TURN CORDINATOR

Static Pressure : When the air is at rest and exert pressure in all direction uniformly is called static
pressure . This ambient pressure is known as Static pressure.

Dynamic Pressure : When the air is in motion, additional pressure is exerted in the direction
opposite to the flow , this pressure is called dynamic pressure and is used in ASI.

This additional pressure is Dynamic pressure, and its value depends on the speed of the aircraft
through the air and on the density of the air.

The leading edges, therefore, encounter a total pressure consisting of static pressure plus dynamic
pressure. This total pressure is known as Pitot pressure.

Two of the pressure-dependent flight instruments, the altimeter and vertical speed indicator,
operate solely on static pressure.

The airspeed indicator and machmeter utilise both static and pitot pressures.

PITOT/STATIC HEADS

Pitot Tube is an open-ended tube parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft is used to sense the
total pressure
A ‘static head’ consists of a tube with its forward end sealed but with holes or slots cut in the sides.
These slots do not face into the airflow and therefore, in theory, they sense only the static pressure.

Terminology

Altitude : Vertical distance above mean sea level

Height : Vertical distance of a level or point measured from a specific datum, e.g. above aerodrome
surface.

Elevation Vertical distance of a fixed object above mean sea level (e.g. aerodrome or obstacle)

The Altimeter : An altimeter is an instrument which measures pressure and causes a needle to move
across a dial. The instrument is calibrated in accordance with the ICAO International Standard
Atmosphere so that all altimeters will read the same altitude for the same pressure.

The relationship between height and Pressure is used in an altimeter.

Range of Subscale (850 – 1050HPa).
Pressure Settings
The pressure reading from the barometer is reduced to a common level , called MSL. Such
practice is called pressure setting.
QFE : The actual atmospheric pressure measured at the aerodrome reference point.(ARP= Highest
point on Landing Area

With QFE set on the altimeter the altimeter will read :

On Aerodrome : zero feet

Airborne : the height of the aircraft from the ARP.

QFF

It is the pressure at the airfield converted to MSL using the actual conditions.

This is used for plotting on Synoptic charts and drawing isobars.

Q2 : On a surface weather chart, isobars are lines of: a. QNH b. QFE c. QFF d. QNE

Q13 . An isobar on a meteorological chart joins all places having the same: a. QFE b. QFF c. QNH d.
standard pressure

QNH

It is the pressure at the airfield (QFE), converted (reduced/ corrected) to MSL using the ISA
Conditions (Temp and Pressure)

QNH is always a whole number without any decimal places and is always rounded down.

When on the aerodrome with QNH set the altimeter will read aerodrome elevation. The Altimeter
will show the vertical distance from MSL. It is also called absolute altitude

This is used for maintaining vertical separation between aircraft and from terrain.
Correct use of Reginal QNH ensures adequate terrain clearance.

QNE : It is the altitude indicated on altimeter on landing when the sub scale is set to 1013.25 hpa.

This altitude is known as QNE

Normally QNE is used for high altitude airfields.

Transition Altitude : The Highest altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is
controlled by reference to altitude (QNH).The airacft fly on QNH at or below TA.

QNH to (QNE)

Transition Level : The lowest flight level above which the aircraft will always fly on standard setting
of 1013.25hpa.

Transition Layer : The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level.

Flight Level : Theses are Level of constant atmospheric pressure at or above TL measured from the
1013 hPa(MSL) datum and is used for vertical separation by specified pressure intervals (usually 500
or 1000 ft).

Flight Level is measured in hundreds of feet. e.g. FL350 = 35000 ft. FL 50= 5000ft.

Pressure Altitude : When the altimeter subscale is set to 1013.25, the altimeter indicate Pressure
altitude.. Using 1013.25 setting avoids the need to update QNH.

Pressure attitude are expressed as eg 4500, 22000, 45000etc. whereas the altitude is expressed as

FL45, FL220, FL450.( avoiding the last two zero).

When the subscale is set to a value less than QNH , the altimeter indicate lower than actual height
above sea level.

When the subscale is set to a value greater than QNH , the altimeter indicate higher than actual
height above sea level.

UNDER READING OVER READING

TRUE ALTITUDE:- . It is the actual physical altitude of the Aircraft above the Sea Level.

Indicated Altitude : Altitude indicated on the altimeter.

If during a flight the pressure falls then altimeter overreads and under reads if pressure rises.

Low pressure – Altimeter – Over reads

High Pressure – Altimter Under reads

General Rule - HLHL

High to Low – Over reads Low to High – Under Reads
Warm to Cold – Over reads Cold to Warm – Under Reads
ALTIMETER ERRORS

Time Lag : With many types of altimeter the response to change of height is not instantaneous. This
causes the altimeter to under-read in a climb and over-read in a descent.

Instrument Error Manufacturing imperfections, including friction in the linkage, cause errors
throughout the operating range.

Position (or Pressure) Error This is largely due to the inability to sense the true static pressure
outside the aircraft,

Manoeuvre-Induced Error This is caused by transient fluctuations of pressure at the static vent
during change of, mainly, pitch attitude and delays in the transmission of pressure changes

Barometric Error Providing the altimeter has a pressure sub-scale, and the local QNH is set on it, the
altimeter will indicate height AMSL (though still subject to the other errors). If the local surface
pressure has changed since the QNH value was set, a ‘barometric’ error of roughly 30 feet per
millibar will result. If pressure has fallen the altimeter over-reads.

Temperature Error.

Even with no other errors at all, the pressure altimeter will not indicate true altitude (height AMSL)
unless the surface temperature and lapse rate of the column of air are those assumed in the
calibration.
BLOCKAGES AND LEAKS

If the static source becomes blocked, the altimeter will not register any change in height - the height
at which the blockage occurred will still be indicated regardless of any climb or descent

Should the static line fracture in a pressurised aircraft, the altimeter will show the (lower) cabin
altitude rather than aircraft altitude

A fracture in the static line within an unpressurised aircraft will normally result in the altimeter
overreading, due to the pressure in the cabin being lower than ambient due to aerodynamic suction.

. If the aircraft is CLIMBING then the altimeter will UNDER READ

If the aircraft is DECSCENDING then the altimeter will OVER READ.

 AIRSPEED INDICATOR
The ASI measures airspeed by measuring dynamic pressure, displaying the result (usually in knots)
on a suitably calibrated scale. (1 knot is 1 nautical mile per hour).

ASI Definitions
VS0 = The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration.

VS1 = The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in a specified configuration.

VFE = The maximum Flap Extension speed

VNO = The maximum normal operating limit speed.

VNE = The Never Exceed speed

VLO = The maximum Landing Gear Operation speed (up or down).

VLE = The maximum speed Landing Gear Extended speed

VYSE = Best rate of climb when Single Engine (2 eng a/c)

Coloured Markings Some ASI incorporate coloured markings on the dial - these >range
markings’ consist of coloured arcs and radial lines
WHITE ARC VSO – VFE
GREEN ARC VS1 - VNO
YELLOW ARC VNO - VNE
RED RADIAL LINE VNE
BLUE RADIAL LINE VYSE
ERRORS
INSTRUMENT POSITION/PRESSURE

MANOEUVRE-INDUCED

COMPRESSIBILITY

DENSITY ERROR

BLOCKAGE
Pitot Head
LEVEL FLIGHT . If the pitot head becomes blocked, the ASI reading will, in general, remain unchanged.

DESCENT With a blocked pitot source, the ASI under-reads in a descent.

CLIMB With a blocked pitot source, the ASI under-reads in a descent over read in Climb

Static Head A static head is more exposed to icing conditions and is therefore more likely to become
obstructed than a static vent.

DESCENT With a blocked static source, the ASI over-reads in a descent.

CLIMB With climb with blocked static source the ASI under- reading

ALTERNATIVE STATIC SOURCE : The effects would usually result in a higher static pressure and thus produce an
underreading

A useful mnemonic for examinations is PUDSOD, which stands for

‘Pitot Blocked: – Under-reads in Descent Static Blocked: – Over-reads in Descent’

LEAKS

Pitot Leaks :A leak in the pitot tube causes the ASI to under-read because of the loss of dynamic pressure.

Static Leaks

1. UNPRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT – ASI OVERREAD

2. PRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT – ASI UNDERREADS

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)

1. The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) displays rate of climb or descent.

PRINCIPLE

1. The VSI measures the pressure difference between each side of a restricted choke/metering unit.

2. During a climb or descent, air fed to the choke immediately responds to the change of atmospheric pressure
but the choke transmits this change at a lower rate

3. In level flight the pressures on each side of the choke are the same

4. The case is fed with static pressure through a restricted choke, thus if the static pressure is

changed the pressure surrounding the capsule changes at a slower rate than that within the capsule
ERRORS : INSTRUMENT POSITION and TIME LAG

BLOCKAGE Any blockages of the static line or vent will cause the needle to return to zero.

THE ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

The artificial horizon (AH) provides the pilot with information in terms of the aircraft’s attitude both
in pitch and roll.

It is a primary instrument, replacing the natural horizon in poor visibility.

The attitude display consists of a miniature aircraft shape or ‘gull-wing’ (tail view) painted or
engraved centrally on the inside of the glass face of the instrument, and therefore fixed to the
instrument case and the actual aircraft.

1. The artificial horizon, or AH, is also known as the attitude indicator or, AI.
Errors in pitch and roll indications will occur.
THE TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

THE RATE OF TURN INDICATOR This instrument incorporates two measuring devices, both indicating
on the same instrument face. One of these, the rate of turn indicator, (commonly shortened to ‘turn’
indicator), uses a rate gyro to measure rate of turn about a vertical axis. The other, the slip indicator,
is a very simple pendulous device which is used mainly to show whether or not a turn is balanced,
(whether the angle of bank is correct for the TAS and rate of turn),
Rate 1 turn – Standard Turn – 2 minutes
3 degress per second
180 deegress turn in 1 minute
360 degrees in 2 minutes

Higher TAS would require larger bank angle

Turn coordinator – the schematic aircraft – Shows the direction and rate of turn

Turn Cordinator indicates roll and yaw .

Slip indicator – Ball -

Turn coordinator does not indicate bank.

Rate 2 turn – 1 minute

. If aircraft is turning and bank angle is more or aircraft overbanks, centrifugal force will be less than
gravitational force, therefore aircraft slips into a turn.

. If the aircraft under banks, centrifugal force will be greater than gravitational force, therefore
aircraft will skid in a turn.
DGI
1. The directional gyro indicator (DGI), often called the ‘direction indicator’ (DI) provides a stable
directional reference in azimuth for maintaining accurate headings and for executing precise turns.
2. There is no magnetic element in the DI, so it is not north-seeking and must initially be
synchronized with the magnetic compass.
• DGI is reset every 15 minutes for accurate result or else it gives the error of 4o per 15 minutes

THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

A compass is an instrument designed to indicate direction on the surface of the earth, relative to
some known datum. The magnetic compass uses the horizontal component of the earth’s field as its
directional datum. DIRECT INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS There are two basic types of direct
reading magnetic compasses used in aircraft, the vertical card and, less commonly, the grid ring
compass

It is usually the main magnetic heading reference in light aircraft and the standby compass in larger
aircraft

It consists of a circular compass card attached directly to the magnet assembly.

. This combined unit is suspended in liquid within the compass bowl.

A vertical lubber line on the glass window of the bowl, enables the heading to be read off the
compass card.