713471

research-article2017
EAU0010.1177/0956247817713471Environment & UrbanizationShort Title

Greenhouse gas emissions profiles

of neighbourhoods in Durban, South
Africa – an initial investigation

Meryl Jagarnath and Tirusha Thambiran

Meryl Jagarnath is a PhD Abstract Because current emissions accounting approaches focus on an entire
student in the School of city, cities are often considered to be large emitters of greenhouse gas (GHG)
Agricultural, Earth and emissions, with no attention to the variation within them. This makes it more
Environmental Sciences
at the University of
difficult to identify climate change mitigation strategies that can simultaneously
KwaZulu-Natal, where reduce emissions and address place-specific development challenges. In response
she is researching urban to this gap, a bottom-up emissions inventory study was undertaken to identify
development and land use high emission zones and development goals for the Durban metropolitan area
planning under climate (eThekwini Municipality). The study is the first attempt at creating a spatially
change in South Africa.
disaggregated emissions inventory for key sectors in Durban. The results indicate
Address: School of that particular groups and economic activities are responsible for more emissions,
Agricultural, Earth and and socio-spatial development and emission inequalities are found both within
Environmental Sciences, the city and within the high emission zone. This is valuable information for
University of KwaZulu-
the municipality in tailoring mitigation efforts to reduce emissions and address
Natal, Westville Campus,
Private Bag X 54001, development gaps for low-carbon spatial planning whilst contributing to objectives
Durban 4000, South Africa; for social justice.
e-mail: mjagarnath@gmail.
com Keywords  carbon emissions / climate change mitigation / climate justice /
Tirusha Thambiran is a greenhouse gas emissions inventories / neighbourhood scale / South Africa
Senior Researcher at
the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research
(CSIR) and an honorary
researcher at the University I. Introduction
of KwaZulu-Natal. Her
area of interest lies in the
study of means to mitigate
It is estimated that up to 80 per cent of global carbon-based greenhouse
and adapt to the negative gas (GHG) emissions can be attributed to urban centres, highlighting
effects of climate change. their disparate contribution to global emissions relative to their
Address: e-mail: land area.(1) Urbanization is important for the economic growth that
[email protected] underpins development, but it can be associated with various social
and environmental challenges, including urban sprawl, informal
settlement growth, increasing risk of climate change and disasters,
decreasing environmental health, habitat destruction and increasing
1. IPCC (2014). GHG emissions. Countries in the global South, especially, face major
2. Fleurbaey et al. (2014). development challenges along with their rising emissions.(2) In these
3. Romero-Lankao and Dodman countries, responding to emissions can be considered an opportunity not
(2011). only for making the transition to low-carbon cities,(3) but for working
4. Dulal and Akbar (2013); simultaneously towards other important development goals.(4) Despite the
Garibaldi et al. (2014). extent of the challenges in cities in the global South, there has been little
mitigation research from these countries. While emissions inventories
are not uncommon, research addressing mitigation in the context of the

Environment & Urbanization Copyright © 2017 International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). 191
Vol 30(1): 191–214. DOI: 10.1177/0956247817713471 www.sagepublications.com
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247817713471
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

wider range of development challenges is especially lacking. In focusing

on Durban in South Africa (SA), this paper contributes to addressing this
gap.
A specific challenge for climate change mitigation is the spatial
distribution of GHG emissions within cities due to the varying industrial,
development, social, economic and natural conditions in different parts of
the city. Responsibilities and mitigation efforts need to be tailored to those
differences.(5) Spatial planning on the part of local governments is therefore 5. VandeWeghe and Kennedy
an essential component of strategic policies to address climate mitigation, (2007); Andrews (2008); Knuth
(2010); Hillmer-Pegram et al.
but has only recently been addressed as part of climate mitigation, even (2012); Seto et al. (2014); Guo
in high-income countries in Europe and North America.(6) For the global et al. (2015).
South, this complex spatial distribution of emissions and developmental 6. Bulkeley (2006); Campbell
needs provides the context for equitable and fair mitigation interventions (2006); Crawford and French
and outcomes linked to sustainable development.(7) This is key as there (2008); Biesbroek et al. (2009);
Williams (2012).
are concerns that climate change interventions can reproduce or reinforce
7. IPCC (2014).
existing spatial and social inequalities or create new inequalities within
the city,(8) undermining sustainable development. This brings the issue 8. Bulkeley et al. (2014);
of climate justice, usually addressed within the international climate Anguelovski et al. (2016); Shi
et al. (2016).
policy arena, to the local scale.(9) Climate justice encompasses distributive
9. Bulkeley et al. (2014);
justice, procedural justice, and recognition of existing injustices.(10)
Fleurbaey et al. (2014).
In the case of mitigation, distributive justice concerns rights and
10. Paavola and Adger (2006);
responsibilities – who has the right to emit GHGs and who should take Bulkeley et al. (2014).
responsibility for climate change by reducing their GHG emissions.(11) 11. Bulkeley et al. (2014).
Initially framed in relation to nation-states, there is increasing attention
to relating the responsibilities for GHG emissions to the individual.(12) 12. Paavola and Adger (2006);
Procedural justice concerns access to, and inclusion and participation Bulkeley et al. (2014).
in, decision-making. The recognition of historical injustices and of
differential responsibilities, costs and benefits of mitigation for various
actors can contribute to the successful implementation of interventions
that deliver developmental co-benefits.(13) These aspects determine the 13. Bulkeley et al. (2014); IPCC
fair distribution of rights, responsibilities, capacities, burdens and benefits (2014) Anguelovski et al. (2016);
Chu (2016); Shi et al. (2016).
among people over space and time.(14)
14. Bulkeley et al. (2013);
This study provides a first attempt to explore the spatial distribution Bulkeley et al. (2014);
of anthropogenic GHG emissions in Durban, drawing attention to high- Anguelovski et al. (2016); Shi
carbon emission zones to inform low-carbon spatial planning strategies et al. (2016).
at the neighbourhood or ward scale in South Africa. It also indicates
the ways in which this low-carbon spatial planning can simultaneously
address other development gaps, contributing to social justice objectives.

II. Background: Approach to Understanding

Place-Based Mitigation

a. Spatial attribution versus emissions inventories in South

African cities
An emissions inventory accounts for the anthropogenic emissions of a
place, system or boundary for a specified time period.(15) Atmospheric 15. VandeWeghe and Kennedy
emissions inventories are conducted for the purposes of regulation, (2007); Andrews (2008); Knuth
(2010); Hillmer-Pegram et al.
compliance, and determination of inputs in climate change (2012); Seto et al. (2014); Guo
models.(16) Furthermore, emissions inventories have a strong link to et al. (2015).
socioeconomic development and climate change justice. Compiling 16. Ferreira et al. (2013).
them is the first step in the shift towards low-carbon development, and
192
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

they are policy instruments used to determine equity in mitigation

17. D’Avignon et al. (2010); responsibilities.(17) When compiled at the neighbourhood scale,
Bulkeley et al. (2013). emissions inventories create awareness by connecting activities to
18. Ramsay and Naidoo (2012). their global impact.(18) Studies to determine the spatial distribution
of emissions at neighbourhood scales are often top-down, based on
land use or population information, and thus they lack bottom-up
approaches with activity data and emission factors. (Emission factors
express the mass of GHG emitted per activity or energy use, assuming
19. Velasco et al. (2014). a linear relationship with activities.(19))
The majority of studies are undertaken from the production
perspective, which is unsuitable for cities as the perspective underestimates
20. Bastianoni (2004); Peters emissions and does not attribute responsibility.(20) In response to the
and Hertwich (2008); Dhakal shortcomings of the production perspective, emissions quantification
(2010); Paloheimo and Salmi;
Singer et al. (2014). from end-user, i.e. consumption, locations is preferred(21) for assigning
21. Vandeweghe and Kennedy
responsibility for activities from sectors such as residential, commercial,
(2007); Knuth (2010); Jones and industrial, transport and waste.(22) However, inventory methods were
Kammen (2014). devised for high-income cities; they do not consider developing city
22. Bastianoni (2004); contexts or integrate socioeconomic factors.
Vandeweghe and Kennedy The emissions inventory approach needs to come within the planning
(2007); Peters and Hertwich
(2008); Dhakal (2010); Knuth framework of the municipality, covering the key sectoral emissions, using
(2010); Dulal and Akbar (2013); a bottom-up approach. The approach should also be easily applied and
Paloheimo and Salmi (2013); use already available datasets(23) that yield quick results and cut costs. In
Garibaldi et al. (2014); Jones
and Kammen (2014); Singer
South Africa, local governments do not have the resources to spend on
et al. (2014); modelling that calls for often expensive, specialized software requiring
23. Andrews (2008); Price et al. detailed data inputs. Even if software is free, municipalities often lack
(2013); Baur et al. (2015). the human and technical capacity to use these tools.(24) There is limited
24. Walsh et al. (2013). research on urban GHG emissions in South Africa. When municipalities
compile emissions inventories, it is a voluntary act, and accounts mostly
for emissions from their operations. Thus, there is a lack of evidence to
link emissions reductions to broader spatial planning and to include
citizens, businesses and industries.

III. Research Study

a. Background on Durban
The city of Durban, located on the east coast of South Africa in the
KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province (Map 1), is governed by the eThekwini
Metropolitan Municipality (EM). Durban has a population of 3.5
million, covers an area of 2,297 km2, and contributes 10.9 per cent and
65.5 per cent to the national and provincial gross domestic product
25. eThekwini Municipality respectively.(25) The major economic activities of the city are shipping,
(2015). logistics, manufacturing industries, and tourism. Since the late 1990s,
sustainable development has been addressed in city planning and
policy, in response to national government objectives, but has not been
26. Hannan and Sutherland applied well in large-scale development plans.(26) Durban is considered
(2014). to have the most fragmented spatial form of all South African cities due
to its bisected topography, coupled with the legacy of apartheid spatial
27. Breetzke (2009). planning(27) and the current, post-apartheid spatial planning, which has
28. Ahmed (2008). given prominence to private developers.(28) Of Durban’s metropolitan
29. eThekwini Municipality area, 25 per cent is considered urban, 30 per cent peri-urban, and 45 per
(2015). cent rural.(29)
193
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

M ap 1
Major suburbs of Durban and the city location within SA
and KZN

b. Methods

The methodological approach developed for this study combined the

analysis of emissions inventory results and a qualitative analysis of
local development plans to identify locations of high emissions and key
developments, as shown in Figure 1.

Inventory methods and data sources

An inventory of key emissions activities in Durban for 2013 was calculated
using the community inventory guidelines of ICLEI – Local Governments
194
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

F ig u r e 1
Framework depicting the approach used to identify place-based mitigation strategies

30. ICLEI (2014). for Sustainability,(30) which are specifically designed for local-scale
31. VandeWeghe and Kennedy emissions, supplemented with information from other studies.(31) The
(2007); Andrews (2008); Knuth key GHGs calculated from emissions activity sources are: carbon dioxide
(2010); Hillmer-Pegram et al.
(2012); Seto et al. (2014); Guo (CO2) from consumption of road transport fuel, electricity (which is fossil
et al. (2015). fuel-based) consumption from households and industries, and nitrous
oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) from landfills and wastewater treatment
plants. Information on the methods, local activity data sources, and
emission factors are provided in Table 1.
The emissions inventory is limited by the lack of coverage of
industrial processes related to processes and on-site fuel combustion.
This is significant as Durban is home to two petroleum refineries (which
32. Aylett (2010). produce 60 per cent of SA’s petrol),(32) a paper mill, a vehicle manufacturer
(the largest in southern Africa), and a large number of chemical industries.
Industrial process emissions are not accounted for, due to the lack of
33. Thambiran and Diab available data on direct measurements.(33) Industrial energy use data are
(2011a). lacking as they are difficult to disaggregate to the local scale, economic
sub-sectors, and individual facility level. Emissions from residential on-
site burning of biofuel and other energy sources are also not included due
34. Department of Energy to the paucity of studies on combustion amounts.(34) There is a backlog
(2012).
in electricity service provision of 323,000 houses to be addressed, as well
35. eThekwini Municipality as a number of informal settlements.(35) Relative to industrial emissions,
(2015).
these emissions are not deemed significant, although the contribution
toward localized pollution and significant health and safety impacts is
acknowledged. Durban has the busiest port in Africa and a major airport,
so energy use from these sectors is therefore expected to be significant.
Energy consumption from the marine and aviation transport sectors was
195
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

Ta b l e 1
Summary of methods, activity data, and emission factors used in compiling the GHG
­emissions inventory

Activity data Activity data

Sector Method description source Spatial data Emission factor Comment

Road Fuel Vehicle population Electronic Postal codes Department for Lack of
transport consumption and type National Environment, national fuel
based on Vehicle kilometres Traffic Food & Rural emission
distance travelled by, and Information Affairs (DEFRA)(c) factors
travelled the fuel economy System for petrol =
of, various vehicle (eNATIS)(a) 2.322 kgCO2e/
types Stone(b) litre and diesel
= 2.672 kgCO2e/
litre
Industry Electricity Electricity usage EM Electricity Addresses of Eskom(d) = 0.93 Excluded
consumption from firms Department firms tCO2e/MWh emissions
from
transmission
and
distribution
(T&D) losses(d)
Residential Electricity Electricity usage EM Electricity Number Eskom(d) = 0.93 Excluded
consumption from formal Department of formal tCO2e/MWh emissions
households households from T&D
per census losses(d)
ward(e)
Wastewater ICLEI(f) equations Population EM Energy Addresses of – –
treatment for the various served by, and Office wastewater
wastewater the industrial treatment
treatment plant effluent discharge plants
types of, wastewater
treatment plants
Solid waste ICLEI(f) first Waste composition, EM Energy Addresses of – –
disposal order decay amount of annual Office and landfill sites
model for landfill rainfall received Friedrich and
sites without and amount of LFG Trois(g)
landfill gas (LFG) collected
collection, and
equations for
landfill sites with
LFG collection

NOTES: (a) eNATIS (2014), Vehicle Population Statistics 2014, Electronic National Traffic Information System.
Stone, A C (2004), Creating a National Database of Traffic Based Vehicle Emissions Factors and Vehicle Parc Data:
(b)

Lessons from the South Durban Basin, National Association of Clean Air, Western Cape.
(c) Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (2010a), Guidelines to DEFRA / DECC’s GHG Conversion Factors

for Company Reporting, 135 pages, accessed 30 July 2014 at https://www.gov.uk/guidance/measuring-and-reporting-

environmental-impacts-guidance-for-businesses; Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (2010b), Low Emission
Strategies: Using the Planning System to Reduce Transport Emissions, 35 pages, accessed 24 January 2014 at http://www.
lowemissionstrategies.org/downloads/LES_Good_Practice_Guide_2010.pdf.
(d) Eskom (2014), Integrated Report 2014, 96 pages.
(e) StatsSA (2013), Superweb Census 2011.
ICLEI (2010), Local Government Operations Protocol for the Quantification and Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
(f)

Inventories, Version 1.1, 237 pages, accessed 17 May 2014 at http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/protocols/localgov/pubs/lgo_

protocol_v1_1_2010-05-03.pdf.
Friedrich, E and C Trois (2013), “GHG emission factors developed for the collection, transport and landfilling of municipal
(g)

waste in South African municipalities”, Waste Management Vol 33, pages 1013–1026.

196
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

not included due to uncertainties on how to attribute responsibility and

36. Villalba and Gemechu spatially disaggregate emissions.(36) Despite these gaps, the emissions
(2011). inventory developed provides a platform to begin the discussion on the
spatial distribution of emissions, and also provides a foundation to build
on, with data for the other key sources, for future work.

Local development plans

South African municipal planning is informed by key strategic documents,
which include the Long Term Development Framework (LTDF),
Integrated Development Plan (IDP), Spatial Development Framework
(SDF) and Spatial Development Plan (SDP). The LTDF provides the future
direction of economic, social and environmental development for the
municipality. This is implemented through the IDP, which is produced
every five years with progress tracked annually, to address service
37. Ballard et al. (2007). delivery backlogs and ensure economic growth.(37) The IDP includes
planning guidance in the form of the SDF, which translates development
intentions into land use plans, as well as transport, environmental and
38. Breetzke (2009). infrastructure implications, under the SDP.(38) The EM strategic planning
documents were read to find information on two important themes:
(i) the existing mitigation efforts in the development plans of the
municipality according to economic sector; and (ii) the spatial locations
related to economic, social and environmental development priorities,
known as key development areas. This information was categorized
according to location, economic sectors and sub-sectors, the stakeholders
involved, and project-specific details. Then we compared this to the areas
of high and low emissions to identify links to emissions reduction and
development co-benefits.

IV. Findings

The first part of this section, IVa, presents a summary of the developmental
context and priorities of the EM, followed by a discussion in Section
IVb of the spatial attribution and analysis of emissions. The areas of
high emissions are looked at in depth in relation to climate justice to
determine the responsibilities for emissions reduction. The specific socio-
spatial planning and development practices that have resulted in those
emissions are discussed in Section IVc.

a. Current key development priorities

The EM has developed a deprivation index, which is a composite

measure that includes engineering and social infrastructure backlogs,
unemployment and income. The most deprived neighbourhoods
are the peri-urban and former township communities. These areas
currently experience low levels of access to basic services, and high
39. eThekwini Municipality levels of unemployment and poverty;(39) they are thus most in need of
(2015). development. The least deprived neighbourhoods are the urban core –
which is well developed, such as the Central Business District (CBD) – and
Pinetown and Umhlanga. The EM planning documents reviewed indicate
spatial planning measures for mitigation. These include the curbing of
urban sprawl, compact city development, densification, public transport
197
198
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON

F ig u r e 2
Disaggregation of GHG emissions for the sectors (in MtCO2e) and sub-sectors (in per cent) in eThekwini Municipality for 2013
Vol 30 No 1 April 2018
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

systems, and brownfield development of former developed land that is

40. eThekwini Municipality no longer in use.(40)
(2015). However, there are inconsistencies: urban sprawl needs to be limited
and densification intensified, yet commercial and private residential
developments are prioritized at the edges of Durban. The focus on edge
areas for greenfield developments, such as the area north of Umhlanga
for upmarket residential and commercial buildings and Cato Ridge for
industry, will increase urban sprawl and is in direct conflict with the
plans for urban regeneration of the inner-city CBD. These two opposing
strategies are found within the same document.
While there are such conflicts, there are also actions with synergies
for development and mitigation. The construction of the Integrated Rapid
Public Transport Network (IRPTN), with densification along the network
to limit urban sprawl, is an example. However, although the municipality
has undertaken the construction of public transport infrastructure, it
is expected that the amount of road freight transport will increase due
to the expansion of the current port and development of the new port.
Additionally, the recommendations of the Academy of Science of South
41. Academy of Science of Africa (ASSAf) Low Carbon Report for Durban,(41) including focusing
South Africa (2011). on reducing emissions from heavy trucks, were not considered by the
municipality. Furthermore, the results of the EM emissions inventory
do not inform city plans and policies, nor are they even mentioned in
the IDP. Thus, the emissions inventory has not been used to set targets
or identify interventions for emissions reductions and low-carbon
development. Moreover, the municipality lacks any spatial representation
of climate change impacts, information on areas of high emissions, or
potential areas for low-carbon pilot programmes. A limitation is that the
key development areas identified are based on strategic development
42. Ruwanza and Shackleton plans that are not necessarily approved or implemented.(42) However, the
(2015). plans provide an indication of how the city defines itself and the future
of its environmental and socioeconomic development.

b. Emissions inventory and spatial analysis

The total emissions calculated by this study for Durban for the year 2013
amounted to 12.22 metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e),
43. eThekwini Municipality which is less than the EM calculations(43) for the previous years of 27.06
(2012). MtCO2e (2010), 27.65 MtCO2e (2011), and 29.36 MtCO2e (2012). This
discrepancy is due to the different approach of this study.
The sectoral emissions, however, are similar to those of the municipal
inventory and other studies, as road transport fuel use contributed the
most to emissions (43 per cent), followed by industry and residential
electricity use (Figure 2). There are 790,628 vehicles registered in Durban,
with heavy load vehicles making up 5 per cent of the vehicle fleet, yet
contributing 43 per cent to total road transport emissions, indicating the
influence of logistics and port activities. Light passenger vehicles make
up 67 per cent (526,887 vehicles) of the total vehicle fleet, higher than
44. eNATIS (2014) the national level of 55 per cent.(44) This is due to rising affluence and the
status associated with private vehicle ownership, as well as the inadequate
and unreliable public transport infrastructure, as heavy passenger vehicles
contribute only 4 per cent to the total vehicle fleet. Approximately 25,500
heavy passenger vehicles are classified as minibus taxis, which is the most

199
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

popular mode of public transport available. Electricity consumption from

industry and residential use contributed more than half of emissions (55
per cent) in 2013. CO2 is the dominant GHG, represented by approx. 98
per cent of the total emissions. CH4 contributed approx. 2 per cent and
N2O contributed 0.11 per cent to total emissions, in keeping with the
global, South African and local contributions to total emissions, when
compared to CO2.(45) 45. Walsh et al. (2013);
Durban’s GHG emissions represent approx. 3 per cent of SA’s total Department of Environmental
Affairs (2011a).
GHG emissions (443.41 MtCO2e).(46) International comparisons show
46. Department of
that Durban’s total emissions are similar to those of cities in other upper- Environmental Affairs (2011a).
middle income countries, such as Bogotá (13.22 MtCO2e), and cities in
high-income countries, such as Warsaw (12.71 MtCO2e) and Madrid
(11.98 MtCO2e).(47) This study’s GHG emissions intensity is 3.43 tCO2e 47. Carbon Disclosure Project
per capita, lower than the national GHG emissions intensity of 9.90 (2015).
tCO2e per capita.(48) Durban’s GHG emissions intensity is comparable 48. Department of
Environmental Affairs (2011a).
to those of cities in other upper-middle income countries, such as
Buenos Aires (3.83 tCO2e per capita) and Amman (3.3 tCO2e per capita),
and lower-middle income countries, such as Kolkata (3.29 tCO2e per
capita).(49) 49. World Bank (2011); Feng
et al. (2015).
The results from this study were compared to sectoral emissions
50. eThekwini Municipality
from the official EM community emissions inventories(50) and other (2012).
studies undertaken for Durban(51) to determine the suitability of the 51. Thambiran and Diab
emissions inventory for further analysis. The sectoral emissions (2011b); eThekwini Municipality
calculated for this study matched the findings of similar studies (Figure (2012); Friedrich and Trois
(2015).
3). For the road transport sector, both the EM(52) and Thambiran and
52. eThekwini Municipality
Diab(53) recorded higher emissions. These studies used the fuel balance
(2012).
method, which is more suited for the national scale(54) and lacked
53. Thambiran and Diab
consideration of the temporal and spatial offsets of fuel sales.(55) This (2011b).
study recorded lower industrial and residential electricity consumption 54. Ramachandra et al. (2015).
emissions than the EM emissions inventory due to the exclusion of 55. Gregg et al. (2009).
transmission and distribution losses in the emission factor. Similar 56. Thambiran and Diab
to this study, Thambiran and Diab(56) accounted for CO2 emissions (2011b).
from industrial electricity use. Friedrich and Trois(57) recorded higher 57. Friedrich and Trois (2015).
emissions from landfills due to the life cycle approach and methane
commitment method, which always results in higher emissions than
58. ICLEI (2014).
the first order decay model.(58)
The spatial analysis of emissions reveals significant emissions along
the coast, and low emissions from the adjacent hinterlands (Figure 4A).
The highest emissions are from the South Durban Industrial Basin (SDIB),
specifically from the neighbourhood of Prospecton (767,172 tCO2e),
which is approx. 6.5 times more than the Durban ward average (118,632
tCO2e). A spatial trend of high emissions in a zone running parallel along
the coast is identified from Umbogintwini in the south through the CBD
and the north to Umhlanga. Another spatial trend of lower emissions is
identified from east to west, from central Durban to the western edge.
The least emissions are from rural areas and the former township areas,
with the lowest emissions found in Shangase Ta (9,985 tCO2e), which is
11.9 times less than the Durban average, indicating the spatial disparity
in emissions contribution. To further highlight the emissions inequality,
out of 103 neighbourhoods, the 10 highest-emitting neighbourhoods
(between 287,000 and 767,000 tCO2e) were responsible for 35 per cent of
total emissions in 2013, of which 15 per cent was attributed to Prospecton,
Merebank and Bluff.
200
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

F ig u r e 3
Comparison of this study’s emissions inventory with those of other studies,
expressed in MtCO2e

Emissions indicators measure the GHG intensity of an area, most

commonly based on economic performance or population, thus enabling
59. Ramaswami and Chavez comparison between places.(59) One of the most popular emissions indicators
(2013). is based on population and expresses GHG emissions per person (capita).(60)
60. Moghaddam et al. (2013); Despite the concerns with population indicators,(61) it still remains useful
Bulkeley et al. (2014); Singer
et al. (2014). to connect individual behaviour, activities and responsibilities to global
61. Price et al. (2013).
greenhouse gas emissions. The intra-neighbourhood comparison of
the population’s GHG intensity (tCO2e per capita) is in line with total
emissions; thus, the neighbourhoods with the highest emissions are also
the highest per capita emitters, and the neighbourhoods with the lowest
per capita emissions are the lowest emitters (Table 2).
The results from the spatial analysis and per capita results revealed
where the focus of emissions reductions should be aimed. Three high

201
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

F ig u r e 4
(A) Total GHG emissions in tonnes per CO2 equivalent (tCO2e) in eThekwini Municipality
for 2013, and the GHG emissions profiles (in tCO2e) of (B) south Durban, (C) central Durban
and (D) north Durban wards for 2013

NOTE: The emissions rankings of neighbourhoods are in brackets (1 = highest).

emission zones are discussed: (i) south Durban – from the harbour south
along the coast to Umbogintwini, (ii) central Durban, and (iii) north Durban
– north of the CBD along the coast to Umhlanga. The GHG emissions
profiles of south Durban neighbourhoods show the high contribution of
industry emissions from electricity consumption, ranging between 50 and
77 per cent, followed by road transport (Figure 4B). The emissions profile
for south Durban is comparable to that of the Singapore metropolitan
area, which has similar economic activities such as petroleum and oil
refineries, and a shipping industry. In the Singapore metropolitan area,
energy emissions (dominated by electricity consumption) from industry,
commercial and residential buildings contribute 83 per cent to total
emissions, followed by road transport emissions (17 per cent).(62) Central 62. Sovacool and Brown (2010).
Durban neighbourhoods are characterized by the high contribution
of road transport to emissions (Figure 4C). The emissions profile of

202
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

Morningside shows the high contribution of road transport (77 per cent)
to the total ward emissions, due to the large number of petrol and diesel
63. eNATIS (2014). private passenger car owners.(63) The high contribution of road transport
emissions to the emissions profile of central Durban is comparable to
that of Delhi and São Paulo, where road transport contributes 66 per cent
64. Sovacool and Brown (2010). and 51 per cent respectively to total emissions due to cars.(64) The key
contributor to emissions for North Durban is road transport in Umhlanga
(57 per cent) and Durban North (64 per cent) (Figure 4D). The emissions
profiles of Durban North and Umhlanga are comparable to Morningside’s,
and internationally to Delhi’s and São Paulo’s due to the dominance of
65. Sovacool and Brown (2010). road transport emissions in those cities.(65)
The linking of household annual income and emissions in the
highest- and lowest-emitting neighbourhoods (Table 2) reveals a link
between low-emitting and low-income wards. These neighbourhoods
would be considered “low-carbon”, as their GHG emissions intensities
range from 0.32 to 0.76 tCO2e, when compared to the benchmark for
low-carbon emissions: Oslo (Norway), with per capita emissions of 2.19
66. Zhou et al. (2014). tCO2e.(66) These neighbourhoods, however, are the most deprived in the
metropolitan area. For the highest-emitting neighbourhoods, the link
between high emissions and high income is confirmed.
However, for the industrialized neighbourhoods, this relationship
is complicated. The south Durban neighbourhoods are characterized by
low annual household income, but dominate both total and per capita
emissions. This is due to the overwhelming contribution of industry
emissions, drawing attention to the limitations of emissions intensity
indicators, as they do not capture underlying factors. At face value, these
emissions are comparable to those of cities in high-income countries,
such as the city of Denver (20.12 tCO2e per capita), but these are related
67. Wang et al. (2012). to lifestyle emissions.(67) However, south Durban communities are not
affluent, do not directly benefit from the electricity consumption of
industries, and are exposed to various environmental and health risks due
68. Scott and Barnett (2009);
Mottiar (2014). to the proximity to industry.(68) This underlines the impact of structural
influence on emissions intensity in SDIB, which should not be attributed
to the citizens in those neighbourhoods, due to the concentration of
industries. When the emissions from industrial electricity consumption
are excluded from the emissions intensity calculation, the new GHG
emissions intensity of Prospecton is 8.49 tCO2e per capita, due to fuel
consumption emissions from freight vehicles. The emissions intensity of
other south Durban neighbourhoods also decreases, to 3.90 tCO2e per
capita for Bluff and 3.21 tCO2e per capita for Merebank, closer to the
study’s average. Morningside then becomes the most emissions-intense
ward, with 10.83 tCO2e per capita, followed by Umhlanga (8.88 tCO2e
per capita) and Durban North (8.07 tCO2e per capita), which are still
comparable to cities in the USA and Canada, such as New York (7.96
tCO2e per capita), Seattle (11.47 tCO2e per capita) and Toronto (8.81
69. Kennedy et al. (2012). tCO2e per capita).(69)

c. Discussion – emissions and development inequalities

The areas of high neighbourhood and per capita emissions are attributed
to historical city growth trends from the port and the infrastructural
70. Breetzke (2009). developments along the two national roads.(70) The three high emission
203
204
Ta b l e 2
The 10 Durban neighbourhoods with the highest and lowest GHG emissions per capita

Highest GHG emissions intensity Lowest GHG emissions intensity

GHG
Total GHG GHG emissions Median Total GHG emissions Median
Neighbourhood emissions Population intensity income Neighbourhood emissions Population intensity income

Prospecton 767,172 27,238 28.17 4,919 Shangase Ta 9,985 31,525 0.32 2,466
Bluff 535,353 31,960 16.75 12,002 Ximba 14,204 31,923 0.44 1,678
Harbour 376,560 22,918 16.43 2,483 Inanda Farm 21,571 43,926 0.49 2,451
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON

CBD 347,537 24,000 14.48 4,983 Inanda 23,051 36,909 0.62 1,367
Clairwood 308,821 22,446 13.76 1,446 eMatikwe 29,651 43,748 0.68 1,529
Merebank 555,151 40,765 13.62 5,122 Isimahla Ta 23,012 33,486 0.69 1,635
Umhlanga Rocks 423,580 32,198 13.16 24,625 Adam’s Mission 34,081 46,482 0.73 2,473
Morningside 309,286 23,796 13.00 19,096 Folweni Ward 94 26,407 35,585 0.74 2,573
Durban North 335,995 32,275 10.41 20,006 Folweni Ward 95 23,242 31,042 0.75 1,622
Pinetown Central 286,928 29,479 9.73 21,053 Folweni Ward 96 30,328 39,927 0.76 2,411

NOTES: GHG emissions are in tCO2e per capita. Median income is in US$.
Vol 30 No 1 April 2018
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

zones, however, present widely varying contexts that need to be recognized.

The historical development of the high emission areas is summarized
below to understand the context and possible drivers of the emissions
and to identify the patterns of structural advantages and disadvantages.
This is to explore the level at which emissions reductions can support
addressing social inequalities inherited as a function of planning practices
during the apartheid era and likely to be exacerbated by future planned
71. Bulkeley et al. (2014); developments.(71)
Anguelovski et al. (2016); Shi The SDIB is the second largest industrial hub in SA, and was
et al. (2016).
previously prioritized for heavy industrial development of national
significance due to its proximity to the port and the availability of cheap
72. Scott et al. (2002). labour from the surrounding marginalized communities.(72) Presently,
there are stricter air pollution laws and management to improve air
quality, yet the SDIB remains an air pollution hotspot, and as such its
pollution reduction is still strongly championed by active civil society
73. Scott and Barnett (2009); groups in the area.(73) A major future development in South Durban is
Mottiar (2014). the Durban Dig-Out Port, which is a National Development Plan (NDP)
Strategic Infrastructure Project (SIP) to increase port capacity eight-fold
74. Republic of South Africa and expand the petrochemical and transport manufacturing sectors,(74)
(2012). which already consume more energy than any other economic sector in
Durban. The shared location of residences and industries is a result of the
past socio-spatial planning inequalities, and the current development
plans for industrial expansion further burdens communities in south
Durban. With economic development as the sole focus, the structural
inequalities may persist even as the economic benefits accrue to the
surrounding communities, and elsewhere in the city and country.
However, the burdens of localized air pollution and health impacts will
be experienced by these communities.
Central Durban experienced urban degradation imposed by the
apartheid local government. The low contribution of residential energy
consumption to the central Durban emissions profile is consistent
75. VandeWeghe and Kennedy with international studies.(75) The large contribution of road transport
(2007); Satterthwaite (2010); (54 per cent) is due to urban sprawl. The CBD hosts Warwick Junction,
Hillmer-Pegram et al. (2012);
Jones and Kammen (2014).
which is a major transport node and the main gateway into the city for
76. eThekwini Municipality
commuters.(76) The road transport emissions are a legacy of socio-spatial
(2015). planning inequalities that resulted in people living far from places of
work. A consequence of these structural inequalities is that people cannot
cycle or walk to work, and have to resort to using cars or minibus taxis.
However, a major project of the municipality and an NDP SIP is the urban
regeneration of the inner city, and transport network upgrades specific
to Warwick Junction. This is a window of opportunity for integrating
mitigation and development to reduce emissions from road transport and
redress the inefficient socio-spatial planning of the past.
The north Durban neighbourhoods are structurally advantaged, as
77. Ahmed (2008); Michel and Umhlanga and Durban North have always been high-income, low-density
Scott (2005). residential suburbs, associated with tourism.(77) The industry emissions
are related to the tertiary sectors of retail and commercial office parks and
corporate headquarters. This area has the highest residential electricity
emissions of the three zones. The high private car ownership rates and
residential electricity consumption emissions are due to the affluent
lifestyles of the inhabitants. This finding is key, as the current discourse
78. Bulkeley et al. (2013). on climate change distributive justice lacks a consideration of the GHG
emissions from the affluent in the global South,(78) especially when the
205
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

strict discrepancies between high-income and low-income countries are

disappearing and the focus is increasingly on addressing climate change
according to individual responsibilities, capabilities and resources. The
development and expansion of Umhlanga is the direct consequence of
the urban decay of the CBD, due to poor socio-spatial planning in the
past, and the current conflict between municipal plans to regenerate the
CBD and the private developers that dominate land ownership.
Climate justice not only entails responsibilities for emissions, or
burden sharing, but also includes the right to benefit and the sharing
of benefits. In central Durban, opportunities for mitigation and
development are clear, with transport identified as the key contributor
to emissions. The municipal and national plans are both in sync with
redressing the past planning inequalities and focusing on road transport
in this neighbourhood. The benefits of a renewed CBD and a sustainable
transport network may be enjoyed citywide in the form of reduced
emissions and a safe and inclusive city.
In south Durban, the industries that are responsible for the highest
emissions are expected to expand. National and local government plans
are aligned for economic development, but at the expense of residents
in that area. While this may create employment and entrepreneurship
opportunities for residents, greater economic benefits will be experienced
in other parts of the city and the country in the form of more fuel and
freight movement. The expected expansion of industry and increases in
the number of heavy load trucks will decrease air quality, if the current
context of an inefficient air pollution monitoring network and weak
implementation of air pollution regulations and standards remains. This
will further entrench the structural inequalities in these neighbourhoods.
In Umhlanga, the conflict between the municipality and private developers
is expected to embed the structural advantage of local residents, as many
current and future developments are upmarket gated residential housing
estates, commercial and retail, and tourist facilities, which are expected to
increase affluence and emissions.

V. Recommendations

The EM policies advocate climate change mitigation strategies, yet the

majority of developmental decisions planned are solely for economic
development, mandated by national government and undertaken by
private developers, in conflict with municipal plans. The mitigation
strategies that are currently implemented are small scale, and focused on
reducing emissions from the small contributors, such as landfill sites,(79) 79. eThekwini Municipality
thus making minimal progress. Community projects, such as reforestation (2012).

initiatives, are implemented by the municipality. However, these projects

are for poor, rural township communities to decouple their emissions
growth from development. Although these projects are useful for income
generation, such as the Buffelsdraai Community Reforestation Project,(80) 80. Archer et al. (2014).
and are part of the green economy targets, there are no similar initiatives
or responsibilities for industries and affluent communities to reduce
their emissions, despite the fact that they are the major contributors to
emissions. This is possibly due to the lack of a legal mandate in the city
to enable climate change action; thus mitigation initiatives are voluntary.
This situation is similar to that found by other studies, which indicate that

206
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

the local-scale emissions reductions are limited by macro-economic and

structural factors, as local government often does not have control over
81. Wilson (2006); Holgate key infrastructure.(81) Therefore, strong strategic planning and multi-level
(2007); Burch (2010); Kocabas governance in developmental decisions and consideration of mitigation
(2013).
implications are required.

a. Low emission zones (LEZs)

To achieve significant emissions reductions, the most emitting activities

need to be reduced. The lack of resources to focus on reducing emissions
from all activities adds motivation for identifying the most emitting
activities. The results from the emissions profiles of the most emitting
neighbourhoods revealed various sectoral contributions, meaning
that the mitigation strategies should also vary. The UK Department for
Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA) emphasized identifying the
spatial location of emissions to determine low emission zones (LEZs).
LEZs are the geographic area where the low emission strategy – which is
a broad package of measures to mitigate the impacts of development and
complement other mitigation options, such as planning and infrastructure
82. DEFRA (2010b). – is applied.(82) The concept of LEZs has typically been used in identifying
areas that require interventions to reduce air pollution. In this study this
concept has been applied to reflect the spatial allocation of GHG emissions
to inform planning. Even within this corridor, we need to look at context
– site-specific mitigation related to the different emissions profiles.
South Durban neighbourhoods are characterized by industries that
are the high electricity consumers. Therefore, the mitigation strategies
recommended focus on upgrading the manufacturing structure and
employing improved and cleaner production. Other industries in
the same neighbourhood, such as the concentration of chemical and
petrochemical manufacturing, must adopt on-site renewable energy
83. Department of generation,(83) and other technological options for energy efficiency and
Environmental Affairs (2011b); decarbonization, as reviewed by Napp and others.(84) However, what is vital
Department of Environmental
Affairs (2014). to the uptake of such technologies and strategies is municipal planning
84. Napp et al. (2014). and policies that encourage the development of low-carbon industries.
The compulsory monitoring and reporting of industry GHG emissions,
and restriction of energy-intensive industries and those industries that do
not have mitigation strategies, are also key. This is particularly relevant,
as reducing electricity consumption is an integral component of the
85. Department of national mitigation strategy.(85) Another mitigation action investigated
Environmental Affairs (2014). by national government is carbon offsets, or external projects undertaken
by a firm to avoid, reduce or sequester CO2. These measures may be
more cost effective than an investment in the firm’s own operations,
with developmental co-benefits that are recommended by the National
86. National Treasury (2014). Treasury.(86) It is recommended that manufacturing industries in South
Durban undertake carbon offset projects in renewable energy generation,
ecosystem rehabilitation, and food security in the rural periphery, which
are also the least emitting areas in the city, thereby ensuring that the
development of those areas is not associated with increasing emissions.
In contrast to south Durban, in central and north Durban the road
transport sector is the highest contributor to emissions that should be
prioritized for mitigation. The specific focus should be on minibus taxis
and private passenger cars in central Durban and private passenger cars in
207
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

north Durban. Studies on road transport emissions in SA(87) recommend 87. Thambiran and Diab
(2011b); Tongwane et al. (2015).
a modal shift from private to public transport and the reduction of both
vehicle mileage and population, applicable to both minibus taxis (due
to high mileage) and private passenger cars (due to the large vehicle
population). Furthermore, the EM should implement vehicle restrictions
and limits on specific major roads to create low emission zones – for
example, the restriction of cars on major roads to encourage the uptake
of public transport, walking or cycling. This strategy aligns with the
national mitigation potential analysis, which indicates that the successful
implementation and effectiveness of mitigation actions from the road
transport sector are site-specific.(88) Therefore the role of local government 88. Department of
Environmental Affairs (2014).
is vital to ensure uptake of public transport, such as the IRPTN, as central
and north Durban neighbourhoods are strategic corridors in the network.
The successful uptake of mass transit is vital for emissions mitigation,
sustainability and social cohesiveness, especially in developing cities, due
to increasing populations and limited space for transport infrastructure.(89) 89. Lah et al. (2015).
These socioeconomic and physical factors are particularly relevant in
the EM, as the inequalities in emitting activities are evident and spatial
planning is limited by bisected topography and green spaces.
Another pertinent issue is reducing electricity consumption from
households in Umhlanga and Durban North. The EM also needs to
encourage residents in these areas to install photovoltaic installations on
roofs, especially as these residents can afford this technology. Furthermore,
socioeconomic transformation is required to move away from a luxurious
to a sustainable lifestyle, to reduce energy and waste emissions. This
is especially applicable to affluent neighbourhoods, as the evidence
provided supports the argument that the rights and responsibilities of the
affluent in the global South should differ from those of the rest in their
locations.(90) The EM needs to place more emphasis, with encouragement 90. Bulkeley et al. (2014).
and incentives, on low-carbon lifestyles.
There are two major concerns regarding the mitigation strategies
proposed. First, emissions reduction strategies require large amounts
of capital investment, which is difficult to obtain from either local
government or external funding. Secondly, the loss of economic activity
and the combination of various stakeholder interests are often presented
as barriers to the consideration or implementation of mitigation strategies
due to short-term and competing priorities.(91) However, Napp and 91. Archer et al. (2014).
colleagues(92) suggested that the barriers to adopting improvements for 92. Napp et al. (2014).
energy efficiency are often organizational, or knowledge-related, rather
than financial, given that improvements are inexpensive or cost-saving
in the long term. Thambiran and Diab(93) showed the financial and air 93. Thambiran and Diab
quality benefits of reducing electricity consumption in SDIB industries and (2011a).
also suggested that industries undertaking GHG mitigation interventions
be credited for being industry leaders. Furthermore, the municipality
is already planning for and investing in large-scale infrastructural and
planning projects. Thus, future emissions need to be accounted for, and
this study can serve as a useful starting point. The IDP is a vital document
that should be integral to mainstreaming climate change issues in the
municipal function and policies,(94) as it integrates developmental 94. Nel (2011); Turok (2012).
issues from national, provincial and local governments, and includes
neighbourhood participation. Thus, identifying high-emitting areas and
emissions profiles of neighbourhoods can be integrated into the annual

208
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

IDP review to track progress towards simultaneously addressing emissions

reductions and development goals for low-carbon spatial planning.

b. Multi-level governance for mitigation

Local emissions reductions may be limited due to structural actions that

are not controlled by local government, thus suggesting the misalignment
of international, national, provincial and local policies. However, the Paris
Agreement has opened the way for the redirection of investments to low-
carbon and climate-resilient development and the increased recognition
95. Roberts (2016). of cities in the international climate change discourse.(95) The emissions
profiles at the neighbourhood scale reveal the main contributors to
emissions, and therefore what can be implemented at what scale.
It is thus recommended that a multi-level governance approach be
undertaken. First, there needs to be direction from national government
on emissions reduction targets and activities. It is hoped that the soon-
to-be-implemented carbon tax will encourage deep emissions cuts. This
regulatory approach from national government is needed specifically for
industries, and this is key for energy efficiency and emissions reductions.
This mechanism, and the associated monitoring and evaluation, would
be key in the south Durban emission zone.
Second, although cities do not have control over key infrastructure,
there is one type of infrastructure that cities can control: their transport
network, such as the IRPTN that Durban is currently constructing to make
public transport more integrated and accessible. The emissions profiles of
the neighbourhoods along the public transport corridors can be used as a
baseline to evaluate the use and emissions reductions of the IRPTN.
Third, the emissions profile at a neighbourhood scale can
enable communication on emissions reduction strategies between
the communities and the municipality, which is vital as the current
justice discourse on mitigation initiatives at the city scale is targeted at
96. Bulkeley et al. (2013); communities and individuals within the city.(96) For example, in the case
Bulkeley et al. (2014); of solar panels on rooftops, this technology has the potential to be taken
Anguelovski et al. (2016); Shi
et al. (2016).
up more by affluent households than by the urban poor.(97) The framing
97. Bulkeley et al. (2013).
of mitigation strategies needs to be targeted at affluent homeowners;
the strategy can be individual. For the urban poor, by contrast, in the
absence of secure home ownership and in the context of municipal
housing backlogs, the provision of clean and sustainable energy needs
to be collective. Representatives of specific economic activities, such as
management and business leaders, need to be responsible for the emissions
from their organizations’ operations, and to engage local universities and
research institutions to investigate emissions reductions.
There is a need for caution around over-emphasizing the role of
communities, so that responsibilities that should be met by government
do not burden communities. The local framing of GHG emissions
and their sources can increase community awareness and engagement
98. VandeWeghe and Kennedy towards a goal,(98) in this case both emissions reductions and the relevant
(2007); Andrews (2008); Knuth development issues, which can be supported by such stakeholders as
(2010); Hillmer-Pegram et al.
(2012); Ramsay and Naidoo business leaders, non-governmental organizations or local universities.
(2012); Scannell and Gifford This study is the first step in identifying the neighbourhoods that can
(2013); Seto et al. (2014); Guo be the focus of communication among the municipality, communities,
et al. (2015).
industries, researchers and other relevant stakeholders to run pilot
programmes on emissions reductions with developmental benefits.
209
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

VI. Conclusions and way Forward

The aim of this study was to explore the spatial distribution of

anthropogenic GHGs at the neighbourhood scale, such that efforts to
reduce emissions can also address development gaps for low-carbon
spatial planning. The emissions profiles generated at this scale were
used as the foundation for exploring the integration of mitigation
into municipal developmental planning. The emissions profiles from
Durban highlighted the developmental and emissions disparities
in the city. Particular groups and economic activities are especially
responsible for emissions, and socio-spatial development and emissions
inequalities are found both within the city (high emission zone vs. rural
periphery) and within the high emission zone (structurally advantaged
vs. structurally disadvantaged). The urgent need for industries and the
affluent residents to make emissions cuts is further emphasized by these
findings. The high contribution of road transport emissions makes the
current construction of the public transport network, and its success,
a key emissions reduction action for the city, as it can also redress past
socio-spatial inequalities.
Although not extensive and comprehensive, this research was the
first attempt to identify the main local contributors to global emissions,
so that place-based mitigation strategies can be implemented to achieve
significant emissions reductions. Future sectoral studies and improved
data availability and access can improve determination of emissions. The
main challenges and limitations are related to activity data collection
and emission factors. The activity databases lacked meta-data as they
were collected from existing sources and governmental agencies. The
following additional research is recommended to improve emissions
inventories and their wide-scale use: detailed sector-specific studies,
in-depth and bottom-up studies within neighbourhoods to capture
variations, and studies on the lifestyles of affluent communities and
their contribution to emissions. By accounting for emissions from
the consumption perspective, focusing on spatial attribution within
the city, and considering past injustices, mitigation action from a
development planning perspective can be advanced, taking cognizance
of socioeconomic and spatial inequalities.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for
constructive feedback, and to thank Michael Gebreslasie for comments.
We also acknowledge the funding from the National Research Foundation
through the Innovation MSc Bursary awarded to Meryl Jagarnath.

References

Academy of Science of South Africa (2011), Towards case of KwaZulu-Natal North Coast”, Alternation
a Low Carbon City: Focus on Durban, 265 pages, Vol 15, pages 45–65.
accessed 20 January 2014 at http://www.assaf.org. Andrews, C J (2008), “Greenhouse gas emissions
za/files/PDF/LCC.pdf. along the rural-urban gradient”, Journal of
Ahmed, F (2008), “Development pressures and Environmental Planning and Management Vol 51,
management constraints in the coastal zone—the pages 847–870.

210
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

Anguelovski, I, L Shi, E Chu, D Gallagher, K Goh, Z Campbell, H (2006), “Is the issue of climate change
Lamb, K Reeva and H Teicher (2016), “Equity too big for spatial planning?”, Planning Theory &
impacts of urban land use planning for climate Practice Vol 7, No 2, pages 201–230.
adaptation: Critical perspectives from the Carbon Disclosure Project (2015), C40 Cities - Citywide
global north and south”, Journal of Planning, Emissions 2015, accessed 14 October 2016 at
Education and Research Vol 36, No 3, pages https://data.cdp.net/Cities/C40-Cities-Citywide-
333–348. Emissions-2015/ysjw-rwvu.
Archer, D, F Almansi, M DiGregario, D Roberts, D Chu, E (2016), “The governance of climate change
Sharma and D Syam (2014), “Moving towards adaptation through urban policy experiments”,
inclusive urban adaptation: Approaches to Environmental Policy and Governance Vol 2016,
integrating community-based adaptation to pages 1–13.
climate change at city and national scale,” Chu, E, I Anguelovski and J Carmin (2016), “Inclusive
Climate and Development Vol 6, pages 345–356. approaches to urban climate adaptation planning
Aylett, A (2010), “Conflict, collaboration and climate and implementation in the Global South”,
change: Participatory democracy and urban Climate Policy Vol 16, No 3, pages 372–392.
environmental struggles in Durban, South Crawford, J and W French (2008), “A low carbon future:
Africa”, International Journal of Urban and Regional Spatial planning’s role in enhancing technological
Research Vol 34, No 3, pages 478–495. innovation in the built environment”, Energy
Ballard, R, D Bonnin and J Robinson (2007), Policy Vol 36, pages 4575–4579.
“Development and new forms of democracy in D’Avignon, A, F A Carloni, E L La Rovere and C B S
Durban,” Critical Dialogue: Public Participation in Dubeux (2010), “Emission inventory: An urban
Review Vol 3, pages 3–10. public instrument and benchmark”, Energy Policy
Bastianoni, S, F Pulselli and E Tiezzi (2004), “The Vol 38, pages 4838–4847.
problem of assigning responsibility for Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs
greenhouse gas emissions”, Ecological Economics (2010a), Guidelines to DEFRA / DECC’s GHG
Vol 49, pages 253–257. Conversion Factors for Company Reporting, 135
Baur, A H, S Lauf, M Forster and B Kleinschmit pages, accessed 30 July 2014 at https://www.
(2015), “Estimating greenhouse gas emissions of gov.uk/guidance/measuring-and-reporting-
European cities–modeling emissions with only environmental-impacts-guidance-for-businesses.
one spatial and one socioeconomic variable”, Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs
Science of the Total Environment Vol 520, pages (2010b), Low Emissions Strategies: Using the
49–58. Planning System to Reduce Transport Emissions,
Biesbroek, G R, R J Swart and W G M van der Knaap 35 pages, accessed 24 January 2014 at http://
(2009), “The mitigation-adaptation dichotomy www.lowemissionstrategies.org/downloads/LES_
and the role of spatial planning”, Habitat Good_Practice_Guide_2010.pdf.
International Vol 33, pages 230–237. Department of Energy (2012), A Survey of Energy-
Breetzke, K (2009), From Conceptual Frameworks to Related Behaviour and Perceptions in South Africa:
Quantitative Models: Spatial Planning in the Durban The Residential Sector, 142 pages, accessed 20
Metropolitan Area, South Africa - The Link to Housing February 2015 at http://www.energy.gov.za/files/
and Infrastructure Planning, Report prepared for media/Pub/DoE-2013-Survey-of-EnergyRelated-
UN-Habitat, 22 pages, accessed 11 August 2015 at Behaviour-and-Perception-in-SA.pdf.
http://www.unhabitat.org/grhs/2009. Department of Environmental Affairs (2011a), South
Bulkeley, H (2006), “A changing climate for spatial Africa’s National Communication under the United
planning”, Planning Theory & Practice Vol 7, No Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
2, pages 203–214. 288 pages, accessed 14 July 2015 at http://unfccc.
Bulkeley, H, J Carmin, V Broto Castan, G A S Edwards int/resource/docs/natc/zafnc02.pdf.
and S Fuller (2013), “Climate justice and global Department of Environmental Affairs (2011b),
cities: Mapping the emerging discourses”, Global National Climate Change Response White Paper,
Environmental Change Vol 23, pages 914–925. 56 pages, accessed 24 January 2014 at http://
Bulkeley, H, G A S Edwards and S Fuller (2014), www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/national_
“Contesting climate justice in the city: Examining climatechange_response_whitepaper_0.pdf.
politics and practice in urban climate change Department of Environmental Affairs (2014), South
experiments”, Global Environmental Change Vol Africa’s Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Mitigation Potential
25, pages 31–40. Analysis, 288 pages, accessed 14 July 2015 at
Burch, S (2010), “In pursuit of resilient, low carbon https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/
communities: An examination of barriers to files/docs/mitigationreport.pdf.
action in three Canadian cities”, Energy Policy Vol Dhakal, S (2010), “GHG emissions from urbanization
38, pages 7575–7585. and opportunities for urban carbon mitigation”,

211
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability Vol in approaches to mitigation actions in five

2, pages 277–283. developing countries”, Climate and Development,
Dulal, H B and S Akbar (2013), “Greenhouse gas Vol 6, No 1, pages 59–70.
emission reduction options for cities: Finding the Gregg, J S, L M Losey, R J Andres, T J Blasing and G
“Coincidence of Agendas” between local priorities Marland (2009), “The temporal and spatial
and climate change mitigation objectives”, distribution of carbon dioxide emissions from
Habitat International Vol 38, pages 100–105. fossil-fuel use in North America”, Journal of
eNATIS (2014), Vehicle Population Statistics 2014, Applied Meteorology and Climatology Vol 48, pages
Electronic National Traffic Information System. 2528–2542.
eThekwini Municipality (2012), eThekwini GHG Guo, H, Y Cai and Z Zhu (2015), “Study on low-
Inventory 2012, 16 pages, accessed 9 March 2014 carbon city planning strategies based on urban
at http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/ greenhouse gas inventory”, Journal of Landscape
energyoffice/Documents/eThekwini_GHG_ Research Vol 7, No 4, pages 20–24.
Inventory_2012_SummaryReport_Final.pdf. Hannan, S and C Sutherland (2014), “Mega-projects
eThekwini Municipality (2015), eThekwini and sustainability in Durban, South Africa:
Municipality: 2015/16 IDP, 469 pages, accessed Convergent or divergent agendas?”, Habitat
14 August 2015 at http://www.durban.gov.za/ International Vol 45, No 3, pages 205–212.
City_Government/City_Vision/IDP/Documents/ Hillmer-Pegram, K C, P D Howe, H Greenberg and
Final%20Adopted%20IDP%2027May2015.pdf. B Yarnal (2012), “A geographic approach to
Eskom (2014), Integrated Report 2014, 96 pages. facilitating local climate governance: From
Feng, C, X Gao, J Wu, Y Tang, J He, Y Qi and Y Zhang emission inventories to mitigation planning”,
(2015), “Greenhouse gas emissions investigation Applied Geography Vol 34, pages 76–85.
for towns in China: a case study of Xiaolan”, Holgate, C (2007), “Factors and actors in climate change
Journal of Cleaner Production Vol 103, pages 130– mitigation: A tale of two South African cities”,
139. Local Environment: The International Journal of Justice
Ferreira, J, M Guevara, J M Baldasano, O Tchepel, M and Sustainability Vol 12, No 5, pages 471–484.
Schaap, A I Miranda and C Borrega (2013), “A ICLEI (2010), Local Government Operations Protocol
comparative analysis of two spatially resolved for the Quantification and Reporting of Greenhouse
European atmospheric emission inventories”, Gas Emissions Inventories, Version 1.1, 237
Atmospheric Environment Vol 75, pages 43–57. pages, accessed 17 May 2014 at http://www.arb.
Fleurbaey, M, S Kartha, S Bolwig, Y L Chee, Y Chen, ca.gov/cc/protocols/localgov/pubs/lgo_protocol_
E Corbera, F Lecocq, W Lutz, M S Muylaert, R v1_1_2010-05-03.pdf.
B Norgaard, C Okereke and A D Sagar (2014), ICLEI (2014), The Global Protocol for Community-Scale
“Sustainable Development and Equity”, in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories, 176 pages,
O Edenhofer, R Pichs-Madruga, Y Sokona, E accessed 17 May 2014 at http://www.iclei.org/
Farahani, S Kadner, K Seyboth, A Adler, I Baum, S fileadmin/user_upload/ICLEI_WS/Documents/
Brunner, P Eickermeier, J Savolainen, S Schlömer, Climate/GPC_12-8-14_1_.pdf.
C von Stechow, T Zwickel and J C Minx (editors), IPCC (2014), “Summary for Policymakers” in
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change, O Edenhofer, R Pichs-Madruga, Y Sokona, E
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Farahani, S Kadner, K Seyboth, A Adler, I Baum, S
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Brunner, P Eickermeier, J Savolainen, S Schlömer,
Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University C von Stechow, T Zwickel and J C Minx (editors),
Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, pages Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change,
283–350. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
Friedrich, E and C Trois (2013), “GHG emission factors Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
developed for the collection, transport and Panel on Climate, Cambridge University Press,
landfilling of municipal waste in South African Cambridge, UK and New York, USA.
municipalities”, Waste Management Vol 33, pages Jones, C and D M Kammen (2014), “Spatial
1013–1026. distribution of U.S. household carbon footprints
Friedrich, E and C Trois (2015), “Current and future reveals suburbanization undermines greenhouse
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the gas benefits of urban population density”,
management of municipal solid waste in the Environmental Science & Technology Vol 48, pages
eThekwini Municipality – South Africa”, Journal 895–902.
of Cleaner Production Vol 112, pages 1–13. Kennedy, C, S Demoullin and E Mohareb (2012),
Garibaldi, J A, H Winkler, E Lebre La Rovere, A “Cities reducing their greenhouse gas emissions”,
Cadena, R Palma, J E Sanhueza, E Tyler and M Energy Policy Vol 49, pages 774–777.
Gunfaus Torres (2014), “Comparative analysis of Knuth, S E (2010), “Addressing place in climate change
five case studies: commonalities and differences mitigation: Reducing emissions in a suburban

212
 G REEN H OU S E G A S E M I S S I ON S P RO F I LE S : D URB A N

landscape”, Habitat International Vol 37, pages Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Vol 44,
80–87. pages 473–495.
Kocabas, A (2013), “The transition to low carbon Ramaswami, A and A Chavez (2013), “What metrics
urbanization in Turkey: Emerging policies and best reflect the energy and carbon intensity of
initial action”, Habitat International Vol 37, pages cities? Insights from theory and modelling of 20
80–87. US cities”, Environmental Research Letters Vol 8,
Lah, O, S Shrestha S and H Huging (2015), Transferring pages 1–11.
Sustainable Transport and Ecomobility Solutions, Ramsay, L F and R Naidoo (2012), “Carbon footprints,
16 pages, accessed 15 October 2015 at http:// industrial transparency and community
www.ecomobilityfestival.org/wp-content/ engagement in a South Durban neighbourhood”,
uploads/2015/10/EcoMobility_Transferring- South African Geographical Journal Vol 94, No 2,
S u s t a i n a b l e - Tr a n s p o r t - a n d - E c o M o b i l i t y - pages 174–190.
Solutions_1-Oct-2015.pdf. Republic of South Africa (2012), National Development
Michel, D P and D Scott (2005), “The La Lucia-Umhlanga Plan 2030: Our Future-Make It Work, 489 pages,
Ridge as an emerging “Edge City” ”, South African accessed 14 March 2015 at http://www.poa.
Geographical Journal Vol 87, pages 104–114. gov.za/news/Documents/NPC%20National%20
Moghaddam, F R, F F Moghaddam and M Cheriet Development%20Plan%20Vision%202030%20
(2013), “A modified GHG intensity indicator: -lo-res.pdf.
Toward a sustainable global economy based on a Roberts, D (2016), “A global roadmap for climate
carbon border tax and emissions trading”, Energy change action: From COP17 in Durban to COP21
Policy Vol 57, pages 363–380. in Paris”, South African Journal of Science Vol 112,
Mottiar, S (2014), “Protest and participation in Nos 5/6, pages 1–3.
Durban: A focus on Cato Manor, Merebank and Romero-Lankao, P and D Dodman (2011), “Cities
Wentworth”, Politikon: South African Journal of in transition: transforming urban centres from
Political Studies Vol 41, No 3, pages 371–385. hotbeds of GHG emissions and vulnerability to
Napp, T A, A Gambhir, T P Hills, N Florin and P S seedbeds of sustainability and resilience”, Current
Fennell (2014), “A review of the technologies, Opinion in Environmental Sustainability Vol 3,
economics and policy instruments for pages 113–120.
decarbonising energy-intensive manufacturing Ruwanza, S and C M Shackleton (2015), “Incorporation
industries”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy of environmental issues in South Africa’s
Reviews Vol 30, pages 616–640. municipal Integrated Development Plans”,
National Treasury (2014), Carbon Offsets Paper, International Journal of Sustainable Development &
50 pages, accessed 15 July 2015 at http:// World Ecology Vol 1, pages 1–13.
www.treasury.gov.za/public%20comments/ Satterthwaite, D (2010), “The contribution of cities to
CarbonOffsets/2014042901%20-%20Carbon%20 global warming and their potential contributions
Offsets%20Paper.pdf. to solutions”, Environment and Urbanization Vol 1,
Nel, V (2011), “Land-use management system as a No 1, pages 1–12.
tool towards achieving low-carbon cities in South Scannell, L and R Gifford (2013), “Personally relevant
Africa”, Town and Regional Planning Vol 58, pages climate change: The role of place attachment
1–5. and local versus global message framing in
Paavola, J and W N Adger (2006), “Fair adaptation engagement,” Environment and Behavior Vol 45,
to climate change”, Ecological Economics Vol 56, No 1, pages 60–85.
pages 594–609. Scott, D and C Barnett (2009) “Something in the air:
Paloheimo, E and O Salmi (2013), “Evaluating the civic science and contentious environmental
carbon emissions of the low carbon city: A novel politics in post-apartheid South Africa”, Geoforum
approach for consumer based allocation”, Cities Vol 40, No 3, pages 373–382.
Vol 30, pages 233–239. Scott, D, C Oelofse and C Guy (2002), “Double trouble:
Peters, G P and E G Hertwich (2008), “Post-Kyoto Environmental injustice in South Durban”,
greenhouse gas inventories: production versus Agenda: Empowering women for gender equity Vol
consumption”, Climatic Change Vol 86, pages 17, pages 50–57.
51–66. Seto, K C, S Dhakal, A Bigio, H Blanco, G C Delgado,
Price, L, N Zhou, D Fridley, S Oshita, H Lu, N Zheng D Dewar, L Huang, A Inaba, A Kansal, S Lwasa, J E
and C Fino-Chen (2013), “Development of a McMahon, D B Müller, J Murakami, H Nagendra
low carbon indicator system for China”, Habitat and A Ramaswami (2014), “Human Settlements,
International Vol 37, pages 4–21. Infrastructure and Spatial Planning”, in O
Ramachandra, T V, B H Aithal and K Sreejith (2015), Edenhofer, R Pichs-Madruga, Y Sokona, E
“GHG footprint of major cities in India”, Farahani, S Kadner, K Seyboth, A Adler, I Baum, S

213
EN V I RON M ENT & URB A N I Z A T I ON Vol 30 No 1 April 2018

Brunner, P Eickermeier, J Savolainen, S Schlömer, distortions and Strategic Responses”, Urbanization

C von Stechow, T Zwickel and J C Minx (editors), and Emerging Population Issues, Working Paper
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate 8, International Institute for Environment and
Change Contribution of Working Group III to the Development, London, 66 pages.
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental VandeWeghe, J and C Kennedy (2007), “A spatial
Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University analysis of residential greenhouse gas emissions
Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, pages in the Toronto census metropolitan area”,
923–1000. Journal of Industrial Ecology Vol 11, No 2, pages
Shi, L, E Chu, I Anguelovski, A Aylett, J Debats, K Goh, 133–144.
K C Seto, D Dodman, D Roberts, T J Roberts and Velasco, E, R Perrusquia, E Jimenez, F Hernandez, P
S D VanDeveer (2016), “Roadmap towards justice Camacho, S Rodriguez, A Retama and L T Molina
in urban climate adaptation research”, Nature (2014), “Sources and sinks of carbon dioxide in
Climate Change Vol 6, pages 131–137. a neighbourhood of Mexico City”, Atmospheric
Singer, A M, M Branham, M G Hutchins, J Welker, D L Environment Vol 97, pages 226–238.
Woodard, C A Badurek, T Ruseva, E Marland and Villalba, G and E D Gemechu (2011), “Estimating
G Marland (2014), “The role of CO2 emissions GHG emissions of marine ports—the case of
from large point sources in emissions totals, Barcelona”, Energy Policy Vol 39, pages 1363–
responsibility, and policy”, Environmental Science 1368.
and Policy Vol 44, pages 190–200. Walsh, C L, D Roberts, R J Dawson, J W Hall, A
Sovacool, B K and M A Brown (2010), “Twelve Nickson and R Hounsome (2013), “Experiences
metropolitan carbon footprints: A preliminary of integrated assessment of climate impacts,
comparative global assessment”, Energy Policy Vol adaptation and mitigation modelling in London
38, pages 4856–4869. and Durban”, Environment and Urbanization Vol
StatsSA (2013), Superweb Census 2011. 52, No 2, pages 361–380.
Stone, A C (2004), Creating a National Database of Wang, H, R Zhang, M Liu and J Bi (2012), “The
Traffic Based Vehicle Emissions Factors and Vehicle carbon emissions of Chinese cities”, Atmospheric
Parc Data: Lessons from the South Durban Basin, Chemistry and Physics Vol 12, pages 6197–6206.
National Association of Clean Air, Western Cape. Williams, J (2012), “Regulative, facilitative and
Thambiran, T and R D Diab (2011a), “Air quality and strategic contributions of planning to achieving
climate change co-benefits for the industrial low carbon development”, Planning Theory &
sector in Durban, South Africa”, Energy Policy Vol Practice Vol 13, No 1, pages 131–145.
39, pages 6658–6666. Wilson, E (2006), “Adapting to climate change at the
Thambiran, T and R D Diab (2011b), “Air pollution local level: The spatial planning response,” Local
and climate change co-benefit opportunities in Environment: The International Journal of Justice
the road transportation sector in Durban, South and Sustainability Vol 11, No 6, pages 609–625.
Africa”, Atmospheric Environment Vol 45, pages World Bank (2011), Representative GHG Baselines
2683–2689. for Cities and their Respective Countries, 3 pages,
Tongwane, M, S Piketh and T Ramotubei (2015), accessed 14 October 2016 at http://siteresources.
“Greenhouse gas emissions from road transport worldbank.org/INTUWM/Resources/GHG_
in South Africa and Lesotho between 2000 and Index_Mar_9_2011.pdf.
2009”, Transportation Research Part D Vol 37, Zhou, N, G He, C Williams and D Fridley (2014),
pages 1–13. “ELITE cities: A low-carbon eco-city evaluation
Turok, I (2012), “Urbanisation and Development in tool for China”, Ecological Indicators Vol 48, pages
South Africa: Economic Imperatives, Spatial 448–456.

214