Ago: How long ago did you go to Italy? (Answer: Three months ago.

Past obligation: had to. Sumerians had to import raw materials. Substitution: was/were obliged to.

Negative: Sumerians had not (hadn't) to import raw materials. Substitution: wasn't/weren't obliged
to.

Interrogative: Did Sumerians have to import raw materials?Substitution:Were they obliged to import raw materials?

Past ability: was/were able to // could: They were able to //could run ten miles.
Negative: wasn't/weren't able to//couldn't: They weren't able to /couldn't run ten miles.

Interrogative:Were they able to run ten miles? Could they run ten miles?

Past habit: used to. They used to barter their goods.

Negative:They didn't use to barter their goods.

Interrogative:Did they use to barter their goods?

Condition:

As long as = So long as = Provided that / Providing that = If = Only if = But only if

• As long as + Present Simple (subordinate clause) , Future Simple (Main clause).

• Future Simple (Main clause) + As long as + Present Simple(Subordinate clause).

Conditional type 0:General truth (something that is always true)

if + present simple / present simple
Conditional type 1: Real Conditional:
If + present simple / will+ infinitive
Conditional type 2: Unreal Conditional:
If + past simple / would + stem
Conditional type 3: Hypothetical Conditional:
If + past perfect / would have + past participle

Wish about a present situation: Wish + Past Simple:1- I wish I could help you.2-I wish he were here.

NB: Were is used instead of was with I, She, He, It.

wish about something in the past: Wish + Past Participle:

 • I wish I had listened to your advice last time.

Desire for change in the near future: Wish + would: (Especially something annoying us.)

• I wish the test wouldn't be that difficult.

• I wish I could lose weight. (with I , we use could instead of would)

Advice about the present which is a bit late:

It's high/about time + Past Simple: It's high time the government fought bribery.

advice about the past:

Should have + past participle: You shouldn't have eaten so much!

Advice to avoid something bad in the present or in the future:

Had better (d'better) + Stem Negative form : Had better not (d'better not) + Stem:Interrogative:
Had+Subject +better+stem ……?/ Hadn't+subject+stem..?

• You'd better work harder; otherwise you might fail in your exam.

• You'd better not touch that wire; otherwise you get shocked.

• Had we better leave a note for the delivery guy to take the parcel next door?

• Hadn’t you better switch your computer off? It might overheat if you leave it on.

NB: Had better can be replaced by "should"/"ought to".

NB: We can use "If I were you, ….." to give an advice.

Unless: condition and warning: Unless = except if = if…not:

• Unless it rains [SC] , we’ll go for a picnic by the river tomorrow [MC].

• (We’ll go for a picnic by the river tomorrow if it doesn’t rain.)

• I am not going to the party if Carol is not going.

• I am not going to the party unless Carol is going.

Result: So + adjective + that / Such + Noun phrase + that:

• These products are imitated to such perfection that it is difficult to distinguish between the
genuine and the fake products.

• The loss in profitability is so big that most of them have launched advertisement campaigns
against counterfeiting.
 Remark: The pink colour: Main clause. / The grey colour: Subordinate clause.

So, As a result, As a consequence, Consequently: Can be used to express result:

The loss in profitability is very big so, as a result, as a consequence, consequently, most of companies
have launched advertisement campaigns against counterfeiting.

Comparative and superlative forms of quantifiers:

Quantifiers Comparative forms Superlative
Many more than – as many as the most
Much more than – as much as the most
Little less than– as little as the least
Few fewer than – as few as the fewest

Irregular comparatives and superlatives

Adjective/Adverb Comparative Superlative
Good / Well Better than The best
Bad / Badly Worse than The worst
Far Farther than / further than The farthest/the furthest
Many / Much More than The most
Little Less than The least

Comparatives of Inferiority Comparatives of Equality Comparatives of Superiority

More + adjective + than ( long adjectives)
Less + adjective(short+ long) + than as + adjective + as (Adjective +er) + than (1 syllable adjective

Superlatives of Inferiority Superlatives of Superiority

The+ most+ long adjective
The least + adjective ( short /long) The+ short adjective+ est

1-Short adj ends in E: Wide Wider than

The widest
2- Short adj (CVC): Big Bigger than The biggest
3- Short adj ends in Y: Dry Drier than
The driest
although / though/ in spite of the fact that/ despite the fact that/ despite+ noun
phrase

I enjoyed the course, although/though I would have liked more grammar practice.
Although/Though we saw each other every day, we didn't really know each other.
I didn’t get the job in spite of the fact that I had all the necessary qualifications
I didn’t get the job despite the fact (that) I had all the necessary qualifications.
Despite having all the necessary qualifications (n ph), I didn't get the job.
TIME
Before, after, as soon as, when and until.
This morning, I got up as soon as the alarm clock rang at 6:10 a.m. I had breakfast
after I had brushed my teeth. I got dressed before I left home. I waited in the MTR
station until the train arrived. I read a book while I was traveling on the train. I
went to the library when I arrived at school.
*We can get opposites of words by adding prefixes such as dis and de:
words Opposites words opposites
Agree Disagree Activate deactivate
Comfort Discomfort Code decode
Honest Dishonest Form deform
Like Dislike Toxify detoxify
Please Displease Regulate deregulate
Belief Disbelief Populated depopulated
Satisfied Dissatisfied Motivate demotivate
Loyal Disloyal Value devalue

Forming opposites by adding suffixes:

il, im, un, ir: married/unmarried, legal/illegal, fair/unfair, regular/irregular.

Most present and past participle forms of verbs that describe emotion or feelings can be used
as adjectives, but the meanings of the participles are not the same. For example:
A fresh ocean breeze on a hot summer day is refreshing, so I feel refreshed.
The present participle (-ing form of the verb) refers to something or somebody that causes the
feeling:
The breeze is refreshing. (The breeze causes this feeling.)

The past participle (-ed form of the verb) is used to express how a person is affected by
something.
I feel refreshed. (I am experiencing this feeling as a result of the breeze.)
amaze, amuse, annoy, calm, confuse, disgust , distract, disturb, embarrass, encourage,
entertain, fascinate, frighten , frustrate, infuriate, insult , please, refresh, relax, sicken,
stimulate, surprise, terrify , thrill, worry
well (adverb)+past participle=ADJECTIVE
well-written, well-known
Pronounciation:
Final "ed":

/t/ /d/ /id/

Voiceless sounds : Voiced sounds : Words ending in T and D
P,K,F,S,SH,CH,TH (‫)ث‬ B,TH ( ( ‫ذ‬,G,V,Z,DJ,M,N,L,R
And all vowel sounds
Final "S":

/S/ /Z/ /IZ/

Voiceless sounds: Voiced sounds: C,S,X,Z,SS,CH,SH,GE
P,K,T,F,PH,GH,TH ‫ث‬ B,D,G,L,M,N,NG,R,V,Y,W ,
TH ‫ذ‬
And all vowel sounds
CH: k/ tsh

/k/ /tsh/
archive archetype Church
architect epoch Coach
architecture archaeology arch
archaic Archimedes archer
archipelago archangel artichoke
archaic archway
anarchy archduke
alchemy

Sress:

Suffixes that will attract the stress on the Last Syllable:

-ade , -aire , -ee , -eer , -ese , -ette , -oo , -que , -sce , -oon ,

Suffixes that will attract the stress to the syllable just before the last one :
-ia, -ial , -ible , -ic(s) , -ian , -ient , -ious, -ish ,-osis , -sion , -tion .
Suffixes that will attract the stress to the syllable on the third from the last one:
-ate , -cy , -eous , -ical , -ify , -inal , -itive , -ity , -ize , -phy , -ogy . –y.
Suffixes that do not affect stress patterns:-al , -ally , -ess , -ful , -ish , -less , -ly , -hood ,
-ship.

Syllable Division Rules

• Separate prefixes and suffixes from root words.
• examples: pre-view, work-ing, re-do, end-less, & out-ing
• Are two (or more) consonants next to each other?
• Divide between the 1st and 2nd consonants.
• examples: buf-fet, des-sert, ob-ject, ber-ry, & pil-grim
• Never split 2 consonants that make only 1 sound when pronounced together
and aren't the same letter (i.e., 'ff').
 • examples: th, sh, ph, th, ch, & wh
• Is the consonant surrounded by vowels?
• Does the vowel have a long sound? (Like the 'i' in line)
• Divide before the consonant.
• examples: ba-by, re-sult, i-vy, fro-zen, & Cu-pid
• Does the vowel have a short sound? (Like the 'i' in mill)
• Divide after the consonant.
• examples: met-al, riv-er, mod-el, val-ue, & rav-age
• Does the word end with 'ckle'?
• Divide right before the 'le.'
• examples: tack-le, freck-le, tick-le, & buck-le
• Does the word end with 'le' (not 'ckle')?
• Is the letter before the 'le' a consonant?
• Divide 1 letter before the 'le.'
• examples: ap-ple, rum-ble, fa-ble, & ta-ble
• Is the letter before the 'le' a vowel?
• Do nothing.
• examples: ale, scale, sale, file, & tile
Examples
• little: lit – tle
• petal: pet - al
• turtle: tur - tle
• ankle: an - kle
• riddle: rid - dle
• arrow: ar - row
• nickel: nick - el
• cotton: cot - ton
• student: stu - dent
• teacher: teach - er
• children: chil - dren
• pottery: pot - ter - y
• learning: learn - ing
• textbook: text - book
• watching: watch - ing
• screaming: scream - ing
• misbehaving: mis - be - hav - ing

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