CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Rudransh Gupta of Class

XII- (Science) of Wilsonia Scholar's Home
Moradabad has successfully completed this project
work under my guideline in the given time as per
the norms of CBSE. This report is genuine and
correct as per my knowledge.

Mrs. Shwetangana Santram

(Principal)

Mohd. Bilal
(Physics )

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very much thankful to Mohd. Bilal who
showed me the path to accomplish my project
work also for her valuable guidance and precious
suggestions. Every word in this project reflects her
challenging assistance and tremendous command
I am also highly grateful to my parents and our
principal Mrs. Shwetangana Santram who helped
me by providing essential out this project.
I feel obliged to be the student of this
incomparable institute Wilsonia Scholar's Home,
Moradabad which has been a source of strength,
knowledge, inspiration and self-esteem from all of
us.

Rudransh Gupta
XII -Science

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OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Optical instruments are the devices which processes light

wave to enhance an image for more clear view. You use an
optical instrument usually to make things bigger and to see
fine details of objects with the help of something very
simple like a magnifying glass or any complicated device
like microscope or telescope. To make things look bigger,
you should always use the converging lenses as diverging
lenses always gets you smaller images. While
using a converging lens, it’s important to remember the
rules of thumb. And the first rules is, if any object is very
far away, the image will be tiny and very close to the focal
point. While the object moves towards the lens, the image
moves out from the focal point and grows. The image and
object are of the same size when object is placed at 2F
which twice the focal distance from the lens. While moving
the object from 2F towards the focal length (F), the image
keeps moving out from the lens and grows till it goes to
infinity. As the object moves closer to the lens, the image
steadily moves towards the lens from minus infinity and
gives you smaller the closer the object is to lens.
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 VISUAL ANGLE
Visual angle is a dimension used to indicate the size of
visual stimuli subtended at the eye without having to
specify actual stimulus size or distance and is used to
specify intraocular dimensions.

Diagram showing visual angle V.

Power of Accommodation
The process by which the ciliary muscles change the focal
length of an eye lens to focus distant or near objects
clearly on the retina is called the accommodation of the
eye.
How Does an Eye Focus Objects at Varying
Distances?
To focus on distant objects the ciliary muscles relax
making the eye lens thin. As a result the focal length of the
eye lens increases and we see the distant objects. But to
focus on nearby objects the ciliary muscles contract
making the eye lens thick. As a result the focal length of
the eye lens decreases and we see the nearby objects. In
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short it is the adjustment of the focal length of the eye lens
which enables us to focus on objects situated at different
distances.

Near point or Least Distance of Distinct Vision

Near point or least distance of distinct vision is the point
nearest to the eye at which an object is visible distinctly.
For a normal eye the least distance of distinct vision is
about 25 centimetres. However, it varies with age of the
person. For example, for infants it is only 5 to 8 cm.
Far Point
Far point of the eye is the maximum distance up to which
the normal eye can see things clearly. It is infinity for a
normal eye.
Range of Vision
The distance between the near point and the far point is
called the range of vision.

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Magnifying Power
Magnifying power is defined as the ratio between the
dimensions of the image and the object.
The process of magnification can occur in lenses,
telescopes, microscopes and even in slide projectors.
Simple magnifying lenses are biconvex - these lenses are
thicker at the center than at the edges. The magnifying
glass was one of the first ever instruments which was used
to magnifying an object. Magnification relates to the
scaling up of images in order to see the fine details by
increasing the image resolution.

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 SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
A microscope is an optical instrument which is used to see
highly magnified images of tiny objects such as bacteria,
cells , viruses and protozoans etc. because these tiny
objects cannot be seen by naked eyes. There are two types
of microscopes: 1. Simple microscope 2. Compound
microscope
Simple Microscope
A simple microscope is also called magnifying glass. It is
actually a convex lens of small focal length, which is used
for seeing the magnified images of small objects.

Principle of Simple Microscope

A simple microscope works on the principle that when a
tiny object is placed within its focus, a virtual, erect and
magnified image of the object is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to the
lens
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Working of Simple Microscope
The ray diagram to show the working of simple
microscope is shown in figure. A small object AB which is
to be magnified is placed between the principal focus F'
and optical centre C of the convex lens. Now, a ray of light
AO parallel to principal axis which is coming from the
point A of the object passes through the focus F along the
straight line OX after getting refracted by the convex lens.
A second ray of light AC coming from the point A of the
object passes through the optical centre C of the convex
lens along the straight line CY. As is clear from the figure
that the two rays i.e. OX and CY are diverging rays so
these rays can intersect each other only at point A' when
produced backward. Now, on drawing A'B' perpendicular
from point A' to the principal axis, we get the image A'B' of
the object which is virtual, erect and magnified.

Uses of Simple Microscope

Following are the important uses of simple microscope:
1. The simple microscope is commonly used by watch
makers to see the magnified view of small parts of a watch.
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2. It is also used by the jewellers to see the magnified view
of the fine parts of jewellery.
3. Simple microscope is used to see the enlarged image of
letters of a book, textures of fibers or threads of a cloth.
4. Simple microscope is used to see the magnified view of
different particles of different types of soils.
5. It is used by palmists to see enlarged view of the lines of
our hand.
6. Simple microscope is used by skin specialists to find out
various diseases of skin.
7. It is also used to see the details of stamp and
engravings.
Magnification of Simple Microscope
The magnifying power of a simple microscope is given by
m = 1 + (d/f)
Where, D = least distance of distinct vision
F= focal length of the convex lens
It should be noted that the focal length of the convex lens
should be small because smaller the focal length of the
lens, greater will be its magnifying power. Also the
maximum magnification of a simple microscope is about
10, which means that the object will appear 10 times
larger by using the simple microscope of maximum
magnification.
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COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A compound microscope is an optical instrument
consisting of two convex lenses of short focal lengths
which is used for observing the highly magnified images of
tiny objects. The compound microscope can magnify the
image of a tiny object up to 1000.

Principle of compound microscope

A compound microscope works on the principle that when
a tiny object to be magnified is placed just beyond the
focus of its objective lens, a virtual, inverted and highly
magnified image of the object is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to the eye
piece.
Construction of compound microscope
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses: an
objective lens O of small aperture and an eye piece E of
large aperture. The lens which is placed towards the object
is called objective lens, while the lens which is towards our
eye is called eye piece. These two convex lenses i.e. the
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objective and the eye piece have short focal length and are
fitted at the free ends of two sliding tubes at a suitable
distance from each other. Although the focal length of both
the objective lens and eye piece is short, but the focal
length of the objective lens 0 is a little shorter than that of
the eye piece E.

The reason for using the eye piece of large focal length
and large aperture in a compound microscope is, so that it
may receive more light rays from the object to be
magnified and form a bright image.
Working of compound microscope
The ray diagram to show the working of compound
microscope is shown in figure. A tiny object AB to be
magnified is placed in front of the objective lens just
beyond its principal focus fo'. In this case, the objective
lens O of the compound microscope forms a real, inverted
and enlarged image A'B' of the object.

Now A'B' acts as an object for the eye piece E, whose

position is adjusted so that A'B' lies between optical centre
C2 and the focus fe' of eye piece. Now the eye piece forms
a final virtual, inverted and highly magnified image A"B".
this final image A"B" is seen by our eye hold close to eye
piece, after adjusting the final image A"B" at the least
distance of distinct vision of 25 cm from the eye.

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 Ray diagram of compound microscope

Magnification of compound microscope

The magnification of compound microscope is given by:

m = D/fo * L/fe
where, D = Least distance of distinct vision (25 cm)
L = Length of the microscope tube
fo = Focal length of the objective lens
fe = Focal length of the eye-piece lens

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 ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
A telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see
the distant objects. Telescopes are of two types:
1. Astronomical telescope
2. Galilean telescope or Terrestrial telescope
Astronomical Telescope
An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument which
is used to see the magnified image of distant heavenly
bodies like stars, planets, satellites and galaxies etc.

The final image formed by an astronomical telescope is

always virtual, inverted and magnified.
Principle of Astronomical Telescope
An astronomical telescope works on the principle that
when an object to be magnified is placed at a large
distance from the objective lens of telescope, a virtual,
inverted and magnified image of the object is formed at the
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least distance of distinct vision from the eye held close to
the eye piece.
Construction of Astronomical Telescope
An astronomical telescope consists of two convex lenses:
an objective lens 0 and an eye piece E. the focal length fo
of the objective lens of astronomical telescope is large as
compared to the focal length fe of the eye piece. And the
aperture of objective lens O is large as compared to that of
eye piece, so that it can receive more light from the distant
object and form a bright image of the distant object. Both
the objective lens and the eye piece are fitted at the free
ends of two sliding tubes, at a suitable distance from each
other.

Working of Astronomical telescope

The ray diagram to show the working of the astronomical
telescope is shown in figure. A parallel beam of light from
a heavenly body such as stars, planets or satellites fall on
the objective lens of the telescope. The objective lens forms
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a real, inverted and diminished image A'B' of the heavenly
body. This image (A'B') now acts as an object for the eye
piece E, whose position is adjusted so that the image lies
between the focus fe' and the optical centre C₂ of the eye
piece. Now the eye piece forms a virtual, inverted and
highly magnified image of object at infinity. When the final
image of an object is formed at infinity, the telescope is
said to be in 'normal adjustment'.

It should be noted that, the final image of object (such as

stars, planets or satellites) formed by an astronomical
telescope is always inverted with respect to the object. But
it does not matter whether the image formed by an
astronomical telescope is inverted or not, as all the
heavenly bodies are usually spherical is shape.
Magnifying Power of an Astronomical Telescope
The Magnifying Power of a telescope is given by:
m= f0/fe
Where, fo= Focal length of the objective lens
fe = Focal length of the eye-piece lens

And the length (L) of the tube of telescope is equal to the

sum of the focal lengths of the objective lens and the eye
piece. Thus,
L = fo + fe

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REFLECTING TELESCOPES
The principal optical element, or objective, of a reflecting
telescope is a mirror. The mirror forms an image of a
celestial object (Fig. 3) which is then examined with an
eyepiece, photographed, or studied in some other manner.

Viewing a star with a reflecting telescope. In this

configuration, the observer may block the mirror unless it
is a very large telescope.

Reflecting telescopes generally do not suffer from the size

limitations of refracting telescopes. The mirrors in these
telescopes can be as thick as necessary and can be
supported by mechanisms that prevent sagging and thus
inhibit excessive distortion. In addition, mirror materials
having vanishingly small expansion coefficients, together
with ribbing techniques that allow rapid equalization of
thermal gradients in a mirror, have eliminated the major
thermal problems plaguing telescope mirrors. Some
advanced reflecting telescopes use segmented mirrors,
composed of many separate pieces.

By using a second mirror (and even a third one, in some

telescopes), the optical path in a reflector can be folded
back on itself, permitting a long focal length to be attained
with an instrument housed in a short tube. A short tube can

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be held by a smaller mounting system and can be housed
in a smaller dome than a long-tube refractor.

In refracting telescope, the aperture of objective should be

very large to make the image of a distance object bright.
But in lenses of large aperture and large focal length there
arise spherical and chromatic aberrations. Moreover it is
difficult to prepare lenses of large aperture and they are
very costly. That is why in reflecting telescope concave
mirror of large aperture is used in place of convex lens. By
the use of concave mirror, the defect of chromatic
aberration is completely removed but the defect of
spherical aberration still exists. To remove the spherical
aberration too, the paraboloidal mirror is used in place of
objective lens.
Construction
It consists of a concave mirror of large aperture and large
focal length fitted at one end of a wide tube. This mirror is
called objective. The other end of tube is open and is
directed towards the distant object. The tube carries a
plane mirror M₂ which is placed just before the principal
focus of concave mirror and is inclined at an angle 45° to
the principal axis of concave mirror M. There is a narrow
tube arranged in the side of wide tube. This tube carries a
convex lens E of small aperture and small focal length.
This lens E is called eye-piece. The eye-piece may be
moved to and far in the tube.

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Working
Suppose AB is a distant object. The rays starting from AB
fall on concave mirror M₁ The reflected rays move towards
principal focus of M₁ but before being focussed they are
reflected by plane mirror M₂ The rays reflected from
mirror M₂ form real, diminished image A'B' This image
acts as an object for eye-piece E and its position is
adjusted between eye- piece and its first principal focus.
The eye-piece forms a magnified virtual image A"B" Thus
the final image A"B" formed by telescope is magnified.
Fig. (a) represents Newtonian telescope. Cassegrain
modified Newtonian telescope by using a convex
secondary mirror to focus the rays coming from large
objective mirror. The rays reflected from convex mirror
pass through a hole in the objective mirror fig. (b). It is
known as cassegrain telescope after its inventor.

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Magnifying Power
The magnifying power (M) of a telescope is the ratio of
angle () subtended by final image on eye to the angle ()
subtended by object on eye.
i.e. M =  

This may be calculated just as for refracting telescope. If fo

is the focal length of objective concave mirror and f, the
focal length of eye-piece and final image is formed at
distance of distinct vision, then magnifying power
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
𝑀= (1 + )
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
But if the final image is formed at infinity, then magnifying
power, Modern reflecting telescope uses a paraboloidal
mirror objective to remove spherical aberration.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
www.wikipedia.org
https://byjus.com
https://www.vedantu.com
https://unacademy.com
NCERT Textbook
New Simplified PHYSICS (SL ARORA)
Pradeep’s Fundamental Physics for class 12

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