purpose- Irrigation purpose, Power generation, Multipurpose etc.

Damodar Valley Corporation

● Government organization which operates several power stations in the

Damodar River
● States- Jharkhand, West Bengal
● Four Dams are constructed under this which are-
(1) Panchet dam (Jharkhand) on Damodar river
(2) Maithon dam (Jharkhand) on Barakar river
(3) Tilaiya dam (Jharkhand) on Barakar river
(4) Konar dam (Jharkhand) on Konar river

Some Facts about dams

● The tallest dam in the world- Jinping-I Dam (China)

● Longest dam in the world- Three Gorges Dam (China)
● Longest dam in India- Hirakund dam (Orissa)
● The highest dam in India- Tehri dam (Uttarakhand)
● Highest straight gravity Dam in India- Bhakra dam
● First dam of India-Kallanai Dam (Grand Anicut) on river Kaveri (Tiruchirapalli,
Tamilnadu)

Important Dams in India

State Dam River

Andhra Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna

Pradesh Dam

Srisailam Dam Krishna

Polavaram Project Godavari

Somasila Dam Penna

Arunachal Ranganadi Dam Ranganadi River, a tributary of

Pradesh the Brahmaputra River

Bihar Nagi Dam Nagi

Kohira Dam Kohira

Chhattisgarh Minimata (Hasdeo) Hasdeo

Bango Dam

Dudhawa Dam Mahanadi

Gujarat Ukai Dam Tapti

Kadana Dam Mahi

Sardar Sarovar Dam Narmada

 Karjan Dam Karjan

Mitti Dam Mitti

Aji Dam Aji

Sipu Dam Sipu

Himachal Pong Dam Beas

Pradesh

Bhakra Dam Satluj

Kol Dam Satluj

Chamera Dam Ravi

Nathpa Jhakri (Sjvnl) Satluj

Dam

Jammu and Baglihar Dam Chenab

Kashmir

Salal Dam Chenab

Uri Dam Jhelum

Pakal Dul Dam Marusudar

 Nimoo Bazgo Dam Indus

Kishenganga Dam KISHANGANGA

Jharkhand Panchet Dam Damodar

Maithon Dam Barakar

Tenughat Dam Damodar

Konar Dam Konar

North Koel North Koel

Karnataka Krishnarajasagar Cauvery

Dam

Basava Sagar Dam Krishna

(Narayanpur Dam)

Hemavathy Dam Hemavathy

Kabini Dam Kabini

Tungabhadra Dam Tungabhadra

Hidkal Dam Ghataprabha

Almatti Dam Krishna

 Bhadra Dam Bhadra

Supa dam Kalinadi

Lakhya Dam Lakhya hole

Kerala Cheruthoni Dam Cheruthoni

Kakki Dam Kakki

Mullaperiyar Dam Periyar

Idukki Dam Periyar

Kulamavu Dam Kilivillithode

Madhya Ban Sagar Dam Son

Pradesh

Gandhi Sagar Dam Chambal

Indira Sagar Dam Narmada

Omkareshwar Dam Narmada

Tawa Dam Tawa

Maharashtra Bhatsa Dam Bhatsa and chorna

 Koyna Dam Koyna

Warna Dam Varna

Ujjani Dam Bhima

Aruna Dam Aruna

Upper Wardha Dam Wardha

Odisha Hirakud Dam Mahanadi

Indravati Dam Indravati

Kapur Dam Kapur

Podagada Dam Podagada

Rengali Dam Brahmani

Upper Kolab Dam Kapur

Haladia Dam Haladia

Lower Indra Dam Indra

Punjab Ranjit Sagar Dam Ravi

Rajasthan Bisalpur Dam Banas

Jawahar Sagar Dam Chambal

Mahi Bajaj Sagar Mahi

Dam

Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal

Dam

Jaswant Sagar Dam Luni

Jakham Main Dam Jakham (Mahi)

Sikkim Rangit III Dam Ranjit

Tamilnadu Bhavani Dam Bhavani

Mettur Dam Kaveri

Sholaiyar Dam Sholaiyar

Pillur Dam Bhavani

Telangana Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna (Some Part of Dam

Dam also in Telangana)
 Srisailam Dam Krishna (Some Part of Dam
also in Telangana)

Nizam Sagar Dam Manjira

Musi Dam Musi

Singur Dam Manjira

Sri Rama Sagar Godavari

(Pochampadu
Project)

Uttarakhand Jamrani Dam Gola

Lakhwar Dam Yamuna

Koteshwar Bhagirathi

Ramganga Dam Ramganga

Tehri Dam Bhagirathi

Uttar Pradesh Rihand Dam Rihand

West Bengal Kangsabati Kumari Kasai

Dam
 Countries and Their Main Produces -
Industries
S. No Countries Produces / Industries

1. Afghanistan Dry and fresh fruits, carpets, wool

2. Australia Wood, dairy products, wheat, meat, lead, zinc
3. Austria Machinery, textiles, leather goods
4. Brazil Coffee
5. Belgium Glass, textiles
6. Chile Copper Nitrate
7. Canada Wheat, newsprint, machinery
8. China Silk, tea, rice
9. Congo Copper, uranium, cobalt, ivory
10. Cuba Sugar, tobacco, cigar
11. Denmark Textiles, paper
12. France Textile, wine, silk
13. Germany Machinery, chemical, iron and steel equipments
14. Ghana Coco, gold, coffee
15. India Jute, textiles, sugar, spices, tobacco, tea, cement, mica

16. Indonesia Sugar, spices, rubber, rice, cinchona, petroleum

17. Iran Petroleum, carpets, dry fruits
18. Iraq Dates, petroleum
19. Italy Mercury, textiles
20. Japan Machinery, textiles, toys, silk, automobiles
21. Kenya Coffee, tea, meat, sisal, hides and skins, cement, soda

22. Kuwait Petroleum

23. Malaysia Rubber, tin
24. Netherlands Machinery, aircraft, electricals
25. Saudi Arabia Oil, date
26. Spain Lead
27. Sweden Matches, timber
28. Switzerland Watches, chemicals, electricals
29 . Taiwan Camphor, rice
30. UK Textiles, medicines, machinery, cars
31. USA Petroleum, wheat, machinery, coal, automobiles, iron

32. Russia Petroleum, wheat, chemicals, heavy machinery

33. Vietnam Tin, rice, rubber, teak
 Transport In India
The present transport system of the country comprises several modes of transport
including rail, road, coastal shipping, air transport etc.

Road Transport

1. The share of road in total traffic has been growing from 13.8% of freight traffic and
15.4% of passenger traffic in 1950-51 to an estimated 61% of freight traffic and 85% of
passenger traffic by the end of 2003-04.

2. The Tenth Plan (2002-07) outlay for the Central Sector Roads Programme Rs.
59,700 crore.

3. Indian road network of 41 lakh km. is the one of the largest in the world and consists
of—

National Highways

1. They are constructed and maintained by the central government.

2. The National Highways has 71,772 km. length comprising only 2% of the total
length of roads, carries about 40% of the total traffic of India.

3. The central government has taken up in a phased manner during 2005-2012 an

expanded programme of 4/6 lanning of 12,109 kms. of National Highways (NH) under
the National Highways Development Programme (NHDP) On Build, Operate and
Transfer (BOT) basis y>- A 'Special Accelerated Road Development Programme for
North-East (SARDPNE)' has been taken up. The two phased (Phase-A and Phase-B)
programme includes improving 6418 km of roads (including 2319 km. of roads under
Arunachal Package). The Phase-A is likely to be completed during 2010-17. Phase-B
involves two-laning of 3723 km. of roads.

Some Important National Highways

1. According to the 2001 census, there are 219 National Highways in the country. Some
of them are :

2. The longest National highway in India is NH-7; which has a length of 128 kms in
Uttar Pradesh, 504 kms in Madhya Pradesh, 232 kms in Maharashtra, 753 kms in Andhra
Pradesh, 125 kms in Karnataka, 627 kms in Tamil Nadu i.e. total 2369 kms.

State Highways
They are constructed and maintained by the state government. The length of roads in
some states is :

1. Maharashtra has the maximum length of roads.

2. Maharashtra also has the maximum length of metalled roads.

3. Odisha/Orissa has the maximum length of unpaved roads.

4. West Bengal has the maximum road density.

5. Roads on the borders are constructed and maintained by the Border Roads
Organisation (BRO).

6. BRO was established in May 1960.

7. BRO is a premier construction agency roads airfields, bridges, buildings, hospitals

and schools.

8. The BRO, through 'Project Dantak' is constructing and maintaining a large road
infrastructure and executing other prestigious projects in Bhutan.

9. The BRO is doing highly commendable jobs of cosntruction and mait-enance in

Myanmar and Afghanistan too.

Rail Transport

1. The Indian Railways have been a great integrating force for more than 160 years.

2. From a very modest beginning in 1853, Indian Railway s have grown into a vast
network of 7,031 stations spread over a route-length of 63,221 km. with a fleet of 7,817
locomotives, 5,321 passenger service vehicles 4,904 other coaching vehicles and
2,28,170 wagons as on 31 March, 2004.

3. Indian Railway network is the largest in Asia and second largest in the World.

4. The first rail in India started in 1853 between Mumbai and Thane (34 kms).

5. Indian Railway Board was established in March 1905.

6. Indian Railway was nationalised in 1950.

7. There are three types of rail lines in India :

(i) Broad Gauge

(ii) Meter Gauge and

(iii) Narrow Gauge.

8. The network runs multigauge operations extending over 63,974 route kilometres.

9. The management and governance of the Indian railways is in the hands of the
Railway Board.

10. Railways have been divided into 17 zones.

11. Recently a new zone Kolkata Metro Zone (17th zone) has been established on 29
December, 2010.

Divisional Organization of the Zonal Railways

Air Transport

1. Airways in India started in 1911.

2. Indian National Airways Company was started in 1933.

3. All the airway companies were nationalised in 1953 and were put under two
corporations namely — Indian Airlines and Air India.

4. Indian Airlines provides its services to the internal parts of India along with
neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar and Maldives.

5. Air India provides its services to the foreign locations.

6. Vayudoot was established in 1981 for domestic services, but was later merged in
Indian Airlines.

Merger of Air India and Indian Airlines

Indian Airlines operates to 54 domestic stations alongwith its subsidiary Airlines

'Alliance Air'. Besides it also operates to 18 international stations.

The Indian Airlines has a fleet of 75 aircraft. 41 aircraft were expected to be added in its
fleet by April 2010.
On the 1st March, 2007 the Union Cabinet approved the proposal to merge Indian
Airlines and Air India.

Accordingly, a new company, viz. National Aviation Company of India Limited (NACL)
has been incorporated on 30th March, 2007 with its Headquarters at Mumbai.

The brand name of the new airlines will be Air India (or Indian) and its logo will be
Maharaja.

Water Transport

1. The Central Water Tribunal was established in 1887.

2. Its headquarter is in Kolkata.

3. The waterways of the country have been divided into Internal waterways and
Oceanic waterways.

Internal Waterway

1. This transport is through rivers, canals and lakes.

2. India has got about 14,544 km. of navigable waterways which comprise rivers,
canals, backwaters, creeks etc.

3. About 44 million tonnes of Cargo is being moved annually by Inland Water

Transport (IWT).

4. The waterway from Haldia to Allahabad was made a National Water way in 1986.

5. The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) came into existence on 27 October,
1986 for development and regulation of inland waterways in the country.

Oceanic Waterway

1. The peninsular bank is very important for this purpose.

2. There are 13 large and 200 small ports on the major bank of 5600 kms.

3. Large ports are maintained by the central government whereas small ports are
included in the concurrent list and are managed by the state government.

4. At the beginning of the Tenth Plan, the capacity of major ports was about 344 MT. It
is proposed to be increased to 470 MT by the end of the Tenth Plan.
5. Largest port of India is Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai.

6. The largest natural port is in Vishakhapatnam.

7. Kandla in Gujarat is a tidal port. It has been made into a free trade zone.