HIGH EFFICIENT SOLAR BASED MPPT CHARGE

CONTROLLER USING MODIFIED

SEPIC CONVERTER

PHASE I REPORT

Submitted by

AARTHI S K

710721415001

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

MASTERS OF ENGINEERING IN

POWER ELECTRONICS AND DRIVES

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Dr.N.G.P INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI 600 0025

JULY- 2023
 ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI 600 025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the work in the project report entitled “HIGH EFFICIENT

SOLAR BASED MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER USING MODIFIED SEPIC

CONVERTER” is the bonafide work of AARTHI S K (710721415001), who carried

out the project work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my

knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation

on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or

any other candidate.

------------------------ ------------------------

Signature of the HOD Signature of the Supervisor,

Dr. S. JAGANATHAN,M.E.,MBA.,Ph.D. Dr.A.SENTHILNATHAN M.E.,Ph.D.,

PROFESSOR AND HEAD ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Electrical and Electronics Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering, Engineering,

Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology Dr. N.G.P. Institute of Technology

Coimbatore- 641 048 Coimbatore- 641 048

Submitted for the project Viva-Voce examination (phase-I)held on -07-2023

_ _
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Research in engineering is a sort of challenging expedition. There are periods of calm

weather punctuated by intermittent storms. In this endeavor, I express my gratitude to

our Chairman Dr. NALLA G. PALANISWAMI, M.D.,A.B(USA), Kovai Medical

Centre & Hospital, Coimbatore.

I would like to acknowledge and extend my gratitude to the Madam secretary

Dr. THAVAMANI D. PALANISWAMI, M.D., A.B(USA), FAAP, Dr. N.G.P.

Institute of Technology whom with their encouragement has inspired the students, to

demonstrate our forte.

I record my indebtedness to the principal, Dr. S.U. Prabha M.E., Ph.D., for

his constant source of inspiration and encouragement.

I take immense pleasure in expressing my humble note of gratitude to my

Head of the Department, Dr.S.Jaganathan,M.E.,MBA.,Ph.D and my project

guide, Dr. A.Senthilnathan M.E.,Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Department of

Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for his remarkable guidance and support to

pursue this project systematically.

I also extend my thanks to other faculty members and my friends for being

great moral supporters. Finally, I bestow my sincere gratitude to my beloved

parents for their support and encouragement in making this endeavor a success.
 சுருக்கவுரை

ஒளிமின்னழுத்தம் (PV), நேரடி மின்னோட்டம் (DC) மற்றும் எரிபொருள்

செல் பயன்பாடுகளுக்கான மாற்றியமைக்கப்பட்ட சிங்கிள்-எண்டட்

ப்ரைமரி இண்டக்டர் கன்வெர்ட்டர் (SEPIC) வடிவமைப்பு மற்றும் பகுப்பாய்வு

குறித்த விரிவான ஆய்வை இந்தத் திட்டம் வழங்குகிறது. 12V உள்ளீட்டு

மின்னழுத்தத்தை ஒழுங்குபடுத்தப்பட்ட 24V வெளியீட்டு

மின்னழுத்தமாக மாற்றக்கூடிய ஒரு மாற்றியை உருவாக்குவதே இந்த

திட்டத்தின் முதன்மை நோக்கமாகும். மாற்றியமைக்கப்பட்ட SEPIC

மாற்றிக்குள் மெட்டல்-ஆக்சைடு-செமிகண்டக்டர் ஃபீல்ட்-எஃபெக்ட்

டிரான்சிஸ்டர்களின் (MOSFETs) செயல்பாட்டைக் கட்டுப்படுத்த,

விகிதாசார-ஒருங்கிணைந்த (PI) கட்டுப்பாடு மற்றும் தெளிவற்ற

கட்டுப்பாடு ஆகிய இரண்டு தனித்துவமான கட்டுப்பாட்டு உத்திகளை

செயல்படுத்துவதை ஆய்வு ஆராய்கிறது. இரண்டு கட்டுப்பாட்டு

உத்திகளின் விளைவுகளையும் ஒப்பிட்டு, பல்வேறு காட்சிகளின் கீழ்

மாற்றியின் செயல்திறனை மதிப்பீடு செய்ய ஆறு உருவகப்படுத்துதல்கள்

செய்யப்படுகின்றன.

ABSTRACT
This project presents a comprehensive study on the design and analysis of a

modified Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC) for photovoltaic

(PV), direct current (DC), and fuel cell applications. The primary objective of

this project is to develop a converter that can efficiently convert a 12V input

voltage to a regulated 24V output voltage. The study explores the

implementation of two distinct control strategies, namely Proportional-

Integral (PI) control and Fuzzy control, to regulate the operation of the Metal-

Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) within the

modified SEPIC converter. Six simulations are performed to evaluate the

performance of the converter under various scenarios, comparing the

outcomes of both control strategies.

Keyword: Solar cell, Modified SEPIC converter, MPPT charge controller.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE NO PAGE NO
ABSTRACT
 LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
LIST OF SYMBOLS

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
1.2 MOTIVATION TO THE PROJECT
1.3 OBJECTIVES
1.4 SCOPE
1.5 OVERVIEW OF SEPIC CONVERTER
1.6 MODIFIED SEPIC CONVERTER DESIGN
1.7 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
1.8 SUMMARY

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 SUMMARY

3. SYSTEM ANALYSIS
3.1 METHODOLOGY
3.2 WORKING OF MODIFIED SEPIC CONVETER
3.3 SUMMARY

4. SYSTEM EQUATION
4.1 EQUATIONS
4.2 FUZZYLOGIC CONTROLLER SECIFICATION
4.3 FUZZY METHOD USED

5. PI CONTROLLER
5.1 MODES OF PI CONTROLLER
5.2 SPECIFICATION
5.2.1 IRF540N MOSFET
5.2.2 DIODE 1N4007
5.2.3 INDUCTOR
5.2.4 CAPACITOR
5.2.5 ARDUINO (ATMEGA 328P)
5.2.6 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
5.2.7 WORKING OF LCD
5.2.8 POWER SUPPLY
6. EVALUATING PARAMETER
6.1 OVERSHOOT
6.2 SETTLING TIME
6.3 STEADY STATE ERROR

7. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
7.3 MANIPULATING MATRICES
7.4 PROGRAMMING WITH MATLAB
7.5 MATLAB MATRIX LABORATORY
7.6 THE MATLAB SYSTEM

8. DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 STARTING MATLAB
8.3 QUITTING MATLAB
8.4 MATLAB DESKTOP
8.5 RUNNING EXTERNAL PROGRAMS
8.6 LAUNCH PAD
8.7 HELP BROWSER
8.8 HELP NAVIGATION
8.9 CONTENTS LAB
8.10 SEARCH TAB
8.11 DISPLAY PANE
8.12 BROWSE TO OTHER PAGE
8.13 CURRENT DIRECTORY BROWSER
8.14 SEARCH PATH
8.15 WORKSPACE BROWSER
8.16 ARRAY EDITOR
8.17 EDITOR / DEBUGGER
8.18 ARDUINO IDE
8.18.1 ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENT
8.18.2 WORKING SKETCHES
8.18.3 UPLOADING
8.18.4 LIBRARIES
8.18.5 PROGRAMMING
8.18.6 AUTOMATIC (SOFTWARE) RESET
 9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
9.1 PV-PI CONTOLLER
9.2 FUEL CELL PI CONTROLLER
9.3 DC-PI CONTROLLER
9.4 PV- FUZZY CONTROLLER
9.5 FUEL CELL-FUZZY CONTOLLER
9.6 DC-FUZZY CONTOLLER
9.7 DISCUSSION

10. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

10.1 CONCLUSION
10.2 FUTURE WORK

11. REFERENCE

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO
 3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE EXISTING
SYSTEM
3.2 WORKING OF MODIFIED SEPIC CONVERTER

5.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF ATMEGA328

5.2 AURDINO UNO BOARD
5.3 LCD DISPLAY
5.4 TRANSFORMER
5.5 CIRCUIT OF VOLTAGE SENSOR MODULE
5.6 VOLTAGE SENSOR WITH AURDINO
9.2 SIMULINK OUTPUT PF PV-PI CONTOLLER
9.3 SIMULATION OF FUEL CELL-PI
CONTROLLER USING MATLAB SIMULINK
9.4 SIMULINK OUTPUT OF FUEL CELL-PI
CONTOLLER
9.5 SIMULATION OF DC-PI CONTROLLER USING
MATLAB SIMULINK
9.6 SIMULINK OUTPUT OF DC-PI CONTOLLER
9.7 SIMULATION OF PV-FUZZY CONTROLLER
USING MATLAB SIMULINK
9.8 SIMULINK OUTPUT OF PV-FUZZY
CONTOLLER
9.9 SIMULATION OF FUEL CELL-FUZZY
CONTROLLER USING MATLAB SIMULINK
9.10 SIMULINK OUTPUT OF FUEL CELL-FUZZY
CONTOLLER
9.11 SIMULATION OF DC-FUZZY CONTROLLER
USING MATLAB SIMULINK
9.12 SIMULINK OUTPUT OF DC-FUZZY
CONTOLLER

LIST OF EQUATIONS
EQUATION NO TITLE PAGE NO
4.1 Voltage conversion ratio in
boost mode (ignoring C1,
L2, and D0)

4.2 Voltage conversion ratio in

SEPIC mode (ignoring D1
and C2)

4.3 Output voltage ripple

(ΔVout) in both modes

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

5.1 Pin Descriptions of LCD

9.1 Overshoot, Settling time,

Steady State Error of
Controllers

9.2 Input and Output Voltage

of the Hardware

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
SEPIC - Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter
MPPT - Maximum Power Point Tracking
PV - Photo Voltaic
PI - Proportional Integral
MOSFET - Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
DC - Direct Current
EMI - Electromagnetic Interference
MATLAB - Matrix Laboratory
EV - Electric Vehicle

LIST OF SYMBOLS
 Vin - Input voltage

Vout - Output voltage

Ll L - Inductor
C - Capacitor
Δt - Switching period
D - Duty cycle
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT:

The field of power electronics plays a crucial role in enabling efficient

energy conversion and utilization in various applications. Power converters, such
as the Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC), are widely used for
voltage regulation and power conditioning. These converters are especially
relevant in renewable energy systems, including photovoltaic (PV), direct current
(DC), and fuel cell applications, where efficient voltage conversion is essential.

1.2 MOTIVATION OF THE PROJECT:

The motivation behind this project is to design and analyze a modified

SEPIC converter that can efficiently convert a 12V input voltage to a regulated
24V output voltage. This voltage conversion is vital in numerous applications, such
as PV systems, DC systems, and fuel cell systems, where different voltage levels
are required. By developing an effective converter, the project aims to enhance the
overall performance and reliability of these renewable energy systems.

1.3 OBJECTIVIES:

The primary objectives of this project are as follows:

 Design a modified SEPIC converter capable of converting a 12V input

voltage to a regulated 24V output voltage.
  Implement and evaluate two distinct control strategies, namely Proportional-
Integral (PI) control and Fuzzy control, to regulate the operation of the
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) within the
modified SEPIC converter.
 Conduct six simulations, including PV, DC, and fuel cell scenarios with both
control strategies, to assess and compare the performance of the modified
SEPIC converter.

1.4 SCOPE:

The scope of this project encompasses the design and analysis of a modified
SEPIC converter for voltage regulation in PV, DC, and fuel cell applications. The
focus is on converting a 12V input voltage to a regulated 24V output voltage. The
project explores the implementation of PI control and Fuzzy control as two distinct
control strategies for regulating the MOSFETs in the modified SEPIC converter.
However, other control strategies are not considered within the scope of this
project.

1.5 OVERVIEW OF SEPIC CONVERTER:

The Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC) is a type of non-

isolated DC-DC converter widely used for voltage regulation and power
conditioning applications. It provides the ability to step up or step down the input
voltage while providing electrical isolation between the input and output. The
SEPIC converter is capable of handling both continuous and discontinuous
conduction modes, making it versatile for various load conditions.
 The basic topology of a SEPIC converter consists of a combination of
capacitors, inductors, and switches (usually MOSFETs). It features two energy
storage elements: an input capacitor and an output inductor. The operation of the
SEPIC converter involves the charging and discharging of these energy storage
elements to regulate the output voltage. The converter provides a regulated output
voltage by controlling the duty cycle of the switches.

1.6 MODIFIED SEPIC CONVERTER DESIGN:

In this project, a modified SEPIC converter is designed to convert a 12V

input voltage to a regulated 24V output voltage. The modifications made to the
traditional SEPIC converter design aim to meet the specific requirements of this
project. These modifications may include changes in component values, control
mechanisms, or additional components to enhance the converter's performance.

The modified SEPIC converter design takes into account factors such as
efficiency, stability, and voltage regulation. It may involve careful selection of
components, including capacitors, inductors, and switches, to ensure optimal
performance. The design process also considers the voltage and current ratings of
the components to handle the desired power levels. Moreover, attention is given to
minimizing losses, such as switching losses and conduction losses, to maximize the
converter's efficiency.
1.7 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS:

The SEPIC converter offers several advantages that make it suitable for
a wide range of applications:

1. Flexibility: The SEPIC converter can step up or step down the input
voltage, providing flexibility in voltage conversion. This versatility makes it
suitable for applications where a regulated output voltage different from the
input voltage is required.

2. Input-Output Isolation: The SEPIC converter provides electrical isolation

between the input and output, which can be advantageous in applications
that require isolation, such as in automotive and industrial systems.

3. Continuous Input Current: Unlike some other converters, the SEPIC

converter can maintain a continuous input current, resulting in reduced
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and improved power quality.

4. High Efficiency: With careful design and component selection, the SEPIC
converter can achieve high conversion efficiencies, leading to improved
energy utilization and reduced power losses.

The modified SEPIC converter finds applications in various fields, including:

1. Photovoltaic (PV) Systems:

The SEPIC converter can be utilized in PV systems to efficiently
convert the variable DC voltage generated by solar panels to a regulated
voltage suitable for charging batteries or supplying power to the grid.
 2. DC Systems:
The modified SEPIC converter can be employed in DC systems, such as
battery-powered devices or electric vehicles, to regulate the voltage levels
and ensure stable operation.

3. Fuel Cell Systems:

Fuel cell systems require voltage regulation to ensure efficient power
generation. The modified SEPIC converter can be integrated into fuel cell
systems to regulate the output voltage and maintain optimal operating
conditions.

4. Renewable Energy Integration:

The SEPIC converter, with its ability to handle a wide range of input
and output voltages, can facilitate the integration of various renewable
energy sources into the existing power grid by matching their voltage levels.

1.8 SUMMARY
In this segment, a brief overview of the project was given, as well as an
explanation of the need for charge controllers. The goal that the proposed
scheme was to achieve was discussed.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER BY

IMPLEMENTING TWO DIFFERENT MPPT ALGORITHM; AUTHORS:
PARAG K. ATRI, P. S. MODI, NIKHIL SHASHIKANT GUJAR-2021
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ADVANCES IN ELECTRICAL
COMPUTING COMMUNICATION AND SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGIES
(ICAECT) [1]

In this paper, MPPT methods such as Perturb and Observe (P&O),

Incremental Conductance and Fractional Open Circuit Voltage method has
been studied and simulated with MATLAB simulation software and tested
with different irradiance condition. Also, two converter topology, Buck and
Synchronous buck converter has been studied. Hard implementation of the
solar charge controller is done based on the software simulation data and
results. Hardware is developed for 1kW system and 48V, 100Ah battery is
going to be charged with it. Two MPPT method with synchronous buck
converter has been implemented in hardware. This designed hardware has
been tested with different irradiance condition. This proposed system can be
used in golf cart to make it a stand-alone system with taking care of all
protection measures.[1]
2. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF MPPT CHARGE CONTROLLER; AUTHORS:
MANOJ KUMAR KAR,BIRANCHI NARAYAN PATRA-2021
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SIMULATION AUTOMATION &
SMART MANUFACTURING (SASM) [2]
The solar energy is the most recent research topic because itu2019s
direct conversion to electricity. A solar charge controller is a solar battery
charger that connects the solar panel(s) to the battery. Its role is to control
the battery charging process so that the battery is properly charged, and most
importantly, not overcharged. Modern solar charge controllers provide
advanced features such as DC load terminals for lighting, ensuring that the
battery system is charged precisely and efficiently. The design and study of a
photovoltaic generator simulation model are presented in this paper. The
main components in these systems are solar array, boost converter and load.
To extract maximum power from photovoltaic generator, proper control of
converter is established. The program is simulated with different parameters
and the changes in output has been observed. The result shows the dynamic
behavior and control performance of the photovoltaic system in the
MATLAB/Simulink.[2]

3. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MPPT CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR SOLAR

CHARGE CONTROLLER, AUTHORS: PARAG K. ATRI,P. S. MODI,NIKHIL
SHASHIKANT GUJAR – 2020[3]

This paper presents the comprehensive study of the different maximum

power point tracking (MPPT) methods for solar charge controller application
with different converter topology. The system comprising of PV panel, DC
to DC converter, charge controller and battery. Different maximum power
point tracking methods like Perturb and Observe (P & O), Incremental
 Conductance (IC), Fractional Open Circuit Voltage (FOCV) method were
simulated in MATLAB simulation for proper solar battery charger
application and results were compared. This solar charger can be used to
charge any electrical vehicle like golf cart. This paper provides the detailed
study and analysis of the solar battery charger.[3]

4. DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT

TRACKING(MPPT) SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER, AUTHORS: MIHIR
PATHARE,VIMITH SHETTY,DIPTARKA DATTA,RAJEEV Valunjkar,ANIKET
SAWANT,SHREENIVAS PAI, PUBLICATION: 2017 INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON NASCENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ENGINEERING (ICNTE)
[4]

Solar-energy utilization is growing in demand since the past decade

due to the increase in energy needs and depletion of non-renewable sources.
But the problem with solar energy is that it's not constant; it keeps on
fluctuating depending upon the weather conditions such as, solar irradiation,
temperature, thus a battery is always connected between the load and the
solar panel so as to act as a secondary source. Since, brighter the sunlight,
more voltage the solar cells would produce and excessive voltage could
damage the batteries. MPPT is a method for extracting maximum power
from PV module and also to protect the battery from overcharging. MPPT
charge controller serves two main purpose battery protection and energy
metering. This paper provides details of maximum power point tracking
solar charge controller device and dc energy-meter.[4]
5. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION of MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER; Authors: MD. ROKONUZZAMAN,MD
HOSSAM-E-HAIDER - 2016 [5]

Solar or photovoltaic (PV) system is an alternative clean energy

resource that has received much attention in the research and industries.
Solar charge controller (CC) is the heart of a solar system. Three common
types of charge controller are ON/Off, pulse width modulation (PWM) and
maximum power point tracking (MPPT). MPPT is getting very much
popularity nowadays for its high capability of power extracting from solar
panel. This paper is presenting here an improved design of MPPT solar
charge controller using Aurduino. The proposed technique significantly
reduce system power loss and increase the efficiency. Experimented highest
efficiency 97.75% is recorded from the proposed system. Additionally, some
new features are added like smart device charging, wireless data logging and
protections from high voltage disconnect (HVD), low voltage disconnect
(LVD), over current protection, short circuit protection and reverse polarity
protection.[5]

6. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF MPPT charge CONTROLLER WITH SINGLE

AND SERIES/PARALLEL CONNECTED PV PANELS; AUTHORS: ZUBAIR
MEHMOOD,YUMNA BILAL,MUNIBA BASHIR,ALI ASGHAR – 2016[6]

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller is used as

an intermediate device in solar system between photovoltaic (PV) panels and
batteries. Multiple panels are usually used to meet higher energy demands in
large solar PV systems by connecting them in series/parallel configurations.
This piece of work is based on performance analysis of MPPT charge
 controller with series and parallel connections of solar PV panels. The effect
of each configuration is analyzed using software and hardware setup. Reason
for varying output behavior of MPPT with different connecting schemes of
PV panels is discussed. The combined results of electrical tacker (MPPT)
and mechanical sun tracker are also presented in this paper for both of above
said configurations.[6]

7. SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR LITHIUM-ION BATTERY; AUTHORS:

NAIK K RAGHAVENDRA PADMAVATHI- 2018[7]

Battery charging technology has been developed over the past several
years and storage of electrical energy has become a necessity, there is vast
demand for compact and portable battery charger for various applications.
The lithium ion batteries are finding considerable usage in both primary and
secondary applications. The objective of this work is to design a low cost,
versatile, efficient and compact solar powered lithium ion battery charger.
The proposed battery charger circuit has features like over voltage, over
charge, short circuit, reverse polarity protection for extended battery life and
uses constant current and constant voltage methods of charging. P&O MPPT
algorithm is used to extract maximum power from the solar panel. And buck
converter is designed and built to function as a MPPT charge controller.[7]

8. MPPT SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR HIGH VOLTAGE THIN FILM

PV MODULES; AUTHORS: WOJCIECH GRZESIAK-2006[8]

The work deals with a PV battery charge regulator assigned for

advanced CdTe modules of output voltage much higher than the popular
 values of the order 12 or 24 V nominally. As at the same time most of the
nominal PV autonomous installation voltages generally remain on the 12 or
24 V level because of convenience, technical tradition and battery features-
this high DC module's voltage has to be transformed to a proper lower value
by means of DC/DC inverter of possibly high efficiency. A new own
developed 60/12 V charge controller solution is presented. This charge
controller is equipped with a "step-down" inverter version furnished with
modern MPP tracking technique. The choice of MPPT algorithm and its
realisation by means of microprocessor are explained and discussed as well
as final test and measurement results. Very satisfactory exploitation results
permit to estimate the solution as a valuable one for the new high voltage
modules' market.[8]

9. DESIGN OF CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEMS; AUTHORS:

NUPUR KHERA,NANCY RANA,NARENDIRAN S,SARAT KUMAR
SAHOO,BALAMURUGAN M,S. PRABHAKAR KARTHIKEYAN,I. JACOB
RAGLEND-2015[9]

This paper discuss the performance of a microcontroller based charge

controller coupled with an solar Photovoltaic (PV) system for improving the
charging/discharging control of battery. The solar charge controller will
prevent the overcharging of the battery hence will be useful for lengthening
the lifespan of the battery. It will also help prevent electricity from flowing
from the batteries to the solar panels at night. Solar charge controller will
prove to be useful in blocking the reverse current flow which otherwise may
lead to discharge of the batteries at night. The results obtained demonstrate
 the good performance of the charge controller as well as the benefits of its
use in the power quality improvement.[9]

10. DESIGN OF FPGA BASED OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE MPPT CHARGE

CONTROLLER FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEM; AUTHORS: DOGGA
RAVEENDHRA,BABLOO KUMAR,DEVESH MISHRA,MEENAKSHI
MANKOTIA- 2013[10]

The main objective of this paper is implementation of open circuit

voltage MPPT controller for solar PV System based on FPGA. MPPT
controllers are plays a major role in solar PV system due to its advantage
like increases efficiency by tracking maximum power from the panel under
all conditions. Among all other existing methods open circuit method is one
of the simplest method to draw maximum power. In case of fractional
voltage type MMPT utilizes the concept of solar module voltage at
maximum power condition is follows the linear relation with open circuit
voltage under different temperature and insulation conditions. In this paper,
mathematical modeling of solar module and design of DC-DC converter and
small signal analysis of charge controller are presented.[10]

11. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING BASED SOLAR CHARGE

REGULATOR; AUTHORS: BALKRISHNA TULSYAN, MIZRA MOHAMMAD
ZAHEER - 2018[11]

The purpose of this paper is to describe the maximum power point

tracking (MPPT) design and algorithm for power generation in the satellite.
First, a brief introduction of the commonly used design approach is
 discussed and later followed by a detailed description of a MPPT technique.
MPPT provides efficient transfer of energy between the panel and the load.
The system uses a DC-DC converter to interface a PV array with a resistive
load. These converters can be controlled by a Texas instruments based
MSP430G2553 controller IC through the PWM method at a fixed frequency
and varying duty cycle. The duty cycle of the PWM signal is determined on
the basis of different atmospheric condition using some algorithm. The duty
cycle of the PWM signal is adjusted such that the load resistance as seen by
the photo voltaic (PV) panel matches with the output resistance of the PV
panel, so that energy transfer between PV panel and load is maximized. This
technique will help in reducing the overall cost of the small satellite, mainly
where the solar panel is body mounted.[11]

12. A FOUR STAGE BATTERY CHARGE CONTROLLER WORKING ON A

NOVEL MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING BASED ALGORITHM FOR
SOLAR PV SYSTEM; AUTHORS : JOYDIP JANA,HIRANMAYE
SAMANTA ,KONIKA DAS BHARTACHARYA,HIRANMAY SAHA- 2016[12]

Batteries are used as power storage device in solar photovoltaic (PV)

systems. They supply power when there is no solar power generation in the
absence of sunlight. Charge controllers are used to charge the batteries
safely following the proper charge procedure and an efficient charge
controller should have the ability to extract as much power as possible from
PV module to charge the batteries. This paper points out the limitation of
commonly used maximum power point tracking (MPPT) based battery
charge controller used in photovoltaic systems. A newly developed battery
charge controller has been developed that retains the good characteristics
 and resolves the limitations of the commonly used charge controllers. The
developed controller is based on a newly developed MPPT technique which
enables very fast maximum power point (MPP) catch. This is a four stage
controller which brings the battery voltage to full charge in a short time. The
experimental result shows that, the new charge controller tracks the MPP
faster than the commonly used controllers do. Moreover, the MPPT
accuracy of the proposed charge controller is high and the steady state
oscillation error around the target MPP is also minimum.[12]

13. STUDY OF PWM SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER OPERATION MODES IN

AUTONOMOUS DC SYSTEM; AUTHORS: IVOMIR ANTONOV,HRISTIYAN
KANCHEV,NIKOLAY HINOV, PUBLICATION: 2019 II INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON HIGH TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT (HITECH) [13]

In this paper is presented a test bench for laboratory exercises in the

field of specialized power supplies: a PWM solar charge controller. It is
composed of the following main blocks: a PV panel (which is simulated by a
controllable DC power source), a PWM solar controller, a lead-acid battery
and a DC load. The developed laboratory test bench can be used for
simulating various conditions of the stand-alone PV system: excess of PV
power, shortage of PVpower and a low battery conditions. By using this test
bench the students can learn the main principles of autonomous PVsystems
operation, the operation of the PV charge controller itself and the differences
between PWM and MPPT charge controllers for solar systems.[13]
14. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MPPT SOLAR SYSTEM BASED ON
THE ENHANCED P&O ALGORITHM USING LABVIEW; AUTHORS: AHMED
GAGA,FATIMA ERRAHIMI,NAJIA ES-SBAI, PUBLICATION: 2014
INTERNATIONAL RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
CONFERENCE (IRSEC) [14]

Maximum Power Point Tracking algorithms (MPPT) are used to track

maximum power, a DC-DC Boost converter is used to obtain the impedance
matching between the PV array and the load. Although a huge number of
approaches have been proposed in literature, the methods based on the
perturb and observe (P&O) technique are the most widely employed in
commercial products. The reason lies in the fact that P&O can be
implemented in cheap digital devices by ensuring high robustness and a
good MPPT efficiency. This paper aims to presents the design and
development of a photovoltaic system based on the enhanced P&O
algorithm that allows to improve efficiency, stability and accuracy of solar
systems. The effectiveness of the proposed solar regulator system is verified
by the simulation by PowerSim simulator and experimental results under our
developed system using two MPPT algorithms, classical P&O and a new
enhanced P&O algorithm.[14]

15. A SIMPLIFIED BATTERY CHARGE CONTROLLER FOR SAFETY AND

INCREASED UTILIZATION IN STANDALONE PV APPLICATIONS;
AUTHORS: O. ULLEBERG,T.M. UNDELAND,P.J.S. VIE, PUBLICATION: 2011
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CLEAN ELECTRICAL POWER
(ICCEP) [15]

This paper presents a new solar/battery charge controller that

combines both MPPT and over-voltage controls as single control function. A
 small-signal model of lead acid battery is derived in detail to design the
employed dual-loop control configuration. Two case studies are then
conducted, in SIMULINK/SIMPOWER, first to evaluate the performance of
the designed controller in terms of transient response and voltage overshoot.
Secondly, realistic irradiance data is used to evaluate the performance of the
developed charge controller in terms of parameters such as PV energy
utilization factor and over-voltage compared to the conventional hysteretic
on/of controller. The designed controller is demonstrated to have good
transient response with only small voltage overshoot. It is also found that the
developed charge controller fares better in terms PV energy utilization and
shows at least the same level of over-voltage control.

2.1 SUMMARY
In this chapter the detailed survey of the existing system discussed in this
literature. This literature survey and concluding discussion will be helpful for
selecting appropriate method.
 CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

3.1 METHODOLOGY:

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of the existing system

The methodology of the project involves the following steps. First, conduct
a literature review to gather information on the SEPIC converter, its operation, and
control strategies. Next, set up a simulation environment using appropriate
software and develop accurate models for the PV system, DC system, and fuel cell
system integrated with the modified SEPIC converter.

Design the modified SEPIC converter to convert a 12V input voltage to a

regulated 24V output voltage, considering efficiency and voltage regulation.
Implement two control strategies, PI control and Fuzzy control, and develop
control algorithms for regulating the MOSFETs. Define various simulation
scenarios representing PV, DC, and fuel cell systems with varying input voltages
and load conditions.
 Configure simulation parameters and execute the simulations, collecting
relevant data for performance evaluation. Analyze the simulation results to
evaluate the performance of the modified SEPIC converter, comparing the
outcomes of the PI controller and Fuzzy control system. Discuss the findings,
interpret the results, and draw conclusions. Prepare a comprehensive report and
presentation summarizing the methodology, results, and conclusions of the project.

3.2 WORKING OF MODIFIED SEPIC CONVERTER:

Figure 3.2 Working of Modified SEPIC Converter

The working of the modified SEPIC converter involves a hybrid

configuration that combines elements of a conventional boost converter and a
SEPIC converter. The circuit comprises a single switch (typically a MOSFET), two
diodes (D0 and D1), two inductors (L1 and L2), and three capacitors (C1, C2, and
C0). By selectively activating different components, the converter achieves a
higher voltage gain while reducing the switching voltage stress.

When focusing on the boost converter concept, the circuit utilizes diode D1
and capacitor C2 while ignoring components C1, L2, and diode D0. In this
configuration, the input voltage is applied to the inductor L1 and switch, and the
energy stored in L1 is transferred to the output through diode D1 during the
switch-off period. The output voltage is boosted by the voltage conversion ratio
determined by the duty cycle of the switch.

On the other hand, when operating in the SEPIC concept, capacitor C1,
inductor L2, and diode D0 come into play while disregarding diode D1 and
capacitor C2. In this mode, the input voltage is applied to the inductor L1 and
switch. During the switch-on period, energy is stored in L1, and the switch is
turned off, allowing the energy to transfer to the output through capacitor C1 and
diode D0. The voltage conversion ratio is controlled by adjusting the duty cycle of
the switch and the energy transfer between the inductors L1 and L2.

By combining these two operating modes, the modified SEPIC converter

achieves a higher voltage gain compared to conventional converters. The voltage
conversion ratio can be doubled, resulting in improved efficiency and performance.
Furthermore, by utilizing both inductors and capacitors, the converter effectively
reduces the switching voltage stress, enhancing the reliability of the circuit.

3.3 SUMMARY

This methodology shows us the design of modified SEPIC converter which

converts a 12V input voltage to a regulated 24V output voltage.
 CHAPTER 4

SYSTEM EQUATION

4.1 EQUATIONS:

The modified SEPIC converter can be analyzed using various equations to

understand its behavior. Here are some key equations that describe the converter's
operation:

4.1 Voltage conversion ratio in boost mode (ignoring C1, L2, and D0):

Vout = (1 + D) * Vin

where Vout is the output voltage, Vin is the input voltage, and D is the duty cycle
of the switch.

4.2 Voltage conversion ratio in SEPIC mode (ignoring D1 and C2):

Vout = (1 + D) * Vin / (1 - D)

where Vout is the output voltage, Vin is the input voltage, and D is the duty cycle
of the switch.

4.3 Output voltage ripple (ΔVout) in both modes:

ΔVout = (1 + D) * Vin * Δt / (2 * L1)

where Δt is the switching period and L1 is the inductance of the first inductor.

These equations provide insights into the voltage conversion ratio and the
output voltage ripple of the modified SEPIC converter in different operating
modes. By manipulating the duty cycle and other parameters, the performance of
the converter can be optimized for various applications.

4.2 FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER SPECIFICATIONS

Based on the provided fuzzy logic rule set for the modified SEPIC converter, here
are the detailed specifications:

1. Type: The fuzzy logic system is based on the Mamdani type, which is a
commonly used type for fuzzy systems.

2. Version: The system version is specified as 2.0.

4.3 Fuzzy Method used: Centroid

3. Inputs:

- Input1: Named 'error' with a range of [-1, 1]. It has 7 membership functions
(MFs):

- MF1: 'negative_large' with a trapezoidal shape [-1.2, -1, -0.6, -0.4]

- MF2: 'negative_medium' with a triangular shape [-0.6, -0.4, -0.2]

- MF3: 'negative_small' with a triangular shape [-0.4, -0.2, 0]

- MF4: 'zero_error' with a triangular shape [-0.05, 0, 0.05]

- MF5: 'positive_small' with a triangular shape [0, 0.2, 0.4]

- MF6: 'positive_medium' with a triangular shape [0.2, 0.4, 0.6]

 - MF7: 'positive_large' with a trapezoidal shape [0.4, 0.6, 1, 1.2]

- Input2: Named 'error_change' with a range of [-2, 2]. It also has 7 membership
functions:

- MF1: 'negative_large' with a trapezoidal shape [-2.4, -2, -1.2, -0.8]

- MF2: 'negative_medium' with a triangular shape [-1.2, -0.8, -0.4]

- MF3: 'negative_small' with a triangular shape [-0.8, -0.4, 0]

- MF4: 'zero_error' with a triangular shape [-0.05, 0, 0.05]

- MF5: 'positive_small' with a triangular shape [0, 0.4, 0.8]

- MF6: 'positive_medium' with a triangular shape [0.4, 0.8, 1.2]

- MF7: 'positive_large' with a trapezoidal shape [0.8, 1.2, 2, 2.4]

4. Output:

- Output1: Named 'duty_cycle_change' with a range of [-1, 1]. It has 7

membership functions:

- MF1: 'negative_large' with a trapezoidal shape [-1.2, -1, -0.6, -0.4]

- MF2: 'negative_medium' with a triangular shape [-0.6, -0.4, -0.2]

- MF3: 'negative_small' with a triangular shape [-0.4, -0.2, 0]

- MF4: 'zero_error' with a triangular shape [-0.1, 0, 0.1]

- MF5: 'positive_small' with a triangular shape [0, 0.2, 0.4]

- MF6: 'positive_medium' with a triangular shape [0.2, 0.4, 0.6]

 - MF7: 'positive_large' with a trapezoidal shape [0.4, 0.6, 1, 1.2]

5. Rules:

The rule set provided specifies 49 rules with various combinations of inputs and
outputs, with each rule having a weight of 1.

6. Fuzzy Logic System Settings:

- AndMethod: The AND operator is defined as the 'min' function, which

represents the fuzzy intersection (minimum) of multiple inputs.

- OrMethod: The OR operator is defined as the 'max' function, which represents

the fuzzy union (maximum) of multiple inputs.

- ImpMethod: The implication method is defined as the 'min' function, which is

commonly used in fuzzy systems.

- AggMethod: The aggregation method is defined as the 'max' function, which

represents the maximum aggregation of fuzzy outputs.

- DefuzzMethod: The defuzzification method is defined as the 'centroid' method,

which calculates the center of gravity of the fuzzy output.

These specifications provide the necessary details to understand and implement the
fuzzy logic rule set for the modified SEPIC converter.
 CHAPTER 5

PI CONTROLLER

Based on the given values of kp = 0.36 and ki = 432, I can provide you with the
equations and response for the PI controller in three different modes: Mode 1,
Mode 2, and Mode 3. However, please note that the specific equations and
response characteristics may vary depending on the implementation and control
strategy of your modified SEPIC converter. The equations and response described
here are based on a typical PI controller.

5.1 MODES OF PI CONTROLLER

Mode 1: Proportional Control Only

In this mode, the integral term of the PI controller is not considered, and the
control action is solely based on the proportional gain (kp). The control signal (u)
can be calculated using the following equation:

u = kp * error

The response of the system in Mode 1 will depend on the plant dynamics and the
specific characteristics of your modified SEPIC converter.

2. Mode 2: Proportional-Integral Control

In this mode, both the proportional and integral terms of the PI controller are
utilized. The control signal (u) is calculated as the sum of the proportional and
integral contributions:
u = kp * error + ki * (integral of error over time)

To calculate the integral term, you need to implement a numerical integration

method, such as the trapezoidal rule or Euler's method, to approximate the integral
of the error over time.

The response of the system in Mode 2 will typically exhibit improved steady-state
accuracy compared to Mode 1. The integral term helps to eliminate steady-state
error by continuously correcting for any accumulated error over time.

3. Mode 3: Integral Control Only

In this mode, only the integral term of the PI controller is active, and the
proportional gain (kp) is set to zero. The control signal (u) is determined solely by
the integral action:

u = ki * (integral of error over time)

This mode can be useful for systems with high static error or when the proportional
action is not required. However, it is important to note that using integral control
alone may result in slower response and potential instability if not properly tuned.
The response of the system in Mode 3 will focus primarily on eliminating steady-
state error, but the control action may be slower compared to the combined
proportional-integral control in Mode 2.

5.2 SPECIFICATIONS:-

5.2.1. IRF540N MOSFET:

Drain-Source Voltage (Vds): 100V The maximum voltage that can be applied
between the drain and source terminals of the MOSFET.
Continuous Drain Current (Id): 33A The maximum continuous current that the
MOSFET can handle when properly heatsinked.
Pulsed Drain Current (Idm): 110A The maximum current that the MOSFET can
handle for short-duration pulses.
Gate-Source Voltage (Vgs): ±20V The voltage range that can be applied between
the gate and source terminals of the MOSFET.
Gate Threshold Voltage (Vgs(th)): 2V to 4V The gate-source voltage at which
the MOSFET starts conducting.
Total Gate Charge (Qg): 68nC The total amount of charge required to fully drive
the MOSFET from off to on state.
Input Capacitance (Ciss): 1500pF The total capacitance between the gate and
source terminals.
Output Capacitance (Coss): 560pF The capacitance between the drain and source
terminals.
Reverse Transfer Capacitance (Crss): 60pF The capacitance between the drain
and gate terminals.
Drain-Source On-State Resistance (Rds(on)): 0.077 Ohms The resistance
between the drain and source terminals when the MOSFET is fully turned on.
Diode Forward Voltage (Vf): 1.7V The forward voltage drop across the internal
diode when conducting in the forward direction.
Diode Continuous Current (If): 33A The maximum continuous current that the
internal diode can handle.
Resistance (Ron): 0.1 Ohms
This parameter represents the on-resistance of the MOSFET when it is conducting.
It acts as a resistance (Ron) in both directions.
Internal Diode Resistance (Rd): 0.01 Ohms
This parameter represents the resistance of the internal diode when it is conducting
in the reverse direction.
Forward Voltage (Vf): 0 Volts
The forward voltage (Vf) of the internal diode is specified as 0 Volts, indicating
that the diode has negligible voltage drop when conducting in the forward
direction.
Snubber Circuit:
Resistance (Rs): 1e5 Ohms
The snubber resistance (Rs) is specified as 1e5 Ohms, or 100,000 Ohms.
The purpose of the snubber circuit is to reduce voltage spikes and ringing caused
by the switching action of the MOSFET.

5.2.2. DIODE 1N4007:

The 1N4007 is a commonly used rectifier diode. Here are the detailed
specifications for the 1N4007 diode:

1. Maximum repetitive peak reverse voltage (VRRM): 1000 volts

 This is the maximum voltage that can be applied in the reverse direction
repeatedly without damaging the diode.

2. Maximum average forward rectified current (IF(AV)): 1 ampere

This is the maximum average current that can flow through the diode in the
forward direction.

3. Peak forward surge current (IFSM): 30 amperes

This is the maximum current that the diode can handle in a short-duration
forward surge (typically a few milliseconds).

4. Maximum forward voltage drop (VF): 1.1 volts at 1 ampere

This is the typical voltage drop across the diode when it is conducting current in
the forward direction.

5. Maximum reverse current (IR): 5 microamperes at 1000 volts

This is the maximum leakage current that can flow through the diode when it is
reverse biased at the maximum rated voltage.

6. Maximum reverse recovery time (trr): 30 microseconds

This is the time it takes for the diode to switch from the forward conduction state
to the blocking state when the polarity of the voltage is reversed.
7. Operating temperature range (TJ): -65°C to +175°C

This is the range of temperatures within which the diode can operate safely.

Additional details about the 1N4007 diode:

1. Package Type:
The 1N4007 diode is typically available in a standard axial-lead package.
This package has two leads or terminals, with one lead connected to the
anode (positive terminal) and the other lead connected to the cathode
(negative terminal) of the diode.

2. Forward Voltage Drop:

The forward voltage drop across the diode is an important parameter. The
1N4007 diode has a typical forward voltage drop of 1.1 volts at a forward
current of 1 ampere. It means that when the diode is forward-biased and
conducting current, there will be a voltage drop of approximately 1.1 volts
across it.

3. Reverse Leakage Current:

The 1N4007 diode has a maximum reverse leakage current of 5
microamperes at its maximum rated reverse voltage of 1000 volts. This
leakage current is the small amount of current that flows through the diode
 when it is reverse-biased. It's important to note that this current increases
with temperature.

4. Reverse Recovery Time:

The reverse recovery time of a diode refers to the time it takes for the diode
to switch from the conducting state to the blocking state when the polarity of
the voltage across it is reversed. The 1N4007 diode has a reverse recovery
time of 30 microseconds.

5. Applications:
The 1N4007 diode is widely used in various applications, including
rectification of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) in power
supplies, voltage clamping and protection circuits, polarity protection, and
general-purpose rectification tasks. It is commonly used in hobbyist projects,
electronic circuits, and low-frequency power applications.

6. Alternatives:
The 1N4007 is part of a family of diodes known as the 1N400x series. The
series includes different members, such as 1N4001, 1N4002, 1N4003, and
so on, with varying voltage and current ratings. The higher the number in the
series, the higher the maximum voltage and current ratings of the diode. So,
if you require a diode with lower voltage or current ratings, you can choose a
member from the 1N400x series accordingly.
5.2.3. INDUCTOR:

A 100mH (millihenry) core inductor is a type of passive electronic component

used in various applications such as power supplies, filters, and oscillators. Here
are some specifications that are typically associated with a 100µH core inductor:

1. Inductance (L):
The inductance value specifies the amount of inductance provided by the
inductor, which in this case is 100mH. Inductance is a measure of an
inductor's ability to store energy in a magnetic field when current flows
through it.

2. Tolerance:
The tolerance indicates the acceptable variation in the inductance value. For
example, a ±10% tolerance means that the actual inductance can be within
10% higher or lower than the nominal value of 100µH. Tolerances can vary
depending on the specific manufacturer and component quality.

3. DC Current Rating:
The DC current rating specifies the maximum continuous direct current
(DC) that the inductor can handle without exceeding its temperature limits or
affecting its performance. It's important to ensure that the operating current
in your circuit stays below this rating to avoid overheating or saturation of
the inductor.
 4. Saturation Current:
Saturation current refers to the maximum current at which the inductor starts
to exhibit significant non-linear behavior, typically leading to a decrease in
inductance. It's important to avoid operating the inductor at or above this
current value to maintain its desired characteristics.

5. Series Resistance (DCR):

Series resistance, also known as DC resistance (DCR), is the resistance
offered by the wire windings of the inductor. It can cause power loss and
affect the overall performance of the circuit. Lower DCR values are
generally preferred, as they minimize power dissipation and voltage drops.

6. Self-Resonant Frequency (SRF):

The self-resonant frequency is the frequency at which the inductor's parasitic
capacitance resonates with its inductance, causing the inductive behavior to
degrade. It's important to operate the inductor below its SRF to maintain its
desired characteristics.

These specifications can vary depending on the specific manufacturer, type of core
material (e.g., ferrite, iron powder), and construction technique used for the
inductor. It's always advisable to consult the datasheet or specifications provided
by the manufacturer for detailed and accurate information about a particular 100µH
core inductor.
5.2.4. CAPACITOR:

A cylindrical capacitor with a capacitance of 100µF (microfarads) and a voltage

rating of 60V is a type of electrolytic capacitor commonly used in electronic
circuits. Here are some detailed specifications associated with such a capacitor:

1. Capacitance (C):
The capacitance value is 100µF, which represents the amount of electric
charge the capacitor can store per unit voltage. Higher capacitance values
indicate a larger storage capacity for charge.

2. Voltage Rating (V):

The voltage rating specifies the maximum voltage that the capacitor can
handle without risking damage or breakdown. In this case, the capacitor has
a voltage rating of 60V, meaning it can safely operate up to that voltage.

3. Tolerance:
The tolerance indicates the acceptable variation in the capacitance value. For
example, a ±20% tolerance means that the actual capacitance can be within
20% higher or lower than the nominal value of 100µF. Tolerances can vary
depending on the specific manufacturer and component quality.

4. Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR):

The ESR represents the resistance inherent to the capacitor's construction,
including the electrolyte and electrode materials. It can cause power loss and
 affect the capacitor's performance, especially in high-frequency applications.
Lower ESR values are generally preferred, as they minimize power
dissipation and voltage drops.

5. Leakage Current:
Leakage current refers to the small amount of current that can flow through a
capacitor even when it is fully charged. It is generally specified at the rated
voltage and temperature conditions. Lower leakage current values indicate
better insulation properties of the capacitor.

6. Ripple Current:
Ripple current is the maximum alternating current that a capacitor can
handle continuously without overheating. It is particularly important in
applications where the capacitor is subjected to AC or pulsating DC
currents, such as power supply filtering. Exceeding the specified ripple
current can lead to increased internal heating and shortened capacitor
lifespan.

7. Operating Temperature Range:

The operating temperature range specifies the range of temperatures within
which the capacitor can operate reliably. It is crucial to ensure that the
ambient temperature in your circuit stays within this range to avoid capacitor
failure or degradation.
5.2.5. ARDUINO (ATMEGA 328P)

The Atmel AVR® core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general
purpose working registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed
in a single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is
more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than
conventional CISC microcontrollers.

The ATmega328/P provides the following features: 32Kbytes of In-System

Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 1Kbytes EEPROM,
2Kbytes SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working
registers, Real Time Counter (RTC), three flexible Timer/Counters with compare
modes and PWM, 1 serial programmable USARTs , 1 byte-oriented 2-wire Serial
Interface (I2C), a 6- channel 10- bit ADC (8 channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF
packages) , a programmable Watchdog Timer with internal Oscillator, an SPI serial
port, and six software selectable power saving modes.

This allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption. In
Extended Standby mode, both the main oscillator and the asynchronous timer
continue to run. Atmel offers the QTouch® library for embedding capacitive touch
buttons, sliders and wheels functionality into AVR microcontrollers. The patented
charge-transfer signal acquisition offers robust sensing and includes fully
debounced reporting of touch keys and includes Adjacent Key Suppression®
(AKS™) technology for unambiguous detection of key events.

The easy-to-use Q Touch Suite toolchain allows you to explore, develop and
debug your own touch applications. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high density non-volatile memory technology. The On-chip ISP Flash allows the
program memory to be reprogrammed In-System through an SPI serial interface,
by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer, or by an On-chip Boot
program running on the AVR core.

Pin diagram of ATMEGA328

The ATmega328/P is supported with a full suite of program and system

development tools including: C Compilers, Macro Assemblers, and Program
Debugger/Simulators, In-Circuit Emulators, and Evaluation kits.

Pin diagram of ATMEGA328.

Figure 5.1 Pin diagram of ATMEGA328

FEATURES OF ATMEGA328

28-pin AVR Microcontroller

Flash Program Memory: 32 kilo bytes

EEPROM Data Memory: 1 kilo bytes

SRAM Data Memory: 2 kilo bytes

I/O Pins: 23

Timers: Two 8-bit / One 16-bit

A/D Converter: 10-bit Six Channel

PWM: Six Channels

RTC: Yes with Separate Oscillator

MSSP: SPI and I²C Master and Slave Support

USART: Yes

External Oscillator: up to 20MHz

ADVANTAGES/ IMPROVEMENTS IN ATMEGA328

Still runs on 5 V, so legacy 5 V stuff interfaces cleaner

Even though it's 5 V capable, newer parts can run to 1.8 V. This wide range is very
rare.

Nice instruction set, very good instruction throughput compared to other

processors (HCS08, PIC12/16/18).

High quality GCC port (no proprietary crappy compilers!)

"PA" variants have good sleep mode capabilities, in micro-amperes.

Well rounded peripheral set

Q Touch capability

Pin Descriptions table

VCC

Digital supply voltage.

GND

Ground.

Port B (PB [7:0]) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally
pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the
inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the
inverting Oscillator amplifier.

If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB [7:6] is

used as TOSC [2:1] input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in
ASSR is set.
Port C (PC [5:0])

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The PC [5:0] output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally
pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins
are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not
running.

PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the
electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C.

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low

level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset,
even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a
Reset.

The various special features of Port ‘C’ are elaborated in the Alternate Functions of
Port C section.

Port D (PD [7:0])

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with
both high sink and source capability. As inputs Port D pins that are externally
pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC [3:0], and PE [3:2]. It
should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is
used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC [6:4]
use digital supply voltage, VCC.

Arduino Uno Board Description

We will learn about the different components on the Arduino board. We will study
the Arduino UNO board because it is the most popular board in the Arduino board
family. In addition, it is the best board to get started with electronics and coding.
Some boards look a bit different from the one given below figure 3.2.2, but most
Arduinos have majority of these components in common.

Figure 5.2 AURDINO Uno Board

Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from computer. All we
need to do is connect the USB cable to the USB connection (1).
Power (Barrel Jack)
Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by
connecting it to the Barrel Jack.

Voltage Regulator

The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino
board and stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

Crystal Oscillator

The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino
calculate time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed
on top of the Arduino crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is
16,000,000 Hertz or 16 MHz.

Arduino Reset

We can reset wer Arduino board, i.e., start wer program from the beginning. We
can reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the
board. Second, we can connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin labelled
RESET (5).

Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)

3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt

5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt

Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt and 5
volt.

GND (8) (Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which
can be used to ground wer circuit.

Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external
power source, like AC mains power supply.

Analog pins

The Arduino UNO board has five analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can
read the signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature
sensor and convert it into a digital value that can be read by the microprocessor.

5.2.6 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is an electronically-modulated optical

device shaped into a thin, flat panel made up of any number of colour or
monochrome pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source
(backlight) or reflector. It is often utilized in battery-powered electronic devices
because it uses very small amounts of electric power. LCD has material, which
continues the properties of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting
point, they have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as
mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered from
similar to a crystal. They are used in similar applications where LEDs are used.
These applications are display of display of numeric and alphanumeric characters
in dot matrix and segmental displays.
 LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal materials
sandwiched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates is coated with
transparent electrodes which define in between the electrodes and the crystal,
which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle.
When a potential is applied across the cell, charge carriers flowing through the
liquid will disrupt the molecular alignment and produce turbulence.

When the liquid is not activated, it is transparent. When the liquid is

activated the molecular turbulence causes light to be scattered in all directions and
the cell appears to be bright. Thus the required message is displayed. When the
LCD is in the off state, the two polarizer’s and the liquid crystal rotate the light
rays, such that they come out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the
LCD appears transparent. The fig. 6.1 shows the LCD display.

Figure 5.3 LCD Display

5.2.7 WORKING OF LCD DISPLAY

When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes the liquid crystal

molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through
the LCD would be rotated by the polarizer, which would result in
activating/highlighting the desired characters. The power supply should be of +5V,
with maximum allowable transients of 10mV. To achieve a better/suitable contrast
for the display the voltage (V) at pin 3 should be adjusted properly. A module
should not be removed from a live circuit.

The ground terminal of the power supply must be isolated properly so that
voltage is induced in it. The module should be isolated properly so that stray
voltages are not induced, which could cause a flicking display. LCD is lightweight
with only a few, millimetres thickness since the LCD consumes less power, they
are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long
durations. LCD does not generate light and so light is needed to read the display.
By using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. LCDs have long life and a
wide operating temperature range. Before LCD is used for displaying proper
initialization should be done. LCD is used to display the blood group and blood
glucose level.

LCD Pin description

The function of each pins of LCD is described below VCC, VSS and VEE while
VDD and VSS provide +5V and ground, respectively, VEE is used for controlling
LCD contrast.
Register select
There are two important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for
selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction code register is selected, allowing the
user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at home, etc. If RS=1 the data
register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.

Read/Write
R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read
information from it. R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0 when writing.

Enable
The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented on its data
pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must be applied to this
pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins.

D0 - D7
The 8-bit data pins, D0 – D7, are used to send information to the LCD or
read contents of the LCD’S internal registers. There are also instruction codes that
can be sent to the LCD to clear the display or force the cursor to the home position
or blink the cursor. RS=0 is used to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is
ready to receive information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W=1
and RS=0, as follows: if R/W=1, RS=0.when D7=1, the LCD is busy taking care of
internal operation and will not accept any new information, when D7=0, the LCD
is ready to receive new information.
PIN DESCRIPTION FOR LCD
The table 5.1 illustrate the pin descriptions of LCD.

Table: 5.1 Pin Descriptions of LCD

Pin No. Symbol Function

1 Vss Ground terminal of Module

2 Vdd Supply terminal of Module, +5v

3 Vo Power supply for liquid crystal drive

4 RS Register select

RS=0…Instruction register

RS=1…Data register

5 R/W Read/Write

R/W=1…Read

R/W=0…Write

6 EN Enable

7-14 DB0-DB7 Bi-directional Data Bus. Data Transfer is performed

once, through DB0-DB7,incase of interface data length is
8-bits;and twice, thru DB4-DB7 in the case of interface
data length is 4-bits.Upper four bits first then lower four
bits.

15 LAMP-(L-) LED or EL lamp power supply terminals

 16 LAMP+(L+) (E2) Enable

5.2.8 POWER SUPPLY:

TRANSFORMER:

This document presents the solution for a 12V 1A flyback converter based
on the Infineon OPTIREG™ TLE8386-2EL controller and IPD50N08S4-13
OptiMOS™-T2. The user is guided through the component selections, the circuit
design and, finally, an overview of the experimental results are presented. The
TLE8386-2EL is part of the Automotive OPTIREG™ family and it implements a
low-side-sense current mode controller with built in protection features. The device
is AECQ-100 qualified.

The IPD50N08S4-13 is an AEC-Q101 qualified 80V N-channel enhanced

mode MOSFET, it is part of the OptiMOS™-T2 family. Intended audience This
document is intended for power supply design engineers, application engineers,
students, etc., who need to design a Flyback converter for automotive power
applications where a galvanic isolation between two voltage domains is required.

In particular the focus is on a battery connected flyback that delivers up to

12W at 12V output voltage; the intention is to provide the user with all of the
needed information to fully design and characterize the SMPS bringing it from an
engineering concept to its production. Specific features and applications are: - 48V
to 12V Automotive applications - Isolated current mode SMPS - Flyback
regulators with auxiliary sensing
Centre Tapped Transformer Specifications

 Step-down Centre tapped Transformer

 Input Voltage: 220V AC at 50Hz
 Output Voltage: 24V, 12V or 0V
 Output Current: 1A
 Vertical mount type

A centre-tapped transformer also known as two phase three wire

transformer is normally used for rectifier circuits. When a digital project has to
work with AC mains a Transformer is used to step-down the voltage (in our case,
to 24V or 12V) and then convert it to DC by using a rectifier circuit.

In a center-tapped transformer the peak inverse voltage is twice as in bridge

rectifier hence this transformer is commonly used in full wave rectifier circuits.

The operation and theory behind a Center tapped transformer is very similar
to a normal secondary transformer. A primary voltage will be induced in the
primary coil (I1 and I3) and due to magnetic induction the voltage will be
transferred to the secondary coil.

Here in the secondary coil of a centre tapped transformer, there will be an

additional wire (T2) which will be placed exactly at the center of the secondary
coil, hence the voltage here will always be zero.

If we combine this zero potential wire (T2) with either T1 or T2, we will get
a voltage of 12V AC. If this wire is ignored and voltage across T1 and T2 is
considered then we will get a voltage of 24V AC. This feature is very useful for the
function of a full wave rectifier.
 Let us consider the voltage given by the first half of the secondary coil as Va
and the voltage across the second half of the secondary coil as Vb as shown

Figure 5.4 Transformer

RECTIFER CIRCUIT:

We have learnt in rectifier circuits about converting a sinusoidal ac voltage

into its corresponding pulsating dc. Apart from the dc component, this pulsating dc
voltage will have unwanted ac components like the components of its supply
frequency along with its harmonics (together called ripples).

These ripples will be the highest for a single-phase half wave rectifier and
will reduce further for a single-phase full wave rectifier. The ripples will be
minimum for 3-phase rectifier circuits. Such supply is not useful for driving
complex electronic circuits.

For most supply purposes constant dc voltage is required than the pulsating
output of the rectifier. For most applications the supply from a rectifier will make
the operation of the circuit poor. If the rectifier output is smoothened and steady
and then passed on as the supply voltage, then the overall operation of the circuit
becomes better.

Thus, the output of the rectifier has to be passed though a filter circuit to
filter the ac components. The filter is a device that allows passing the dc
component of the load and blocks the ac component of the rectifier output. Thus
the output of the filter circuit will be a steady dc voltage.

The filter circuit can be constructed by the combination of components like

capacitors, resistors, and inductors. Inductor is used for its property that it allows
only dc components to pass and blocks ac signals. Capacitor is used so as to block
the dc and allows ac to pass. All the combinations and their working are explained
in detail below. Series Inductor Filter The circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier
with a series inductor filter is given below.

As the name of the filter circuit suggests, the Inductor L is connected in

series between the rectifier circuit and the load. The inductor carries the property
of opposing the change in current that flows through it. In other words, the
inductor offers high impedance to the ripples and no impedance to the desired dc
components. Thus the ripple components will be eliminated. When the rectifier
output current increases above a certain value, energy is stored in it in the form of a
magnetic field and this energy is given up when the output current falls below the
average value. Thus all the sudden changes in current that occurs in the circuit will
be smoothened by placing the inductor in series between the rectifier and the load.
The waveform below shows the use of inductor in the circuit.

From the circuit, for zero frequency dc voltage, the choke resistance Ri in
series with the load resistance RL forms a voltage divider circuit, and thus the dc
voltage across the load is Vdc = RL/(Ri + RL) Vdc is the output from a full wave
rectifier. In this case, the value of Ri is negligibly small when compared to RL.

The effect of higher harmonic voltages can be easily neglected as better

filtering for the higher harmonic components take place. This is because of the fact
that with the increase in frequency, the reactance of the inductor also increases. It
should be noted that a decrease in the value of load resistance or an increase in the
value of load current will decrease the amount of ripples in the circuit.

So, the series inductor filter is mostly used in cases of high load current or
small load resistance. A simple series inductor filter may not be properly used. It is
always better to use a shunt capacitor (C) with series inductor (L) to form an LC
Filter. Shunt Capacitor Filter As the name suggests, a capacitor is used as the filter
and this high value capacitor is shunted or placed across the load impedance.

This capacitor, when placed across a rectifier gets charged and stores the
charged energy during the conduction period. When the rectifier is not conducting,
this energy charged by the capacitor is delivered back to the load. Through this
energy storage and delivery process, the time duration during which the current
flows through the load resistor gets increased and the ripples are decreased by a
great amount. Thus for the ripple component with a frequency of ‘f’ megahertz, the
capacitor ‘C’ will offer a very low impedance.

The value of this impedance can be written as: Shunt Capacitor Impedance =
1/2 fC Thus the dc components of the input signal along with the few residual
ripple components, is only allowed to go through the load resistance RLoad.

The high amount of ripple components of current gets bypassed through the
capacitor C. Now let us look at the working of Half-wave rectifier and Full-wave
rectifier with Capacitor filters, their output filtered waveform, ripple factor, merits
and demerits in detail.

Voltage Detection Sensor Module Features & Specifications

 Input Voltage: 0 to 25V

 Voltage Detection Range: 0.02445 to 25
 Analog Voltage Resolution: 0.00489V
 Needs no external components
 Easy to use with Microcontrollers
 Small, cheap and easily available
 Dimensions: 4 × 3 × 2 cm
Brief about Voltage Sensor Module

Voltage Detection Sensor Module is a simple and very useful module that
uses a potential divider to reduce any input voltage by a factor of 5. This allows us
to use the Analog input pin of a microcontroller to monitor voltages higher than it
capable of sensing. For example, with a 0V - 5V Analog input range, you are able
to measure a voltage up to 25V. This module also includes convenient screw
terminals for easy and secure connections of a wire.

The internal circuit diagram of the Voltage Sensor Module is given below.

Figure 5.5 Circuit of Voltage Sensor Module

The voltage circuit consists of a voltage divider circuit of two resistors in which R1
is 30K and R2 is 7.5K.

To Use Voltage Sensor Module with Arduino

Interfacing a voltage sensor with Arduino or any other microcontroller is pretty

straight forward. Connect the VCC and GND of voltage source whose voltage to be
measured to the screw terminals of the voltage sensor. Connect the S and – (GND)
pins of voltage sensor to Analog pin and GND of Arduino respectively.

Input and output voltage can be calculated using:

Vin = Vout * (R2/(R1+R2))

Here R1 = 30K ohm and R2 = 7.5K ohm

Vout = (analogvalue * 5 / 1024).

Figure 5.6 Voltage sensor with ARDUINO

 CHAPTER 6

EVALUATING PARAMETERS

6.1 Overshoot

Overshoot is a measure of the maximum peak value reached by the response

of a system relative to its desired or reference value. It quantifies the degree of
oscillation or the extent by which the system exceeds its target value before settling
down. Overshoot is typically expressed as a percentage of the reference value and
can be calculated using the following formula:

Overshoot = ((Max Peak - Reference) / Reference) * 100%

Overshoot is particularly important in systems where stability and precision

are crucial. Excessive overshoot can lead to instability or cause the system to
deviate significantly from the desired value.

6.2 Settling Time

Settling time refers to the time required for the response of a system to reach
and remain within a certain range (usually a small percentage) of the desired or
reference value. It indicates how quickly the system stabilizes and attains a steady
state. Settling time is usually measured from the time the system response first
crosses the reference value until it remains within the specified range.
 The settling time is influenced by factors such as system dynamics,
damping, and control parameters. It is important to keep the settling time as short
as possible to achieve a fast and stable response.

6.3 Steady-State Error

Steady-state error is a measure of the deviation between the desired or

reference value and the final value attained by the system once it has stabilized. It
represents the residual error that remains even after the system response has
reached a steady state. Steady-state error is typically evaluated after the transient
response (settling time) has subsided.

The steady-state error depends on various factors, including the system type,
controller design, disturbances, and system dynamics. It is often used to assess the
accuracy and performance of a control system. Ideally, the steady-state error
should be minimized to achieve precise control.

CHAPTER 7
 SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

MATLAB, software is a technical matrix manipulating based computation

software manipulating matrices leads to big data analysis. The things to learn in
MATLAB are entering matrices, usage of the: (colon) operator, invoking
functions. At the heart of MATLAB is a new high level language due to its
multilanguage inheritance fully exploits its power. Matrix manipulation and
function working will be the basics of MATLAB and. Users will be rewarded with
high productivity, high- creativity, and strong computing power that will change
the way us work.

7.1 Introduction
It describes the basic and commands and components of the MATLAB
system.

7.2 Development Environment

Introduces the MATLAB development environment which is based script
making based on our needs, including information about toolboxes and the
MATLAB desktop window environment.

7.3 Manipulating Matrices

Introduces how to use MATLAB to generate matrices and perform
mathematical operations on matrices such addition and various
mathematical operations. Graphics - introduces MATLAB graphic
capabilities, including information about plotting data, annotating graphs,
working with large data base and working with images.
 7.4 Programming with MATLAB
It also describes how to use the MATLAB language to create scripts and
functions based on external calculations, and manipulate data structures,
such as cell arrays and multidimensional arrays.

7.5 MATLAB-Matrix-laboratory

MATLAB is a multi-language inherited high-performance language for

technical computing language based system. It integrates computation,
visualization, processing and programming in an easy way of use environment
where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.

Typical uses include:

• Math and computation

• Algorithm development

• Modelling, simulation, and prototyping

• Data analysis, exploration, visualization, Data processing

• Scientific researching and engineering graphics

• Application development, including graphical user interface building MATLAB

is a matrix values integrated system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning.

MATLAB allows us to solve many technical computing problems,

especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it
would take to write a program in a scalar non interactive language such as C or
FORTRAN. MATLAB features a family of application-specific solutions called
toolboxes. Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow us to learn
and apply specialized technology.

Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-

files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of
problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing,
control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many
others.

7.6 The MATLAB System

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:

1. Development Environment:

This is the set of tools and facilities that help us use

MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It
includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a command history, and
browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.

2. Mathematical Function Library:

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms
ranging from elementary functions like sum, sine, cosine, and complex
arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen
values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

3. MATLAB Software Language:

 This is a high-level matrix/array language with control
flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented
programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly
create quick and dirty throw- away programs, and "programming in the
large" to create complete large and complex application programs. It is also
said to be multi inherited language.

4.Handle Graphics:

This is the MATLAB graphics system. It includes

highlevel commans for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization,
image processing, animati and presentation graphics.

5. Application Program Interface (API):

This is a library that allows us to write C and

FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It include facilities for calling
routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational
engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

CHAPTER 8

DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
8.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a brief introduction to starting and quitting

MATLAB, and the tools and functions that help us to work with MATLAB
variables and files. For more information about the topics covered here, see the
corresponding topics under Development Environment in the MATLAB
documentation, which is available online as well as in print.

8.2 Starting MATLAB

On a Microsoft Windows platform, to start MATLAB, double click the

MATLAB shortcut icon on user Windows desktop. After starting MATLAB, the
MATLAB desktop opens - see MATLAB Desktop.

8.3 Quitting MATLAB

To end user MATLAB session, select Exit MATLAB from the File
menu in the desktop, or type quit in the Command Window. To execute specified
functions each time MATLAB quits, such as saving the workspace, us can create
and run a finish the m script.

8.4 MATLAB Desktop

When us start MATLAB, the MATLAB desktop appears, containing

tools (graphical user interfaces) for managing files, variables, and applications
associated with MATLAB. The first time MATLAB starts, the desktop appears as
shown in the following illustration, although user Launch Pad may contain
different entries.

29 User can change the way user desktop looks by opening, closing,
moving, and resizing the tools in it. Us can also move tools outside of the desktop
or return them back inside the desktop (docking). All the desktop tools provide
common features such as context menus and keyboard shortcuts.

8.5 Running External Programs

User can run external programs from the MATLAB Command

Window. The exclamation point character! is a shell escape and indicates that the
rest of the input line is a command to the operating system. This is useful for
invoking utilities or running other programs without quitting MATLAB.

8.6 Launch Pad

MATLAB's Launch Pad provides easy access to tools, demos, and

documentation.

8.7 Help Browser

Use the Help browser to search and view documentation for all user
Math Works products. The Help browser is a Web browser integrated into the
MATLAB desktop that displays HTML documents.

To open the Help browser, click the help button in the toolbar, or type
help browser in the Command Window. The Help browser consists of two panes,
the Help Navigator, which user use to find information, and the display pane,
where to view the information.

8.8 Help Navigator

Use to Help Navigator to find information. It includes: Product filter:

Set the filter to show documentation only for the products us specify.

8.9 Contents tab

View the titles and tables of contents of documentation for user products.
8.10 Search tab

Look for a specific phrase in the documentation. To get help for a specific
function, set the Search type to Function Name.

8.11 Display Pane

After finding documentation using the Help Navigator, view it in the

display pane. While viewing the documentation, user can:

8.12 Browse to other pages

Use the arrows at the tops and bottoms of the pages, or use the back and
forward buttons in the toolbar. Other features available in the display pane are:
copying information, evaluating a selection, and viewing Web pages.

8.13 Current Directory Browser

MATLAB file operations use the current directory and the search path as
reference points. Any file us want to run must either be in the current directory or
on the search path.

8.14 Search Path

To determine how to execute functions us call, MATLAB uses a search

path to find M-files and other MATLAB-related files, which are organized in
directories on user file system. Any file us want to run in MATLAB must reside in
the current directory or in a directory that is on the search path. By default, the files
supplied with MATLAB and Math Works toolboxes are included in the search
path.

8.15 Workspace Browser

 The MATLAB workspace consists of the set of variables (named
arrays) built up during a MATLAB session and stored in memory. User added
variables to the workspace by using functions, running M-files, and loading saved
workspaces.

To delete variables from the workspace, select the variable and select
Delete from the Edit menu. Alternatively, use the clear function. The workspace is
not maintained after us end the MATLAB session.

To save the workspace to a file that can be read during a later

MATLAB session, select Save Workspace As from the File menu, or use the save
function.

This saves the workspace to a binary file called a MAT-file, which has
a .mat extension. There are options for saving to different formats. To read in a
MAT-file, select Import Data from the File menu, or use the load function.

8.16 Array Editor

Double-click on a variable in the Workspace browser to see it in the

Array Editor. Use the Array Editor to view and edit a visual representation of one-
or two- dimensional numeric arrays, strings, and cell arrays of strings that are in
the workspace.

8.17 Editor/Debugger

Use the Editor/Debugger to create and debug M-files, which are

programs us write to run MATLAB functions. The Editor/Debugger provides a
graphical user interface for basic text editing, as well as for Mfile debugging.
 Us can use any text editor to create M-files, such as Emacs, and can
use preferences (accessible from the desktop File menu) to specify that editor as
the default.

If user uses another editor, user can still use the MATLAB
Editor/Debugger for debugging, or user can use debugging functions, such as
desktop, which sets a breakpoint. If user just needs to view the contents of an M-
file, user can display it in the Command Window by using the type function.

8.18 ARDUINO IDE:

8.18.1 Arduino Development Environment

The Arduino development environment contains a text editor for writing

code, a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for common functions,
and a series of menus. It connects to the Arduino hardware to upload programs and
communicate with them.

8.18.2 Writing Sketches

Software written using Arduino are called sketches. These sketches are
written in the text editor. Sketches are saved with the file extension .ino. It has
features for cutting/pasting and for searching/replacing text. The message area
gives feedback while saving and exporting and also displays errors.

The console displays text output by the Arduino environment including

complete error messages and other information. The bottom righthand corner of
the window displays the current board and serial port.
 The toolbar buttons allow you to verify and upload programs, create, open,
and save sketches, and open the serial monitor.

NB: Versions of the IDE prior to 1.0 saved sketches with the extension pde It is
possible to open these files with version 1.0, you will be prompted to save the
sketch with the .ino extension on save.

The Arduino environment uses the concept of a sketchbook: a standard place

to store your programs (or sketches). The sketches in your sketchbook can be
opened from the File Sketchbook menu or from the Open button on the toolbar.

The first time you run the Arduino software, it will automatically create a
directory for your sketchbook. You can view or change the location of the
sketchbook location from with the Preferences dialog.

'''Beginning with version 1.0, files are saved with a .ino file extension.
Previous versions use the .pde extension. You may still open .pde named files in
version 1.0 and later, the software will automatically rename the extension to .ino.

Tabs, Multiple Files, and Compilation

Allows you to manage sketches with more than one file (each of which
appears in its own tab). These can be normal Arduino code files (no extension), C
files (.c extension), C++ files (.cpp), or header files (.h).

8.18.3 Uploading

Before uploading your sketch, you need to select the correct items from
the Tools Board and Tools Serial Portmenus. The boards are described below. On
the Mac, the serial port is probably something like /dev/tty.usbmodem241(for an
Uno or Mega2560 or Leonardo) or /dev/tty.usbserial-1B1 (for a Duemilanove or
earlier USB board), or/dev/tty.USA19QW1b1P1.1 (for a serial board connected
with a Keyspan USB-to-Serial adapter).

On Windows, it's probably COM1 or COM2 (for a serial board)

or COM4, COM5, COM7, or higher (for a USB board) - to find out, you look for
USB serial device in the ports section of the Windows Device Manager. On Linux,
it should be /dev/ttyUSB0,/dev/ttyUSB1 or similar.

Once you've selected the correct serial port and board, press the upload
button in the toolbar or select the Upload item from the File menu. Current
Arduino boards will reset automatically and begin the upload.

With older boards (pre-Diecimila) that lack auto-reset, you'll need to press
the reset button on the board just before starting the upload. On most boards, you'll
see the RX and TX LEDs blink as the sketch is uploaded. The Arduino
environment will display a message when the upload is complete, or show an error.

When you upload a sketch, you're using the Arduino bootloader, a small
program that has been loaded on to the microcontroller on your board. It allows
you to upload code without using any additional hardware.

The bootloader is active for a few seconds when the board resets; then it
starts whichever sketch was most recently uploaded to the microcontroller. The
bootloader will blink the on-board (pin 13) LED when it starts (i.e. when the board
resets).
8.18.4 Libraries

Libraries provide extra functionality for use in sketches, e.g. working with
hardware or manipulating data. To use a library in a sketch, select it from
the Sketch Import Library menu.

Because libraries are uploaded to the board with your sketch, they increase
the amount of space it takes up. If a sketch no longer needs a library, simply delete
it from the top of your code.

There is a list of libraries in the reference. Some libraries are included with
the Arduino software. Others can be downloaded from a variety of sources.
Starting with version 1.0.5 of the IDE, you do can import a library from a zip file
and use it in an open sketch. See these instructions for installing a third-party
library.

8.18.5 Programming

The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software

(download). Select "Arduino Uno from the Tools Board menu (according to the
microcontroller on your board). For details, see the reference and tutorials.

The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with

a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external
hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500 protocol
(reference, C header files).

You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through
the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these instructions for details.
 The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source
code is available . The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU bootloader, which
can be activated by:

• On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board (near
the map of Italy) and then resetting the 8U2.

• On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB
line to ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode.

You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU programmer (Mac
OS X and Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the ISP header with an
external programmer (overwriting the DFU bootloader). See this user-contributed
tutorial for more information.

8.18.6 Automatic (Software) Reset:

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload,
the Arduino Uno is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software running
on a connected computer.

One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of theATmega8U2/16U2 is

connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad capacitor. When
this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip.

The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by
simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This means that the
bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-
coordinated with the start of the upload.
 This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a
computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to
it from software (via USB).

For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno.
While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload
of new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a
connection is opened.

If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration or other

data when it first starts, make sure that the software with which it communicates
waits a second after opening the connection and before sending this data.

The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the auto-reset. The pads
on either side of the trace can be soldered together to re-enable it. It's labeled
"RESET-EN". You may also be able to disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110
ohm resistor from 5V to the reset line; see this forum thread for details.
 CHAPTER 9
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

9.1 PV -PI CONTROLLER

Figure 9.1 Simulation of PV-PI Controller using MATLAB Simulink

 Figure 9.2 Simulink output of PV-PI Controller

Overshoot: The overshoot obtained in the simulation is 0.505%. Overshoot

indicates the maximum peak value reached by the response of the system relative
to its desired value. In this case, the response overshoots the desired value by
0.505%.

Settling Time: The settling time obtained in the simulation is 16.43 ms. Settling
time refers to the time required for the response of the system to reach and remain
within a certain range of the desired value. In this case, the system takes 16.43 ms
to stabilize and settle within the desired range.

Steady-State Error: The steady-state error obtained in the simulation is 0.93

volts. Steady-state error represents the deviation between the desired value and the
final value attained by the system once it has stabilized. In this case, the system
exhibits a steady-state error of 0.93 volts.
These parameters provide valuable insights into the performance of the PV-PI
controller in your simulation. The low overshoot suggests that the system response
closely follows the desired value without significant oscillations. The settling time
of 16.43 ms indicates that the system stabilizes relatively quickly. However, the
presence of a steady-state error of 0.93 volts but after 2 seconds it achieves its
voltage and SSE becomes 0.

9.2 FUEL CELL-PI CONTROLLER:

Figure 9.3 Simulation of Fuel Cell -PI Controller using MATLAB Simulink

Figure 9.4 Simulink output of Fuel Cell -PI Controller

Overshoot: The overshoot obtained in the simulation is 0.526%. Overshoot
indicates the maximum peak value reached by the response of the system relative
to its desired value. In this case, the response overshoots the desired value by
0.526%.
Settling Time: The settling time obtained in the simulation is 9.6 ms. Settling time
refers to the time required for the response of the system to reach and remain
within a certain range of the desired value. In this case, the system takes 9.6 ms to
stabilize and settle within the desired range.
Steady-State Error: The steady-state error obtained in the simulation is 0.54
volts. Steady-state error represents the deviation between the desired value and the
final value attained by the system once it has stabilized. In this case, the system
exhibits a steady-state error of 0.54 volts.
These parameters provide valuable insights into the performance of the Fuel Cell-
PI controller in your simulation. The low overshoot suggests that the system
response closely follows the desired value without significant oscillations. The
settling time of 9.6 ms indicates that the system stabilizes relatively quickly.
Moreover, the presence of a steady-state error of 0.54 volts suggests that there is
still a residual deviation between the desired and actual values in the steady state.

9.3 DC -PI CONTROLLER:

Figure 9.5 Simulation of DC-PI Controller using MATLAB Simulink

Figure 9.6 Simulink output of DC-PI Controller

Overshoot: The overshoot obtained in the simulation is 25.94%. Overshoot
indicates the maximum peak value reached by the response of the system relative
to its desired value. In this case, the response overshoots the desired value by
25.94%.

Settling Time: The settling time obtained in the simulation is 15.157 ms. Settling
time refers to the time required for the response of the system to reach and remain
within a certain range of the desired value. In this case, the system takes 15.157 ms
to stabilize and settle within the desired range.

Steady-State Error: The steady-state error obtained in the simulation is 0.14

volts. Steady-state error represents the deviation between the desired value and the
final value attained by the system once it has stabilized. In this case, the system
exhibits a steady-state error of 0.14 volts.

These parameters provide insights into the performance of the DC-PI controller in
your simulation. The high overshoot of 25.94% suggests that the system response
significantly exceeds the desired value before settling down. The settling time of
15.157 ms indicates that the system takes a moderate amount of time to stabilize.
Additionally, the steady-state error of 0.14 volts suggests a small but persistent
deviation between the desired and actual values in the steady state.
9.4 PV-FUZZY CONTROLLER:

Figure 9.7 Simulation of PV-Fuzzy Controller using MATLAB Simulink

 Figure 9.8 Simulink output of PV-Fuzzy Controller

Overshoot: The overshoot obtained in the simulation is 0.505%. Overshoot

indicates the maximum peak value reached by the response of the system relative
to its desired value. In this case, the response overshoots the desired value by
0.505%.

Settling Time: The settling time obtained in the simulation is 19.870 ms. Settling
time refers to the time required for the response of the system to reach and remain
within a certain range of the desired value. In this case, the system takes 19.870 ms
to stabilize and settle within the desired range.

Steady-State Error: The steady-state error obtained in the simulation is 0.18.

Steady-state error represents the deviation between the desired value and the final
value attained by the system once it has stabilized. In this case, the system exhibits
a steady-state error of 0.18.
These parameters provide insights into the performance of the PV-Fuzzy controller
in your simulation. The low overshoot of 0.505% suggests that the system response
closely follows the desired value without significant overshooting. The settling
time of 19.870 ms indicates that the system takes some time to stabilize.
Additionally, the steady-state error of 0.18 suggests a small but persistent deviation
between the desired and actual values in the steady state.

9.5 FUEL CELL-FUZZY CONTROLLER:

Figure 9.9 Simulation of Fuel Cell-Fuzzy Controller using MATLAB
Simulink

Figure 9.10 Simulink output of Fuel Cell-Fuzzy Controller

Overshoot: The overshoot obtained in the simulation is 4.737%. Overshoot
indicates the maximum peak value reached by the response of the system relative
to its desired value. In this case, the response overshoots the desired value by
4.737%.

Settling Time: Since the steady-state error (SSE) is greater than 1, it suggests that
the system does not reach a steady state within a specified range. Therefore, there
is no settling time provided in the simulation results.

Steady-State Error: The steady-state error obtained in the simulation is 2.7 volts.
Steady-state error represents the deviation between the desired value and the final
value attained by the system once it has stabilized. In this case, the system exhibits
a steady-state error of 2.7 volts.

Based on these results, the Fuel Cell-Fuzzy controller shows a relatively high
overshoot of 4.737%, indicating significant overshooting behavior. Additionally,
the steady-state error of 2.7 volts implies that there is a considerable deviation
between the desired and actual values in the steady state.

9.6 DC -FUZZY CONTROLLER:

Figure 9.11 Simulation of DC-Fuzzy Controller using MATLAB Simulink

Figure 9.12 Simulink output of DC-Fuzzy Controller

Overshoot: The overshoot obtained in the simulation is 4.737%. Overshoot
indicates the maximum peak value reached by the response of the system relative
to its desired value. In this case, the response overshoots the desired value by
4.737%.

Settling Time: Since the steady-state error (SSE) is greater than 1, it suggests that
the system does not reach a steady state within a specified range. However, an
average settling time of 20 ms is provided in the simulation results. The average
settling time represents the time taken for the system response to stabilize within a
certain range around the desired value.

Steady-State Error: The steady-state error obtained in the simulation is 2.6 volts.
Steady-state error represents the deviation between the desired value and the final
value attained by the system once it has stabilized. In this case, the system exhibits
a steady-state error of 2.6 volts.

Based on these results, the DC-Fuzzy controller shows a relatively high overshoot
of 4.737%, indicating significant overshooting behavior. Additionally, the steady-
state error of 2.6 volts suggests a considerable deviation between the desired and
actual values in the steady state.
TABULAR COLUMN:

The table illustrate the Overshoot, Settling time, Steady State Error of different
type of controllers mentioned in the tabulation.

TYPE OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME STEADY STATE

ERROR

PV-PI 0.505% 16.43 ms 0.93

CONTROLLER

FUEL CELL-PI 0.526% 9.6 ms 0.54

CONTROLLER

DC -PI 25.94% 15.157 ms 0.14

CONTROLLER

PV-FUZZY 0.505% 19.870 ms 0.18

CONTROLLER

FUEL CELL- 4.737% SSE>1 2.7

FUZZY No Settling
CONTROLLER

DC -FUZZY 4.737% SSE>1 2.6

CONTROLLER Avg Settling
20 ms

Table 9.1 Overshoot, Settling time, Steady State Error of Controllers

9.7 HARDWARE RESULTS:
From the High Efficient Solar Based MPPT Charge Controller Using
Modified SEPIC Converter we have the capability of convertering a 12V input
voltage to a regulated 24V output voltage.

The table illustrate the Input and Output Voltage of the Hardware.

S.NO INPUT OUTPUT

1. 12V 24V

Table 9.2 Input and Output Voltage of the Hardware

9.8 DISCUSSION:

Overshoot: The Fuel Cell with PI Controller has the highest overshoot of 25.94%,
indicating significant oscillations and deviation from the desired value. The
Modified Sepic Converter with PV-PI Controller has the lowest overshoot of
0.505%, suggesting better tracking of the desired value.

Settling Time: Among the controllers with provided data, the Modified Sepic
Converter with PV-PI Controller has the longest settling time of 19.870 ms. The
Fuel Cell with PI Controller has a settling time of 15.157 ms. It is important to note
that settling time is not provided for the DC Source with Fuzzy Controller and the
Modified Sepic Converter with PV-Fuzzy Controller.

Steady-State Error: The DC Source with Fuzzy Controller has a steady-state

error greater than 1 (SSE > 1), indicating a significant deviation from the desired
value that persists in the steady state. The other controllers have lower steady-state
errors, with the Fuel Cell with PI Controller having the lowest steady-state error of
0.14 volts.

Based on the available data, the Fuel Cell with PI Controller exhibits a high
overshoot but has a relatively low steady-state error. The Modified Sepic
Converter with PV-PI Controller shows better performance with low overshoot and
steady-state error, although it has a longer settling time. The performance of the
DC Source with Fuzzy Controller and the Modified Sepic Converter with PV-
Fuzzy Controller is not fully assessed due to missing settling time and overshoot
information.

Finally among all the types its discussed and concluded that the Modified
Sepic Converter with PV-PI controller and PV-Fuzzy controller outperforms the
Fuel Cell and DC source in terms of overshoot, settling time, and steady-state
error.
 CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

10.1 CONCLUSION
 In conclusion, this project focused on the design and analysis of a modified
SEPIC converter for PV, DC, and fuel cell applications. The objective was
to convert a 12V input voltage to a regulated 24V output voltage while
evaluating the performance of two control strategies: PI control and Fuzzy
control.

 The modified SEPIC converter demonstrated its versatility and efficiency in

voltage regulation. By combining elements of a boost converter and a SEPIC
converter, the converter achieved a higher voltage gain while reducing
switching voltage stress. This hybrid configuration improved the overall
performance and reliability of the converter.

 Through simulations and analysis, it was found that both the PI control and
Fuzzy control strategies effectively regulated the MOSFETs in the modified
SEPIC converter.

 The PI controller provided accurate and stable control, while the Fuzzy
control system demonstrated its ability to handle complex control scenarios.
Comparative analysis of the control strategies revealed their respective
strengths and weaknesses.
  The PI controller offered precise control and stable operation, while the
Fuzzy control system showcased adaptability and robustness in handling
uncertainties. The choice of the control strategy depended on specific
requirements and trade-offs in terms of performance objectives.

 The project successfully achieved its objectives by designing the modified

SEPIC converter, implementing the control strategies, conducting
simulations, and evaluating the performance under different scenarios. The
outcomes of this project contribute to the understanding and advancement of
SEPIC converter design and control strategies for renewable energy systems.

10.2 FUTURE WORK

 Future work can involve exploring additional control strategies, optimizing

component selection, and expanding the scope of the project to incorporate
other renewable energy sources.
 Overall, this project highlights the potential of the modified SEPIC
converter as a reliable and efficient solution for voltage regulation in PV,
DC, and fuel cell applications.
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