I.

Introduction
Politics (from Greek: Πολιτικά, politiká, 'affairs of the cities') is the set of activities that are
associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among
individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that

studies politics and government

is referred to as political science.

An Iraqi woman voting in a parliamentary election in Iraq; Nene Teye Kwesi Agyeman, a
Shai Chief of Ghana; inauguration of Park Geun-hye as President of South Korea; Hemicycle of
the European Parliament in Strasbourg; Coronation of King Rama X of Thailand, protesters
demonstrating in Chile, a woman voting in the 2012 Russian presidential election
It may be used positively in the context of a "political solution" which is compromising and
nonviolent,[1] or descriptively as "the art or science of government", but also often carries a
negative connotation.[2] The concept has been defined in various ways, and different
approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or
limitedly, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.
A variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views
among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising internal and
external force, including warfare against adversaries.[3][4][5][6][7] Politics is exercised on a wide
range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local
governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level.
In modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a
party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same
changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different
parties.
A political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society.
The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as
Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's
Arthashastra.[

2• Importance of Voting and Civic Engagement

These are the reasons of the importance of voting
1. Voting protects democracy
2. Voting shapes social agendas
3. Every vote matters
4. Voting shapes economy
5. Voting impacts the present and future
According to research on the importance of political participation and civic engagement in youth
development, a variety of civic engagement activities can help young people effectively learn
about their rights, obligations, and responsibilities as citizens, laying the groundwork for their
transition to adulthood. When all people—individually and collectively—get involved and take
action, our communities and our democracy become more just and equitable.
• Politics and the Environment
The importance of politics is not only limited to society, but it also expands to other aspects like
the environment. Climate change will lead to an increase in political violence, social unrest, and
geopolitical dangers. Rising water stress and food insecurity will amplify mass migration and
conflicts. Climate change is anticipated to have the greatest impact on country risks in low-
income countries, which means that all nations will be struck hard but unevenly.
 Role of Government Policies
The government is frequently credited with playing a crucial role in preserving the environment,
for example, by enacting laws that directly safeguard the environment or addressing issues
related to collective action in the environment (Mansbridge Citation 2014).
 Examples of Environmental Policies
The six laws of environmental protection and wildlife are:
1. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
2. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
3. The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
4. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974
5. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
6. The Indian Forest Act, 1927.
 What Factors Are Crucial for a Sustainable Future?
The significance of sustainable development is as follows:
 1. Making wise use of the resources at hand while attempting to preserve the ecological
balance.
2. To stop the degradation of the environment an

3• Political Ideologies
A political ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions, exhibiting a recurring pattern,
that competes deliberately as well as unintentionally over providing plans of action for public
policy making in an attempt to justify, explain, contest, or change the social and political
arrangements and processes of a political community. The concept of ideology is subject to
partly incompatible conceptual interpretations. The Marxist tradition views it pejoratively as
distorted consciousness, reflecting an exploitative material reality, that can be overcome through
unmasking; or, more recently, as a fictitious narrative necessary to maintaining the social order.
Non-Marxist approaches split into three perspectives. The first sees ideology as abstract, closed
and doctrinaire, largely impervious to empirical evidence and superimposed on a society. The
second sees ideology as a series of empirically ascertainable attitudes towards political issues
that can be explored by means of behavioral methods. The third views ideologies as
indispensable mapping devices of cultural symbols and political concepts that constitute a crucial
resource for understanding and shaping sociopolitical life. They compete over the ‘correct’ and
legitimate meanings of political words and ideas, and by means of that control, over the high
ground of politics.

4• what is the Major political ideologies (e.g., liberalism, conservatism,

socialism, fascism)
Political ideology is a term fraught with problems, having been called "the most elusive concept
in the whole of social science".[2] While ideologies tend to identify themselves by their position
on the political spectrum (such as the left, the centre or the right), they can be distinguished from
political strategies (e.g. populism as it is commonly defined) and from single issues around which
a party may be built (e.g. civil libertarianism and support or opposition to European integration),
although either of these may or may not be central to a particular ideology. Several studies show
that political ideology is heritable within families.[3][4][5][6][7]
The following list is strictly alphabetical and attempts to divide the ideologies found in practical
political life into several groups, with each group containing ideologies that are related to each
other. The headers refer to the names of the best-known ideologies in each group. The names of
the headers do not necessarily imply some hierarchical order or that one ideology evolved out of
the other. Instead, they are merely noting that the ideologies in question are practically,
historically, and ideologically related to each other. As such, one ideology can belong to several
groups and there is sometimes considerable overlap between related ideologies. The meaning of
a political label can also differ between countries and political parties often subscribe to a
combination of ideologies.
 Anarchism
 Authoritarianism
 Communitarianism
 Communism
 Conservatism
 Corporatism
 Democracy
 Environmentalism
 Fascism and Nazism
 Identity politics
 Liberalism
 Libertarianism
 Nationalism
 Populism
 Progressivism
 Religio-political ideologies
 Satirical and anti-politics
 Social democracy
 Socialism
 Syndicalism
 Transhumanism

5• Politics and Technology

Politics and technology are two critical parts of our civilization that influence the world in which
we live. It is concerned with how people make decisions and manage society, whereas
technology is concerned with how we utilize tools and technologies to solve issues and enhance
our lives.
In today’s digital age, technology has a tremendous impact on politics and how governments
function. From the use of social media to influence elections to the use of data analytics in
policymaking, technology has altered the political scene in several ways. Understanding the link
between the importance of politics and technology is critical for young pupils navigating the
intricacies of modern life and becoming educated citizens.
 Technology’s Effects on Society and the Economy
Costs can be lowered, procedures can be made more efficient, and so on. E-commerce,
marketing strategies, the promotion of globalization, employment instability, and work design are
the key effects of information technology on the economy.
The use of technology affects how individuals communicate, acquire knowledge, and think. It
influences how people regularly interact with one another and helps society. Nowadays,
technology is crucial to society.
 How Would You Define Net Neutrality?
According to the concept of “net neutrality,” all websites, applications, and material must be
accessible at the same speed and on the same terms, without any content being blocked or an
internet service provider’s (ISP) priority.
What Are the Data Privacy Act’s Three Guiding Principles?
Transparency, justification, and proportionality principles. Subject to conformity to the principles
of transparency, legitimate purpose, and proportionality, the processing of personal data shall be
allowed.
 What Are the Cycles of Innovation and Technology Important For?
Organizations have benefited much from the cycles of innovation and technology because they
were able to adapt to the changes. Innovation is the addition of new features to already existing
items and procedures. An organization can therefore achieve productivity as a result.
• Politics and Media
The goal of political journalism is to arm people with the knowledge they need to make their own
opinions and get involved in issues that will have an impact on them locally, nationally, or both.

6• Importance of Politics and Why Is It Important (7 Reasons)

Politics is a vital part of our everyday lives since it has the capacity to affect everything in our
surroundings. Politics, of course, may mean various things to different individuals. If you’re like
most people, you might think that politics is only about who governs the country or who gets
elected president.
Yet, politics is more than what happens in your country/state or at campaign rallies; it is also
about how power and influence are used to shape our communities and how we interact with one
another on a daily basis. Understanding politics is essential for understanding how to govern
societies, produce laws, and form policies. According to a study by the Pew Research Center,
politics is important in various aspects of society, economy, and governance.
In this blog, we will define politics and discuss why we as humans need to understand how it
works in order to build a better world for ourselves and future generations.
 What is Politics?
Politics is derived from the Greek term polis, which means “city-state” or “community.” The city-
states were self-contained political entities with their own set of laws and traditions. Politics is the
study of governance and the use of political power. It is also the process of making decisions,
both influencing and making them. Politics is a method of deciding how power is distributed in
society.
Politicians utilize their thoughts about society’s needs to be elected so that they may make laws
that help address those needs better than anybody else could without first getting elected. That
being said, we need politicians because sometimes laws are insufficient—and sometimes they
are excessive—but the duty of politicians is more than just legislating. One of the most significant
areas of our existence is politics. It may influence every decision we make and has a significant
impact.
 Politics and Society
Politics is the study, practice, and theory of influencing others on a large scale. It is also the study
or application of how power and resources are distributed within a particular community as well
as how communities interact with one another.

7• How Does Politics Affect Society?

Politics has an impact on our daily lives because governments adopt laws that affect our
earnings, taxes, and access to health care, among other social and economic issues. It has a
long history in education, particularly in higher education, where young people participate by
lending them political backing. Politics is a practice that extends beyond political parties and is
found in all facets of work and life, particularly in education. Politics is the study of advancing the
development of a state-organized system of civil society.
 Public Policy
Public policymakers create solutions to problems that communities face through legislation,
advocacy, and education. Municipalities—a city, county, or town whose government policies are
carried out by local officials—both elected and staff—are the basic unit of community legal
systems in the United States. The State designates local governmental authorities, and public
policies are created to benefit community members. Typically, local governments are in charge of
providing services to the community, like:
1. Public recreation and parks
2. Fire and police protection
3. Housing
4. Medical and judicial systems
5. Public works and education in transportation
Types of Public Policy
There are four types of public policy:
1. Regulatory
2. Constituent
 3. Distributive
4. Redistributive
: Regulatory Public Policy Example
The 1994 Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) is a law that affects public policy. It
demonstrates that protecting women is a top priority.
: Constituent Public Policy Example
An illustration of essential public policy is the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) of 1946. This
statute defined the processes that federal regulatory agencies must follow when creating,
recommending, and enforcing new regulations.
: Distributive Public Policy Example
To build and maintain roads and bridges, the U.S. government gives money to the Department of
Transportation (DOT), which then distributes it to the states; this is an example of distributive
public policy. This spending will be advantageous to everyone.
: Redistributive Public Policy Example
Examples of redistributive public policy include initiatives created to help poor people or families
with financial support. Examples include the Supplemental Nutritional Aid Program (SNAP),
Medicaid, and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF).

8• Elections
election, the formal process of selecting a person for public office or of accepting or rejecting a
political proposition by voting. It is important to distinguish between the form and the substance
of elections. In some cases, electoral forms are present but the substance of an election is
missing, as when voters do not have a free and genuine choice between at least two alternatives.
Most countries hold elections in at least the formal sense, but in many of them the elections are
not competitive (e.g., all but one party may be forbidden to contest) or the electoral situation is in
other respects highly compromised.

2008 Canadian federal election

 History of elections
Although elections were used in ancient Athens, in Rome, and in the selection of popes and Holy
Roman emperors, the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the gradual emergence
of representative government in Europe and North America beginning in the 17th century. At that
time, the holistic notion of representation characteristic of the Middle Ages was transformed into
a more individualistic conception, one that made the individual the critical unit to be counted. For
example, the British Parliament was no longer seen as representing estates, corporations, and
vested interests but was rather perceived as standing for actual human beings. The movement
abolishing the so-called “rotten boroughs”—electoral districts of small population controlled by a
single person or family—that culminated in the Reform Act of 1832 (one of three major Reform
Bills in the 19th century in Britain that expanded the size of the electorate) was a direct
consequence of this individualistic conception of representation. Once governments were
believed to derive their powers from the consent of the governed and expected to seek that
consent regularly, it remained to decide precisely who was to be included among the governed
whose consent was necessary. Advocates of full democracy favoured the establishment of
universal adult suffrage. Across western Europe and North America, adult male suffrage was
ensured almost everywhere by 1920, though woman suffrage was not established until somewhat
later (e.g., 1928 in Britain, 1944 in France, 1949 in Belgium, and 1971 in Switzerland).
Although it is common to equate representative government and elections with democracy, and
although competitive elections under universal suffrage are one of democracy’s defining
characteristics, universal suffrage is not a necessary condition of competitive electoral politics.
An electorate may be limited by formal legal requirements—as was the case before universal
adult suffrage—or it may be limited by the failure of citizens to exercise their right to vote. In
many countries with free elections, large numbers of citizens do not cast ballots. For example, in
Switzerland and the United States, fewer than half the electorate vote in most elections. Although
legal or self-imposed exclusion can dramatically affect public policy and even undermine the
legitimacy of a government, it does not preclude decision making by election, provided that
voters are given genuine alternatives among which to choose.
During the 18th century, access to the political arena depended largely on membership in an
aristocracy, and participation in elections was regulated mainly by local customs and
arrangements. Although both the American and French revolutions declared every citizen
formally equal to every other, the vote remained an instrument of political power possessed by
very few.

9• International Relations
international relations, the study of the relations of states with each other and with international
organizations and certain subnational entities (e.g., bureaucracies, political parties, and interest
groups). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science,
geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.
Key People: Kim Yo-Jong Joe Biden Friedrich Gentz Tzipi Livni Thoraya Obaid
Related Topics: diplomacy intelligence war arms control new regionalism
 Historical development
The field of international relations emerged at the beginning of the 20th century largely in the
West and in particular in the United States as that country grew in power and influence. Whereas
the study of international relations in the newly founded Soviet Union and later in communist
China was stultified by officially imposed Marxist ideology, in the West the field flourished as the
result of a number of factors: a growing demand to find less-dangerous and more-effective
means of conducting relations between peoples, societies, governments, and economies; a
surge of writing and research inspired by the belief that systematic observation and inquiry could
dispel ignorance and serve human betterment; and the popularization of political affairs, including
foreign affairs. The traditional view that foreign and military matters should remain the exclusive
preserve of rulers and other elites yielded to the belief that such matters constituted an important
concern and responsibility of all citizens. This increasing popularization of international relations
reinforced the idea that general education should include instruction in foreign affairs and that
knowledge should be advanced in the interests of greater public control and oversight of foreign
and military policy.

10• Between the two world wars

During the 1920s new centres, institutes, schools, and university departments devoted to
teaching and research in international relations were created in Europe and North America. In
addition, private organizations promoting the study of international relations were formed, and
substantial philanthropic grants were made to support scholarly journals, to sponsor training
institutes, conferences, and seminars, and to stimulate university research.
Three subject areas initially commanded the most attention, each having its roots in World War I.
During the revolutionary upheavals at the end of the war, major portions of the government
archives of imperial Russia and imperial Germany were opened, making possible some
impressive scholarly work in diplomatic history that pieced together the unknown history of
prewar alliances, secret diplomacy, and military planning. These materials were integrated to
provide detailed explanations of the origins of World War I. Among such works several are
particularly noteworthy, including Sidney Bradshaw Fay’s meticulous The Origins of the World
War (1928), which explored prewar diplomacy and alliance systems; Bernadotte E. Schmitt’s The
Coming of the War, 1914 (1930) and Triple Alliance and Triple Entente (1934); Pierre Renouvin’s
The Immediate Origins of the War (1928); Winston Churchill’s The World Crisis (1923–29); and
Arnold J. Toynbee’s The World After the Peace Conference (1925). There also were extensive
memoirs and volumes of published documents that provided much material for diplomatic
historians and other international relations scholars.
The newly created League of Nations, which ushered in the hope and expectation that a new and
peaceful world order was at hand, was a second subject that captured significant attention. Some
of the international relations schools that were founded in the interwar period were explicitly
created to prepare civil servants for what was expected to be the dawning age of international
government. Accordingly, intensive study was devoted to the genesis and organization of the
league, the history of earlier plans for international federations, and the analysis of the problems
and procedures of international organization and international law.
The third focal point of international relations scholarship during the early part of the interwar
period was an offshoot of the peace movement and was concerned primarily with understanding
the causes and costs of war, as well as its political, sociological, economic, and psychological
dimensions. Interest in the question “Why war?” also brought a host of social scientists, including
economists, sociologists, psychologists, and even mathematicians—all of whom were pioneers in
the intellectual movement known as behaviourism—into active participation in international
studies for the first time.
In the 1930s the breakdown of the League of Nations, the rise of aggressive dictatorships in Italy,
Germany, and Japan, and the onset of World War II produced a strong reaction against
international government and against peace-inspired topics in the study of international relations.
The moral idealism inherent in these topics was criticized as unrealistic and impractical, and the
academic study of international relations came to be regarded as the handiwork of starry-eyed
peace visionaries who ignored the hard facts of international politics. In particular, scholars of
international relations were criticized for suggesting standards of international conduct that bore
little resemblance to the real behaviour of nations up to that time. As the desired world of
peaceful conflict resolution and adherence to international law grew more distant from the
existing world of aggressive dictatorships, a new approach to the study of international relations,
known as realism, increasingly dominated the field. Nevertheless, the scholarly work on world
affairs of the early interwar period, despite the decline in its reputation and influence, was
extensive and sound, encompassing the collection and organization of large amounts of
important data and the development of some fundamental concepts.
Some topics of study in international relations that are still considered novel or of recent origin
were already being vigorously explored in the interwar period. Indeed, a brief review of these
topics tends to undermine the image of the interwar period as one dominated by moralistic ideas.
The topics include the causes of wars; the relationship between international affairs and the
problems of racial and ethnic minorities; the effects of population change on foreign policies; the
effects of nationalism, imperialism, and colonialism; the strategic aspects of international
relations, including the importance of geographic location and spatial relationships (geopolitics)
for military power and the influence on governments of what later was called the “military-
industrial complex”; the implications of economic inequalities between countries; and the role of
public opinion, national differences, and cultural orientation in world affairs. Although these
earlier studies tended to be somewhat short on theory and long on description, most of the topics
examined remain relevant in the 21st century.

11• Q. How Critical Thinking Plays a Role in Media and Information

Literacy?
Young learners, who also need to be able to solve issues, gather information, form views, assess
sources, and more, can benefit greatly from critical thinking. MIL is an essential skill, given the
wealth of data and accurate and false information that is readily available online In other words,
by empowering them to: think about the viewer’s standpoint, critical media literacy practices
empower students to evaluate the media they experience. Identify the values and feelings that
the artwork evokes
 How Do You Deal With Uncertainty and Change?
The best methods and pointers for guiding your group through uncertainty,
1. Integrity with the group and the brand.
2. Consider what other people have to say.
3. Avoid striving for perfection.
4. Accept the ambiguity of the unknowable.
 What do new generations think about politics?
New generations, what do they think about politics? As an example, we could take some data
from the last election in the United States (one of the few countries in the world where voting is
not mandatory). Arguably, due to the #Blacklivesmatter movement and following social revolts,
the percentage of voters was the highest since 1908. This is to say that the number of voters
grew from 136 million people in 2016 to 165 million people in 2020. What does this
increment mean? We could read it from several perspectives:
It matters – Recent revolts that made it to the media were led by youngsters who took the
word publicly with wisdom and courage. The message they were trying to put across was
that actions matter and can change reality. Could this be translated to more voters?
Recent research indicates that highly politicized environments influence youngsters’
involvement.
Believing in change through a vote – The idea that voting could generate change had
been abandoned by most people. Common phrases like “if voting could change something, it
would be illegal” could be heard from youngsters and elder people alike. We could say that
the increase in voting participation could mean a restored belief in the system.

12• Importance of Free Press and Independent Journalism

A free and independent press is thought to be essential for a solid, functioning democracy.
Journalism serves as a watchdog of corporate and governmental behavior in the absence of
censorship by disseminating information to keep the voters informed. By Using Politics, We Can
Build a Better Future A group of activities known as politics includes those that involve group
decision-making or other forms of interpersonal power dynamics, such as the distribution of
wealth or status. Political theory aids in the interpretation of laws and the constitution by
bureaucrats, lawmakers, government employees, and advocates. Additionally, it aids in exploring
solutions to societal problems and understanding their causes
• Conclusion
Finally, there is great importance of politics in our society, economy, government, and even the
environment. It entails the study of governance, the use of political power, and the decision-
making process that affects our everyday lives. Politics is more than just political parties and
elections; it also includes public policies that affect numerous parts of our society, such as
education, healthcare, transportation, and the environment. Voting and civic participation are
critical for preserving democracy and defining our social and economic objectives. Government
policies have an important role in resolving environmental challenges and conserving natural
resources. Understanding the importance of politics and its consequences is critical for creating a
better world for ourselves and future generations.

13• What Is the Media’s Function in Influencing Public Opinion?

The media primarily sets the agenda in two ways:
1. By reporting the news
2. By advising us on how to interpret it. While structuring the news to evoke a particular
emotion in the unaware spectator, press coverage conveys to audiences the significance
of the concerns presented.
Social media, or more precisely news media, is crucial in democratic nations because it
encourages public participation. Therefore, it is essential that the news is accurate in order to
maintain citizens’ levels of trust in healthy democratic networks
 Examples of Media Biases
Examples of media bias are as follows:
1. Advertising bias: When stories are chosen or slanted to appeal to advertisers.
2. Concision bias is the propensity for emphasizing viewpoints that can be briefly stated,
drowning out more unusual viewpoints that require more time to express.
3. The treatment of the opposing parties in political disputes and the production of biased
news that promotes one side are examples of content bias.
4. Corporate bias refers to the selection or slanting of stories to appease media owners who
are corporations.
5. The term “decision-making bias” refers to the tendency of journalists’ work to be
influenced by their motivations, attitudes, or views. It is typically negative.
Importance of politics in education
It is safe to say that, unless you come from a highly politicized family, you hear about it at school
first. Indeed, formal education involves a historical approach to politics but it doesn’t
quite explain it fully. This is to say that we, as kids and teenagers, learn about history, but
do not have an insight into how the system works in depth. We learn about past
presidencies but learn very little about how they got to power, what were their convictions,
and what motivated people to vote for them or not.
Also, we never fully grasp the structure of the system and how it works. It is not common to find
people with a clear notion about ministries, secretaries, and the role of each. For example, not
everybody is familiar with the difference between deputies and senators. Can you imagine
teachers going for a field trip to The House of Congress, for example? That could spark interest
in the younger generations.

14• Types of elections (e.g., presidential, parliamentary, local)

A presidential election is the election of any head of state whose official title is President. There
are three systems of presidential elections:
 First Past The Post (FPTP)
 Two-Round System (TRS)
 Preferential Voting
When most people think of presidential elections, they often think of awarding the presidency
to the candidate who wins the most votes. This winner-takes-all approach is called First-Past-the-
Post (FPTP). As of 2019, only 19 countries, including Ghana, implements this voting method.

15• General elections

General elections are always held the first Tuesday, after the first Monday, in November.
In a general election, Pennsylvanians vote for federal, state, and local officials, including:

 U.S. senators and U.S. representatives to Congress

 Pennsylvania governor, lieutenant governor, general assembly, attorney general, auditor
general, state treasurer
 County and city officials (only elected in odd-numbered years)
 Judges and magisterial district judges (only elected in odd-numbered years)
 In odd-numbered years, like 2021, these November elections are also called municipal
elections because there are no federal or state office on the ballot.

Every four years, the General Election is also a presidential election.

16• Primary elections

Primary elections in Pennsylvania are held on the third Tuesday of May in most years.

In presidential years, the primary election is held on the fourth Tuesday of April.
In a primary election, each political party selects its candidates to run for office during the general
election. The candidates who get the highest number of votes in the primary election go on to run
in the general election . Voters also vote for their party’s officers during a primary election.

In Pennsylvania, you can only vote for the candidates in the same political party you have named
in your voter registration. For example, if you registered to vote as a member of the Republican
Party then you can vote in the Republican primary, but not the Democratic primary.

All voters can vote on:

 constitutional amendments,
 ballot questions, and
 any special election contests held at the same time as a primary election.

17• Special elections

Pennsylvania holds special elections when someone in office can no longer serve. This may
happen when someone resigns, dies, or gets removed from office. Voters must select someone
to replace that person.

Special elections may be held:

 during a general election

 during a primary election
 on a different day designated by the elections office

The county or counties running the special election must advertise the date and locations for the
special election, as well as the candidates running for office.

Everyone who lives in the district the candidates will represent can vote in the special election.

18• Presidential elections and the Electoral College

In presidential elections, each political party holds a national convention where they choose their
nominee for president. The results of the primary election determine how votes from
Pennsylvania are cast at the convention.

The nominees from each party run against each other in the general election in November.

The president is officially elected by the Electoral College, and not the popular vote. But the
popular vote – including your vote – helps decide which candidate receives Pennsylvania's
electoral votes.

19• What is the Electoral College?

The Electoral College is a group of citizens known as electors. Electors get appointed by each
state to cast votes for the president and vice president of the United States on behalf of the
state’s citizens.
Pennsylvania has 20 electoral votes. All 20 of Pennsylvania’s electoral votes go to the person
who won the popular vote in Pennsylvania.
When you cast your vote for president, you tell your state’s electors to cast their votes for the
candidate you chose. In Pennsylvania, each candidate for president chooses a list of electors.
The electors for the candidate who wins Pennsylvania’s popular vote get to cast their vote for
president and vice president.
The Constitution created the Electoral College to ensure that each state had a role in selecting
the president, no matter its population. Each state has the same number of electoral votes as it
has members of Congress. There are a total of 538 votes in the Electoral College. A candidate
must win a simple majority - 270 - of those votes to win the election.
20• What is a Political Ideology?
Political ideologies are concepts that have become more visible with the rise of social media.
However, political ideologies have influenced human society since the dawn of civilization as
groups of individuals have formed similar thoughts. So, what is a political ideology?
Political ideologies are sets of related beliefs about political theory and social policy. The main
characteristic of political ideologies is that they have a unifying factor across all beliefs in this
domain, and individuals identifying with a certain group have a vision of what an ideal society
should be working towards.

21• Examples of Political Ideologies

Political ideologies are sets of beliefs in reference to political theory and social policy on the level
of the group or the individual. There are many different ways to view how societies should
function, and as a result, many different political ideologies. Major political ideologies and their
beliefs are listed below.
 Liberalism - The dominant ideology in the United States, Liberalism promotes the right of
the individual, free speech, and democracy. Typically, the liberal viewpoint is pro-
capitalism and independent choice, acknowledging that government is necessary but
should be limited.
 Socialism - Socialism's main focus is on distribution and production, advocating for goods
and services to be shared with the community as a whole. It also advocates for a
comprehensive social program and compatibility with democratic governance or the
building of open and responsible institutions. In this respect, socialism and liberalism
have in common equality before the law. Cooperation is an important value.
 Fascism - A fascist viewpoint advocates for an authoritarian government and the
suppression of viewpoints opposing the government. Fascism is in direct opposition to
liberal viewpoints.
 Conservatism - Conservative beliefs value free enterprise and traditional institutions and
beliefs, often religious in reasoning. Conservatism advocates for private ownership of
goods and services. Conservatives value continuity and stability rather than more
dramatic changes to the role of government.
 Progressivism - Progressivists believe that the government has an essential role to play
in social reform and economic improvement for ordinary citizens.
 Communism - Mainly credited to the mind of Karl Marx, Communism is a political system
that seeks class equality. In the Marxist system, all property is owned by the government,
and individuals are paid according to their skills. It is commonly thought of as an
advanced form of socialism.

22• Ideology: The problem-child of political analysis

We are saddled with a difficult word, ‘ideology’. Here is a term once designed to signify the study
of ideas, even the science of ideas, yet it has come to denote one area of the domain it is
supposed to study (the word ‘politics’ has, at many UK departments of politics, curiously travelled
in the opposite trajectory). Moreover, as a term invoking a subject-matter the word ‘ideology’ has
proved to be very off-putting for the general public—the combination of ideas and ‘logies’ seems
to indicate the kind of high abstraction that is remote from the experience and the language of
regular people, even though it is the latter on which ideology studies have come to be chiefly
focused. In the Anglo-American world, with its naïve myths of political pragmatism, ideology is all
too often an alien implant, something concocted by spinners of dreams, otherworldly intellectuals,
or machinators with totalitarian designs. In the European mainland, with its far greater familiarity
with abstract theorizing, ideology is an obnoxious kind of grand theory attached particularly to its
tempestuous early and mid-20th century history in which fascists faced communists in a bid to
dominate the world. Intellectually, the reception of ideology has been inspired by the
theoreticians who, following Marx and Engels, became its sworn enemies.
Nevertheless, the term is very common, though not beloved, among scholars, writers and
academics, and it has an illustrious pedigree, although regrettably also a notorious one. If, as
Max Lerner stated, ideas are weapons,
1 ideology (in the singular) is a loose cannon when used professionally. We find it in the ‘slash
and destroy’ mode when used to rubbish another point of view. Daniel Bell referred to the ‘trap of
ideology’, to ‘apocalyptic fervour’ and ‘dreadful results’ and to ideologists as ‘terrible simplifiers’.
2 We encounter it as if behind a magic screen, whose removal suddenly enables the initially
hidden and pernicious attributes of a doctrine, Weltanschauung or set of social practices to
become hideously exposed by the knowledgeable ideology-critic, much as the Emperor's new
clothes dissolved through the eyes of a child. Marx and Engels wrote of ideology as an upside-
down sublimation, a set of ‘reflexes and echoes of [the] life process’, of ‘phantoms formed in the
human brain’ detached from the world. Describing the ruling class as ‘conceptive ideologists,
who make the perfecting of the illusion of the class about itself their chief source of livelihood’,
they saw the demystification and consequent elimination of ideology as dependent not only on
the actual ending of class rule, but on the intellectual process of ‘outing’ ideology: ‘One must
separate the ideas of those ruling for empirical reasons, under empirical conditions and as
empirical individuals, from these actual rulers, and thus recognize the rule of ideas or illusions.

23• Studying ideology: A scientific endeavour?

The above settings to ideology merit scrutiny in greater detail. If Destutt de Tracy aspired to
create a science of ideology, of judging and reasoning, of knowing how our ideas were
formulated and then directing them to produce happiness,
6 more recent views have contrasted ideology with science or, more specifically, with the
empiricism at the heart of science. When positioning ideology on an epistemological dimension,
its antecedents reflect the 19th-century positivist legacy concerning the status of the social
sciences that was still debated animatedly until the 1970s and the arrival of the so-called
‘linguistic turn’. A typical case in point is Sartori, locating ideology—as did Marx from a very
different perspective—on a truth-error dichotomy, and contrasting it specifically with ‘science and
valid knowledge’, questioning its applicability to ‘the real world’ because it did not ‘fall under the
jurisdiction of logic and verification’.
7 That perspective related to predominant mid-century views about the closed totality of
ideology—deductive, rationalistic and non-empirical, a state of ‘dogmatic impermeability both to
evidence and to argument’.
8 Recall also the approach of Karl Popper in The Open Society and its Enemies, for whom the
scientific method and its objectivity, attained through public critique, testing and replicability,
offered the only protection from Mannheimian ‘total ideologies’, under which Popper included ‘our
own system of prejudices’ and ‘ideological follies’.
9 Mere knowledge of our ideological biases, as exposed by Marx and Mannheim, seemed to
Popper to proffer no hope of getting rid of them. But getting rid of them was still the crux of the
matter.
For political theorists following that route, ideology signalled dalliance with illiberal,
unsubstantiated and flawed ways of thinking, and the clear message was yet again: ‘keep away if
you have any claims to scholarship’, now understood as the striving for empirically falsifiable
knowledge rather than the philosophers' insistence on the deductive nature of analysis. In the
words of one such representative of the positivist approach: ‘We sceptics, therefore, offer the
world not an ideology but an anti-ideology. We really do believe in reason, to which the
ideologists pay lip-service only; we believe, that is, in the reason that proves its worth in science;
we believe in empirical reason, pragmatic reason … In that specific sense, it sets men free’.
Footnote

24• The battle of ideologies and their competing epistemologies

There was another setting to the standing of ideology in political theory. The immediate pre- and
post-war periods were times of unusually intense ideational battles revolving around a kind of
Gramscian hegemony over the world. Those conflicts did not evolve around civilization and its
discontents, but around civilization and its annihilators. Fascism, communism and what was
variably called democracy or liberalism locked horns in a pattern far more symmetrical than was
recognized by the latter's adherents in the allegedly free world: all were promoters of non-
negotiable principles that sought the status of universal truths, and all became hardened in that
battle of the absolutes. It may be a truism that a potent enemy imposes its contours on those
who attempt to defend themselves against it. Western political theory, especially its strong
American component, had always toyed with a sense of mission: educating, inspiring, directing,
converting—indeed to some extent this is still regarded as a central pedagogical responsibility of
US political philosophers. While vehemently opposed to the ideas and doctrines emanating from
Germany, Russia and to a lesser extent, Italy, they were dazzled by the power and sweep of
what Bell called ‘the conversion of ideas into social levers’. This is where the action-orientation of
ideology suddenly became evident: ideas were clearly seen to have dramatic outcomes in terms
of world events, and the sheer efficiency of ideological dissemination, particularly in the case of
Nazism, was something of which academic thought-practices could only dream.
The response of creative normative theory was not to produce an antidote, a new scepticism or a
genuine pluralism that would undermine the epistemic certainty of total theory, but to construct a
weaker totalizing epistemology of its own. Sometimes, as with McCarthyism, totalitarianism was
mirrored in practice by its counterpart; more usually, the virtues of liberalism were extolled with
the kind of simplicity and passion that had previously assisted in marketing fascist and
communist ideas so successfully. Recently, even neo-conservatism has discovered the allure of
reducing the Western political heritage to the ostensibly easily exportable duo of ‘freedom and
democracy’. Although the short-term political benefits of that ideologizing of political theory were
notable, its costs were heavy.

25• Political thought as ideology

And so, from the viewpoint of political theory, a fifth stage has commenced: an assault on the
bastions of political theory that aims at installing ideology at its centre—by no means as the sole
occupant of the domain of political theory, but as equal partner with political philosophy and the
historical articulation of political ideas. Those bastions are well-defended by scholars, themselves
subject to an understandable mixture of reason and emotion that typifies us all as political actors-
cum-thinkers, and surreptitiously even as researchers. The fundamental challenge now facing
political theory is to further open up its boundaries to the external influences provided through the
fourth development, while retaining its focus on the political. That is being accomplished by
navigating among a number of recent genres of analysis, neither affiliating with one alone nor
simply synthesizing them, but constructing a position out of the most salient features of
ideologies as social and conceptual phenomena and then reinforcing it by recourse to supporting
insights from adjacent fields of research. In addition this requires an assessment of the detailed
role that the investigation of ideologies can occupy not only in its own right, but in bolstering the
conventional purposes of political theory.
What is different, then, and what do the concept of ideology and its study now indicate within the
domain of political theory?

26• Identifying ideologies in the world of politics

The question of the ubiquity of ideology within the realm of politics, however oscillating it may
prove to be, brings with it the following considerations. First, by politics we understand any
human interaction that involves power transactions, the ranking and distribution of significant
goods, the mobilization of support, the organization of stability as well as instability, and decision-
making for collectivities that includes the construction of—or resistance to—political plans and
visions. Second, such views of the world have a fluid morphology that may be grouped together
in broad family resemblances, but is concurrently in constant flux over space and time. Third,
while the particulars of any such view are elective, the existence of ideology is inevitable. We can
only access the political world through decontesting the contested conceptual arrangements that
enable us to make sense of that world, and we do so—deliberately or unconsciously—by
imposing specific meanings onto the indeterminate range of meanings that our conceptual
clusters can hold.

27• The obscure and the indeterminate

The fourth development—within the ambit of post-modernism and post-Marxism—was abetted
by advances in linguistics, literary theory, and philosophy that offered a more sophisticated
account of the Marxist dissimulative features of an ideology. The use of ideology in literary
analysis, as Michael Moriarty has pointed out, has been and still is largely inspired by Marxist
and Althusserian perspectives and their derivatives.
But it is also the case that a mixture of two factors brought with it, independently, a new frisson of
excitement to the field of ideology-research. The one was a growing appreciation of the
unintentional and the unconscious in human thinking. The study of political thinking could hence
be an act of decoding meaning, rather than merely one of unmasking and then discarding
distortions, as in the Marxist tradition. The unintentional had become not the product of
removable oppressive social conditions but of the unavoidable surplus of meaning, in Ricoeur's
telling phrase, that speech and writing always generated. To a lesser extent, the unintentional
was also the product of the discovery of latent social functions—unknown to participants but
crucial to the adequate operation of a society—as formulated in a sequence of sociological
argumentation that stretched from Durkheim through Merton.

28• From individuals to groups

In the meantime, the study of ideology had to contend with another kind of bias, individualism.
Political theory has thrived principally on a form of hero-worship and intellectual cults surrounding
gifted individuals, men (and a few women) of genius or of contemporary significance, at the
expense of the social and cultural milieux that contributed to shaping them. In the past that
reflected a mixture of the narrowness of education and of the hierarchies of power and deference,
but by the 19th century that constraint had partially transmogrified into the exaltation of the
intellectual entrepreneur, the unconventional eccentric, and the social critic. Until the mid-20th
century, the Great Men approach to political thought was virtually unassailable in universities,
fortified in the 20th century by the dominant founding role of two individuals in their respective
spheres: Marx and Freud (each of whom, of course, profoundly contributed to the development
of theories of ideology). But the immediate consequence was to reinforce the barriers between
political theory and the study of ideology. For ideology, as was becoming increasingly clear
through Mannheim and others, was a group product. A repositioning needed to occur from
examining the intellectual as an individual, to identifying the intelligentsia (not a term that tripped
easily off Anglo-American tongues), and from there to exploring ideology more broadly as a
communal phenomenon articulated at various levels, feeding decision-making centres and being
nourished by them. Some of that had been recognized by Gramsci, but his theory was for a long
time unavailable to mainstream political theorists due to the heavy baggage of Marxist
assumptions it contained, particularly concerning the hegemony of a unified ideological position
underpinned by a social bloc.

29• Comparative Political Theory and the Comparative Method

In an early account of the purpose and promise of CPT, Anthony Parel (1992) likens modern
western political philosophy to the upas tree, a tropical species that was once widely believed to
emit a poisonous miasma, killing everything under its branches and leaving behind a wasteland
of withered plants and animal skeletons. In Parel’s account, the global spread of modern western
political thought, particularly in its liberal and socialist variants, had wreaked similarly noxious
effects on the world’s intellectual diversity. Western political thinkers presented their ideas as the
“products of universal reason itself,” while dismissing the ideas of their nonwestern counterparts
as outgrowths of peculiar cultural environments, curious but unworthy of serious consideration as
guides to how we should live. The “comparative study of political philosophy,” Parel suggests,
provides a “neutralizing antidote” to modern western political thought’s malignant influence, by
vindicating the claims of certain nonwestern intellectuals to recognition as participants in the
timeless debates of political philosophy (11–28).

30• Institutional and Intellectual Contexts

Comparison is, among other things, a powerful method of causal inference, a means of testing
the validity of proposed explanations for why some event or events of interest occurred or did not
occur. Here, I describe a comparative approach to explaining political ideas, but this raises
immediate questions: In what sense can political ideas be said to have been caused? What is
entailed in explaining why a given thought appeared where and when it did?
I propose a minimal, and, I hope, minimally controversial answer to these questions: political
ideas are caused by the background problems that their thinkers set out to solve. Explaining why
political thinkers thought what they did involves reconstructing the background problems that
they aimed to address.
Footnote
3 There are irrevocably particular aspects to the background problems that any given political
thinker addresses in the course of a career, and any adequate explanation of a particular
thinker’s work must reflect the influence of these idiosyncratic factors. But, at the same time, all
political thinkers always occupy institutional and intellectual contexts that connect them with or
distinguish them from other thinkers, and that interact to partially determine the background
problems that they confront. The comparative approach I describe here is designed to discern
the influence of institutional and intellectual contexts on the political ideas we wish to explain.

31• Institutional Context

By institutional context I mean the formal and informal rules that structure social interactions in
the community where the political thinker whose thoughts we wish to explain lives and works. I
make two important assumptions regarding institutional contexts. First, following Karen Orren
and Stephen Skowronek (2004, 22–24), I assume that all political thinkers always occupy a “full”
or “plenary” institutional context: one in which there are written or unwritten rules governing social
interactions, and agents that enforce these rules using physical or other means of social suasion.
In other words, no political thinker has ever occupied a “state of nature” void of any institutions;
the political thinkers who have availed themselves of various forms of this famous thought
experiment did so from within thoroughly institutionalized contexts, which partially determined the
background problems that caused them to think and write in the ways that they did.

32• What Is Political Economy?

Political economy is an interdisciplinary branch of the social sciences. It focuses on the
interrelationships among individuals, governments, and public policy.

Political economists study how economic theories such as capitalism, socialism, and communism
work in the real world. Any economic theory is a means of directing the distribution of a finite
amount of resources in a way that benefits the greatest number of individuals. These ideas can
be studied both theoretically and as they are used in the real world. In the real world, public
policy is created and implemented around these economic theories. Political economists study
both the underlying roots of these policies and their results.

In a wider sense, political economy was once the common term used for the field we now call
economics. Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau all used the term to
describe their theories.
1
The shorter term "economy" was substituted in the early 20th century with the development of
more rigorous statistical methods for analyzing economic factors.

 Types of Political Economy

Political economy is a branch of social science that studies the relationship that forms between a
nation's population and its government when public policy is enacted. It is, therefore, the result of
the interaction between politics and the economy and is the basis of the social science discipline.

 Socialism: This type of political economy promotes the idea that the production and
distribution of goods and wealth are maintained and regulated by society, rather than a
particular group of people. The rationale behind this is that whatever is produced by
society is done so because of those who participate, regardless of status, wealth, or
 position. Socialism aims to bridge the gap between rich and poor, eliminating the ability
of individuals or groups to control the majority of power and wealth.5
 Capitalism: This theory advocates profit as a motive for advancement and the ability of
free markets to regulate and drive the economy on their own. The idea behind capitalism
is that private individuals and other actors are driven by their own interests—they control
production and distribution, set prices, and create supply and demand.6
 Communism: Individuals often confuse communism with socialism, but there is a distinct
difference between these two theories. Communism was a theory developed by Karl
Marx, who felt that capitalism was limited and created a big divide between rich and poor.
He believed in shared resources, including property. Unlike socialism, however, under
communism production and distribution are overseen by the government.7

Those who research the political economy are called political economists. Their study generally
involves the examination of how public policy, the political situation, and political institutions
impact a country's economic standing and future through a sociological, political, and economic
lens.

History and Development of Political Economy

The roots of political economy as we know it today go back to the 18th century. Scholars during
the period studied how wealth was distributed and administered between people. Some of the
earlier works that examined this phenomenon included those by Adam Smith and John Stuart
Mill.

But the term is probably best ascribed to the French writer and economist, Antoine de
Montchrestien. He wrote a book called "Traité de l'économie politique" in 1615, in which he
examined the need for production and wealth to be distributed on an entirely larger scale—not in
the household as Aristotle suggested. The book also analyzed how economics and politics are
interrelated.

Smith was a philosopher, economist, and writer who is commonly referred to as the father of
economics and of the political economy. He wrote about the function of a self-regulating free
market in his first book, which was called "The Theory of Moral Sentiments."
11
His most famous work, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (or "The
Wealth of Nations") helped shape classical economic theory. It was also used as the foundation
for future economists.
8

Mill combined economics with philosophy. He believed in utilitarianism—that actions that lead to
people's goodwill are right and that those that lead to suffering are wrong.
9
In essence, he believed that economic theory and philosophy were needed, along with social
awareness in politics in order to make better decisions for the good of the people. Some of his
work, including "Principles of Political Economy," "Utilitarianism," and A System of Logic" led him
to become one of the most important figures in politics and economics.

Importance of Political Economy

Political economy studies both how the economy affects politics and how politics affect the
economy. As political parties come to and leave power, economic policy often changes in a
country based on the ideology and goals of the party in power.
12
Political changes can impact many areas of the economy, which can in turn impact elections and
government policies. These include:

 Monetary and fiscal policy

 Food security
 Global trade
 Labor supply, demand, and crises
 Gross domestic product (GDP)
 Financial inequality
 Disaster management
 Environmental stability1

As the economies of more countries become interconnected through globalism and international
trade, the politics of one country can have a strong impact on the economy of another.
Understanding the relationship between political power and economic decisions in one country
can help other countries predict how their own economies will be impacted.

Understanding political economy can also help a country's economy become more resilient. If the
government leaders in power at any given moment are forward-thinking, they can put laws and
policies in place that create the greatest possibility for economic stability and growth, regardless
of changing political power.

Political Economy in Academia

Political economy became an academic discipline of its own in recent years. Many major
institutions offer the study as part of their political science, economics, and/or sociology
departments.

Research by political economists is conducted in order to determine how public policy influences
behavior, productivity, and trade. Much of their study helps them establish how money and power
are distributed between people and different groups.
14
They may do this through the study of specific fields such as law, bureaucratic politics, legislative
behavior, the intersection of government and business, and regulation.
15

The study may be approached in any of three ways:

 Interdisciplinary studies: The interdisciplinary approach draws on sociology, economics,

and political science to define how government institutions, an economic system, and a
political environment affect and influence each other.16
 New political economy: This approach is studied as a set of actions and beliefs, and
seeks to make explicit assumptions that lead to political debates about societal
preferences. The new political economy combines the ideals of classical political
economists and newer analytical advances in economics and politics.
 International political economy: Also called global political economy, which is slightly
different, this approach analyzes the link between economics and international relations.
It draws from many academic areas including political science, economics, sociology,
cultural studies, and history. The international political economy is ultimately concerned
with how political forces like states, individual actors, and institutions affect global
economic interactions.

Modern Applications of Political Economy

Modern applications of the political economy study the works of more contemporary philosophers
and economists, such as Karl Marx.

As mentioned above, Marx became disenchanted with capitalism as a whole. He believed that
individuals suffered under regimented social classes, where one or more individuals controlled
the greater proportion of wealth. Under communist theories, this would be eradicated, allowing
everyone to live equally while the economy functions based on the ability and needs of each
participant. Under communist regimes, resources are controlled and distributed by the
government.
7

Most people confuse socialism and communism. It's true there are some similarities—notably,
that both stress bridging the gap between rich and poor, and that society should relegate
equilibrium among all citizens. But there are inherent differences between the two. While
resources in a communist society are owned and controlled by the government, individuals in a
socialist society hold property. People can still purchase goods and services under socialism,
while those who live in a communist society are provided with their basic necessities by the
government.

What Does Political Economy Mean?

The term political economy refers to a branch of social sciences that focuses on relationships
between individuals, governments, and public policy. It is also used to describe the policies set
by governments that affect their nations' economies.

What Is the Primary Concern of Political Economy?

The main concern of political economy is to determine the relationship between governments
and individuals, and how public policy affects society. This is done through the study of sociology,
politics, and economics.

What Are the Characteristics of Political Economy?

Some of the characteristics or themes of a political economy include the distribution of wealth,
how goods and services are produced, who owns property and other resources, who profits from
production, supply and demand, and how public policy and government interaction impact
society.

What Are the Types of Political Economy?

The types of a political economy include socialism (which states that any production and wealth
should be regulated and distributed by society), capitalism (where private owners control a
nation's industry and trade for profit), and communism (the theory where all property is publicly-
owned and everyone works based on their own needs and strengths).

Who Coined the Term Political Economy?

Adam Smith is generally considered the father of economics and the father of the political
economy. But the term is generally ascribed to French economist Antoine de Montchrestien, who
wrote the book "Traité de l'économie politique," which translates to the treaty of the political
economy.

The Bottom Line

Political economy is a branch of the social sciences that studies the relationships among
individuals, governments, and public policy. It examines how politics impacts the economy and
how the economy impacts politics.
As political parties change, a country's economic policy often changes as well, based on the
ideology and goals of the party in power. This can impact areas of the economy such as
monetary and fiscal policy, food security, labor crises, rising inequality, GDP, and disaster
management. These changes in the economy can in turn prompt new political laws, policies, or
election outcomes.

The rise of globalism and international trade means that the politics of one country can have a
strong impact on the economy of another. Understanding political economy can help countries
become more resilient in the face of global economic changes.
SPONSORED

33• What Is Political Communication?

Criminal Justice and Legal Studies
Criminal Justice, Government, and Public Administration
November 15, 2021 in [ Criminal Justice, Government, and Public Administration ]

Students who are passionate about the strategic use of language and enjoy following political
news might consider specializing in political communication. What is political communication? As
the name implies, it is a subfield that blends the communications and political science fields.
Earning a communications degree and specializing in political communication can allow students
to work toward a rewarding career in public service. Some political communicators work directly
for elected officials. Others work for independent organizations that seek to influence public
policy. Many career opportunities are available, but each starts with finding an in-depth answer to
the question: “What is political communication?”
 Characteristics of Political Communication
Politics describes all activities related to the government of a country and the official activities of
elected individuals. Political communication refers to the messaging surrounding politics and it
can be directed inward or outward. For example, citizens may direct political messaging toward
their elected officials to influence their governance. Conversely, elected officials can direct
political communication toward their constituents.
The defining characteristic of political communication is the creation of meaningful narratives in
society that work to inform, persuade and call citizens to action.
 Examples of Political Communication
Let us consider a hypothetical example. In the fictitious town of Newtown Springs, some locals
want to create a new highway through a stretch of woods. Other people oppose this plan
because they would prefer to create mountain biking trails and a nature preserve in that area.
Both groups of people petition their local elected officials, arguing that their proposed use of the
land should prevail. Each side explains the advantages of doing things their preferred way while
pointing out the downsides of the opposing group’s plan. These groups of people are both
participating in political communication — strategic messaging designed to persuade their
elected officials to agree with their point of view.
Alternatively, imagine that the citizens of Newtown Springs do not have any particular plan in
mind for that stretch of woods. An elected official of the town decides that it would make an
excellent nature preserve to enhance the locals’ quality of life and support conservation efforts.
The elected official participates in media interviews, explaining why this plan would be best for
the town. Those interviews are another form of political communication.
Political communication can consist of media interviews, published documents, websites, op-eds
in newspapers, political campaigns and more. However, it can also include more than written and
verbal communication. Political communication encompasses a political campaign’s or elected
official’s logos, gesticulations during speeches, mannerisms and even hairstyles.
For example, two politicians may choose to reach their constituents in different ways. While one
politician chooses mild mannerisms and a calm tone of voice, the other is enthusiastic and
animated.
Although mannerisms and tone of voice don’t have much to do with the governance-related ideas
these politicians are promoting, they allow the politicians to connect with their audiences. In other
words, charisma and audience engagement are important characteristics of effective political
communication.

Types of Jobs in Political Communication

Now that you understand what political communication is, you may be thinking about possible job
opportunities in this field. After you graduate with a bachelor’s degree in political communication,
you might pursue an entry-level job with a political campaign. You’ll likely need some experience
before you can work your way up to a higher-level position.
For instance, you might begin your career as a campaign intern before progressing to become a
legislative communications aide. Then, you might pursue a career as a communications
coordinator, public relations specialist or lobbyist. Here’s a closer look at some of your options:
 Campaign Intern: You could begin working as a campaign intern or volunteer while still
in college. Most people start by working on smaller campaigns for local officials. Then,
they might move on to statewide or nationwide campaigns after gaining some experience.
Campaign interns handle a variety of tasks, such as engaging with constituents at
political rallies and going door to door to discuss political issues.
 Legislative Aide: There are a variety of types of legislative aides, including
communications aides, who specialize in liaising with the elected official’s constituents.
They read the elected officials’ mail, address constituents’ concerns and connect people
to information. For example, a communications aide might help a constituent figure out
how to apply for benefits designated for Vietnam veterans exposed to Agent Orange.
 Communications Coordinator: Sometimes referred to as “public relations specialists,”
communications coordinators hold higher-level jobs within a political office. They oversee
all political and legislative communications, write press releases and speeches, post on
social media and handle media relations. The communications coordinator ensures that
all political messaging from their office aligns with the office’s core values and image.
 Lobbyist: Lobbyists are among the few professional political communicators who do not
work directly for politicians, although they often are retired politicians. They serve as
advocates who work to influence politicians’ decision-making. Lobbyists may work for
lobbying firms or for an organization or business that wishes to influence legislative
happenings.
You can begin working toward a rewarding career in political communication when you earn a
communications degree at Grand Canyon University. The College of Humanities and Social
Sciences has designed the Bachelor of Arts in Communications with an Emphasis in Political
Campaigns degree program to instill foundational knowledge in political theory, relational
communication, political campaign management and other key competencies. To learn more
about joining our dynamic learning community online or in Arizona, click on the button at the top
of the screen to Request Info.

Political Rhetoric and the Media Abstract

Politics marks the leadership of the globe and has been the order even during the days of
monarchy (Wedeen, 1999). However, these days' leadership rest solely on the ability to persuade
the public to share the same ideologies. The media have always covered the political
developments that either project in the opposition of ideologies or advocate for them. Media have
also been influenced by the agitation to avoid biases. This paper examines the effect of
persuasion (rhetoric) on the general public with a case study of the American society. It also
discusses the relations in the fields of politics, communication and media that has many a times
been gruel.
Introduction
In several measures, journalism has partnered with politics to make deliveries on what has
evolved into one of the most dramatic activities in the global community; politics. Enthusiastic
clarifications on the same have been made many a times with such pragmatic details that either
create an aurier of superiority or dent the reputation of targeted figures. Journalism has portrayed
politics as the game that defines the leadership of mankind and keeps us outstanding from the
rest of animals. However, politics is far more than that. Political rhetoric could be described as
the art and mastery of persuasion skills. It is the ability to inform and motivate listeners/audience
to a particular conceptions or to convince the masses in sharing similar viewpoint. Its use has
lasted since the 17th century, always employed to actualize or to achieve set targets. Together
with logic and grammar, the said field was one of the first art's discourse of the ancient times. As
such, it assumed a crucial role in the evolution of Western education (Aristotle, Roberts and Ross,
2010). Leadership of the modern society is very much defined by political rhetoric. The ability to
persuade and win and flatter hearts influences the ballot to the favor of individuals skilled in the
same. To say, it is hard to find a society led by the dumb.
Uses of Political Rhetoric
The art has been used by politicians very much influenced by the political atmospheres always to
create a perception that earns victory or protect status quo (Wedeen, 1999). The art has been the
biggest tool for leaders in such positions to spread propaganda and deceive the masses. That is
mostly done just to cover ill cases that either harms the general well being of the society or
punctures political aspirations of certain individuals. Often have societies thrived on such deceit
always convinced of certain repercussions and the enlightened ability of the individual.
Propaganda has proved to be the biggest tool in eluding tricky situations and diverting attention
of the general public to other matters of less significance (Aristotle, Roberts and Ross, 2010).
Again,rhetoric has also been in use to enlighten the masses. Many a times, this is executed by
the opposing leaders who always seek to expose the scams and misdeeds of sitting leadership
to seek the favor of the citizenry in the ballot. Exposing the weaknesses of the ruling power
always makes the opposing leaders assume positions of strength, capacity, agility, and ability
(Charteris, 2006)

• Globalization and International Trade

Author: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
International trade is an exchange of goods or services across
national jurisdictions. Inbound trade is defined as imports, and
outbound trade is defined as exports. International trade is subject to
the regulatory oversight and taxation of the involved nations, namely
through customs.
1. The Flows of Globalization
In a global economy, no nation is self-sufficient, which is associated with specific flows of goods,
people, and information. Each nation is involved at different levels in trade to sell what it
produces, acquire what it lacks, and produce more efficiently in some economic sectors than its
trade partners. International trade, or long-distance trade, has taken place for centuries, with
some ancient trade routes predating history. Trade is an important part of economic and cultural
history, as ancient trade routes such as the Silk Road can testify. Historically, trade was limited
both by the demand and the capacity to transport cost-effectively goods having a market value at
the destination. Commercial and technological developments have allowed trade to occur at an
ever-increasing scale over the last 600 years. By the mid-19th century, trade was taking an
increasingly active role in the economic life of nations and regions, and after the mid-20th century,
trade became an active tool of economic globalization.
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The Flows of Globalization

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The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes

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Major Global Trade Routes 1400 1800
International trade is an expansion of the market (or exchange) principle at a scale beyond the
region or the nation. It should be taking place only if there is a benefit for the partners involved,
underlining that the rationale for trade can be a convenience but also a necessity. It is for
convenience, as supported by conventional economic theory, when trade promotes economic
efficiency by providing a wider variety of goods, often at lower costs. This is because of
specialization, economies of scale, and related comparative advantages. Trade is a necessity
when it enables a nation to acquire goods that would otherwise not be available in a national
economy, such as energy, raw minerals, or even agricultural goods. However, the benefits of
trade can be subject to contention with several theoretical foundations of international trade have
been articulated to explain its rationale:
 Mercantilism. A trading system where a nation tried to impose a positive trade balance
(more exports than imports, particularly value-wise) on other nations to favor the
accumulation of wealth. This system was prevalent during the colonial era and often
undertaken by charter companies receiving a monopoly on trade. Mercantilism
represents the antithesis of free trade since trade relations are controlled and aligned to
benefit one partner at the expense of others, implying that what can be traded, the
conditions and the partners involved are regulated. Still, mercantilism established the
foundations of a global trading system, albeit an unequal one.
 Neomercantilism. A more recent trade system, which like mercantilism, leans on
establishing a positive trade balance to meet economic development goals through
control of the cost structure. Export-oriented strategies can be considered a form of
neomercantilism, particularly if a government puts forward an incentive and subsidy
system (e.g. free trade zones), which confers additional advantages to the factors of
production. Neomercantilism can also be a response by some governments to the
competitive and disruptive consequences of free trade, particularly if the trade partners
are engaged in neo-mercantilist strategies. The outcomes are tariff and non-tariff
measures regulating trade and protecting national commercial sectors, which are forms
of protectionism. Therefore, neo-mercantilist strategies can be controversial and subject
to contention.
 Absolute advantages. A free trade mechanism relying on a nation (or a firm) being able
to produce more effectively in an economic sector while using fewer resources (e.g.
capital, labor) than any other potential competitors. Therefore It has an absolute
advantage. Global efficiency can thus be improved with trade as a nation can focus on its
absolute advantages, trade its surplus, and import what it lacks. The drawback of this
perspective is that, in theory, nations having no absolute advantages should not be
involved in trading since they may have little to gain from it. Absolute advantages tend to
be an enduring characteristic, particularly for resources such as energy. Large producers
keep an advantage as long as a resource is available or has a market.
 Comparative advantages. Even if a nation (or a firm) has absolute advantages over a
wide array of economic sectors, it can focus on the sectors it has the highest comparative
advantages (the difference between its production costs and those of its competitors) and
import goods in sectors it has less comparative advantages. Comparative productivity
increases the total production level since even if a nation (or a firm) has no absolute
advantages, it can focus on sectors where the total productivity gains are the most
significant. Comparative advantage can also be the outcome of economies of scale
applied to a product or sector where the resulting lower costs provide competitiveness.
Comparative advantages tend to be a temporary characteristic, that can change with the
evolution of labor costs and technology.
 Factor endowments. Expands the perspective of the comparative advantages by
underlining that trade is related to the factor endowments of a nation, the most basic
being capital, land, and labor. A nation will export goods to which it has notable factor
endowments and import goods to which it has scarce factor endowments. As such,
nations that have low-cost labor available will focus on labor-intensive activities, while
 nations having high capital endowments will focus on capital-intensive activities. Factor
endowments can be improved through capital and human resources investments.

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Dutch East India Company Trade Network 18th Century

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Economic Rationale of Trade

Absolute and Comparative Advantages

The globalization of production is concomitant to the globalization of trade as one cannot function
without the other. This process has been facilitated by significant technical changes in the
transport sector. The scale, volume, and efficiency of international trade have all continued to
increase since the 1970s. As such, global space/time convergence was an ongoing process that
implied a more extensive market coverage that could be accessed in a lower amount of time. It
has become increasingly possible to trade between parts of the world that previously had limited
access to international transportation systems. Further, the division and the fragmentation of
production that went along with these processes also expanded trade. Trade thus contributes to
lower manufacturing costs.
Without international trade, few nations could maintain an adequate standard of living,
particularly those of smaller size. With only domestic resources being available, each country
could only produce a limited number of products, and scarcity would be prevalent. Global trade
allows for an enormous variety of resources – from Persian Gulf oil, Brazilian coffee to Chinese
labor – to be made more widely accessible. Each item being traded is subject to an
internationally recognized classification (called Standard International Trade Classification; SITC),
allowing nations to clearly identify the goods and the extent they are subject to tariffs and duties.
Clear categorization also facilitates the distribution of a wide range of manufactured goods that
are produced in different parts of the world to global markets. Wealth becomes increasingly
derived through the regional specialization of economic activities. This way, production costs are
lowered, productivity rises, and surpluses are generated, which can be transferred or traded for
commodities that would be too expensive to produce domestically (convenience) or would simply
not be available (necessity). As a result, international trade decreases the overall costs of
production. Consumers can buy more goods from the wages they earn, and standards of living
should, in theory, increase.
International trade demonstrates the extent of globalization with increased spatial
interdependencies between elements of the global economy and their level of integration. These
interdependencies imply numerous relationships where flows of capital, goods, raw materials,
people, and services are established between regions of the world. International trade is also
subject to much contention since it can, at times, be a disruptive economic and social force. It
changes the conditions in which wealth is distributed within a national economy, particularly due
to changes in prices, wages and employment sectors. One challenge concerns the substitution of
labor and capital. While in a simple economy, labor and capital (infrastructures) can be
reconverted to other uses, in complex economies, labor and capital cannot be easily reallocated.
Therefore, trade can, at the same time, lead to more goods being available at a lower price, but
with enduring unemployment and decaying infrastructures (unused factories and real estate). In
turn, this can incite economies to adopt protectionist policies since this transition is judged to be
too disruptive.

Days Required to Circumnavigate the Globe

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Standard International Trade Classification SITC

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Economic Integration and Interdependencies
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Favorable and Contentious Factors in International Trade
2. The Setting of the Contemporary Global Trade System
International trade, both in terms of value and tonnage, has been a growing trend in the global
economy. It is important to underline when looking at the structure of global trade that it is not
nations that are trading, but mainly corporations with the end products consumed in majority by
individuals. A nation is simply a regulatory and jurisdictional unit where data is collected since
freight crossing boundaries are subject to customs oversight and tabulated as trade flows. Inter
and Intra corporate trade takes place across national jurisdictions is accounted for as
international trade. The emergence of the current structure of global trade can mainly be
articulated within three major phases:
 First phase (immobile factors of production). Concerns a conventional perspective on
international trade that prevailed until the 1970s, when factors of production were much
less mobile. Prior to the end of World War I, global trade was mainly structured by
colonial relations but was fairly unregulated. There was a limited level of mobility of raw
materials, parts, and finished products. Developments in transport technology in the
shipping and rail sectors allowed for greater volumes and distances to be covered. After
World War I, international trade became fairly regulated with impediments such as tariffs,
quotas, and limitations to foreign ownership. Trade mainly concerned a range of specific
products, namely commodities (and very few services) that were not readily available in
regional economies. Due to regulations, protectionism, and relatively high transportation
costs, trade remained limited and delayed by inefficient freight distribution. It was
challenging to coordinate production and distribution. In this context, trade was more an
exercise to cope with scarcity than to promote economic efficiency.
 Second phase (mobility of factors of production). From the 1970s to the 1990s, the
mobility of factors of production, particularly capital, became possible. The legal and
physical environment in which international trade was taking place leads to a better
realization of the comparative advantages of specific locations. Concomitantly, regional
trade agreements emerged, and the global trade framework was strengthened from a
legal and transactional standpoint (GATT/WTO). In addition, containerization provided
the capabilities to support more complex, and long-distance trade flows, as did the
growing air traffic. Due to high production (legacy) costs in old industrial regions,
activities that were labor-intensive were gradually relocated to lower costs locations,
which came to be known as offshoring. The process began nationally, then went to
nearby countries when possible, and afterward became a truly global phenomenon. Thus,
foreign direct investments surged, particularly towards new manufacturing regions, as
multinational corporations became increasingly flexible in the global positioning of their
assets. The trade of finished and intermediate goods surged.
 Third phase (global value chains). There is a growth in international trade, now including
a wide variety of services that were previously fixed to regional markets and a surge in
the mobility of the factors of production. Since these trends are well established, the
priority is shifting to the geographical and functional integration of production, distribution,
and consumption with the emergence of global value chains. Complex networks involving
flows of information, commodities, parts, and finished goods have been set, which in turn
demands a high level of command of logistics and freight distribution. In such an
environment, powerful actors have emerged who are not directly involved in the function
of production and retailing, but mainly take the responsibility of managing the web of
flows. International trade becomes increasingly supported by digital technologies allowing
for more efficient transactions, compliance with regulations, and the management of the
transportation and logistics assets supporting trade.
The global economic system is thus characterized by a growing level of integrated services,
finance, retail, manufacturing, and distribution. This is mainly the outcome of improved transport
and logistics, more efficient exploitation of regional comparative advantages, and a transactional
environment supportive of the legal and financial complexities of global trade. International trade
requires a full array of services related to distribution and transactions. The volume of exchanged
goods and services between nations is taking a growing share of the generation of wealth,
mainly by offering economic growth opportunities in new regions and by reducing the costs of a
wide array of manufacturing goods. By 2007, international trade surpassed for the first time 50%
of global GDP, a twofold increase in its share since 1950. This share has fluctuated since but
remains in the 45-50% range.
3. Trade Costs and Facilitation
Trade facilitation involves how the procedures regulating the
international movements of goods can be improved so that actors
involved in international trade have move efficient formalities.
For regulatory authorities, trade facilitation improves their effectiveness as well as reduces the
risk of customs duty evasion. It relies on the reduction of the general costs of trade, which
considers transaction, tariff, transport, and time costs, also known as the “Four Ts” in
international trade. These trade costs are derived from two main sources:
 Separation factors. These are usually exogenous factors separating two trade partners,
such as distance, transportation costs, travel time, as well as common attributes shared
by trade partners. These usually involve being part of an economic agreement (e.g. a
free trade zone), which is facilitated when partners have a common boundary.
 Country-specific factors. Relates endogenous to factors that are either related to the
origin or the destination of trade. This usually involves customs procedures (tariff and
non-tariff factors), the overall performance of the national transport and logistics sector,
and how well an economy is connected to the international transport system through its
gateways (mostly ports and airports).
United Nations estimates have underlined that for developing countries, a 10% reduction in
transportation costs could be accompanied by a growth of about 20% in international and
domestic trade. Thus, the ability to compete in a global economy is dependent on the transport
system as well as a trade facilitation framework that includes measures related to economic
integration, the capabilities of international transportation systems, and the ease of negotiating
and settling transactions.
Levels of Economic Integration
The quality, cost, and efficiency of trade services influence the trading environment as well as the
overall costs linked with the international trade of goods. Many factors have been conducive to
trade facilitation in recent decades:
 Integration processes, such as the emergence of economic blocks and the decrease of
tariffs at a global scale through agreements, promoted trade as regulatory regimes were
harmonized. One straightforward measure of integration relates to custom delays, which
can be a significant trade impediment since it adds uncertainty to supply chain
management. The higher the level of economic integration, the more likely the concerned
elements are to trade. International trade has consequently been facilitated by a set of
factors linked with growing levels of economic integration, the outcome of processes
such as the European Union or the North American Free Trade Agreement. The
transactional capacity is consequently facilitated by the development of transportation
networks and the adjustment of trade flows that follows increased integration. Integration
processes have also taken place at the local scale with the creation of free zones where
an area is given a different governance structure in order to promote trade,
particularly export-oriented activities. In this case, the integration process is not uniform,
as only a portion of an area is involved. China is a salient example of the far-reaching
impacts of the setting of special economic zones operating under a different regulatory
regime.
 Standardization concerns the setting of a common and ubiquitous frame of reference
over information and physical flows. Standards facilitate trade since those abiding by
them benefit from reliable, interoperable, and compatible goods and services, which often
results in lower production, distribution, and maintenance costs. Measurement units were
among the first globally accepted standards (metric system), and the development of
information technologies eventually led to common operating and telecommunication
systems. It is, however, the container that is considered to be the most
significant international standard for trade facilitation. By offering a load unit that can be
handled by any mode and terminal with the proper equipment, access to international
trade is improved.
 Production systems are more flexible and embedded. It is effectively productive to
maintain a network of geographically diversified inputs, which favors exchanges of
commodities, parts, and services. Information technologies have played a role by
facilitating transactions and the management of complex business operations. Foreign
direct investments are commonly linked with the globalization of production as
corporations invest abroad in search of lower production costs and new markets. China is
a leading example of such a process, which went on par with the growing availability of
goods and services that can be traded on the global market.
 Transport efficiency has increased significantly because of innovations and
improvements in the modes and infrastructures in terms of their capacity and throughput.
Ports are particularly important in such a context since they are gateways to international
trade through maritime shipping networks. As a result, the transferability of commodities,
parts, and finished goods has improved. Decreasing transport costs does more than
increase trade; it can also help change the location of economic activities. Yet,
transborder transportation issues remain to be better addressed in terms of capacity,
efficiency, and security.
 Transactional efficiency. An international trade transaction can generate up to 27
documents, nine of which are related to the transfer of possession from the seller to the
carrier and to the beneficial cargo owner. The financial sector also played a significant
role in integrating global trade, namely by providing investment capital and credit for
international commercial transactions. For instance, a letter of credit may be issued
 based upon an export contract. An exporter can thus receive a payment guarantee from
a bank until its customer finalizes the transaction upon delivery. This is particularly
important since the delivery of international trade transactions can take several weeks
due to the long distances involved. Recent efforts towards digitalization are further
pushing towards higher levels of transactional efficiency since documentation is in digital
format. During a transfer, it is also common that the cargo is insured in the event of
damage, theft, or delays, a function supported by insurance companies. Also, global
financial systems allow for currency exchanges according to exchange rates that are
commonly set by market forces. In contrast, some currencies, such as the Chinese Yuan,
are influenced by policy. Monetary policy can thus be a tool, albeit contentious, used to
influence trade.
All these measures are expected to promote the level of economic and social development of the
concerned nations since trade facilitation relies on the expansion of human, infrastructure, and
institutional capabilities.

<a href="https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4087" class="custom-link no-lightbox"

title="Impacts of Economic Integration Processes on Networks and Flows" aria-label=""
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of Economic Integration Processes on Networks and Flows | The Geography of Transport
Systems&nbsp;" data-attachment-id="4085" data-
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entation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}" data-image-title="Impacts of Economic Integration Processes on
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Economic Integration Processes on Networks and Flows&lt;/p&gt;" data-medium-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?fit=300%2C205&amp;ssl=1" data-large-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?fit=900%2C615&amp;ssl=1" decoding="async"
loading="lazy" width="900" height="615" data-id="4085"
src="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=900%2C615&#038;ssl=1" alt=""
class="wp-image-4085" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=1024%2C700&amp;ssl=1 1024w,
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content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=300%2C205&amp;ssl=1 300w,
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content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=768%2C525&amp;ssl=1 768w,
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content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=1536%2C1051&amp;ssl=1 1536w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?resize=2048%2C1401&amp;ssl=1 2048w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/integration_networks_flows.png?w=1800&amp;ssl=1 1800w" sizes="(max-width:
900px) 100vw, 900px" data-recalc-dims="1" /></a>
Impacts of Economic Integration Processes on Networks and Flows

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title="China&#8217;s Special Economic Zones" aria-label="" onclick="event.stopPropagation()"
target="_self" rel=""><img data-lazy-fallback="1" title="China&#039;s Special Economic Zones |
The Geography of Transport Systems&nbsp;" data-attachment-id="4101" data-
permalink="https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-
trade/special-economic-zones-china/map-china-special-economic-zones-png/" data-orig-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-
Economic-Zones.png?fit=3004%2C2194&amp;ssl=1" data-orig-size="3004,2194" data-comments-
opened="0" data-image-
meta="{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quo
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quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;ori
entation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}" data-image-title="China&#8217;s Special Economic Zones" data-
image-description="" data-image-caption="&lt;p&gt;China&#8217;s Special Economic
Zones&lt;/p&gt;" data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?fit=300%2C219&amp;ssl=1" data-
large-file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-
Economic-Zones.png?fit=900%2C657&amp;ssl=1" decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="900"
height="657" data-id="4101" src="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?resize=900%2C657&#038;ssl=1" alt=""
class="wp-image-4101" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?resize=1024%2C748&amp;ssl=1
1024w, https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-
Economic-Zones.png?resize=300%2C219&amp;ssl=1 300w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-
Zones.png?resize=768%2C561&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-Zones.png?w=1800&amp;ssl=1 1800w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-China-Special-Economic-
Zones.png?w=2700&amp;ssl=1 2700w" sizes="(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px" data-recalc-
dims="1" /></a>
Chinas Special Economic Zones

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title="Value of Chinese Exports and FDI" aria-label="" onclick="event.stopPropagation()"
target="_self" rel=""><img data-lazy-fallback="1" title="Value of Chinese Exports and FDI | The
Geography of Transport Systems&nbsp;" data-attachment-id="4107" data-
permalink="https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-
trade/china-exports-fdi/china_fdi/" data-orig-file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/china_fdi.png?fit=4290%2C2010&amp;ssl=1" data-orig-size="4290,2010" data-
comments-opened="0" data-image-
meta="{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quo
t;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;
,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&
quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;ori
entation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}" data-image-title="Value of Chinese Exports and FDI" data-image-
description="" data-image-caption="&lt;p&gt;Value of Chinese Exports and FDI, 1983-
2021&lt;/p&gt;" data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/china_fdi.png?fit=300%2C141&amp;ssl=1" data-large-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/china_fdi.png?fit=900%2C422&amp;ssl=1" decoding="async" loading="lazy"
width="900" height="422" data-id="4107" src="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=900%2C422&#038;ssl=1" alt="" class="wp-image-4107"
srcset="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/china_fdi.png?w=4290&amp;ssl=1 4290w,
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content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=300%2C141&amp;ssl=1 300w,
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content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=1024%2C480&amp;ssl=1 1024w,
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content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=768%2C360&amp;ssl=1 768w,
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content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=1536%2C720&amp;ssl=1 1536w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/china_fdi.png?resize=2048%2C960&amp;ssl=1 2048w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/china_fdi.png?w=1800&amp;ssl=1
1800w, https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/china_fdi.png?w=2700&amp;ssl=1 2700w" sizes="(max-width: 900px) 100vw,
900px" data-recalc-dims="1" /></a>
Value of Chinese Exports and FDI 1983 2021 Billions of $US

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title="yuan_exchange_rate" aria-label="" onclick="event.stopPropagation()" target="_self"
rel=""><img data-lazy-fallback="1" title="yuan_exchange_rate | The Geography of Transport
Systems&nbsp;" data-attachment-id="4112" data-
permalink="https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-
trade/yuan-usd-exchange-rate/yuan_exchange_rate/" data-orig-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?fit=4290%2C2010&amp;ssl=1" data-orig-
size="4290,2010" data-comments-opened="0" data-image-
meta="{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quo
t;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;
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quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;ori
entation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}" data-image-title="yuan_exchange_rate" data-image-
description="" data-image-caption="&lt;p&gt;Yuan Exchange Rate (per USD), 1981-2022
(Monthly)&lt;/p&gt;" data-medium-file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?fit=300%2C141&amp;ssl=1" data-large-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?fit=900%2C422&amp;ssl=1" decoding="async"
loading="lazy" width="900" height="422" data-id="4112"
src="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?resize=900%2C422&#038;ssl=1" alt="" class="wp-
image-4112" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?w=4290&amp;ssl=1 4290w,
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content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?resize=300%2C141&amp;ssl=1 300w,
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content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?resize=1024%2C480&amp;ssl=1 1024w,
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content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?resize=768%2C360&amp;ssl=1 768w,
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content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?resize=1536%2C720&amp;ssl=1 1536w,
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content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?resize=2048%2C960&amp;ssl=1 2048w,
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content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?w=1800&amp;ssl=1 1800w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/yuan_exchange_rate.png?w=2700&amp;ssl=1 2700w" sizes="(max-width: 900px)
100vw, 900px" data-recalc-dims="1" /></a>
Yuan Exchange Rate per USD 1981 2022 Monthly
4. Global Trade Flows
The nature of what can be considered international trade has changed, particularly with the
emergence of global value chains and the trade of intermediary goods they involve. This trend
obviously reflects the strategies of multinational corporations positioning their manufacturing
assets in order to lower costs and maximize new market opportunities. About 80% of the global
trade takes place within value chains managed by multinational corporations. International trade
has thus grown at a faster rate than global merchandise production, with the growing complexity
of distribution systems supported by supply chain management practices. The structure of global
trade flows has shifted, with many developing economies having growing participation in
international trade with an increasing share of manufacturing.
Globalization has been accompanied by growing flows of manufactured goods and their growing
share of international trade. The trend since the 1950s involved a relative decline in bulk liquids
(such as oil) and more dry bulk and general cargo being traded. The share of fuels in
international trade tends to fluctuate in accordance with changes in energy demand and prices.
Another emerging trade flow concerns the increase in the imports of resources from developing
economies, namely energy, commodities, and agricultural products, which is a divergence from
their conventional role as exporters of resources. This is indicative of economic diversification as
well as increasing standards of living. However, significant fluctuations in the growth rates of
international trade are linked with economic cycles of growth and recession, fluctuations in the
price of raw materials, as well as disruptive geopolitical and financial events.
<a href="https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4120" class="custom-link no-lightbox"
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meta="{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quo
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entation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}" data-image-title="world_merchandise_gpd_trade" data-image-
description="" data-image-caption="&lt;p&gt;Changes in the Value World&#8217;s Merchandise
Trade, Production and GDP, 1950-2021&lt;/p&gt;" data-medium-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?fit=300%2C141&amp;ssl=1" data-large-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?fit=900%2C422&amp;ssl=1"
decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="900" height="422" data-id="4118"
src="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?resize=900%2C422&#038;ssl=1" alt=""
class="wp-image-4118" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?w=4290&amp;ssl=1 4290w,
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content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?resize=300%2C141&amp;ssl=1 300w,
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content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?resize=1024%2C480&amp;ssl=1 1024w,
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content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?resize=768%2C360&amp;ssl=1 768w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?resize=1536%2C720&amp;ssl=1 1536w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?resize=2048%2C960&amp;ssl=1 2048w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?w=1800&amp;ssl=1 1800w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/world_merchandise_gpd_trade.png?w=2700&amp;ssl=1 2700w" sizes="(max-
width: 900px) 100vw, 900px" data-recalc-dims="1" /></a>
Changes in the Value Worlds Merchandise Trade Production and GDP 1950 2021
<a href="https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=7881" class="custom-link no-lightbox"
title="Map-Global-Trade" aria-label="" onclick="event.stopPropagation()" target="_self"
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data-image-
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entation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}" data-image-title="Map-Global-Trade" data-image-description=""
data-image-caption="&lt;p&gt;Global Trade, 2017&lt;/p&gt;" data-medium-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-
Trade.png?fit=300%2C185&amp;ssl=1" data-large-
file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-
Trade.png?fit=900%2C555&amp;ssl=1" decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="900"
height="555" data-id="7884" src="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/Map-Global-Trade.png?resize=900%2C555&#038;ssl=1" alt="" class="wp-image-
7884" srcset="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-
Trade.png?resize=1024%2C631&amp;ssl=1 1024w, https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/Map-Global-Trade.png?resize=300%2C185&amp;ssl=1 300w,
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Trade.png?resize=768%2C473&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
content/uploads/Map-Global-Trade.png?w=1800&amp;ssl=1 1800w,
https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-content/uploads/Map-Global-
Trade.png?w=2700&amp;ssl=1 2700w" sizes="(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px" data-recalc-
dims="1" /></a>
Global Trade 2017
<a href="https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4130" class="custom-link no-lightbox"
title="Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade" aria-label=""
onclick="event.stopPropagation()" target="_self" rel=""><img data-lazy-fallback="1" title="Share
of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade | The Geography of Transport Systems&nbsp;"
data-attachment-id="4128" data-
permalink="https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter7/globalization-international-
trade/product-groups-global-trade/products_world_merchandise_trade/" data-orig-
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content/uploads/products_world_merchandise_trade.png?fit=4290%2C2010&amp;ssl=1" data-
orig-size="4290,2010" data-comments-opened="0" data-image-
meta="{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quo
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file="https://i0.wp.com/transportgeography.org/wp-
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Share of Product Groups in World Merchandise Trade 1900 2020

<a href="https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=4205" class="custom-link no-lightbox"

title="Merchandise Exports by Trade Agreement" aria-label="" onclick="event.stopPropagation()"
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Merchandise Exports by Trade Agreement 2015
5. Global Trade at a Threshold?

At the beginning of the 21st century, the flows of globalization have been shaped by five salient
trends:
 The ongoing growth of international trade, both in absolute terms and in relation to global
national income, appears to be leveling off. From 1980 to 2020, the value of exports has
grown by a factor of 8.9 times if measured in current dollars, while GDP increased 7.4
times and the population increased 1.7 times. Since the 2010s, international trade
appears to be leveling and subject to more volatility.
 A substantial level of containerization of commercial flows, with container throughput
growing in proportion with global trade. Containerization tends to grow at a rate faster
than that of trade and GDP. This has been associated with the setting of intermodal
transport chains connecting exporters and importers.
 A concentration of finished goods exports in a limited number of producing countries. For
instance, 79% of the provision of computer equipment and 75% of the phones is
accounted by five countries. The level of concentration is lower for intermediate goods,
underlining an active trade of parts within supply chains. For imports, the destinations
tend to be much more diversified, reflecting an existing demand irrespective of the origin
of the products.
 A higher relative growth of trade in emerging economies, particularly in Pacific Asia that
focus on export-oriented development strategies that have been associated
with imbalances in commercial relations.
 The growing role of multinational corporations as vectors for international trade,
particularly in terms of the share of international trade taking place within corporations
and the high level of concentration of their head offices.
 The Four Industrial Revolutions
 Still, many challenges are impacting future developments in international trade and
transportation, mostly in terms of demographics, politics, supply chain, energy, and
environmental issues. While the global population and its derived demand will continue to
grow and reach around 9 billion by 2050, demographic changes such as the aging of the
population, particularly in developed economies, will transform consumption patterns as a
growing share of the population shifts from wealth-producing (working and saving) to
 wealth consuming (selling saved assets). Demographic trends in North America, Europe,
and East Asia (e.g. Japan, South Korea, Taiwan) may not place them as drivers of global
trade, a function they have assumed in recent decades. The demographic dividend in
terms of peak share of the working-age population that many countries benefited from,
particularly China, will recede. This has ramifications on both the demand side
(consumption structure) and the production side (workforce).
 The regulatory environment and the involvement of governments, either directly or
indirectly, are subject to increasing contention. Reforms in agricultural trade have not
been effectively carried on, implying that many governments (e.g. in the EU) provide high
subsidy levels to their agricultural sectors, undermining the competitiveness of foreign
agricultural goods. This is undertaken with the intent to protect their agriculture,
considering the risks associated with dependency on foreign providers and possible
fluctuations in prices. Intellectual property rights remain a contentious issue as well since
many goods are duplicated, undermining the brands of major manufacturers and retailers.
There is also a whole array of subsidies that influence the competitiveness of exports,
such as low energy and land costs and tax reductions. The rise of protectionist policies,
as exemplified by higher tariffs imposed by the American government on several Chinese
goods in 2018, is underlining a contentious trade environment this is likely to endure.
 As both maritime and air freight transportation depend on petroleum, international trade
remains influenced by fluctuations in energy prices. The paradox has become that
periods of high energy prices usually impose a rationalization of international trade and
its underlying supply chains. However, periods of low or sharply declining energy prices,
which should benefit international transportation, are linked with economic recessions.
Environmental issues have also become more salient with the growing tendency of the
public sector to regulate components of international transportation that are judged to
have negative externalities. International trade enables several countries to mask their
energy consumption and pollutant emissions by importing goods that are produced
elsewhere and where environmental externalities are generated. Thus, international trade
has permitted a shift in the international division of production, but also a division
between the generation of environmental externalities and the consumption of the goods
related to these externalities.
 Technological changes are impacting the nature of manufacturing systems through
robotization and automation. The ongoing fourth industrial revolution is changing input
costs, particularly labor. Since a good share of international trade is the result of the
convenience of comparative advantages, automation and robotization can undermine the
standard advantages of lower labor costs and make manufacturing more productive at
other locations, such as those closer to major markets. Further, since many developing
economies remain complex places to undertake business as state and national firms are
privileged, the loss of labor cost advantages could undermine future development
prospects. This is likely to have a strong influence on the nature and volume of
international trade, which could level and even regress. If this is the case, absolute
advantages, such as resources, would play a greater influence on trade, as was the case
before the 1970s.

Conclusion
 Global Governance in 2030. Prospective Scenarios on the Future of Politics

JULIA POMARESMARÍA BELÉN ABDALA

ACCESS THE DOCUMENT
We are living in an era of unprecedented changes. Mature democracies, emerging polities and
the least electorally competitive countries are now facing new challenges in a globalized world.
They are all dealing with technological breakthroughs, changes in global economic power,
ageing populations and urbanization of their territories.
Today’s picture shows that social inclusion seems to be an unfulfilled promise, and social
cohesion is weakening. Some citizens are disenchanted, and political systems are having trouble
adapting and responding to new demands.

According to Edelman’s Trust Barometer (2017), one in every two countries does not have faith in the
system, and we still do not know how this picture is going to evolve. In democracies, pro-democracy
attitudes coexist with openness to nondemocratic forms of governance, such as rule by experts (49
per cent), strong leaders (26 per cent) or the military (24 per cent). This picture might be part of a
transition period or indicating that polities are not being able to cope with some of the new challenges.

It is why we need to think about the future of politics and how these trends will shape global
governance in the next 10 to 20 years. Are political systems ready to govern a digital economy? How
should political leaders evolve to address radical changes in an automated world? What will the
consequences be for global governance and for the role of G20?

This paper analyzes current global trends in domestic politics and the prospective scenarios on the
future of politics. To do so, the paper presents a brief description on three forces we know will forge
the future: technological breakthroughs, demographic changes and shifts in global economic power.
Later, it turns to the uncertainty of the future. We live in nation states, so we first attempt to devise
how these forces will shape domestic politics. We then look at global governance and the way these
trends will impact upon it. The final stop of this journey is an analysis of the implications of these
scenarios for the role of the G20.

The report draws heavily from the results of an intensive design thinking workshop led by PwC’s
Global Leader, Strategy and Leadership Development, Blair Sheppard. Workshop participants
explored how political systems can confront disruptive, rather than incremental, change, worldwide.
They engaged in a ‘strategic foresight’ exercise, an analytical exercise that involves thinking through
various ways the future might unfold. We want to thank PwC for their invaluable collaboration, and
specially to Blair Sheppard and Ramiro Albrieu (CIPPEC), Bethan Grillo (PwC), Alexis Jenkins (PwC),
Gianluca Grimalda (Kiel Institute for the Economy), Jann Lay (GIGA), Sonia Jalfin (Sociopúblico),
Colm Kelly (PwC), Martín Rapetti (CIPPEC), Justine Brown (PwC), Dennis Snower (Kiel Institute for
the Economy) and Richard Wike (Pew Research Center), for joining us in this enterprise.

The Future of Government project explored how we can rethink the social contract according to
the needs of today’s society, what elements need to be adjusted to deliver value and good to
people and society, what values we need to improve society, and how we can obtain a new
sense of responsibility. Based on the experience from previous decades, it is now very important
to think of how new governance models will be developed to anticipate and be prepared for
possible futures and what citizens’ requirements are. Large patterns and trends have emerged
from the FuturGov scenarios. This has already been discussed in The Future of Government
2030+: A Citizen-Centric Perspective on New Government Models report , published earlier this
year. Based on this, The Future of Government 2030+: Policy Implications and
Recommendations report provides follow-up insights into the policy implications and o ers a set
of 57 recommendations, organised in nine policy areas. These stem from a process based on
interviews with 20 stakeholders and a participatory workshop with 19 stakeholders. The
recommendations include a series of policy options and actions that could be implemented at di
er- ent levels of governance systems. As these recommendations have shown, collaboration is
needed across di erent policy elds and they should be acted upon as integrated package.
Although the majority of rec- ommendations is intended for the EU policymakers, their
implementation could be more e ective if done through lower levels of governance, eg. local,
regional or even national.