LEARNING OUTCOME 2: DESCRIBE THE INDEPENDENCE OF RWANDA

INTRODUCTION
After recovering its independence, Rwanda was ruled by Grégoire Kayibanda who was the
President of the First Republic (1961–1973), and Major General Juvénal Habyarimana who led
the Second Republic (1973–1994). The two republics were characterized by ethnic and regional
divisions which compromised the development of Rwanda and led to the 1994 Genocide against
the Tutsi.

2.1 THE FIRST REPUBLIC (1962–1973)

At independence, Grégoire Kayibanda forced his way into political prominence and he was more
than willing to use ethnic identities to access power and sow divisions to maintain his rule.
Independence was declared on July 1st, 1962 and Rwanda had a constitution for the first time.
2.1.1 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC
2.1.1.1 SOME FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Some financial institutions like banks were opened and they provided financial support to a few
factories and industrial companies. The National Bank was established in January 1964, the
Banque Commerciale du Rwanda in 1965, and the Banque Rwandaise de Développement in
1968.
2.1.1.2 THE CONSTRUCTION OF TARMAC ROADS
In order of priority, the following roads were to be tarmacked: Kigali–Gatuna, Kigali–Butare,
Kigali–Rusumo, and Kigali–Cyanika. Besides, the construction of Kanombe airport opened the
country to the outside world.
2.1.1.3 THE CONSTRUCTION OF RUSUMO BRIDGE
the Rusumo Bridge was constructed at the Akagera River linking Rwanda and Tanzania, and the
bridge on river Nyabarongo (1968–1969).
2.1.1.4 IMPROVED SEEDS AND PLANTS
in order to improve agricultural production, ISAR (Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du
Rwanda) located at Rubona improved seeds and plants and distributed them in some parts of the
country. New crops like rice were introduced.
2.1.1.5 IMPROVEMENT IN THE HEALTH SECTOR
To address the problem of malnutrition and poor conditions of hygiene, some socio-medical
centres were opened to provide sanitary or health education, training on how to avoid and
prevent diseases, and skills in maternal health care.
2.1.1.6 IMPROVEMENT IN EDUCATION
The 1st Republic made a lot of effort to provide free primary education. At independence,
Rwanda had few secondary schools including Ecole Officielle d’Astrida in the former province
of Butare, Ecole Technique Officielle Kicukiro in Kigali, Collège Saint André in Kigali, Collège
du Christ Roi at Nyanza and Seminaries at Kabgayi, Nyundo, Rwesero and Kansi.

2.1.2 THE FAILURES/WEAKNESSES OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC

2.1.2.1 INCREASED REFUGEE PROBLEM

Refugees often attempted to return back to Rwanda but their number was always small due to the
difficult conditions imposed on them for repatriation. The refugees found it difficult to access all
the administrative documents required by the security services of the prefecture and commune.
These included an identity card, and documents from the asylum country, and the UNHCR.
2.1.2.2 ETHNIC VIOLENCE
President Kayibanda’s regime was based on the ideology of his political party, PARMEHUTU.
Political policies and strategies that the First Republic adopted to govern and ensure security and
peace in the country were guided by the same ideology.
Class discrimination, torture and hatred against the Tutsi continued. This eventually led to many of them fleeing
from their country to neighboring states of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and Uganda

2.1.2.3 CORRUPTION AND EMBEZZLEMENT

The first republic of Rwanda was dominated by corrupt officials. Above all, corruption was based on tribes.

2.1.2.4 MONOPARTISM
The 1962 constitution devoted article 10 to the multiparty system. However, the ruling party
MDR PARMEHUTU turned itself into a “State Party”.
Grégoire Kayibanda, the President of the First Republic (1961–1973) In order to become a single
party, MDRPARMEHUTU started eliminating other opposition political parties using diverse
mechanisms including intimidation, arbitrary arrests, physical violence and at times, but not
often, negotiations.
Hence, after attracting some opposition leaders for instance Amandin Rugira from APROSOMA
within its ranks and having killed others like Michel Rwagasana, Joseph Rutsindintwarane,
Etienne Afrika, Burabyo Denis, Gisimba, Ndahiro, Mpiranyi from UNAR and Lazare Ndazaro,
Prosper Bwanakweli and Callixte Kalinda from RADER, MDR-PARMEHUTU transformed
itself into a single political party. After eliminating and assimilating other political parties in
1965, it was the only party that presented candidates for presidential and legislative elections.
2.1.2.5 REGIONAL DIVISIONS IN PARMEHUTU
The regime of President Kayibanda started regional rivalries within PARMEHUTU itself.
PARMEHUTU members from Gitarama tended to monopolize PARMEHUTU and Government
positions at the expense of other regions.
2.1.2.6 FAVOURITISM AND NEPOTISM
In order to address discontent in political and military ranks that were linked to regionalism,
President Kayibanda resorted to violence and ethnic cleansing of Tutsi. Many Tutsi were chased
away from their jobs and schools
2.1.2.7 LACK OF RULE OF LAW AND THE CULTURE OF IMPUNITY
The Tutsi had become the scapegoat because they were killed while the killers remained
unpunished.
2.1.2.8 DICTATORSHIP
In 1963 the MDR-PARMEHUTU began to experience internal tensions. Some of these tensions
concerned interpersonal rivalries and the distribution of jobs as the party organs and state
structures fused. There was increasing discontent among cadres, students, and individuals with
primary and secondary education. For instance, at the local level, burgomasters and préfets faced
opposition.
2.1.2.9 INJUSTICES
President Kayibanda resorted to ethnic violence against the Tutsi. Tutsi children were chased out
of school, those in administrative positions were unfairly dismissed, and many were murdered.

2.2 THE SECOND REPUBLIC (1973-1994)

In the night of July 5th, 1973, the presidential guard under the command of Major General Juvénal
Habyarimana, Minister of Defense and Chief staff, staged a coup d’état against the regime of Grégoire
Kayibanda and Major General Habyarimana took over power as president.

2.2.1 ACHIEVEMENT OF THE SECOND REPUBLIC

2.2.1.1 OPENING OF THE COUNTRY TO THE OUTSIDE WORLD
In this context, the Rwandan diplomatic representation in foreign countries increased. In 1979, Rwanda
hosted the sixth FrancoAfrican conference and in 1976, Rwanda was a co-founder of the Communauté
Économique des Pays des Grands Lacs (CEPGL). It was also host to the headquarters of the Akagera
Organisation du Bassin de riviere Akagera (OBK).

2.2.1.2 ESTABLISHMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE

With regards to infrastructure development, the following infrastructures were built by the Second
Republic (Ministere des travaux publics, Rapport annuel 1970): 1. Tarmacking or asphalting of several
roads which reached a distance of 888. 5km by 1989 2. Construction of administrative offices for
ministries, prefectures and communes 3. Building of schools, health centres and hospitals like King Faisal
Hospital and Kigali international airport 4. Extension of electricity network 5. Construction of Amahoro
Stadium.

2.2.1.3 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

From 1980 to 1986, the country enjoyed economic growth due to good climatic conditions, increase in
the production of coffee, tea, and minerals; and a considerable amount of capital coming into the
country

2.2.1.4. OFFICE FOR NATIONAL POPULATION (ONAPO)

To address the demographic problem, the government opened Office National de la Population
(ONAPO) to deal with population growth problems.

2.2.2 THE FAILURES/WEAKNESSES OF THE SECOND REPUBLIC

2.2.2.1 USE OF VIOLENCE AGAINST THE OPPONENTS

After this coup d’état, the former leaders were unfairly arrested, nearly all of them from the south
(Gitarama). The court martials of June 1974 sentenced to death former President Kayibanda and
prominent personalities in his regime. For Kayibanda, his death sentence was acommuted to permanent
detention in his residence at Kavumu, near Kabgayi, where he died on December 15th, 1976, while
others were executed.

2.2.2.2 BAD GOVERNANCE

On July 5th, 1975, Major General Juvénal Habyarimana established the MRND. Its objective was to unite
all Rwandans so as to enhance economic, social and cultural development in a peaceful environment.

In the 7th article, of the new constitution adopted on December 20th, 1978 by referendum, MRND was
declared the sole political party where all Rwandans would participate in the management of public
affairs. This marked the establishment of a one-party system. All Rwandans were automatically
members of MRND. The new constitution abolished the National Assembly and replaced it with Conseil
National pour le Développement (CND)

2.2.2.3 THE CREATION OF AKAZU

Political power was from that time monopolized by a small group of people from Bushiru in the ex-
commune of Karago in the current District of Nyabihu. Finally, power was in the hands of President
Habyarimana, his immediate family, and his in-laws. This was known as “Akazu” or “one single
household”.

2.2.2.4 CORRUPTION AND EMBEZZLEMENT OF PUBLIC FUNDS

Corruption became a normal practice and some top leaders treated public offices like personal property.

2.2.2.5 PERSONALITY CULT

This was done through mobilization and glorification of the President and placing his political party using
animation and placing his portrait everywhere in public and private surroundings.

2.2.2.6 LACK OF DEMOCRACY

The coup d’état leaders dissolved the National Assembly, suspended the 1962 constitution and
abolished all political parties existing at the time, such as the organs of MDR-PARMEHUTU. They also
dissolved the government and replaced it with a National Committee for Peace and Reconciliation
constituted of 11 senior officers.

2.3 ANALYSIS OF THE 1990-1994 LIBERATION WAR

2.3.1 CAUSES OF LIBERATION WAR

2.3.1.1 ENTRENCHMENT OF DICTATORSHIP

During the Second Republic, only one political Party, MRND, was allowed as it was stipulated by the
1978 constitution. All the powers were concentrated in the hands of a small group —members of the
President’s family and his in-laws which was called Akazu. No single decision could be made without
prior approval and blessing of the President and his MRND.

2.3.1.2 CRASHING OF ALL FORMS OF OPPOSITION

The regime of Juvénal Habyarimana did not tolerate any opposition. Any person who tried to oppose
him suffered long prison terms. Political assassinations were frequent as well.

2.3.1.3 NEGATION OF THE QUESTION OF REFUGEES

Habyarimana himself declared that Rwanda was like a glass full of water to which one could not add a
drop. He added that “a child of a refugee should not be called a refugee” and so he started negotiations
with Uganda in February 1989.

2.3.1.4 THE RISE OF THE CHARISMATIC LEADERS

The military option was dictated by the denial of fundamental rights and democracy by the Habyarimana
regime which was denounced by the population.

2.3.1.5 THE INFLUENCE OF NRM IN UGANDA

the government of Rwanda refused to recognize them as Rwandans. This situation forced them to enroll
in the National Resistance Army (NRA), the armed wing of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) in
Uganda, led by Yoweri Kaguta Museveni. The big number of Rwandans in the ranks of NRA and their role
in liberating Uganda was a source of renewed hope. For them, there was no magic formula for a solution
to their country’s problems. The victory showed that a successful liberation war was possible in Rwanda.

2.3.2 COURSE OF THE 1990-1994 LIBERATION WAR

2.3.2.1.THE FOUNDATION OF THE RANU AND BIRTH OF THE RPF INKOTANYI.
They had lost hope of ever returning to their homeland by peaceful means. As a result, a group of young Rwandans,
descendants of the 1959 refugees, decided to unite under a group that they called the Rwandese Alliance for
National Unity (RANU).

RANU’s objective was to mobilize all other Rwandans in the Diaspora into a movement geared towards resolving
their problems by themselves

As time went by, this alliance matured to a level where all Rwandans living outside Rwanda identified themselves
with it. In 1987, this group developed into the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF-Inkotanyi) with its military wing, the
Rwanda Patriotic Army (RPA). The RPA later grew into such a strong force that not only defeated the oppressive
regime within nearly four years, but also stopped the on-going Genocide in 1994 within a period of only three
months.

2.3.2.2 THE MILITARY OPTION

The military option was dictated by the denial of fundamental rights and democracy by the Habyarimana
regime which was denounced by the population. Students abroad were also organising themselves to
challenge the Habyarimana regime. Those on scholarships in Europe and Canada, formed organisations
such as Association Générale des Etudiants Rwandais (AGER) and Association des Etudiants Rwandais au
Burundi(AERB). The refugees resented their continued exile and the indifference of the Rwanda
government towards their plight. All this made the military option inevitable for the Rwanda Patriotic
Front (RPF).

2.3.2.3. THE BEGINNING OF THE LIBERATION WAR

On September 30th, 1990, the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) with its military wing, Rwanda Patriotic
Army (RPA), took a decision to attack Rwanda and withdrew some of its units from NRA across Uganda
and assembled them near Kagitumba. On October 1st, 1990, the first attack was launched.

On October 1st, 1990, the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) and its armed wing (RPA) declared the war of
liberation which lasted almost four years. The first attack was in Umutara, but was not successful
because of the death of Major General Fred Gisa Rwigema.

2.3.2.4 ATTACK ON RUHENGERI (JANUARY1991)

The RPA was pushed from Umutara after which they changed tactics by launching a guerrilla warfare in
the northern region.

2.3.2.5 EXTENSION OF QUERRILLA WAR (1991-1992)

On January 23rd, 1991, they captured Ruhengeri town and liberated the political prisoners who had
been jailed in Ruhengeri prison. Among them, there were Theoneste Lizinde, Biseruka and Brother Jean
Damascène Ndayambaje.

2.3.2.6 PEACE PROCESS (1991-1993)

- On March 29th, 1991, the first negotiations between the RPF and the government of Rwanda started
at N’sélé in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Other meetings, had been held in Arusha
G’badolité, and Mwanza.

- On July 12th, 1992, a ceasefire was negotiated and signed in the Arusha Peace Agreement between the
RPF and the Habyarimana Government. An Organisation of African Unity force known as ‘Groupe
d’Observateurs Militaires Neutres’ (GOMN) was to observe the ceasefire

2.3.2.7 THE END OF THE LIBERATION WAR AND THE CAMPAIGN TO STOP THE
GENOCIDE

On April 6th,1994, the presidential plane was hit by a missile and President Habyarimana died. The
downing of the plane was followed by genocide against the Tutsi and the killing of some Hutu who did
not approve of the government’s political extremism. It was the Rwanda Patriotic Front which stopped
the genocide.

2.3.3 THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR

2.3.3.1 RPF ASSUMED POWER IN KIGALI

The Liberation War was launched on the 1st of October 1990 by RPFInkotanyi and its armed wing, the
Rwandese Patriotic Army (RPA), and ended on July 4th, 1994 with the fall of Kigali and Butare.

2.3.3.2 REVEALED THE WEAKNESS OF THE ONU

The international community did not manage to rescue the Rwandans who were being killed and after
the genocide committed by the Jews, they said that the genocide will not happen again, saying that it is
a failure of the international community.

2.3.3.3 SOCIAL RECONCILIATION

here is the promotion of National unity. Thanks to the Liberation War, many achievements were made
in national unity, justice, peace and security, and the ending of segregation.

2.3.3.4 EVACUATION OF FOREIGNERS FROM RWANDA

For those in exile, they felt the time had come to return home and massively joined the RPF and the
struggle as the war progressed. Mobilization to support the war effort was deepened in the region, and
recruitment into the RPF was intensified. A lot of money, medicine, food, and clothes were mobilized in
support of the war. Inside Rwanda, there were mixed reactions. Some people, mainly sympathizers of
the RPF who had been treated as second-class citizens, felt the time had come for their rescue and
joined the struggle from neighbouring countries while others were worried about the reaction of the
Habyarimana regime.

2.3.3.5 THE LOSS OF FRANCOPHONE INFLUENCE IN RWANDA

The government of Rwanda was supported by its allies. Habyarimana argued that he had been invaded
by neighbouring Anglophone Uganda and mobilised his closest allies to assist him militarily and
diplomatically. Consequently, France, Belgium and the then Zaire (now DRC) under Mobutu Sese Seko
sent troops.

2.3.3.6 INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT AND LOSS OF PROPERTY

More than one million Rwandans were displaced inside the country. These were in great need of shelter,
food and other basic needs.

loss of property and psyclogical effects There was displacement of people from their properties, trauma,
and destruction of properties.

2.3.3.7 LOSS OF LIVES

Many soldiers were killed on both sides and others were wounded. There was also the massacre of
“Abagogwe “people from 1991 to 1993 by Habyarimana regime in retaliation for RPA attack. Similar
killings were carried out in Kibirira, Bugesera, Kibuye, Murambi and in Umutara.

2.3.4 THE CAUSES OF GENOCIDE

2.3.4.1 COLONIZATION

It was during colonial rule that Rwanda's ethnic groups: Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa became
racialized. It was the rigidification of these identities and their relationship with political power
that would lay the foundation for genocidal violence.

2.3.4.2 BAD LEADERSHIP/ POOR GOVERNANCE

poor governance is centralized around the idea of not only corruption within a system but
a lack of transparency and accountability, arbitrary policy making and the cheating of
those who are governed

2.3.4.3 MEDIA OF HATRED

The first media known for constantly insulting Tutsi was Kangura, the parody-paper created to
counteract the first real independent newspaper Kanguka. The mission of Kangura was to mobilize
people around the president on the basis of an ethnic ideology excluding Tutsi.

2.3.4.4. INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF IMPUNITY CULTURE

as we know the purpose of the government is to create a big role in the relationships of the
inhabitants of the country, if the government set an impunity culture among the inhabitants of the
country, each group of people intending to harm others can cause hatred among the people of the
country.
2.3.4.5 THE LOSS OF CULTURAL IDENTITY

To lose your identification with, or sense of belonging to, a particular group based on various
cultural categories, including nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, and religion.

2.3.4.6 THE ETHNIC-BASED IDEOLOGY

Let us now define the concept of ethnicity as referring to a community-type of people who share the
same culture or descendants.

2.3.4.7 THE SOCIAL INEQUALITY

Social inequality refers to differential access to and use of resources across various domains
(e.g., health, education, occupations) that result in disparities across gender, race/ethnicity,
class, and other important social markers.

2.3.5 THE MAJOR STEPS OF THE GENOCIDE

NO Stages Characteristics Preventative measures

"The main preventive measure at this

People are divided into "them
1 Classification early stage is to develop universalistic
and us".
institutions that transcend... divisions."

"When combined with hatred,

"To combat symbolization, hate symbols
symbols may be forced upon
2 Symbolization can be legally forbidden as can hate
unwilling members of pariah
speech."
groups..."

"Law or cultural power

excludes groups from full civil "Pass and enforce laws prohibiting
3 Discrimination rights: segregation or discrimination. Full citizenship and voting
apartheid laws, denial of rights for all groups."
voting rights".

4 Dehumanization "One group denies the "Local and international leaders should
humanity of the other group. condemn the use of hate speech and
Members of it are equated make it culturally unacceptable. Leaders
with animals, vermin, insects, who incite genocide should be banned
 from international travel and have their
or diseases."
foreign finances frozen."

"The U.N. should impose arms embargoes

"Genocide is always
on governments and citizens of countries
organized... Special army
5 Organization involved in genocidal massacres, and
units or militias are often
create commissions to investigate
trained and armed..."
violations."

"Prevention may mean security protection

for moderate leaders or assistance to
"Hate groups broadcast
6 Polarization human rights groups... Coups d’état by
polarizing propaganda..."
extremists should be opposed by
international sanctions."

"At this stage, a Genocide Emergency

"Mass killing is planned.
must be declared. Full diplomatic pressure
Victims are identified and
7 Preparation by regional organizations must be
separated because of their
invoked, including preparation to intervene
ethnic or religious identity..."
to prevent genocide."

"Direct assistance to victim groups,

"Expropriation, forced
targeted sanctions against persecutors,
8 Persecution displacement, ghettos,
mobilization of humanitarian assistance or
concentration camps".
intervention, protection of refugees."

"At this stage, only rapid and

"It is 'extermination' to the overwhelming armed intervention can stop
killers because they do not genocide. Real safe areas or refugee
9 Extermination
believe their victims to be escape corridors should be established
fully human". with heavily armed international
protection."

"The response to denial is punishment by

"The perpetrators... deny that
10 Denial an international tribunal or national
they committed any crimes..."
courts."

2.3.6 THE EFFECTS OF GENOCIDE AGAINST TUTSI

2.3.6.1 LOSS OF LIVES

The most negative impact was the human disaster in which more than one million innocent people
including men, women, and children were killed in just 100 days.
2.3.6.2 DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY

It led to the destruction of infrastructure and equipment, public properties like offices, communication
lines, schools, and hospitals, and private properties such as houses.

2.3.6.3 IT CAUSED A LOT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMA

The 1994 genocide against Tutsi led to a high level of trauma. This situation was caused by sexual abuse
and torture of the victims by the killers and loss of family members.

2.3.6.4.IT LED TO ECONOMIC DECLINE

There was decadence of the country’s economy. During the genocide most of the active population
could not carry out their daily economic activities because of insecurity. The perpetrators and victims of
genocide could not work and participate in economic activities.

2.3.6.5. IT CAUSED THE IMPRISONMENT

At the end of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, more than one hundred thousand people suspected of
committing genocide were apprehended and imprisoned. Considering the big number of these prisoners
waiting to be judged, it was difficult to give justice to both victims and prisoners in a reasonable period.

2.3.6.6 IT LED TO THE REVIVAL OF TRADITIONAL GACACA

To judge a big number of alleged culprits of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, the Gacaca courts were
created by Organic Law No. 40/2001 of 26/01/2001 published in the official gazette of the Republic of
Rwanda on March 15th, 2001 in Rwanda as a solution to the crucial problem of a big number of the
victims of genocide who were waiting for justice. At the international level, the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda ICTR based in Arusha, Tanzania, was created to judge the cases of the planners of
the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.

2.3.7 PROBLEM INHERITED BY THE NEW GOVERNMENT

2.3.7.1 THERE WAS INSECURITY

Although the RPF had captured power and a transitional government had been put in place, the security
situation was still fluid, with former government forces and Interahamwe militia still carrying out
genocide against Tutsi in various part of the country. A French buffer area in western Rwanda, known as
the Turquoise Zone, had become a safe haven for genocidal forces. In addition, infiltrators from refugee
camps across the border continued to cross and destabilize the country.

2.3.7.2 DISLOCATED FAMILIES

More than one million Rwandans were displaced inside the country. These were in great need of shelter,
food and other basic needs

2.3.7.3 PUBLIC UTILITIES HAD BROKEN DOWN AND DESTROYED INDUSTRIES

It led to the destruction of infrastructure and equipment, public properties like offices, communication
lines, schools, industries and hospitals, and private properties such as houses.
2.3.7.4 LACK OF MAN POWER

The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi has led to the death of more than one million Tutsi and left many
widows and orphans who lost their family members.

Because of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, more than two million of Rwandans fled the country
and established themselves in neighbouring countries in refugee’s camps.

2.3.8 ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF NATIONAL UNITY

2.3.8.1 GOOD GOVERNANCE

A just state means that nobody is above the law. Instead, every citizen respects the fundamental rights
and the freedom of citizens. Legitimacy that leads to regularity, as well as justice that promotes human
values by means of executive institutions are the pillars of a just state.

2.3.8.2 FIGHTING CORRUPTION

To re-inforce good governance in Rwanda, anti-corruption and public accountability institutions were
created by the GNU. Their operational capacity continued to be strengthened so as to achieve greater
accountability. They include the office of the Ombudsman, Office of the Auditor General for State
Finances, Rwanda Public Procurement Authority, Rwanda Revenue Authority, and Rwanda Governance
Board.

2.3.8.3 SAFEGUARDING NATIONAL SECURITY

After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, the security in Rwanda was extremely unstable as because of
unhealed wounds from the war. Most of the population was displaced, creating a volatile situation in
the country. Military strategies were devised to find solutions and eradicate the thousands of military
groups and excombatants who continued to torment and kill

2.3.8.4 RESETTLEMENT OF THE RETURNEES

The RPF strived to restore Rwanda as a country for all Rwandans and provided a homeland to which
millions of Rwandan refugees could return.

2.3.8.5 UNITY AND RECONCILIATION

The prime objective of National Unity is good governance. National Unity implies the indivisibility of the
Rwandan people. GNU fought and eliminated all constraints to national unity such as ethnicity,
regionalism, and discrimination. All citizens have equal access to economic resources and can claim
equal political rights. Moreover, the GNU repatriated a big number of refugees which was a
fundamental obligation and a bridge to peace, national unity and reconciliation.