C H A P T E R

6
Planning and modeling of wind energy
systems

6.1 Introduction

Wind energy has been a cynosure in recent years because of the advancement in distrib-
uted generation and smart grids. Numerous wind energy configurations are used to harness
the energy from the wind. This chapter discusses the fundamental equation of wind power
having all the parameters affecting the generation of power from the wind. The fundamental
equation of wind power also shows the impact of the power coefficient of the turbine. The
advantages of wind energy and the challenges in the advancement of wind energy are
discussed. Wind turbine components included from the foundation to the hub are discussed
in detail, as are wind energy conversion systems consisting of various generators. Since wind
speed is always vulnerable to variation, the output frequency does not remain constant. Var-
ious frequency controlling methods are described in this chapter.
The first electricity-generating wind turbine was installed in Scotland in 1887 by James
Blyth to charge a battery. In wind turbines, the kinetic energy of the wind is used to rotate
the wind turbine and the rotor of the electrical generator, which is mechanical energy, and
the generator converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy [1]. In America, the first
wind turbine was installed in 1888 by Charles F. Brush.
In 2020, the generation of electricity was the highest among all the renewable energy
sources. An increase of 11% in generation from wind was recorded in 2020. In 2020, the in-
stallation of wind turbine was double than installation in 2019, amounting to 108 GW [2].

6.2 Basic components of a wind turbine

The basic components of a wind turbine are the foundation, tower, rotor, hub, nacelle, and
generator. This chapter discusses all of these in detail. A hub of a wind turbine with all inside
components labeled is shown in Fig. 6.1.

Fundamentals of Smart Grid Systems 271 Copyright # 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99560-3.00003-X
272 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

Pitch

Low-speed
Shaft
Rotor Gear Box

Generator
Wind Anemometer
Direction Controller
Brake

Yaw Drive
Wind
Vane
Yaw Motor High-speed Nacelle
Shaft
Blades Tower
FIG. 6.1 Hub of wind turbine with all inside components mentioned. Source: Wikipedia.

6.2.1 Foundation
A foundation is under the earth and is covered by the soil; it gives erection support to the
wind tower. Foundation type depends upon the type of the tower, turbine, size of the plant,
mechanical, operational, and meteorological stress, and the local soil conditions.
A foundation is designed by considering the lowest cost of manufacturing, and installation
for the specific soil conditions.

6.2.2 Tower
The basic and key function of the tower is to give height to the wind turbine to maximize
the wind interaction with the turbine and maximize the power generation. While designing
the tower, the vibrations of the tower itself, rotor, nacelle, and the gearbox are kept in mind.
Various parameters and dimensions are considered for transportation, installation, and erec-
tion. The height of the tower mainly depends upon the rotor radius and on-site conditions.
The advantages and disadvantages of different types of towers are shown in Table 6.1. Types
of turbine towers are shown in Fig. 6.2.

6.2.3 Rotor
The rotor is the rotating part of the stator connected to the blades of the turbine through the
gearbox. The rotor is rotated by the wind turbine blades and it induces voltages at the stator of
the generator. The rotor is attached to the wind turbine blades and the literature indicates that
three is the optimum number of blades in a horizontal axis wind turbine. A wind turbine with
 6.2 Basic components of a wind turbine 273
TABLE 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of turbine towers.
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Monopole • Artistically pleasing • Manufacturing and transportation are
expensive
• More steel is required

Guyed • Minimum material is required, cheap • Not trespasser-proof

• Good grounding for lightning • Cannot be used in urban areas
• Guy wire tension can adjust the pole’s natural
frequency

Tubular • Transportation and assembly are cheap • Life cycle is short because corrosion can
lattice damage the bolts

Sectional • Life cycle is long • Less protection for electric wires

lattice • Light and stiff
• Manufacturing is cheap

FIG. 6.2 Types of turbine towers. Source: Wikipedia.

three blades has fewer vibrations, less noise, fewer dynamic problems, and favorable mass
distribution. Generally, the blades are selected based on fatigue strength, admissible stress,
specific weight, breaking strength, and modulus of elasticity.

6.2.4 Nacelle
A nacelle is a cover housing containing the power generating components including gear-
box, drive train, generator, low-speed shaft, high-speed shaft, and control electronics. It pro-
tects all the inside components from environmental hazards.
274 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

6.2.5 Gearbox
The gearbox is a part of the power train that connects the turbine shaft to the generator
shaft. The gearbox is used to divide the shaft into slow and fast shafts. The gearbox is located
in the nacelle and its efficiency is about 98% per gear level.

6.3 Classification of wind turbines

The classification of wind turbines based on the axis is shown in Fig. 6.3. The major types
are the vertical axis and horizontal axis wind turbines which are further classified into sub-
types as discussed below.

6.3.1 Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs)

Horizontal axis wind turbines are the most commonly used type of wind turbine. They can
be defined as the turbine in which the shaft of the rotor is in the direction of the wind as shown
in Fig. 6.4. The wind turbine could be single-bladed, double-bladed, or three-bladed. The
blades are aerodynamically designed that rotate by the aerodynamic lift of the force. The pres-
sure difference is created between the upward and lower faces of the turbine blades. The
speed of air through the front side of the blade is high and a low-pressure area is created there.
On the other hand, airspeed is low on the rear side and a high-pressure area is created there.
The air from the high-pressure region moves the blades upward giving an aerodynamic lift.
This relation is called Bernoulli’s relation, which states that where the pressure is high speed
will be low for a fluid. The blades of the turbine are connected to the rotor of the electrical
generator. HAWT can capture stronger winds and has greater efficiency [3]. Fig. 6.5 shows
a Dutch-type horizontal axis wind turbine and Fig. 6.6 shows a multibladed horizontal axis
wind turbine. Based on the direction of wind toward the turbine blades, the turbine is clas-
sified into upwind and downwind, as shown in Fig. 6.7.

FIG. 6.3 Classification of wind turbines.

 6.3 Classification of wind turbines 275

FIG. 6.4 Horizontal axis wind turbines: (A) single-bladed, (B) double-bladed, and (C) three-bladed. Source:
Wikipedia.

FIG. 6.5 Dutch-type horizontal axis wind turbine. Source: Wikipedia.

FIG. 6.6 Multibladed horizontal axis wind turbine. Source: Wikipedia.

FIG. 6.7 Upwind and downwind HAWTs. Source: Wikipedia.

 6.3 Classification of wind turbines 277
(a) Advantages of HAWT
• The output power is high as compared to the vertical axis wind turbine.
• The efficiency of a HAWT is high.
• It is less expensive than a VAWT (see following section).
• It is more consistent and its rotational speed is high.
• On variation in the wind shear, the tall tower captures more wind.
• Reliability is high.
• The blades of the turbine can be bent using a gearbox to get the best wind attack angle,
which results in better performance under stormy conditions.
• The rotor can be tilted by the blades during storms.
(b) Disadvantages of HAWT
• HAWTs are available only in large sizes and are challenging to use in distributed
generation.
• As they are of large size and heavyweight, transportation from one place to another is
difficult.
• The mounting of a heavy generator and gearbox at the top of the tower requires a
stronger structure, which increases the complexity and cost of the structure.
• Installation and maintenance of a HAWT is a difficult process because of the tall tower
and heavy turbines.
• Noise from the HAWT is high compared to other wind turbines.
• To design and manufacture a HAWT, heavy machinery is required.

6.3.2 Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs)

A vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) is a type of wind turbine in which the axis of rotation of
the rotor is perpendicular to the wind direction. The gearbox and generator are positioned at the
base of the turbine, which makes maintenance easy. Since the rotor is perpendicular to the wind
speed, no specific aerodynamics are required for the design. The size of the VAWT is smaller
than the HAWT which gives them various advantages. There are two types of VAWT: Savonius
and Darrieus. Savonius wind turbines have blades built around the vertical shaft in a helix
form, which looks like DNA, as shown in Fig. 6.8. Darrieus turbines are like eggbeater shapes
whose wings are longer and wider and attached to the upper and lower ends of the rotor shaft,
giving a maximum swept area [3]. The shape of the Darrieus turbine is shown in Fig. 6.9.
(a) Advantages of VAWT
• It has fewer vibrations and no noise compared to a HAWT.
• Since the direction of the wings is perpendicular to the wind speed, no specific
orientation is required and no yaw control mechanism is necessary.
• It can produce electricity at lower wind speeds.
• Installation and maintenance are very easy since the generator and gearbox are located
near the ground.
• It is preferred in the distributed generation since it is usually of smaller size
and less noisy.
• VAWTs are visually very attractive [4].
(b) Disadvantages of VAWT
• The efficiency of a VAWT is lower than that of a HAWT.
• Its production of energy is not as much as that of a HAWT of the same height because of
the location of the rotor close to the ground, where less air is available due to ground
surface drag.
278 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

FIG. 6.8 Savonius type vertical axis wind turbine. Source: Wikipedia.

• If the structure is not properly designed, replacement and maintenance of parts are
difficult since the wings are mounted over the generator and gearbox. Since all the
weight of the wings is on the gearbox, a guy wire is used to hold the wings in their
place.

6.4 The fundamental equation of wind power

The energy that is contained in the flowing wind can be calculated by the wind power equa-
tion, which can be derived as follows; however, first we discuss the concept of power and en-
ergy. Power is defined as the rate of change of power concerning time as shown in Eq. (6.1).
dE
P¼ (6.1)
dt
 6.4 The fundamental equation of wind power 279

FIG. 6.9 Darrieus type vertical axis wind turbine. Source: Wikipedia.

The energy in the wind is the kinetic energy, which is given by Eq. (6.2).
K:E: ¼ 1=2 mv2 (6.2)
Putting the value of kinetic energy in Eq. (6.1), simply, we get Eq. (6.3).


d 1=2 mv2
P¼
dt
1 dm
P ¼ v2 (6.3)
2 dt
The mass of the wind which will interact with the wind turbine is calculated by the density
equation, as shown in Eq. (6.4).
m
ρ¼ !m ¼ ρV (6.4)
V
We put the value of the mass of wind in Eq. (6.3).
1 dðρV Þ
P ¼ v2
2 dt
280 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

1 dð V Þ
P ¼ ρv2
2 dt
The volume of the air is taken as the product of length, width, and height. The product of
the length and width is taken as the area, as shown in Eq. (6.5).
1 dðl:w:hÞ
P ¼ ρv2
2 dt
1 dð hÞ
P ¼ ρAv2 (6.5)
2 dt
dðhÞ
dt is the time rate of change of displacement which is known as the velocity. Hence we get the
final equation which is used to calculate the power in the wind that can be generated from the
wind turbine shown in Eq. (6.6).
1
P ¼ ρAv3 (6.6)
2
This is the fundamental equation of wind turbine showing a direct relation of the wind
power to the sir density, the area covered by the turbine blades, and the wind speed. Eq.
(6.6) shows that wind speed has a greater impact on the amount of power from the turbine.
Another characteristic can be determined by using Eq. (6.7) as follows.
P 1 3
wind power density ðWPDÞ ¼ ¼ ρv (6.7)
A 2
Eq. (6.7) defines the wind power density, stating the power generated per unit area. This
equation gives you the analysis of power independent of the size of the turbine and its quan-
titative. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has classified wind into differ-
ent classes based on wind speed and wind power density, as shown in Table 6.2.
Another efficiency measure of the wind turbine is the capacity factor which is a fraction of
the actual installed generating capacity of the wind turbine to the power that would be gen-
erated under ideal atmospheric conditions and circumstances. The capacity factor can be
mathematically defined as Eq. (6.8).

TABLE 6.2 Classification of wind power measured at 50 m above ground according to

the NREL.
Wind class Resource potential Wind speed (m/s) WPD in W/m2
1 Poor 0–5.9 0–200
2 Marginal 5.9–6.7 200–300
3 Fair 6.7–7.4 300–400

4 Good 7.4–7.9 500–600

5 Excellent 7.9–8.4 600–700
6 Outstanding 8.4–9.3 700–800
7 Superb >9.3 >800
 6.4 The fundamental equation of wind power 281

Eactual
capacity factor ðCFÞ ¼ (6.8)
Eideal

6.4.1 Betz limit

Albert Betz, a German scientist, claimed in 1919 that a wind turbine can only convert 59%
of the mechanical energy in the wind into electrical energy. This is the maximum wind power
that can be converted by the turbine into electrical energy. This is known as the Betz law or the
Betz limit and is denoted as Cp, power coefficient. Efficiency of 100% is not possible to achieve
because of the mechanical nature of the wind. If it is supposed that 100% kinetic energy of the
wind is converted into rotational energy of the turbine, this would mean that the air would
come to a standstill and there would be no velocity available to sustain the energy extracting
mechanism [5].
CP ¼ 0:59
The value of the Betz limit can be determined using Eq. (6.5).
1 dðhÞ
P ¼ ρAv2
2 dt
dðhÞ
dt isthe time rate of change of displacement which is known as the velocity. In this case, we
can take the average of the wind speed before and after passing through the wind, i.e.,
dðhÞ
dt ¼
V1 + V2
2 , we also take the velocity as the final value minus the initial value, Hence Eq.
(6.5) becomes
 
1
2 V 1 + V 2
P ¼ ρA v22  V 21
2 2
The power coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the extracted power from the wind tur-
bine and the total power in the wind.



PE 12 ρA2 v22  V 21 V 1 +2 V 2
C¼ ¼
2 ρ:A:V 2
PT 1 3

2 

v  V 21 V 1 +2 V2
C¼ 2
V23


1 v22  V 21 ðV 1 + V 2 Þ
C¼
2 V2 3


1 V 1 v22 + v32  V 31  V 2 v21
C¼
2 V2 3
"  3  2 #
1 V1 V1 V1
C¼  +1 (6.9)
2 V2 V2 V2
282 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

To get the maximum power from the wind turbine, we take the derivative of Eq. (6.9) with
respect to v1=v2 and put it equal to zero, as in Eq. (6.10).
dð C Þ

 ¼ 0, (6.10)
d v1=v2
"  2  #
dðCÞ 1 v1 v1

¼ 13 2
d 1=v2
v 2 v 2 v2
dðCÞ
We put dðv1=v2 Þ
¼ 0,
"     #
1 v1 2 v1
3 2 +1 ¼0
2 v2 v2
 2  
v1 v1
3 +2 1¼0
v2 v2
Solving the above relation gives us the ratio of v1 and v2, vv12 ¼ 13.
We put this ratio in Eq. (6.9) and get the value of C, which is the maximum limit of the wind
turbine.
CP ¼ 0:59
This value is unique and is a function of the wind speed. To get the extracted power from
the wind through a wind turbine, we incorporate the power coefficient in Eq. (6.6) and the
resulting Eq. (6.11).
1
P ¼ ρ:A:v3 :Cp (6.11)
2

Example 6.1
A wind turbine is to be installed in a location where the wind speed is 15 m/s. The length of the
wind turbine blades is 60 m rotating with 20 rounds per minute (RPM) as shown in Fig. 6.10. After
considering the Betz limit and the losses in the bearing box, use the value of the power coefficient 0.4.
The air density is a constant and is 1.23 kg/m3. Calculate:
(a) the actual power of the wind converted to mechanical rotational power in the turbine at given Cp;
(b) the Cp at the given wind speed;
(c) the actual power of the wind converted to mechanical rotational power in the turbine at a newly
calculated Cp; and
(d) the wind power density at given Cp.
Solution:
The given data is as follows:
m
v ¼ 15
s
 6.4 The fundamental equation of wind power 283

FIG. 6.10 Wind turbine radius and diameter

l ¼ r ¼ 60 m
CP ¼ 0:4

ρ ¼ 1:23 kg=m3

rotational speed ¼ 20 RPM

(a) The actual power of the wind converted to mechanical rotational power in the turbine at given Cp
All the data which is required for the power calculation using Eq. (6.11) is given except the swept
area which can be calculated using the following equation.

A ¼ πr2

¼ 3:14  602

¼ 11, 304 m2
By putting all the given data and the calculated swept area in Eq. (6.11), we can calculate the ac-
tual power of the wind converted to the mechanical rotational power of the turbine.
1
P ¼ ρ:A:v3 :Cp
2
1
¼  1:23  11304  153  0:4
2
¼ 9:4 MW

(b) The Cp at the given wind speed

The power coefficient is defined by the turbine designers. We see the relationship between all the
parameters to calculate the power at the actual wind speed rather than the rated wind speed. We
calculate the power coefficient for the given wind speed as follows.
284 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3

Cp 0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Lambda
FIG. 6.11 Graph between tip speed ratio and power coefficient

If we know the value of the blade tip speed ratio (λ), we can find the value of Cp from Fig. 6.11. λ is
calculated using Eq. (6.12).
blade tip speed
λ¼ (6.12)
wind speed
We still do not have the value of the blade tip speed, which can be calculated using Eq. (6.13).
rotational speed  π  D
blade tip speed ¼ (6.13)
60
20  3:14  120
¼
60
¼ 125:6 m=s
By putting the value of the blade tip speed and wind speed in Eq. (6.12), we can find the λ.
125:6 m=s
λ¼
15 m=s
¼ 8:37
Now we find the value of the power coefficient on the graph at λ ¼ 8.37, which is 0.42.
CP ¼ 0:4

(c) The actual power of the wind converted to mechanical rotational power in the turbine at a newly
calculated Cp

From the above discussion, it is well established that the value of CP is not a constant, but varies
with variation in the wind speed. By using the newly calculated value of CP, we find the rotational
power of the turbine.
 6.5 Wind energy conversion systems 285

1
P ¼ ρ:A:v3 :Cp
2

1
¼  1:23  11304  153  0:42
2
¼ 9:8 MW

(d) The wind power density at given Cp

Wind power density can be calculated using Eq. (6.14).

P 1 3
wind power density ðWPDÞ ¼ ¼ ρv (6.14)
A 2

9:4 MW
¼
11, 304 m2

MW
WPD ¼ 8:3
m2

6.5 Wind energy conversion systems

The wind energy conversion system starts working by taking the translator kinetic energy
from the wind through the turbine in the form of rotational kinetic energy. This rotational
kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy in the generator by electromagnetic induc-
tion. The generators that are used in the wind turbine are induction generators (IGs), doubly
fed induction generators (DFIGs), synchronous generators (SGs), and permanent magnet syn-
chronous generators (PMSGs). The following subsection discusses the mechanism of the
wind energy conversion system.

6.5.1 Induction generators

In the case of a synchronous generator, the rotor speed is locked to the synchronous speed
and cannot be changed. If a heavy wind hits the turbine, the blades try to speed up but the
rotor is locked at the speed of the power grid. Large forces are developed in the hub, gearbox,
and generator which cause wear and tear in the system. The solution to this problem is the use
of a doubly fed induction generator. A doubly fed induction generator is an AC electrical gen-
erator in which both rotor and stator windings are fed with three-phase AC supply. The DFIG
286 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

FIG. 6.12 Application of induction generator with wind turbine.

has an additional feature of running at higher than the synchronous speed and lower than the
synchronous speed. The working principle of the DFIG is that the stator windings are
connected to the grid, and the rotor windings are connected to the back to back connected
rectifier and inverter that controls the current of the rotor and the grid. By varying the rotor
current through the converters, the active and reactive powers fed to the grid by the stator can
be adjusted. The frequency of the generator varies with variations in the wind speed. What-
ever the frequency of the generator is, its AC output is first rectified into DC and then by using
an inverter, this DC is converted into AC of a constantly desired frequency. The rating of the
power electronics converters used in the DFIG is 30% of the ratings of the converters that are
used in the synchronous generator. The converters have to provide excitation only in the
DFIG, and in a synchronous generator all the power is transmitted through the converters
which increase the losses in the power electronic converters, and the overall cost of the control
system is also increased. Fig. 6.12 shows the application of an induction generator with a wind
turbine, and Fig. 6.13 shows the application of a doubly fed induction generator with a wind
turbine.

6.5.2 Synchronous generator

Most of the power generated in the world is supplied by synchronous generators (SGs).
SGs operate at a constant speed regardless of the torque at the rotor. Fig. 6.14 shows the wind
energy system based on the SG. The blades of the wind turbine are coupled to the rotor of the
SG through the gearbox. The basic two components of the SG are the rotor and stator. The
windings on the rotor are called field windings or rotor windings. The windings on the stator
are called armature windings or stator windings. A rotor magnetic field is produced by ap-
plying a DC voltage from the excitation circuit which is a rectifier. The rectifier takes AC sup-
ply from the grid, converts it into DC, and supplies it to the rotor windings for excitation. The
rotor is then rotated by the wind turbine coupled through the gearbox. The rotating magnetic
field of the rotor interacts with the stator windings and produces a set of three-phase AC
 6.5 Wind energy conversion systems 287

FIG. 6.13 Application of doubly fed induction generator with wind turbine.

voltages in the stator windings. This type of generator in which the excitation is done from an
external source through the slip rings and carbon brushes or a separate DC source mounted
on the shaft of the rotor is called a wound rotor SG [6]. The above-stated excitation mechanism
poses some limitations, since the carbon brushes and the slip rings require continuous main-
tenance for their proper operation. This mechanism is used for small AC generators [7].
For large SGs, a brushless exciter is used which is a small AC generator whose armature
windings are on the rotor and field windings are mounted on the stator. The three-phase out-
put of the brushless exciter is rectified using a three-phase rectifier, which is also mounted on
the rotor and is applied to the main rotor windings.

FIG. 6.14 Application of synchronous generators with wind turbines.

288 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

FIG. 6.15 Application of synchronous generator with variable speed wind turbine.

The electrical frequency of the SG is determined using Eq. (6.15).

ns :P
f ¼ (6.15)
120
where:
f is the electrical frequency in Hz;
ns is the rotation of the rotor in RPM which is equal to the speed of the rotating magnetic
field in a SG also known as synchronous speed; and
P is the number of poles.
SGs are increasingly used in the wind energy system because of their less man and high
power density. The operation of the SGs with the wind turbine becomes challenging during
varying wind speed. When the wind speed varies, the turbine rotation speed and the rotation
speed of the rotor also vary. The variable output is achieved at the terminals of the SG. The
schematic diagram of the SG under variable wind speed is shown in Fig. 6.15. The three-phase
output of the SG is first passed through the power electronics converters. The converter con-
sists of two back-to-back rectifiers and an inverter in series. The rectifier converts the variable
AC into constant DC and the inverter inverts the constant DC into constant AC. Diodes and
thyristors in the rectifier and inverter generate harmonic and generate fluctuations through
the DC link. A DC link capacitor is used at the output of the rectifier, which acts as a buffer
between rectifier and inverter [8].

6.6 Controlling the output frequency for variable speed wind turbines

Classification of the wind frequency control schemes are shown in Fig. 6.16. Frequency
control techniques can be categorized as frequency control either with or without battery en-
ergy storage systems. Frequency control strategies without battery are further classified into
 6.6 Controlling the output frequency for variable speed wind turbines 289

FIG. 6.16 Inertia and frequency control techniques for variable speed wind turbines.

the de-loading method, droop control technique, and inertial response method. Frequency
control strategies without batteries are discussed below.

6.6.1 Inertial response

The electrical power system consists of thousands of electrical generators working in syn-
chronism to the grid at a frequency of 60 Hz which is a measure of the health of the grid. Un-
der normal operational conditions, the generation from all the generators is equal to the
demand for electricity which keeps the frequency of the system nearly constant. When a
power plant for any reason goes out of the system, generation instantly drops but the demand
has not changed. All the load connected to the system keeps extracting the same amount of
power from the inertia of the spinning generators which are now slowing down. This will
decrease the frequency of the system. In conventional generators, the drop in frequency is
detected by the governor located at the generator and tells the generator to speed up or slow
down to maintain the constant frequency. The levers and valves take several minutes to op-
erate and the grid increases its output. Here the concept of inertia comes in, which gives
enough time to the mechanical spinning generators to react to the change while generating
the output. The question is: how can we achieve this inertia when more renewables are added
to the system? The inertia from the renewables that use conventional generators like, geother-
mal, solar concentrating, biogas, and hydropower can still be used to maintain the frequency
of the grid constant [9,10]. Renewable energy sources having variable outputs like solar pho-
tovoltaics and wind do not use conventional generators, and there is less inertia in the grid.
They use electronic convertors that do not have an inherent inertial response.
With the advancement in smart grid technologies, the fast inertial response is obtained by
the smart sensors that can quickly measure the change in frequency and respond as quickly
by disconnecting the noncritical loads in less than 0.5 s. Fast frequency response can also be
obtained from the renewables by controlling the output of the wind and solar plants or by
extracting the kinetic energy stored in the rotating wind turbines. The inertial controller in
wind plants is implemented by one of two methods: hidden inertial emulation and fast power
reserve. Both of these methods have a short duration inertial response.
6.6.1.1 Hidden inertia emulation
Hidden inertia emulation is also known as the synthetic inertia controller and its function is
to release the kinetic energy from the wind turbine. An active power control signal is obtained
290 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

Hidden inertia emulation

d DP 2Hsyn
f Filter P
dt PHsyn
System
frequency
Grid Side
Converter
P
w r* Dw r PMPPT – P*
Pmeas PI
+ – +
MPPT w r
w r,meas

FIG. 6.17 Hidden inertia emulation [11].

by combining the output of the hidden inertia controller with the output of the maximum
power point tracker (MPPT), as shown in Fig. 6.17. The hidden inertia emulation controller
helps in releasing the large kinetic energy from the wind turbine. The active power of the con-
troller is achieved by Eq. (6.16).
df
PHSyn ¼ 2Hsyn f (6.16)
dt
where:
PHSyn is the hidden synthetic power;
Hsyn is the inertia constant; and
df
dt is the rate of change of frequency.

6.6.1.2 Fast power reserves

The fast power reserve is the production of short-term inertial response which is obtained
by the kinetic energy stored in the rotating mass of the wind turbine as shown in Eq. (6.17).
1
PFPR t ¼ Jω2
2
1   (6.17)
PFPR t ¼ J ω2i  ω2f
2
Where
t time elapsed during frequency disturbance
ωi the initial speed of the wind turbine
ωf the final speed of the wind turbine after time t

6.6.2 Droop control

Power frequency characteristics, as shown in Fig. 6.18, are called droop control. The droop
characteristics give a change in active power which is proportional to the deviation in fre-
quency. When the wind turbine operates at the maximum power, the change in power which
is an increase in the power is obtained from the kinetic energy of the rotating masses. It be-
comes possible that the speed of the turbine will slow down, which will take it beyond the
stable operating range [12].
 6.6 Controlling the output frequency for variable speed wind turbines 291

FIG. 6.18 Frequency droop characteristics.

6.6.3 De-loading
Wind power turbines and wind farms must be equipped with the system to maintain the fre-
quency of the generated output by increasing or decreasing the output. Fast power reserve and
hidden inertia emulation can control the frequency for a short term. Wind turbines need to be
operated in a de-loaded mode. Deloading of the wind turbines can be done in two methods: pitch
angle control system and rotor speed control method. The performance of the rotor speed control
method is better and the regulation range is narrower than that of the pitch angle controller.

6.6.3.1 Pitch angle control

Based on the pitch angle, wind turbines are classified into a fixed pitch wind turbine and var-
iable pitch wind speed. Fixed pitch wind turbines are unable to change the pitch angle to collect
the maximum wind and its kinetic energy. Irrespective of the wind direction, fixed pitch
operates on the same fixed angle. Wind turbines with variable pitch angle control can get the
maximum kinetic energy of the wind and possibly can achieve maximum efficiency. The use
of pitch angle control for the varying wind speed and direction requires a controller to regulate
the output power by mechanically controlling the blade angle. In the case of wind speed being
lower than or higher than the rated wind speed, the pitch angle or blade angle is controlled. If the
wind speed is lower than the rated speed, the pitch angle is adjusted to maximize the output
power. In the second case, if the wind speed is greater than the rated speed, the pitch angle
is adjusted to get the optimum power and protect the system against the wind pressures. Gen-
erally, the pitch angle controller consists of an electromechanical actuator and a motor. The ac-
tuator can be installed on each blade individually or collectively for all turbines. Because of the
cost, an individual actuator on each blade is installed on large wind turbines. The pitch control
system is divided into two: hydraulic pitch control system and electric pitch control system.
(a) Hydraulic pitch control system
In hydraulic pitch controllers, the pitch angle of the blades is controlled by the hydraulic actu-
ators. An accumulator tank along with a hydraulic actuator is placed in the hub of the wind turbine.
A hydraulic pump in the nacelle of the turbine is used to perform the rotatory action of the blades.
The hydraulic pitch controller has various advantages over the electrical pitch controller. Table 6.3
292 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

TABLE 6.3 Characteristics of different pitch control systems.

Performance in
Response rapid changing
Techniques speed Reliability Complexity Cost wind speed
Hydraulic Slow High High High Low
PI/PID Slow Low Low Low Low
Feed forward/feed Moderate Medium– Medium– Medium– Low
backward low high low
Sliding mode control Moderate Medium Medium– Medium– Low
high high
Linear quadratic- Gaussian Medium– Medium– Medium– Medium– Medium–low
high high high high
H-infinity Moderate– Medium– Medium– Medium– Medium–high
high high high high
Fuzzy logic Fast High High Moderate High
Hybrid Very fast High Medium Depends Very high
Neural networks Fast High High Moderate Very high

FIG. 6.19 Hydraulic pitch control system

shows a detailed comparison of different pitch controllers. The hydraulic pitch control system is
described in Fig. 6.19.
(b) Electric pitch control system
The electric pitch control system consists of both electrical and mechanical systems to alter
the pitch angle of the turbine blades. The electrical pitch angle controller consists of an electric
motor, an energy storage system to run the electric motor, sensors to measure the direction
and speed of the wind, and a gearbox to adjust the motor speed. The electric pitch controller is
preferred over the hydraulic pitch controller system since the response time of the electric
pitch controller is low. The installation of the electric pitch controller is expensive because
 6.7 Advantages of wind energy 293

FIG. 6.20 Electric pitch angle control systems.

they need a power backup. Fig. 6.20 shows the application of the pitch angle controller with
the induction generator-based wind energy system.
PI and PID controllers are the most suitable controllers for wind turbine control systems.
The conventional controllers are derived using wind speed, rotor speed, and generated
power. A curve between pitch angle and wind speed is given by the manufacturer. The per-
formance of the conventional controllers is not good because of the delayed response to the
variation in the wind speed, so cannot be used in the regions where the variation in the wind
speed is occasional. Table 6.3 shows the characteristics of different electric pitch controller
techniques in wind energy control systems.

6.7 Advantages of wind energy

6.7.1 Renewable and sustainable

The source of wind energy is the sun. The uneven heating of the air in different areas of a
region causes an air density difference. The hot and lower density air moves upward and the
nearby air rushes into this vacated area. Thus, whenever there is wind, there is the power to
transmit to the grid. This makes wind energy a renewable and sustainable source of energy.

6.7.2 A clean source of energy

As discussed above, the wind is a pollution-free source of energy and have very little
health hazards impact on the environment. The production of electricity from the wind
carries no CO2 production. However, the production and transportation of wind turbines
and blades involve very little production of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Other pollut-
ants like NOx, SOx, and particulates that are generated in coal-, oil-, and gas-fired power
plants are absent in wind energy.
294 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

6.7.3 Cost-effective
Due to increased demand for electricity, the production scale of wind turbines has been
increased and costs have been reduced. Hence the overall cost of the energy from wind tur-
bines has been reduced and they can compete with other renewable energy sources. Wind
energy is also about to achieve grid parity. Grid parity is the point in time in a specific region
when the cost of electricity per kWh from wind energy is equal to the cost of electricity per
kWh from the grid.

6.7.4 Distributed generation

The generation of electricity from a faraway power plant and then transmission to the load-
centered area is an expensive one. The transmission of AC power carries power losses and
requires more material to transmit. Wind turbines in the distributed generation have no
power losses and no transmission cost. Distributed generation in the smart grid makes wind
energy more attractive for investors and consumers [3].

6.7.5 Location of wind power plant

There are no specific limitations to the location of wind turbine installation. All windy
areas can be used to harness wind energy through wind turbines. These turbines can be
installed in the fields with little visibility and noise hindrance to animals and farmers. Instal-
lation of wind turbines at the bank of the express highways and motorways presents an ar-
guably beautiful sight.

6.7.6 Miscellaneous energy mix

The production of electricity from large power plants decreases the reliability of the electric
power system. In the case of a failure of a power plant, the whole system goes into a blackout.
In distributed generation. If a generating unit is failed or shut off for maintenance purposes,
the wind turbine will keep the system operational. On the other hand, wind turbines can be
shut off for maintenance purposes and the other unit of distributed generation will keep the
system live.

6.7.7 Job opportunities

The wind industry is rapidly growing with the innovation in wind turbines. Thousands of
jobs are created in the turbine manufacturing industry, the balance of system (BoS), transpor-
tation of wind turbines, erection and installation of turbines, and commissioning and daily
servicing of the turbines.
 6.9 Conclusion 295

6.7.8 National security

Since the utilization of wind energy replaces the imported oil-, coal-, and gas-based power
plants, it reduces heavy energy bills paid for the imported oil. A significant part of the na-
tional economy is paid for the imported fossil fuel-based energy sources. Locally available
wind energy technology is not affected by price hikes in international markets.

6.8 Challenges to wind energy

6.8.1 Intermittent nature of wind

The major challenge that is faced by the wind turbine is the intermittent nature of the
source. The wind is an unpredictable source of energy. It is possible that during the peak
hours when generation from the wind farm is required, the wind is unavailable and the wind
farm is unable to feed the grid. Similarly, when the generation from the wind farm is not re-
quired, the production from the wind turbine is maximum. To cope with the intermittent na-
ture of the wind, some energy management systems and energy storage systems like pumped
hydro, flywheel, and compressed air energy storage systems are required.

6.8.2 Noise pollution

Any unwanted sound arising from the wind turbine during its operation is termed noise.
The severity of the sound depends upon the type of noise, circumstances, and the hearing
sensitivity of the individual perceiving the sound. Whether a sound is irritating or not de-
pends largely upon the receptor. The types of noise are broadband noise, which is a swishing
sound, and tonal noise, which is called a humming sound at a steady pitch. Broadband noise
is produced when the turbine blades encounter turbulence in the air and tonal noise is pro-
duced by the working of the mechanical components. This noise pollution could be a chal-
lenge for the wind industry if it is beyond the safety levels for animals and humans.

6.8.3 Transmission of wind power

Most of the good windy areas are located in hilly and mountainous regions which are away
from the main power consumption areas. To transmit the power that wind farms to the con-
sumers, a transmission line is required, which is much more expensive compared to distrib-
uted generation.

6.9 Conclusion

The growing concerns about the environmental impact of the conventional power plants
and the increasing global warming have demanded the paradigm shift from the conventional
fossil fuels-based power plants to the renewable energy power plants. The concept of distrib-
uted generation and the smart grid have increased the demand for energy from wind
296 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

turbines. This chapter describes the design of the wind energy system for a specific location.
The types of wind turbines that can be used to harness the energy from the wind have been
discussed. Energy conversion systems using various types of generators for the variable wind
speeds are described. Various control strategies for the variable wind speed and the associ-
ated electrical frequency have been discussed in detail. The fundamental equation of the wind
turbine and impact of power coefficient given by the Betz limit, wind energy density, capacity
factor of the wind turbine, blade tip speed ratio, tip speed of the wind blades, and wind power
density are considered in this chapter.

Problems

Problems 1–10 contain four answer options: A, B, C, and D. Choose the correct answer.
1. Which type of energy is carried by wind coming toward the wind turbine?
A. Electrical energy
B. Potential energy
C. Thermal energy
D. Kinetic energy
2. What is the maximum limit of the power coefficient given by the Betz limit?
A. 0.60
B. 0.59
C. 0.49
D. 0.40
3. Which of the following gives the capacity factor of a wind turbine?
A. capacity factor ðCFÞ ¼ EEgenerated
actual

B. capacity factor ðCFÞ ¼ EEactual

ideal
f actual
C. capacity factor ðCFÞ ¼ Eideal
D. capacity factor ðCFÞ ¼ Efactual
ideal
4. Which of the following gives the blade tip speed ratio?
blade tip speed
A. λ ¼ wind speed
B. λ ¼ blade wind
rotational speed
speed

C. λ ¼ bladeRPM
tip speed

D. λ ¼ wind
RPM
speed

5. How is the blade tip speed calculated?

rotational speedπr
A. blade tip speed ¼ 60
rotational speedπD
B. blade tip speed ¼ 50
rotational speedD
C. blade tip speed ¼ 60

D. blade tip speed ¼ rotational 60

speedπD
 Problems 297
6. Among the following types, which is the turbine tower?
A. Lattice type
B. Guyed type
C. Monopole tower
D. All of the above
7. Which of the following is a type of horizontal axis wind turbine?
A. Dutch type wind turbine
B. Savonius wind turbine
C. Darrieus wind turbine
D. All of the above
8. Which of the following is a type of vertical axis wind turbine?
A. Dutch type wind turbine
B. Savonius wind turbine
C. Propeller wind turbine
D. All of the above
9. What of the following is a challenge to wind energy?
A. Intermittent nature of wind
B. Noise pollution
C. Transmission of wind power
D. All of the above
10. Which of the following is a method of frequency control of the wind energy system?
A. Droop control method
B. Pitch control method
C. Inertial response
D. All of the above
Give brief answers to the following short questions
1. What is the significance of the power coefficient of the wind turbine?
2. Define the Betz limit.
3. Define the capacity factor of a wind turbine.
4. How is the blade tip speed ratio of a wind turbine measured?
5. How is the power coefficient of a wind turbine for a specific wind speed calculated?
6. What are the advantages of wind energy?
7. List the challenges that wind energy is facing in its deployment.
8. What are the key components of a wind turbine?
9. List the advantages and disadvantages of different types of wind turbine towers.
10. What are the three types of horizontal axis wind turbines?
11. What are the two types of vertical axis wind turbines?
12. Compare horizontal axis and vertical axis wind turbines.
13. Describe the applications of induction generators and doubly fed induction generators
with the wind turbine.
14. Draw a diagram of the application of a synchronous generator with a variable speed wind
turbine.
15. Differentiate between a Darrieus wind turbine and a Savonius wind turbine.
298 6. Planning and modeling of wind energy systems

16. Vertical axis wind turbines are used more in cities than horizontal axis wind turbines.
Why?
17. Give the classification of the frequency control strategies of wind turbines.
18. How is hidden inertia emulation used to control the frequency of wind turbines?
19. Which techniques are used to control the pitch angle of the turbine blades?
20. Draw a diagram of the electric pitch angle control system.
21. Explain the hydraulic pitch angle control system.
22. A wind power plant is to be installed on a location having wind speed of 5 m/s. The
turbine is rotating at 20 RPM and the blade length is 10 m. Calculate the power coefficient
for this wind turbine.

References
[1] Z. Chen, Wind power: an important source in energy systems, Wind 1 (1) (2021) 90–91, https://doi.org/10.3390/
WIND1010006.
[2] IEA, Wind Power—Analysis, IEA, 2022. [Online]. Available https://www.iea.org/reports/wind-power.
(Accessed 5 June 2022).
[3] M. Sawant, S. Thakare, A.P. Rao, A.E. Feijóo-Lorenzo, N.D. Bokde, A review on state-of-the-art reviews in wind-
turbine- and wind-farm-related topics, Energies 14 (8) (2021) 2041, https://doi.org/10.3390/EN14082041.
[4] S. Pfaffel, S. Faulstich, K. Rohrig, Performance and reliability of wind turbines: a review, Energies 10 (11) (2017)
1904, https://doi.org/10.3390/EN10111904.
[5] M. Rayyan Fazal, M. Kamran, Wind energy, in: Renewable Energy Conversion Systems, first ed., Academic
Press, 2021, pp. 153–192.
[6] W. Cao, N. Xing, Y. Wen, X. Chen, D. Wang, New adaptive control strategy for a wind turbine permanent magnet
synchronous generator (PMSG), Inventions 6 (1) (2020) 3, https://doi.org/10.3390/INVENTIONS6010003.
[7] S.A. Vargas, G.R.T. Esteves, P.M. Maçaira, B.Q. Bastos, F.L. Cyrino Oliveira, R.C. Souza, Wind power generation:
a review and a research agenda, J. Clean. Prod. 218 (2019) 850–870, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
JCLEPRO.2019.02.015.
[8] G.M. Joselin Herbert, S. Iniyan, E. Sreevalsan, S. Rajapandian, A review of wind energy technologies, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 11 (6) (2007) 1117–1145, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2005.08.004.
[9] T. Ma, H. Yang, L. Lu, A feasibility study of a stand-alone hybrid solar–wind–battery system for a remote island,
Appl. Energy 121 (2014) 149–158, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY.2014.01.090.
[10] U. Datta, A. Kalam, J. Shi, The relevance of large-scale battery energy storage (BES) application in providing
primary frequency control with increased wind energy penetration, J. Energy Storage 23 (2019) 9–18,
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EST.2019.02.013.
[11] P. Fernández-Bustamante, O. Barambones, I. Calvo, C. Napole, M. Derbeli, Provision of frequency response from
wind farms: a review, Energies 14 (20) (2021) 6689, https://doi.org/10.3390/EN14206689.
[12] M.R. Aghamohammadi, H. Abdolahinia, A new approach for optimal sizing of battery energy storage system for
primary frequency control of islanded Microgrid, Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 54 (2014) 325–333, https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.IJEPES.2013.07.005.