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 IB BIOLOGY
BIOZONE’s IB Biology has been specifically written for the latest
IB Biology Diploma programme (first assessed in 2025). This
comprehensive title integrates BOTH standard level (SL) and higher
level (HL) material, ensuring seamless delivery of the IB programme
with no content gaps.
The structure of IB Biology has a thematic approach. It follows the four
themes presented in the syllabus roadmap: Unity and Diversity, Form
and Function, Interaction and Interdependence, and Continuity and
Change. The delivery spirals, allowing exploration of the four levels of
organization (molecules, cells, organisms, and ecosystems) within the
context of each theme. A Science Practices chapter has been added
at the end of the book that contains material to support students with
the scientific investigation component of the program.

Key Idea
Activity number A key idea provides a
Activities are primary focus for the
numbered to make 11 activity. It helps students
navigation through 6 The DNA Molecule to understand where the
the book easier. Key Idea: DNA is packaged around proteins called histones. The extent of DNA packaging changes during the life cycle of activity’s emphasis lies.
SL activities are The DNA in eukaryotes is packaged as discrete linear
chromosomes that vary in number from species to species.
the cell, but classic chromosome structures (below) appear
during metaphase of mitosis.
in blue, with AHL QR Codes
activities in orange. Scan QR codes to
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Chromosome are formed from the
coiling of chromatin into directly interact with
organized structures. They
appear during cell division. 3D models (below).
Comprehensive, Chromatids (2)
In eukaryotes,
engaging diagrams chromosomes are
located in the nucleus.
Engaging, high quality H1

diagrams provide a visual

focus whilst delivering Linker DNA Histone
important information in an H2B
H2A
accessible format. DNA is complexed with protein to
Histones may be modified form chromatin. The DNA is packaged
by a number of processes, in an organized way, wrapped around
including addition of methyl, groups of 8 histone proteins to form
acetyl, or phosphate groups to nucleosomes. This loosely packed
the histone tail. Depending on H3 'beads on a string' arrangement is
the type of modification, the H4 how most of the DNA exists for much
chromatin may pack together of the cell cycle. Use the QR code or
more tightly or more loosely, BIOZONE Resource Hub to visualize
affecting the cell's ability to this in 3D.
Content organization express genes.
Nucleosome = 8 histones and 2 turns of DNA
Logically organized content
makes it easier for students Gene (protein coding region). Genes on a chromosome
can only be expressed (read and translated into
to access and engage with Transcription
proteins) when the DNA is unwound.

the information. (reading) start

sequence
DNA has a double helix
Exon (coding region) structure. It is made up of
Intron (non-coding region)
many building blocks called Activity coding system
Tabs indicate if the
nucleotides joined together.
Transcription stop sequence

Activity contains material

Direct questioning 1. Explain why eukaryotic DNA needs to be packaged to fit inside a cell nucleus? covering Additional Higher
A direct questioning Level, Nature of Science,
style helps students and/or Application of
easily identify what is 2. How do histone proteins help in the coiling up of DNA? Skills, and also the
being asked. theme and content
statements covered.
3. Suggest why a cell coils up its chromosomes into tight structures when it is going to divide:
Blue tabs indicated
interconnectedness of
content in other Activities.
Write-on answers
Students input their 4. Explain how the packaging of DNA in an organized way enables closer regulation of gene expression:

answers directly onto Resource Hub

the page. This becomes Grey tabs indicate that
their record of work and the Activity has relevant
helps them revise for Open Educational
tests and exams.
©2024 BIOZONE International
ISBN: 978-1-99-101410-8
A2.1 Resources available in
285 AOS AHL
Photocopying prohibited 12, 13 the Resource Hub (e.g.
videos, interactives,
3D models).

www.BIOZONE.com/us/IB3
Chapter 1: Unity and Diversity

Molecules
Activity
A1.1 Water
▢   1Conservation of the genetic code across all life forms as evidence of universal common ancestry: Students are not
  6 AHL Chargaff’s data on the relative amounts of pyrimidine and purine bases across diverse life forms: NOS: Number
##
required
Studentsto memorize
should any specific
understand examples.
how the ‘problem of induction’ is addressed by the ‘certainty of falsification’. In this case,
Guiding Questions: ▶ What physical and chemical properties of water make it essential for life?
##
Chargaff’s data falsified the tetranucleotide hypothesis that there was a repeating sequence of the four bases in DNA.
▢   2 AHL Directionality▶ of RNAare
What and DNA:
the Includeand
challenges 5' to 3' linkagesof
opportunities in water
the sugar–phosphate
as a habitat? backbone and their significance
for replication, transcription and translation.
##

▢Learning
  3 AHLOutcomes:
Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding as a component of DNA helix stability: Adenine–thymine (A–T) and cytosine–
▢   1 guanine
Explain(C–G) pairs have equal
the significance length,
of water as a so the DNA
medium for helix hasprocesses,
cellular the same three-dimensional
and a requirement structure, regardless
for the origin of cells. of the ##
1
base sequence.
▢   2 Model a water molecule, showing the hydrogen bonding with correct notation. 1
▢   4 AHL Structure of a nucleosome: Limit to a DNA molecule wrapped around a core of eight histone proteins held
▢   3 together
Link theby an additional
property histone
of water protein
cohesion attached
to its to linker
importance DNA.
to biological processes, including transport in the xylem ##
Application of skills: Studentsonarewater
required 1
and movement of organisms due to
to use molecular
surface visualization software to study the association between
tension.
the proteins and DNA within a nucleosome.
▢   4 Link the property of water adhesion to materials, due to polarity, to its significance for organisms, including soil
▢   5 AHL 1
andEvidence
plant cellfrom the Hershey–Chase
wall capillary action. experiment for DNA as the genetic material: Students should understand
how the results of the experiment support the conclusion that DNA is the genetic material.
▢   5 NOS: Students
Explain shouldproperties
how solvent appreciateofthat technological
water developments
allow it to function can open
as a medium for up new
plant possibilities
and for experiments.
animal metabolism and ##
When radioisotopes wereanimals,
made available 1
transport in plants and for bothto scientistsand
hydrophilic as research tools,molecules.
hydrophobic the Hershey–Chase experiment became
possible.
▢   6 Compare and contrast the physical properties of water and air, and how they impact the animals in aquatic
1
habitats.

▢   7 AHL: Evaluate the extraplanetary asteroid hypothesis for the origin and retention of water on Earth. 2

▢   8 AHL: Explain the relationship between water on ‘Goldilocks zone’ planets and the possibility of finding
2
extraterrestrial life.

A1.2 Nucleic acids

Activity
Guiding Questions: ▶ How does the structure of nucleic acids allow hereditary information to be stored?
▶ How does the structure of DNA facilitate accurate replication?
Number

Learning Outcomes:
▢   1 Identify DNA as the genetic material found in all living organisms. 3

▢   2 Use and draw models of a nucleotide, identifying the components. 3, 8

▢   3 Link the properties of the sugar–phosphate bonding to its role as the ‘backbone’ of DNA and RNA. 3, 5

▢   4 Recall nitrogenous base names in DNA and RNA. 3

▢   5 Understand that RNA polymers are formed by condensation of nucleotide monomers. Draw and recognise
3
nucleotides and RNA polymers.

▢   6 Recognise DNA as a double helix. Use diagrams to show the two DNA strands as anti-parallel. 3, 8

▢   7 Draw diagrams to compare and contrast the components of DNA and RNA. 3, 5

▢   8 Explain how complementary base pairing enables DNA to function as genetic material. Base pairs are held
3
together by hydrogen bonds.

▢   9 Link the structure of DNA to its ability to economically store huge quantities of information using almost limitless
3
different sequence combinations.

▢   10 Explain that all living organisms using the same genetic code in DNA is evidence of common ancestry. 3

▢   11 AHL: Relate the DNA and RNA 5’ to 3’ linkage directionality to the processes of replication, transcription and
4
translation.

▢   12 AHL: Explain the purpose of purine-to-pyrimidine bonding in enabling DNA helix stability. 4

▢   13 AHL: Understand that histone proteins make up the core of a nucleosome. AOS: Use digital molecular
6
visualization to investigate the structure of a nucleosome.

▢   14 AHL: Understand how the Hershey Chase experiment supported the conclusion that DNA was the genetic
material. NOS: Appreciate how technological developments provided tools for Hershey and Chase to carry out 7
their investigation into DNA.

▢   15 AHL: NOS: Investigate Chargaff’s pyrimidine and purine data, and how their ratios addressed the ‘problem of
7
induction’ and falsified the tetranucleotide hypothesis.
2

1 Water in Living Systems

Key Idea: Water’s molecular structure accounts for its common product of, many reactions. Its cohesive, adhesive,
properties and for its central role in life’s processes. thermal, and solvent properties come about because of its
Water (H2O) is the main component of living things, and polarity and its ability to form hydrogen bonds with other
typically makes up about 70% of any organism. Water is polar molecules. Water’s physical and chemical properties
important in cell chemistry as it takes part in, and is a are essential for sustaining life.

Small –ve H H H H
H H
H H
charge δ⁻ O O
O O
O Hydrogen
O bonds
H H
H H

Water forms hydrogen bonds δ⁺ δ⁺ H H

H H
O
A water molecule is polar, meaning it has a positively and a negatively O
Small +ve charges
charged region. In water, each oxygen has a slight negative charge
(δ–) and each hydrogen has a slight positive charge (δ+). Water
molecules form large numbers of weak hydrogen bonds with other Hydrogen bonds
water molecules (top right). Individually, hydrogen bonds are weak,
but collectively, they are strong enough to account for the unique
properties of water including its cohesion, high boiling point, high
heat of fusion (energy required to cause a change of state from solid
to liquid), and high latent heat of vaporization (below, right).

When water is in a liquid state, it has enough energy that hydrogen

bonds are continually breaking and reforming. When water loses
energy (e.g. cooled), the hydrogen bonds are strong enough to Ice: H-bonds are fixed in an Liquid water: H-bonds
hold water molecules in place, forming a lattice which causes ice to interconnected framework. constantly break and reform.
expand. The expansion causes ice to be less dense than liquid water.

Intermolecular bonds between water and other polar molecules Oxygen is

or ions are important for biological systems. Inorganic ions may attracted
have a positive or negative charge, e.g. positive sodium ion (Na+) to the Na+
and negative chloride ion (Cl–). The charged water molecules Na+
Cl–
are attracted to charged ions and surround them. This formation Hydrogen is
of intermolecular bonds between water and the ions keeps ions attracted to
dissolved in water. Polar molecules such as amino acids and the CI-
carbohydrates also dissolve readily in water. Water surrounding a Water surrounding a
positive ion (Na+) negative ion (CI-)

Cohesive properties Adhesive properties Solvent properties Thermal properties

Water molecules are cohesive: Water is attracted to other Water’s polarity allows it Water has the highest specific
they stick together because molecules because of its polar to dissociate ions in salts heat capacity of all liquids, so
hydrogen bonds form between nature. Water will form thin and bond to other polar it takes a lot of energy before
individual molecules. Cohesion films and ‘climb’ up surfaces substances, e.g. alcohols it will change temperature. It
allows water to form droplets when the molecular forces and acids, dissolving them. In also has high latent heat of
and is responsible for the between them (adhesive contrast, non-polar substances vaporization, so it takes a lot of
surface tension that many small forces) are greater than the such as fats and oils are not energy to transform it from the
organisms rely on. cohesive forces. water soluble. liquid to the gas phase.

Example: The cohesive and Example: Adhesion enables Example: Blood plasma in Examples: High specific heat
adhesive properties of water capillary action, i.e. the ability humans and other animals is capacity means that large
allow it to move as an unbroken of a liquid to flow against largely water and transports water bodies will maintain a
column through the xylem of gravity in a narrow space. This many water-soluble relatively stable temperature.
plants. This process is essential property is also shown by the substances, including ions, High heat of vaporization
for water uptake from the soil. meniscus of a liquid in a tube. glucose, and amino acids, makes sweating a very
around the body. effective cooling mechanism.

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 3

The importance of water in biological systems

Rido - stock.adobe.com
micro_photo - Fotolia
Life originated in water and it still plays a Water’s cohesion is responsible for its high Water’s high latent heat of vaporization
major role in most of life’s activities, such specific heat capacity (a function of its means that a change of state from liquid to
as metabolic processes, which depend many hydrogen bonds). This means water gas absorbs a lot of energy. When water in
on dissolved reactants (solutes) coming bodies heat up and cool down only slowly, sweat evaporates from the skin’s surface,
into contact. Water can also act as an providing a relatively stable thermal it transfers heat from the body to the air,
acid (donating H+) or a base (receiving environment. The greater the body of producing cooling. Panting, in animals that
H+) in chemical reactions. water, the more thermally stable it is. do not sweat, operates the same way.

yang yu - stock.adobe.com
NOAA

Aquatic animals need to regulate their Water is known as the universal solvent Water’s high thermal conductivity means it
buoyancy to maintain their position in the because many substances will dissolve can quickly remove body heat from animals
water column. Bony fish do this with a in it. In natural waters, dissolved that are not insulated. Seals, e.g. ringed
swim bladder. Some aquatic birds, such minerals, such as calcium, are available seal above, and other marine mammals have
as the black throated loon, are able to to aquatic organisms, e.g. shell insulating layers of blubber to help retain
compress the air in their lungs to reduce building organisms such as the hard their body heat. Out of water, these animals
buoyancy and help diving. corals above. can run the risk of overheating.

1. Explain how water’s molecular structure accounts for each of the following:

a) Water’s cohesion and high heat capacity:

b) Water’s solvent properties:

c) Water’s high latent heat of vaporization:

2. Use the diagrams opposite to explain why water is less dense in its solid form (as ice) than in its liquid form:

3. Summarize the ways in which living systems depend on the properties of water arising from its molecular structure:

4. Why do marine mammals risk overheating when out of water?

©2024 BIOZONE International

ISBN: 978-1-99-101410-8
Photocopying prohibited
4

2 The Origin of Earth’s Water

Key Idea: As far as we know, Earth is the only place in the molecules and ions to carry out the reactions of life. Earth’s
Universe where life exists. The presence of liquid water on water is thought to have been acquired through collisions
the surface is an important factor for the presence of life. with icy bodies and accretion of minerals and molecules from
There is one thing that life absolutely must have to survive: the original gas cloud from which the solar system formed.
liquid water. Water is important as a medium for dissolved Water is also present on many moons in the solar system.
▶ It is thought that much of Earth’s water arrived via
collisions with icy bodies. Because of the distance from
the Sun that Earth formed, liquid water is unlikely to
have condensed during or soon after formation, although
hydrated minerals may have been present.
▶ Evidence from the study of meteorites and comets
shows that Earth’s water is likely to have come from
the impact of icy asteroids and planetesimals. The
deuterium/hydrogen ratios of water in carbonaceous
chondrite asteroids are similar to the ratios found on
Earth. Comets, however, have a much higher deuterium/ All three phases of water exist on Earth’s surface.
hydrogen ratio and so are unlikely to have delivered
Earth’s is positioned in the ‘Goldilocks zone’, not so far from the Sun
much water. It is thought that comets may have
that water on the surface freezes but not so close that it vaporizes.
contributed only around 10% of Earth’s water.

Water and extraterrestrial life

Water is essential for life as we know it. Earth’s position in the habitable zone of the solar system means it has a surface
temperature where water can exist in all three phases. Earth’s gravity is important in being able to hold on to its water, stopping it
from evaporating into space (unlike Mars for example).

Volvox
NASA

NASA
Water plays a role in many of the metabolic Jupiter’s moons Ganymede and Europa Saturn’s moon Enceladus (above) also
processes of life Earth. Because of this, it (above) both have oceans containing far has a vast ocean beneath its icy surface.
is essential for life as we know it. Earth is more liquid water than all of Earth’s oceans The presence of hydrothermal vents and
not the only place in the solar system with combined. These are covered by ice sheets mineral rich water lends weight to the idea
liquid water on its surface. There are 23 many kilometres thick. Evidence shows that life could evolve there, as it is thought
moons that are known or suspected to have they may be heated by hydrothermal vents life could have evolved on Earth near
large bodies of liquid water on them. and tidal stretching from Jupiter’s gravity. hydrothermal vents.

1. Why is water needed for life?

2. What are some factors that help maintain liquid water on Earth's surface? Explain:

3. Explain why Earth’s water is likely to have come from asteroids rather than comets:

4. What is the Goldilocks zone?

A1.1 ©2024 BIOZONE International

ISBN: 978-1-99-101410-8
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 11

6 The DNA Molecule

Key Idea: DNA is packaged around proteins called histones. The extent of DNA packaging changes during the life cycle of
The DNA in eukaryotes is packaged as discrete linear the cell, but classic chromosome structures (below) appear
chromosomes that vary in number from species to species. during metaphase of mitosis.

Eukaryotic chromosomes
Chromosome are formed from the
coiling of chromatin into
organized structures. They
appear during cell division.

Chromatids (2)
In eukaryotes,
chromosomes are
located in the nucleus.
H1

Linker DNA Histone

H2B
H2A
DNA is complexed with protein to
Histones may be modified form chromatin. The DNA is packaged
by a number of processes, in an organized way, wrapped around
including addition of methyl, groups of 8 histone proteins to form
acetyl, or phosphate groups to nucleosomes. This loosely packed
the histone tail. Depending on H3 'beads on a string' arrangement is
the type of modification, the H4 how most of the DNA exists for much
chromatin may pack together of the cell cycle. Use the QR code or
more tightly or more loosely, BIOZONE Resource Hub to visualize
affecting the cell's ability to this in 3D.
express genes.
Nucleosome = 8 histones and 2 turns of DNA

Gene (protein coding region). Genes on a chromosome

can only be expressed (read and translated into
proteins) when the DNA is unwound.
Transcription
(reading) start
sequence
DNA has a double helix
Exon (coding region) structure. It is made up of
many building blocks called
Intron (non-coding region)
nucleotides joined together.
Transcription stop sequence

1. Explain why eukaryotic DNA needs to be packaged to fit inside a cell nucleus?

2. How do histone proteins help in the coiling up of DNA?

3. Suggest why a cell coils up its chromosomes into tight structures when it is going to divide:

4. Explain how the packaging of DNA in an organized way enables closer regulation of gene expression:

©2024 BIOZONE International A2.1

ISBN: 978-1-99-101410-8
285 AOS AHL
Photocopying prohibited 12, 13
92

50 Homologous Structures
Key Idea: Homologous structures (homologies) are structural land vertebrates were amphibians with a pentadactyl limb
similarities present as a result of common ancestry. The structure (a limb with five fingers or toes). All vertebrates
common structural components have been adapted for that descended from these early amphibians have limbs with
different purposes in different taxa. this same basic pentadactyl pattern. They also illustrate the
The bones of the forelimb of air-breathing vertebrates phenomenon known as adaptive radiation, since the basic
are composed of similar bones arranged in a comparable limb plan has been adapted to meet the requirements of
pattern. This is indicative of common ancestry. The early different niches.

Generalized pentadactyl limb Specializations of pentadactyl limbs

The forelimbs and hind limbs have the same arrangement
of bones but different names. In many cases, the basic
limb plan has been adapted, e.g. by loss or fusion of
bones, to meet the requirements of different niches, e.g.
during adaptive radiation of the mammals.

Forelimb Hindlimb Mole

Bird wing forelimb

Humerus
(upper arm) Femur
(thigh)

Dog front
Fibula leg
Tibia Bat wing
Radius
Ulna

Carpals Tarsals
(wrist) (ankle)

Metacarpals Metatarsals
(palm) (sole)
Seal flipper

Phalanges Phalanges
(fingers) (toes)
Human arm

1. Briefly describe the purpose of the major anatomical change that has taken place in each of the limb examples above:
Highly modified for flight. Forelimb is shaped for aerodynamic lift and feather attachment.
(a) Bird wing:

(b) Human arm:

(c) Seal flipper:

(d) Dog front leg:

(e) Mole forelimb:

(f) Bat wing:

2. Explain how homology in the pentadactyl limb is evidence for evolution:

3. Homology is due to divergent evolution. Define this term and explain how discovery of a new species of whale fossil,
complete with limb bones, could be classified using evidence from anatomical homology:

A4.1 ©2024 BIOZONE International

ISBN: 978-1-99-101410-8
4 Photocopying prohibited
 105

64 Carbohydrate Chemistry
Key Idea: Monosaccharides are the building blocks for larger Monosaccharide polymers form the major component of
carbohydrates. They can exist as isomers. most plants (as cellulose). Monosaccharides are important
Sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) play a central as a primary energy source for cellular metabolism.
role in cells, providing energy and joining together to form Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y, where x
carbohydrate macromolecules, such as starch and glycogen. and y are variable numbers (often but not always the same).

Monosaccharides Ribose: a pentose monosaccharide

▶ Monosaccharides are single-sugar molecules and
HOCH2 OH Ribose is a pentose (5 carbon)
include glucose (grape sugar and blood sugar) and O
monosaccharide which can form
fructose (honey and fruit juices). They are used as a
a ring structure (left). Ribose is
primary energy source for fuelling cell metabolism. C C
a component of the nucleic acid,
▶ They can be joined together to form disaccharides (two H H H H ribonucleic acid (RNA).
monomers) and polysaccharides (many monomers). C C
▶ Monosaccharides can be classified by the number OH OH
of carbon atoms they contain. Some important
monosaccharides are the hexoses (6 carbons) and the
Glucose isomers
pentoses (5 carbons). The most common arrangements
found in sugars are hexose (6 sided) or pentose (5 CH2OH CH2OH
sided) rings (below).
C O C O
▶ The commonly occurring monosaccharides contain H H H HO
between three and seven carbon atoms in their carbon H H
C C C C
chains and, of these, the 6C hexose sugars occur most OH H OH H
frequently. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars OH OH HO H
C C C C
(they can participate in reduction reactions).
H OH H OH
α -glucose β -glucose
Examples of monosaccharide structures
Triose Pentose Hexose Isomers are compounds with the same chemical formula (same
C types and numbers of atoms) but different arrangements of
atoms. The different arrangement of the atoms means that each
C
isomer has different properties.
C Molecules such as glucose can have many different isomers,
e.g. glyceraldehyde e.g. ribose e.g. glucose, e.g. ɑ and β glucose, above, including straight and ring forms.
deoxyribose fructose, galactose

Rufino Uribe

Glucose is a versatile molecule. It provides Plants make their glucose via the Fructose, often called fruit sugar, is a
energy to power cellular reactions, can process of photosynthesis. Animals and simple monosaccharide. It is often derived
form energy storage molecules such other heterotrophic organisms obtain from sugar cane (above). Both fructose
as glycogen, or it can be used to build their glucose by consuming plants or and glucose can be directly absorbed into
structural molecules. other organisms. the bloodstream.

1. Describe the two major functions of monosaccharides:

a)

b)

2. Describe the structural differences between the ring forms of glucose and ribose:

3. Using glucose as an example, define the term isomer and state its importance:

©2024 BIOZONE International B1.1

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116

73 R-Groups
Key Idea: The variable R group gives amino acids their and ultimately determines how the amino acid chain folds
properties and ultimately determines the final protein shape. up into a functional protein. For example, the hydrophobic
All amino acids have a common structure, but the R group is R groups of soluble proteins are folded into the protein’s
different in each type of amino acid. The property of the R interior, while hydrophilic groups are arranged on the outside.
group determines how it will interact with other amino acids

Different amino acids have different R groups NH 2

CH2
▶ The R group in the amino acid determines the
CH2
chemical properties of the amino acid. Different SH COOH
CH2
amino acids have different R groups and therefore
CH2 CH22 CH 2
different chemical properties. Amino acids can be
grouped according to these properties. Common
groupings are nonpolar (hydrophobic), polar
(hydrophilic), positively charged (basic), or negatively
charged (acidic).
Cysteine Lysine Aspartic acid
▶ The property of the R group determines how the The 'R' group of cysteine The 'R' group of The 'R' group
amino acid will interact with others and how the forms disulfide bridges lysine gives the of aspartic acid
amino acid chain will fold up into a functional protein. with other cysteines to amino acid an gives the amino
For example, the hydrophobic R groups of soluble create cross linkages in a alkaline property. acid an acidic
proteins will be folded into the protein's interior. polypeptide chain. property.

Links between amino acids

Polypeptide backbone
Hydrogen
bond
O 'R' group
=

–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH2–NH3+ –O–C–CH2– CH2

O
H
Ionic bond
O
CH
=

C–NH2
H3 C CH3 CH2 Amine
group
H3 C CH3
S Carboxyl
CH S group
Disulfide link
(bond or bridge)
Hydrophobic Threonine molecular
interactions structure

1. (a) Name the different interactions that can shape the polypeptide:

(b) Which of the interactions would be the strongest:

2. Do some research to assign each of the 20 amino acids found in proteins to one of the four groups below. Use a
standard 3-letter code to identify each amino acid:

(a) Nonpolar (hydrophobic):

(b) Polar (hydrophilic):

(c) Positively charged (basic):

(d) Negatively charged (acidic):

3. Which type(s) of amino acids would you find on the surface of a soluble protein? Which type(s) would you find in the
interior? Explain:

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AHL 152
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 147

93 Constraints to Cell Size

Key Idea: Demand for exchanged materials sets the limits to a the membranes, larger volume cells have a greater
cell's size due to the surface area to volume ratio. demand for materials to be transported across at a faster
In order to function, a cell must obtain the raw materials it rate. As the cell becomes larger, it becomes more and more
needs and dispose of the waste products of metabolism. difficult for it to obtain all the materials it needs to sustain
These exchanges must occur across the plasma membrane. its metabolism. The size of cells can be constrained when
In a spherical cell, the cell volume increases faster than the material requirements exceed the exchange rate. The
corresponding surface area. Although cells with larger surface-area-to-volume relationship of the cells can be
surface areas facilitate the exchange of materials across estimated using the appropriate formula for their shape.

Calculating surface area to volume ratios

▶ Mathematical formulae can be used to calculate the surface area and volume, and consequently the ratio between them.
▶ Models of spheres and cylinders can be used to approximate different types of cells.

Sphere Cube Cylinder

Biological example Staphylococcus bacterial cell Kidney tubule cell Axon of neuron

Surface area: The sum of all areas

of all shapes covering an object's 4πr2 6w2 (2πr2) + (2πrh)
surface.

Volume: The amount that a

3-dimensional shape can hold.
π r3 w3 πr2h

Cell A Cell B Cell C

Sphere Long cylinder Disc shaped cylinder
r = 0.78 cm r = 0.5 cm r = 1.78 cm
h = 2.55 cm h = 0.2 cm

White blood cell Skeletal muscle fibres Red blood cell

r = radius l = length w = width h = height π = 3.14

1. Use the formulae for a sphere and a cylinder above to calculate the surface area of cells A, B, and C.

(a) SA cell A: ______________________________________________ (c) SA cell C: _________________________________________________

(b) SA cell B: ______________________________________________

2. Use the formulae for a sphere and a cylinder above to calculate the volume of cells A, B, and C.

(a) Volume cell A: _________________________________________ (c) Volume cell C: _____________________________________________

(b) Volume cell B: _________________________________________

3. Which of the cells above (A, B, C) has the greater surface area to volume ratio? Describe how changing the shape of a
cell affects its surface area and its ability to obtain nutrients and dispose of wastes:

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148

Using models in science

Models are important ways of representing scientific concepts and ideas visually using a
simplistic version. They help to visualize trends and patterns in data and can be used to show the
complexity of relationships within a system.

Models can describe the relationship between variables, such as the surface area to volume of a
cell, or comparing cell sizes to each other.

Scientific information can be represented visually or modelled in many different ways.

Representations vary widely, depending on what type of information is being conveyed. The
ability to describe and explain visual representations helps you to communicate information
about the biological principles, concepts, and processes they involve.

Plant cell model

The effect of increasing size

▶ The size and shape of a cell reflects its function and the need for essential molecules to move in and out. The greater the
spherical diameter of a cell, the more material it contains and the further molecules have to move in order to reach the centre.
At the same time, its metabolic requirements for raw materials increase. Molecules diffusing into the cell are used up faster than
they can be supplied and may not reach the cell’s centre, leaving it starved of essential molecules, e.g. oxygen.
▶ The transport of substances across membranes allows cells to exchange matter with their environment. Simple diffusion and
transport involving membrane proteins are both affected by cell size and shape because these things affect the amount of
surface area available relative to the cell's volume. The larger a cell, the more materials, e.g. oxygen, it needs, and the further
molecules need to move to reach their destination within the cell.
▶ A cell's surface area is important in determining how many molecules it can obtain. Its volume is important in determining how
quickly molecules can reach certain parts of the cell. Surface area to volume ratio is therefore crucial to cell function.

(a) 2 cm cube (b) 3 cm cube (c) 4 cm cube (d) 5 cm cube

4. The diagram above shows four hypothetical cells of different sizes. They range from a small 2 cm cube to a 5 cm cube
(not to scale). Explain in general terms how a change in size effects the surface area and the volume of the cell:

5. Use the formulae provided on the previous page to calculate the surface area (SA), volume (V), and the ratio of surface
area to volume (SA:V) for each of the four cuboidal cells (a)-(d) above. Show your calculations.

(a) SA: ___________________________________ V: ___________________________________ SA:V ____________________________________

(b) SA: ___________________________________ V: ___________________________________ SA:V ____________________________________

(c) SA: ___________________________________ V: ___________________________________ SA:V ____________________________________

(d) SA: ___________________________________ V: ___________________________________ SA:V ____________________________________

6. What are the advantages of using a model to demonstrate the surface-area-to-volume relationship of cells:

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 219

135 Abiotic Factors Affect Biome Distribution

Key Idea: Temperature and rainfall play an important role in to the poles. Temperature and precipitation act together as
determining the geographical location of terrestrial biomes. limiting factors to determine the type of desert, grassland, or
Temperature and precipitation are excellent predictors of forest biome in a region. Latitude directly affects solar input
biome distribution. Temperature decreases from the equator and temperature.

Within a single latitudinal region,

Cold
the level of precipitation (rainfall)
governs the type of plant
community found. Note that the
effect of altitude is similar to that
of latitude: ice will occur at high
altitudes even at low-latitudes.

Snow & ice

Polar

Arctic
Tundra Hot

Wet Dry
Boreal forest (taiga) Subarctic
Latitudinal region

Chaparral Temperate
Temperate
forests
Desert Grassland As the Earth curves towards the poles,
solar energy is spread out over an ever
increasing area. This energy must also
Equatorial

Desert Tropical travel through a greater amount of the

Semi-desert Savanna forest Tropical
atmosphere, expending more energy than at
low latitudes.
0 250 1000 4000
Annual precipitation (mm)
Desert Tropical

1. Explain how temperature and rainfall affect the distribution of biomes:

2. Explain why biomes are not evenly distributed about the globe:

3. Explain how the landscape can modify climate:

4. Explain why higher latitudes receive less solar energy than lower latitudes:

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222

138 Adaptations to Tropical Environments

Key Idea: Tropical rainforests have the greatest biodiversity may have over 42,000 different species of plants and animals.
on Earth, with organisms showing a vast array of adaptations. With such large numbers of organisms all competing for
Tropical environments have a large amount of light, warmth, space and nutrients, it is unsurprising that the inhabitants of
and moisture: ideal for plant growth. This combination of a tropical rainforest have evolved a vast array of adaptations,
factors has produced tropical rainforests with the highest including camouflage, mimicry, and specialized diets.
biodiversity of any terrestrial environment. A single hectare

Plant adaptations Animal adaptations

Plants in tropical rainforest have adaptations to deal with In tropical rainforests, animals have adaptations to take
excessive rain, low soil nutrients, low light levels, and advantage of the variety of habitats. These include mimicry,
other competing plants. camouflage and poisons.

Many animals have specialized in

Lianas and epiphytes foraging for foods. Toucans have
are adapted to live high specialized in eating fruit that is
on branches or climb up available throughout the year.
tree trunks in order to
reach the light.

Bark helps reduce water loss.

This isn’t problem in tropical
rainforests so many tropical
trees have much thinner,
smoother bark than temperate
trees. This also helps in Many insects mimic
stopping vines getting a grip. other types of animal
either for defence or
for predation, such
as the ant mimicking
spider (left).

Many tropical plant have drip tips

on their leaves and microscopic
hairs that prevent water pooling.
This quickly removes water from
the leaves and stops organisms
Many animals (and plants)
such as fungi growing on them.
have developed poisons for
defence, e.g. poison arrow
frog above, or for predation.
Tropical soils are nutrient
poor, so most trees have
shallow roots. Large trees
like the kapok have massive Many animals in tropical rainforests show
buttresses to spread their an extraordinary degree of adaptation for
weight and provide support. camouflage. The dead leaf butterfly (left) looks
exactly as its name suggests.
Atudu CC 4.0

1. In a group of four, research plant and animal adaptations in tropical rainforests. Each person should identify one
adaptation in a named plant and one in a named animal. Report back to your group with your findings and record all
four plant and four animal adaptations below:

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 BIOZONE WORLD

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LIBRARY IB Biology > Unit A: Unity and Diversity > 1 Water in Living Systems

- A A A T
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ACTIVITY
Water in Living Systems
2

Slides
Water in Living Systems
1 Water in Living Systems
Key Idea: Water’s molecular structure accounts for its common product of, many reactions. Its cohesive, adhesive,
Video
properties and for its central role in life’s processes. thermal, and solvent properties come about because of its
Importance of water for life Water (H2O) is the main component of living things, and polarity and its ability to form hydrogen bonds with other
typically makes up about 70% of any organism. Water is polar molecules. Water’s physical and chemical properties
important in cell chemistry as it takes part in, and is a are essential for sustaining life.
ACTIVITY ## 3DChapter
MODEL Name
NaCI lattice dissolving in water

ACTIVITY 2 The Origin of Earth's Water

ACTIVITY 3 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Small –ve H H H H

H H
H H
charge δ⁻ O O
O O
ACTIVITY 4 DNA and Directionality O Hydrogen
O bonds
H H
ACTIVITY 5 Creating a DNA Molecule H H

Water forms hydrogen bonds δ⁺ δ⁺ H H

H H
ACTIVITY 6 The DNA Molecule O
A water molecule is polar, meaning it has a positively and a negatively O
Small +ve charges
ACTIVITY 7 Investigating the DNA Molecule charged region. In water, each oxygen has a slight negative charge
(δ–) and each hydrogen has a slight positive charge (δ+). Water
molecules form large numbers of weak hydrogen bonds with other Hydrogen bonds
ACTIVITY 8 Did You Get It?
water molecules (top right). Individually, hydrogen bonds are weak,
but collectively, they are strong enough to account for the unique
CHAPTER 2 A2 Unity and Diversity - Cells
properties of water including its cohesion, high boiling point, high
heat of fusion (energy required to cause a change of state from solid
ACTIVITY 9 Origin of Life On Earth to liquid), and high latent heat of vaporization (below, right).

When water is in a liquid state, it has enough energy that hydrogen

ACTIVITY 10 Prebiotic Experiments
bonds are continually breaking and reforming. When water loses
energy (e.g. cooled), the hydrogen bonds are strong enough to Ice: H-bonds are fixed in an Liquid water: H-bonds
ACTIVITY 11 An RNA World hold water molecules in place, forming a lattice which causes ice to interconnected framework. constantly break and reform.
expand. The expansion causes ice to be less dense than liquid water.
ACTIVITY 12 The Common Ancestry of Life
Intermolecular bonds between water and other polar molecules Oxygen is
or ions are important for biological systems. Inorganic ions may attracted
ACTIVITY 13 The Cell is the Unit of Life
have a positive or negative charge, e.g. positive sodium ion (Na+) to the Na+
and negative chloride ion (Cl–). The charged water molecules Na+
Cl–
ACTIVITY 14 Using Microscopes are attracted to charged ions and surround them. This formation Hydrogen is
of intermolecular bonds between water and the ions keeps ions attracted to
ACTIVITY 15 Preparing a Slide dissolved in water. Polar molecules such as amino acids and the CI-
carbohydrates also dissolve readily in water. Water surrounding a Water surrounding a
ACTIVITY 16 Developments in Microscopy positive ion (Na+) negative ion (CI-)

Cohesive properties Adhesive properties Solvent properties Thermal properties

Water molecules are cohesive: Water is attracted to other Water’s polarity allows it Water has the highest specific
they stick together because molecules because of its polar to dissociate ions in salts heat capacity of all liquids, so
hydrogen bonds form between nature. Water will form thin and bond to other polar it takes a lot of energy before
individual molecules. Cohesion films and ‘climb’ up surfaces substances, e.g. alcohols it will change temperature. It
allows water to form droplets when the molecular forces and acids, dissolving them. In also has high latent heat of

BIOZONE WORLD revolutionises biology education with an immersive learning experience. Explore
and is responsible for the
surface tension that many small
organisms rely on.
between them (adhesive
forces) are greater than the
cohesive forces.
contrast, non-polar substances
such as fats and oils are not
water soluble.
vaporization, so it takes a lot of
energy to transform it from the
liquid to the gas phase.

the IB Biology worktext featuring 3D models, slides, weblinks, and videos. Engage with captivating
Example: The cohesive and Example: Adhesion enables Example: Blood plasma in Examples: High specific heat
adhesive properties of water capillary action, i.e. the ability humans and other animals is capacity means that large
allow it to move as an unbroken of a liquid to flow against largely water and transports water bodies will maintain a
column through the xylem of gravity in a narrow space. This many water-soluble relatively stable temperature.

visuals, interactive activities, and real-world case studies and examples, empowering you to
plants. This process is essential
for water uptake from the soil.
property is also shown by the
meniscus of a liquid in a tube.
substances, including ions,
glucose, and amino acids,
around the body.
High heat of vaporization
makes sweating a very
effective cooling mechanism.

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LIBRARY IB Biology > Unit A: Unity and Diversity > 1 Water in Living Systems
Biology for Texas 15 Distinguishing Features of Eukaryotic Cells

- A A A T
⌃
ACTIVITY 1 Water in Living Systems 150% +
2

1 Water in Living Systems

ACTIVITY
Key Idea: Water’s molecular structure accounts for its common product of, many reactions. Its cohesive, adhesive,
Water in Living Systems properties and for its central role in life’s processes. thermal, and solvent properties come about because of its
Water (H2O) is the main component of living things, and polarity and its ability to form hydrogen bonds with other
typically makes up about 70% of any organism. Water is polar molecules. Water’s physical and chemical properties
important in cell chemistry as it takes part in, and is a are essential for sustaining life.

Slides
Water in Living Systems
Small –ve H H H H
H H
H H
charge δ⁻ O O
O O
O Hydrogen
Video O bonds
H H
Importance of water for life H H

Water forms hydrogen bonds δ⁺ δ⁺ H H

H H
O
A water molecule is polar, meaning it has a positively and a negatively O
Small +ve charges
charged region. In water, each oxygen has a slight negative charge
(δ–) and each hydrogen has a slight positive charge (δ+). Water
ACTIVITY ## 3DChapter
MODEL Name molecules form large numbers of weak hydrogen bonds with other Hydrogen bonds
NaCI lattice dissolving in water
water molecules (top right). Individually, hydrogen bonds are weak,
but collectively, they are strong enough to account for the unique
properties of water including its cohesion, high boiling point, high
heat of fusion (energy required to cause a change of state from solid
to liquid), and high latent heat of vaporization (below, right).
ACTIVITY 2 The Origin of Earth's Water
When water is in a liquid state, it has enough energy that hydrogen
bonds are continually breaking and reforming. When water loses
energy (e.g. cooled), the hydrogen bonds are strong enough to Ice: H-bonds are fixed in an Liquid water: H-bonds
hold water molecules in place, forming a lattice which causes ice to interconnected framework. constantly break and reform.
ACTIVITY 3 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
expand. The expansion causes ice to be less dense than liquid water.

Intermolecular bonds between water and other polar molecules Oxygen is

or ions are important for biological systems. Inorganic ions may attracted
have a positive or negative charge, e.g. positive sodium ion (Na+) to the Na+
ACTIVITY 4 DNA and Directionality and negative chloride ion (Cl–). The charged water molecules Na+
Cl–
are attracted to charged ions and surround them. This formation Hydrogen is
of intermolecular bonds between water and the ions keeps ions attracted to
dissolved in water. Polar molecules such as amino acids and the CI-

ACTIVITY 5 Creating a DNA Molecule carbohydrates also dissolve readily in water. Water surrounding a Water surrounding a
positive ion (Na+) negative ion (CI-)

Cohesive properties Adhesive properties Solvent properties Thermal properties

ACTIVITY 6 The DNA Molecule Water molecules are cohesive: Water is attracted to other Water’s polarity allows it Water has the highest specific
they stick together because molecules because of its polar to dissociate ions in salts heat capacity of all liquids, so
hydrogen bonds form between nature. Water will form thin and bond to other polar it takes a lot of energy before
individual molecules. Cohesion films and ‘climb’ up surfaces substances, e.g. alcohols it will change temperature. It
ACTIVITY 7 Investigating the DNA Molecule allows water to form droplets when the molecular forces and acids, dissolving them. In also has high latent heat of
and is responsible for the between them (adhesive contrast, non-polar substances vaporization, so it takes a lot of
surface tension that many small forces) are greater than the such as fats and oils are not energy to transform it from the
organisms rely on. cohesive forces. water soluble. liquid to the gas phase.
ACTIVITY 8 Did You Get It? Example: The cohesive and Example: Adhesion enables Example: Blood plasma in Examples: High specific heat
adhesive properties of water capillary action, i.e. the ability humans and other animals is capacity means that large
allow it to move as an unbroken of a liquid to flow against largely water and transports water bodies will maintain a
column through the xylem of gravity in a narrow space. This many water-soluble relatively stable temperature.
CHAPTER 2 A2 Unity and Diversity - Cells
plants. This process is essential property is also shown by the substances, including ions, High heat of vaporization
for water uptake from the soil. meniscus of a liquid in a tube. glucose, and amino acids, makes sweating a very
around the body. effective cooling mechanism.

ACTIVITY 9 Origin of Life On Earth

ACTIVITY 10 Prebiotic Experiments

©2024 BIOZONE International

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A1.1
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3D Models
ACTIVITY 12 The Common Ancestry of Life
Video

ACTIVITY 13 The Cell is the Unit of Life

ACTIVITY 14 Using Microscopes

ACTIVITY 15 Preparing a Slide

ACTIVITY 16 Developments in Microscopy

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