Experiment 1:

Enthalpy of solution:
Objective: Determine the enthalpy of solution, ∆H of a salt (e.g. KNO3, CaCl2, and NH4Cl)
Theory
When a substance undergoes a change in temperature, the quantity (Q) of heat lost or gained
can be calculated using the mass (m), specific heat (c), and change in temperature
(∆T = Tfinal – Tinitial):
Q (heat) = m c ∆T (1)
The specific heat (s) is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of one gram
of a particular substance by one degree Celsius (or 1 K). For water, the specific heat is 1.00
calorie / g °C or 4.184 Joules / g °C.
Heat exchange experiments are conducted in a calorimeter which is an insulated container.
The calorimeter is constructed such that ideally there will be no heat exchange between the
contents of the calorimeter and the surrounding environment. However, heat exchanges can
occur between the components within the calorimeter.
This can be expressed in the following way:
Qsystem = Qgain + Qloss (2)
If the system does not exchange heat with the surroundings, then the Qsystem = 0, and
Qgain = –Qloss (3)
When a hot substance comes in contact with a cold substance within a calorimeter, heat will
spontaneously pass from the hot to the cold substance until they achieve a thermal
equilibrium (the same constant temperature). The quantity of heat lost and gained is equal
in magnitude, but opposite in sign. For example, if a piece of hot metal is placed in cold
water within a calorimeter, the following thermodynamic equation can be used:
Qwater = –Qmetal (4)
Since each substance undergoes a temperature change, we can write Qwater = (m c ∆T)water
and Qmetal = (m c ∆T)metal. Substituting this in the above relationship, 4, we get:
(m c ∆T)water = –(m c ∆T)metal (5)
When a chemical reaction occurs in a water solution, the situation is similar to when a hot
piece of metal is placed in water. When a reaction occurs, there is a change in the potential
energy of the chemicals, resulting in a heat exchange in the calorimeter. As in the hot metal

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experiment, the heat flow of the reaction is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that
of the solution as shown by the following equation:
Qreaction = –Qsolution = – (m c ∆T)solution (6)
By measuring the mass of the solution (the water plus the solute) and by observing the
temperature change that the solution undergoes, we can calculate Qsolution and therefore
Qreaction. Because the experiment is performed under constant pressure conditions, the heat
flow of the reaction is also equal to the enthalpy change, ∆H, for the reaction. Since the
mass of solute can vary for different experiments, the Qreaction will also vary. Therefore, ∆H
is generally reported as the heat of reaction per a fixed amount of the reacting chemical, and
we will calculate ∆H per gram or per mole of the solute.
Qrxn Qrxn
∆Hrxn = or ∆Hrxn = (7)
mass solute mole solute
If the temperature of the water goes up, heat has been given off by the reaction, so that
reaction is exothermic, and ∆H of the reaction is negative. If the temperature of the water
goes down, heat is absorbed by the reaction, therefore the reaction is endothermic, and ∆H
for the reaction is positive.
Chemicals and Apparatus required
Salts (KNO3, CaCl2, NH4Cl), Styrofoam cups with lid, thermometer, glass stir, spatulas, 50mL
graduated cylinder, weighing paper or weighing boats, electronic balance

Procedure
Weigh out accurately about 4g of potassium nitrate in a weighing boat (or weighing paper) and
record the mass on your results sheet. Using a graduated cylinder, accurately measure between
30 – 40 mL distilled water; record your measurement to one decimal place on your results sheet.
Pour the water in to a calorimeter constructed of two stacked Styrofoam caps. (Styrofoam is a
good heat insulator and prevents the heat involved in the process from escaping into the
surrounding.) Determine and record the initial and temperature of the water in the calorimeter,
again recording your results to one decimal place. Quickly transfer the weighed potassium nitrate
to the calorimeter and cover with the lid. Insert the stirrer and stir to dissolve the salt. Record the
final temperature of the solution (highest or lowest temperature attained). Calculate the amount
of heat in Joules (J) absorbed or liberated per gram of salt and determine whether the process is

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exothermic or endothermic. Assume the specific heat of solution is the same as the specific heat
of water (4.184J/goC) and that the mass of water in grams = volume of water in in milliliters
(since density of water = 1 g/mL).
Construct a calorimeter, where two polystyrene coffee cups with a plastic cover on top are nested
together. Weigh and record the mass of the clean, dry calorimeter. Place the calorimeter into a
400 mL glass beaker for stability during the experiment. Place about 50 mL of distilled water in
the calorimeter and weigh. Measure the temperature of the water to 0.01 o C. The temperature
should be within a degree or two of room temperature. Weigh out about 5 grams of the
solid assigned to you. Add the solid to the calorimeter. Stirring and swirling the calorimeter,
determine to 0.01oC the stable maximum or minimum temperature reached as the solid dissolves.
Check to make sure that the solid is completely dissolved. A temperature change of at least five
degrees should be obtained in this experiment. AFTER THE FINAL TEMPERATURE IS
DETERMINED, WEIGH THE CALORIMETER WITH THE DISSOLVED SOLID.
Repeat the procedure using calcium chloride and ammonium chloride
Results

KNO3 CaCl2 NH4Cl

a, Mass of salt, m(g)
b, Volume of water in calorimeter (ml)
c, Mass of water in calorimeter, (g)
d, Grams of solution (a + b)(g)
e, Initial temperature of water(0C)
f, Final temperature of solution (0C)
g, Temperature change (f - c)
1. Calculate the heat absorbed or released by the salts solution
2. The process is endothermic or endothermic………………….
3. Calculate the heat of solution per gram and molar heat of salts of salts what is the sign of
q indicate?
4. ∆H experimental ∆H literature ……………………
5. Calculate Percentage error ……………….

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 Experiment two
Elevation of Boiling Point
Objective:
To determine the molecular mass of the non volatile solute from boiling point elevation
Theory
A solution describes a system in which one or more substances (solute) are
Homogeneously dissolved in another substance (solvent).
The proportion of the Solute and the solvent in the solution varies, with the solvent usually in
greater quantity.
Physical properties are divided into two categories extensive properties, such as mass
and volume, depend on the size of the sample and intensive properties, such as density
and concentration, are characteristic properties of the substance that do not depend on the size
the sample. There is a third category of properties which is a subset of the intensive properties of
a system. This third category, termed colligative properties, is applicable only to solutions.
when a solute is dissolved in a solvent, it lowers the freezing point of the solvent and it will
elevate the boiling point of the solvent. The degree to which the freezing points is lowered
boiling point is elevated depends on the concentration of the solute particle.
Properties that depend on the concentration, but not the identity of the solute in solution are
colligative properties.
Examples of colligative properties are:
i. vapor pressure lowering of a solution
ii. boiling point elevation
iii. freezing point depression
iv. osmotic pressure
For a given solute-solvent mass ratio, all colligative properties are inversely proportional to
solute molar mass
Electrolytes are substances that can form solutions that are able to conduct electricity through
solution. Such solutions are known as electrolytic solutions.

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Nonelectrolytes are substances that are not capable of forming electrolytic solutions.
Both these types (electrolytes and nonelectrolytes) have colligative properties.
The key difference between colligative properties of electrolytes and nonelectrolytes is that the
effect of electrolytes on colligative properties is very high compared to that of the
nonelectrolytes.
When an electrolyte is dissolved in a solvent such as water, the electrolyte separates into ions (or
any other conductive species). Therefore, dissolving one mole of electrolyte always yields two or
more moles of conductive species. Hence, the colligative properties of the electrolytes are
considerably changing when an electrolyte is dissolved in a solvent.
For example, the general equation used in describing freezing point and boiling point changes is
as follow,
ΔTb = Kbm and ΔTf = Kfm
ΔTb is boiling point elevation, and ΔTf is freezing point depression. Kb and Kf are boiling point
elevation constant and freezing point depression constant respectively. m is the molality of the
solution. For electrolytic solutions, the above equations are modified as follows,
ΔTb = iKbm and ΔTf = iKfm
“i” is an ion multiplier known as Van’t Hoff factor. This factor is equal to the number of moles
of ions given by an electrolyte. Therefore, Van’t Hoff factor can be determined by finding the
number of ions released by an electrolyte when it is dissolved in a solvent. For example, the
value of Van’t Hoff factor for NaCl is 2 and in CaCl2, it is 3.
When a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the resultant solution would have a higher
boiling point than the pure solution. The boiling point of a solution is a colligative property
and is dependent on the concentration of the solute in the solution but
not on what the solute and solvent are. This boiling point can be measured by an ebullioscope.
In this experiment we will be measuring the boiling point of pure water and the boiling
Point of the sodium chloride solution. From the difference in the boiling point, the boiling point
Elevation constant of water will be calculated.

Unit of molality is given as mol/kg. Expressing the number of mole in terms of its mass a
and its molar mass, we can rewrite the molality equation in the following manner:

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m = (mass of solute, gm)(1 mole of solute/Molar mass of solute, gm)
Mass of solvent (kg)
Table 1: Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression constants of several
solvents at One atmosphere:

Procedure
1. Determine the mass of sodium chloride (58.5g/mol) necessary to make 50 mL of
0.5 Molal solution in water (d = 1 g/ml). Measure out three sodium chloride samples
of the calculated mass. Show your calculation to the lab instructor before continuing. To
determine the boiling point of water
2. Use the same water and determine the elevated boiling point when 0.25molal,
0.5molal,1.0molal, 1.5molal1.75molal and 2molal sodium chloride is added (measured
in step 2).
3. Construct and record your data in a table form.
4. Construct a graph of T; boiling point (y-axis) vs. m; molality (x-axis). Show the
equation of the line and calculate the slope. Make sure to properly label the axes and title
the graph.
5. Get an unknown from your lab instructor. To a new batch of 50.0mL water, add a mass
of the unknown equal to the mass of 0.5molal of sodium chloride (calculated in
step 1). Use the above procedure to measure the boiling point elevation of the
unknown/ water solution. Calculate the molar mass of the unknown
6. Given the density of water (1 g/cm3), the mass of water used may be found and
hence the mass of unknown in 1 kg of solvent. From these data and the molality,
the molecular weight of the unknown may be determined.
Questions
Should be answered and turned to lab instructor before starting the lab.
1. Define the term “colligative properties” and give examples.
2. What is molality?
3. Calculate the molality of a solution that contains 1.875 g of potassium chloride (KCl) in
75g water
4. How much will the boiling point of water change when 2.00 g of sodium chloride

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 (58.5 g/mol) is dissolved in 150 g of water?

Experiment three

Chemical Equilibrium

Objective: To explain the effect of concentration and temperature on chemical

equilibrium position

Theory:

Not all reactions go to completion, or use up all of one of the reactants. In some chemical
reactions there is always some amount of products and some reactants present. In these chemical
systems two competing processes are occurring, the forward reaction and the reverse reaction of
that system. Both the forward and the reverse reactions are taking place simultaneously. When
the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, the system is at
equilibrium. The concentrations of the products and reactants remain constant. That is not to say
that the system is static. Both reactions are occurring and are doing so at the same rate, so there
is no net change in the concentrations of the reactants or of the products. When writing an
equation for a reaction at equilibrium a double headed arrow (↔) or double arrows pointing in
opposite directions (⇄) is used. These designations indicate that both the forward and reverse
reactions are occurring at the same time.

Le Chatelier’s Principle tells us that if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a stress, the

system will shift in order to minimize the effect of that stress. In this laboratory exercise you will
examine how various stresses cause equilibrium systems to shift. These particular equilibrium
systems undergo color changes, gas formation and precipitation formed as the equilibrium shifts
between the reactants and products, allowing you to see which side of the reaction become
favored. Several factors affect the position of equilibrium, such as volume, pressure,
concentration and temperature.

Effect of Concentration on equilibrium position

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Adding extra reactants or removing the concentration of products leads the equilibrium to shift in
the direction of products, i.e., the forward reaction is favored (right). Adding extra products or
removing the concentration of reactants leads the equilibrium to shift in the direction of
reactants, i.e., the backward reaction is favored (left).

In short
Change Shift in Equilibrium position/direction
Increase in [Products] left
Decrease in [Products] right
Increase in [Reactants] right
Decrease in [Reactants] left
The response of equilibrium to temperature

Le Chatelier's principle predicts that a system at equilibrium will tend to shift in the endothermic
direction if the temperature is raised, for the energy is absorbed as heat and the rise in
temperature is opposed. Conversely, equilibrium can be expected to shift in the exothermic
direction if the temperature is lowered, for the energy is released and the reduction in
temperature is opposed. For those reactions that are neither endothermic nor exothermic, i.e., Hp
= Hr (athermic process) or ∆H = 0, increasing or decreasing T, has no effect on the
equilibrium direction.
The response of equilibrium to temperature can be summarized as:
 Exothermic reactions (∆H = -ve): increasing temperature favors the reactants.
 Endothermic reactions (∆H = +ve): increasing temperature favors the products.
 Athermic process (∆H = 0): increasing or decreasing temperature (T), has no effect on the
equilibrium direction.
Change Endothermic Rxn Exothermic Rxn
Increase T K increases K decreases
Decrease T K decreases K increase
In this investigation, you will create an equilibrium solution using iron(III) ions and
thiocyanate ions:
Fe3+(aq) + SCN–(aq) ⇄ FeSCN2+(aq)

pale yellow clear red/orange

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Chemicals and Apparatus required
 Beakers, 250-mL (2)  1 M KOH, 10 mL
 Graduated cylinders, 10-mL (2)  Solid K3PO4, 5 g
 Test tubes, 20 mm x 150 mm (7)  0.1 M KSCN, 10 mL
 Test tube rack  0.01 M KSCN, 10 mL
 Heater stirrer  Ice
 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3, 10 mL  Wash bottle with distilled water
 0.01 M Fe(NO3)3, 10 mL
Procedure:
1. Label seven clean test tubes with the numbers 1 through 7.
2. Put about 150 mL of water into a 250-mL beaker. Put the beaker on the heater stirrer
and set the heat to medium. This is a hot water bath that will be used later in the
experiment.
3. In to test tube #1, add 2 mL of 0.01 M Fe(NO 3)3 and 2 mL of 0.01 M KSCN. Mix
thoroughly. Describe the color change in Table 1 on your answer sheet and keep this test
tube as your control. You will compare all the other test tubes with this control.
4. Prepare 6 additional identical test tubes. Place 2 mL of 0.01 M Fe(NO 3)3 and 2 mL of
0.01 M KSCN and mix thoroughly. If one test tube does not match the control test tube,
discard it and prepare it again.
5. In test tube #2, add 2-3 drops of 0.01 M KSCN and mix thoroughly. Record your
observations relative to the control in Table 1.
6. In test tube #3, add 2-3 drops of 0.01 M Fe(NO 3)3 and mix thoroughly. Record your
observations.
7. In test tube #4, add 2-3 drops of 1 M KOH and mix thoroughly. Record your
observations.
8. In test tube #5, add a few small pieces of solid K 3PO4 and mix thoroughly. Record your
observations.
9. Create an ice bath by filling a 250-mL beaker with water and ice. Place test tube #6 in
the ice bath for 2-3 minutes. Record your observations.

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 10. Place test tube #7 in the hot water bath your set up earlier. Leave the test tube in the hot
water bath for 2-3 minutes. Record your observations.
11. Dispose of the material according to your instructor.
Analysis – Shifting equilibrium
Table 1 – Le Châtelier's principle
Test Observation relative Direction of Disturbance
tube to control test tube the shift

1-
Contro
l
2

1. Identify the test tube(s) and conditions in which the equilibrium was shifted in the forward
direction. How did you know?
2. Identify the test tube(s) and conditions in which the equilibrium was shifted in the reverse
direction. How did you know?
3. Identify the test tube(s) where the disturbance that caused a shift in equilibrium was an
increase in concentration of reactants. Explain your reasoning.

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 Experiment four
Distribution of a solute between two immiscible solvents
Objective: to determine the partition coefficient of benzoic acid between water and benzene
Theory:
When two immiscible solvents A and B taken in a beaker, they form separate layers. Now a
solute X which is soluble in both solvents is added, it gets distributed or partitioned between
them. Molecules of X pass from solvent A to B and from B to A. finally a dynamic
equilibrium is set up. At equilibrium, the rate, at which molecules of X pass from one solvent
to the other is balanced.
concentration of X ∈ A
=a constant …(1)
concentration of X ∈B
Nernst (1891) studied the distribution of several solutes between different appropriate pairs of
solvents. He gave a generalization which governs the distribution of a solute between two
non-miscible solvents. This is called Nernst’s Distribution law or Nernst’s Partition law or
simply Distribution law or Partition law. It states that
If a solute X distributes itself between two immiscible solvents A and B at constant temperature
and X is in the same molecular condition in both solvents.”
concentration of X ∈ A
=KD … (2)
concentration of X ∈B
If 𝐶1 denotes the concentration of the solute in solvent A and 𝐶2 the concentration in solvent B,
Nernst’s Distribution law can be expressed as
C1
=K D …(3)
C2
The constant 𝐾D(or simply K) is called the distribution coefficient or Partition coefficient or
Distribution ratio.
When a solute is shaken with two non-miscible solvents, at equilibrium both the solvents are
saturated with the solute. Since the solubility also represents concentration, the Distribution
Law is also written as,

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 C1 S1
= ¿K D ………(4)
C2 S2
Where 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the solubilities of the solute in the two solvents.

Limitations of Distribution Law

The conditions to be satisfied for the application of the Nernst’s Distribution law are :
1. Constant temperature. The temperature is kept constant throughout the experiment.
2. Same molecular state. The molecular state of the solute is the same in the two solvents.
The law does not hold if there is association or dissociation of the solute in one of the
solvents.
3. Equilibrium concentrations. The concentrations of the solute are noted after the
equilibrium has been established.
4. Dilute solutions. The concentration of the solute in the two solvents is low. The law does
not hold when the concentrations are high.
5. Non-miscibility of solvents. The two solvents are non-miscible or only slightly soluble in
each other. The extent of mutual solubility of the solvents remains unaltered by the
addition of solute to them
Apparatus and Chemicals required
Apparatus required: measuring cylinder, pipette, separatory funnel, burette, titration flasks and
thermostat
Chemicals required: distilled water, benzene, phenolphthalein indicator, acetic acid and sodium
hydroxide
Procedure:
1. weigh 0.5g of benzoic acid into stopper flask.
2. add 50ml 0f benzene and dissolve benzoic acid.
3. add 100ml of distilled water to the flask and shake for 20 minutes at constant temperature.
4. transfer content into separating fennel, allowed 2 layers to separate in 15 minutes.
5. collected the aqueous layer (lower) and titrate 10ml with 0.01N of NaOH solution using
phenolphthalein as indicator.
6. Repeat titration with another 10ml.

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 7. Collect organic layer and titrate 10ml with 0.05N NaOH solution using phenolphthalein as
indicator.
8. Repeated titration with another 10ml.
9. Calculate distribution coefficient of benzoic acid between benzene and water using
formula.
10. Standardized NaOH solution using oxalic acid.
Repeat the procedure using 1g of benzoic acid
Data/Observations
set trial Intial Volume of Final volume of ∆V Vave [B.A]O (C1)
NaOH(mL) NaOH(mL)
0.5 g 1
2
1g 1
2
set trial Intial Volume of Final Volume of ∆V Vave [B.A]aq (C2)
NaOH(mL) NaOH(mL)
0.5 g 1
2
1g 1
2

Calculations:
1. Write the equation of reaction of NaOH and CH3COOH.
3. Calculate KD (distribution coefficient)

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