3.

1 Trigonometric Ratios

You will probably have already met trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and
tangent in high school. These ratios give a relationship between the sides
of a right angled triangle and their corresponding angles. Consider the
right angled triangle ABC below:

By Pythagoras theorem we have c 2 = a 2 + b 2 . As for the ratios we have

a b a
sin θ = , cosθ = , tan θ = .
c c b
These ratios are related in the sense that if we know one ratio we can
find the other two. This is because we can use Pythagoras theorem to
find the third side of the right angled triangle once two of its sides are
known.

3
Example3.1.1 Given that sin θ = , find cos θ and tan θ
5
Solution: We can take two sides of a right angled triangle to be such
that the opposite side is 3 and the hypotunese is 5
respectively. We then find the adjacent side by Pythagoras
theorem.

We have 5 2 = x 2 + 3 2 ⇒ 25 = x 2 + 9 or x 2 = 25 − 9 = 16 which
gives x = 4 . Therefore,
4 3
cosθ = and tan θ =
5 4
Definition 3.1.1 One radian is the measure of the central angle of a
circle in which the sides of the angle intercept an arc equal in
length to the radius of the circle.

63
 The angle POQ is equal to 1 radian
There are 2π radians in one complete revolution. Thus 2π
radians is equivalent to 360º or π rad = 180º. So the following
identities are useful in converting degrees to radians and vice versa
180 π
1rad = deg rees and 1dgree = radians
π 180

Example 3.1.2
π 5π
(1) 150º = 150× rad = rad
180 6
3π 3π 180
(2) rad = × deg = 135!
4 4 π

Denote by , the angle which the ray OP makes with the positive x-axis
as below

Then the trigonometric ratios of are defined by:

y x y
sin θ = , cosθ = , tan θ =
r r x
Other ratios derived from the reciprocals of these three are:
1 1 1
cos ecθ = , sec θ = , cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ

We can see why these ratios have been so defined by drawing a vertical
line from P to meet the x-axis at Q to form a right angled triangle OPQ.

64
Since we shall be required to determine the trigonometric ratios of not
only the acute angles, we shall use what we shall term an associated
acute angle to determine ratios of an angle θ when it is greater than 90°.
We first divide the plane into quadrants.

Consider now the angle POQ formed when a vertical line is drawn from P
to meet the x – axis at Q. This angle POQ so formed is always an acute
angle regardless of the value of and is called the associated acute
angle,

65
E.g. when = 150º then = 180º – 150º = 30º
Similarly = 230º ⇒ = 230 – 180 = 50 and = 300 ⇒ = 360 – 300 =
60

In general,
(i) when the angle θ is in the second quadrant, i.e 90 0 < θ < 180 0 ,
to get the associated acute angle we subtract θ from 180°
( )
α = 180 0 − θ .
(ii) when the angle θ is in the third quadrant, i.e 1800 < θ < 2700 ,
to get the associated acute angle we subtract 180 from θ
( )
α = θ − 180 0 .
(iii) when the angle θ is in the fourth quadrant, i.e
270 0 < θ < 360 0 , to get the associated acute angle we subtract
θ from 360° (α = 360 0 − θ )

The signs of the trigonometric ratios depend on the signs of x and y, the
coordinates of P. In the first quadrant both x and y are positive, and
y x y
since r is always positive, we have sin θ = > 0 , cosθ = > 0 , tan θ = > 0
r r x
.
In the second quadrant x is negative and y is positive, so that we have
y x y
sin θ = > 0 , cosθ = < 0 and tan θ = < 0
r r x

66
In the third quadrant both x and y are negative so that sin < 0, cos <
0 and tan > 0
Similarly in the fourth quadrant x is positive and y is negative so that sin
<0,
cos > 0 and tan < 0.

The trigonometric ratio of an angle greater than 90° will be the ratio of its
associated acute angle but with a positive or negative sign depending on
whether the ratio is positive or negative in the quadrant where the angle
falls.

Angles measured in the anticlockwise direction are positive while angles

measured in clockwise direction are negative.

We have already seen that sine is negative in the fourth quadrant while
cosine is positive there. We may conclude that for any angle ;

sin (– ) = – sin
cos (– ) = cos
tan (– ) = – tan

We now use Pythagoras theorem to an equilateral and an isosceles

triangles to determine the values of some standard angles.

67
From the equilateral triangle ABC we note that:
3 1
sin 60 = , cos 60 = , tan 60 = 3
2 2
1 3 1
sin 30 = , cos 30 = , tan 30 =
2 2 3
From the isosceles triangle PQR we not that:
1 2
sin 45 = = = cos 45 , tan 45 = 1
2 2
Other known ratios are:
sin 90 = 1 , cos 90 = 0
sin 0 = 0 , cos 0 = 1
It follows that tan 0 = 0 and tan 90 = ∞ (undefined).
Also, sin180 = 0 = cos270 and sin270 = – 1 = cos180 .

Examples 3.1.3 Find without using a calculator the following:

(i) sin 120 0 (ii) cos1200 (iii) tan 210 0
5π 11π 5π
(iv) sin (v) cos (vi) tan
4 6 3
Solution: (i) The angle 120° is in the second quadrant. The associated
acute angle is 180 0 − 120 0 = 60 0 . Sine is positive in the second
3
quadrant, therefore, sin 120 0 = sin 60 0 = .
2
(ii) cosine is negative in the second quadrant, therefore,
1
cos120 0 = − cos 60 0 = − .
2
(iii) 210° is in the third quadrant. Its associated acute
1
angle is 2100 − 1800 = 30 0 . Thus tan 2100 = tan 30 0 =
3
since tangent is positive in the third quadrant.
5π
(iv) is also in the third quadrant. Its associated acute
4
5π π 5π π 2
angle is − π = .Therefore sin = − sin = −
4 4 4 4 2
π
since the angle of is equivalent to the angle of 45°.
4
11π π 3
(v) cos = cos =
6 6 2
5π π
(vi) tan = − tan = − 3
3 3

68
Example 3.1.4
(1) Find values of in the range 0 ≤ ≤2 such that 2sin +
3 =0
3
Solution: solving the equation we have sin = −
. We
2
know that sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants.
Therefore, the angle(s) required must be in the third and the
3
fourth quadrants. Since the acute angle whose sine is is
2
π
60º = in radians, then the required angles are =
3
π 4π π 5π
π+ = and θ = 2π − = .
3 3 3 3

(2) Given that 0 ≤ x ≤ 3600 , find the value of x if 2 sin x cos x = cos x

Solution: Note that we do not divide by cos x because we

shall throw away some values of x. Instead, we
take cos x to the left side to give
2 sin x cos x − cos x = 0 . Factorizing we get
cos x(2 sin x − 1) = 0 ⇒ cos x = 0 or 2 sin x − 1 = 0 i.e
1
sin x =
2
cos x = 0 gives x = 90 0 ,270 0
1
sin x = gives x = 30 0 , 1500 since sine is positive
2
in the first and second quadrants.
Therefore, the possible values of x are 30 0 , 90 0 , 1500 , 2700

69
3.2 Trigonometric Identities

Consider the diagram below:

By Pythagoras theorem we have:

r 2 = x2 + y2 (I)
x
cosθ = (II)
r
y
sin θ = (III)
r

Now from dividing (I) by r2 gives

2 2
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ y⎞
1 = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ and substituting (II) and (III) we get
⎝r⎠ ⎝r⎠
1 = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ (1)
This identity is true for any value of .
2
2 1 ⎛ sin θ ⎞
Dividing (1) through by cos θ we get 2
= 1+ ⎜ ⎟ or
cos θ ⎝ cosθ ⎠
sec 2 θ = 1 + tan 2 θ (2)
2
1 ⎛ cosθ ⎞
Again dividing (1) through by sin 2 θ gives = ⎜ ⎟ + 1 or
sin 2 θ ⎝ sin θ ⎠
cos ec 2θ = cot 2 θ + 1 (3)

Example 3.2.1 Prove that ( 1 – cos A )( 1 + sec A ) = sin A tan A.

Solution: To deal with such problems you start with one side of the
equation, work through and see that it reduces to expression
on the other side.
Starting with the Left Hand Side (LHS) we have
(1 – cos A)(1 + sec A) = 1 + sec A – cos A – cos A sec A
= 1 + sec A – cos A – 1
= sec A – cos A

70
 cos A
= sec A(1 – cos2 A) since = cos 2 A
sec A
2 2
1 − cos A sin A 1
= = since sec A =
cos A cos A cos A
⎛ sin A ⎞
= sin A⎜ ⎟ = sin A tan A which is the RHS.
⎝ cos A ⎠

Compound angle identities

Consider the following diagram:

The triangles OPQ, OQR, OTR and QRS are right angled triangles. Angle
QOP = Aº , angle ROQ = Bº and angle QRS = Aº. Now,
TR TS + SR PQ + SR PQ OQ SR QR
sin( A + B) = = = = × + × = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
OR OR OR OQ OR QR OR

Thus sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (4)

Replacing B by – B we get sin( A − B) = sin A cos(− B) + cos A sin( − B) or since
cos(− B) = cos B and sin( − B) = − sin B we have
sin( A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B (5)

Also
OT OP − TP OP − SQ OP OQ SQ RQ
cos( A + B) = = = = × − × = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
OR OR OR OQ OR RQ OR

Thus cos( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B (6)

After replacing B by – B we get
cos( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (7)

Let B = A in (4) and in (6). Then

71
sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A and cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A (8)

tan A + tan B
Example 3.2.2 Prove that tan( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
Proof: LHS
sin( A + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan( A + B) = = by (4) and (6)
cos( A + B) cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by cos A cos B we get
sin A sin B
+
tan( A = B) = cos A cos B = tan A + tan B as required.
sin A sin B 1 − tan A tan B
1−
cos A cos B

Example 3.2.3 Find without using a calculator the value of tan 75º

Solution:
1
1+
tan 75 = tan( 45 + 30) =
tan 45 + tan 30
=
3
=
3 +1
=
( 3 + 1) 2

= 2+ 3
1 − tan 45 tan 30 1 3 − 1 2
1−
3

3.3 Trigonometric Graphs

Consider the graph of f ( x) = sin x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 . The table below shows

the corresponding values of sin x for given values of x

Plotting the curve

72
The sine function will repeat itself after 2π radians. We can therefore
expect the graph to repeat itself as x decreases to – ∞ and as x increases
to ∞. Using this fact we sketch the curve for – 4π ≤ x ≤ 4π

Graph of y = sin x
Note that for all values of x we have − 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 . This is also true of the
cosine function.
Sketch the graph of f ( x) = cos x for values of x in the range – 4π ≤ x ≤ 4π

Example 3.3.1 The graph of f ( x) = 1 + sin x is the graph of f ( x) = sin x

moved up 1 unit.

Example 3.3.2 The graph of f ( x) = sin( x − π2 ) is the graph of f ( x) = sin x

π
moved units to the right.
2

π
Graph of y = sin( x − )
2

73
 3π 3π
The graph of f ( x) = tan x , for values of x such that −
<x< , is given
2 2
3π π π 3π
below. Note that the graph has breaks at x = − ,− , , .
2 2 2 2

3.4 Period, Amplitude and Phase shift.

Definition 3.4.1 A function f is called periodic if there exists a positive

number such that f ( x + α ) = f ( x) for all values of
x in the domain of f. The smallest such value is
called the period of the function.

Since sin( x + 2π ) = sin x and cos( x + 2π ) = cos x we see that both the sine and
the cosine functions are periodic and they both have the period of 2π.
Similarly, sin(x − 2π ) = sin x and cos(x − 2π ) = cos x . However, the period of
the tangent function is π.
We now use the periodic nature of trigonometric functions to define the
general solution of a trigonometric equation.
1
Consider the equation sin x = . First considering only the angle in the
2
π
first quadrant whose sine is half, we see that x = . But since
6
1 π π
sin (x − 2π ) = sin x = , we see that x − 2π = giving x = + 2π . Also by the
2 6 6

74
 1
same periodicity we have sin (x − 4π ) = sin (x − 2π ) = sin x = , from which we
2
π π
get x − 4π = and x = + 4π . In fact we see that if k is any positive
6 6
π 1
integer, then x = + 2kπ will satisfy the equation sin x = . Similarly,
6 2
1 π π
taking sin (x + 2π ) = sin x = , then x + 2π = ⇒ x = − 2π , and
2 6 6
1 π π
sin (x + 4π ) = sin x = gives x + 4π = ⇒ x = − 4π and so on. Therefore, if p
2 6 6
π 1
is any negative integer, then x = + 2 pπ satisfies the equation sin x = .
6 2
Combining these solutions, we conclude that for any integer n,
π 1
x = + 2nπ is a solution of the equation sin x = .
6 2
Since sine is also positive in the second quadrant, we must also have
5π
that x = + 2nπ for any integer n is also a solution to the equation
6
1 1
sin x = . Thus, the most general solution to the equation sin x = is given
2 2
⎧π
⎪ + 2 nπ
by x = ⎨ 6 , n ∈ Z. This solution is called the general solution.
5π
⎪ + 2 nπ
⎩6

Example 3.4.1 Find the general solution of the equation

tan = 2sin
sin θ sin θ
Solution: Since tan θ = we must have = 2 sin θ
cos θ cosθ
⇒ sin = 2sin cos ⇒ sin – 2sin cos = 0
⇒ sin ( 1 – 2cos ) = 0
1
Thus sin = 0 or cosθ = .
2
sin = 0 ⇒ = 0 , , 2π , 3 e.t.c (any integer
multiple of )
Note that cosine is positive in the first and fourth
1 π
quadrants. Therefoe, cosθ = ⇒ θ = + 2nπ or
2 3
5π
θ= + 2nπ where n is an integer.
3

75
 ⎧
⎪ nπ
⎪⎪ π
The general solution therefore is ⎨ + 2nπ where n is an
⎪3
⎪ 5π + 2nπ
⎪⎩ 3
integer.
If we now consider the graph of f ( x) = sin bx for b > 0, one cycle of the
graph is completed as bx increases from 0 to 2π. When bx = 0 x = 0 and
2π
when bx = 2π x = . Similarly for f ( x) = cos bx . Therefore the period of
b
2π
f ( x) = sin bx and that of f ( x) = cos bx when b > 0 is .
b
Definition 3.4.2 The amplitude is the maximum functional value
which the function attains. For example the amplitude of the function
f ( x) = 3 sin x is 3 which is attained when sin x = 1 and that of
f ( x) = −7 sin x which is 7 attained when sin x = −1 is.
In general, the amplitude of the graph of the function f ( x) = a sin x or that
of the function f ( x) = a cos x is a
We have already seen that the graph of f ( x) = sin( x − π2 ) is the graph of
π π
f ( x) = sin x shifted units to the right. The number represents the
2 2
amount of shift and is called the phase shift. In general, the phase shift
of the function f ( x) = sin( x − c) or that of the function f ( x) = cos( x − c) is
c . If c > 0 then the shift is to the right and if c < 0 then the shift is to the
left.

Example 3.4.2 Find the period, the amplitude and the shift of the
function f ( x) = 2 sin( 2 x + π2 ) and hence sketch the curve.
Solution: The amplitude is 2 = 2
To find the period we solve 2x = 2π ⇒ x = π. So the period is
π.
π π
To find the shift we solve 2 x + = 0 to get x = − . So the
2 4
π π
phase shift is − = and since it is negative it is to the
4 4
left.

76
3.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Let y be defined as a function of x by the equation sin y = x , that is, y is

an angle whose sine is x. To solve for y we want to find an angle whose
sine is x. When we are able to do this we shall write y = arcsin x or
y = sin −1 x to mean y = arcsin x if sin y = x .
However, as we have already seen, the function y = sin x is not a one –
one function on the set of real numbers. It is many to one. Therefore the
sine function cannot have an inverse on the domain x ∈ R. If we redefine
⎡ π π⎤
the domain of the function y = sin x to be ⎢− , ⎥ , then the function is a
⎣ 2 2⎦
one – one mapping and now does have an inverse. In this case we shall
denote the inverse function by y = arcsin x or y = sin −1 x as explained
above.
π π
if f : x → sin x, − ≤ x ≤
Thus 2 2
−1
then f : x → arcsin x, − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
The graphs of sinx and its inverse function are given below:

77
Similarly, if the domain of the cosine function is redefined to be 0 ≤ x ≤ π ,
then its inverse exists and is denoted by y = arccos x or y = cos −1 x .

if f : x → cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
Thus −1
then f : x → cos −1 x, − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1

Further, the function f ( x) = tan x has an inverse if the domain is

π π
restricted to − <x< and is denoted by y = arctan x or y = tan −1 x .
2 2
Note the strict inequality in the domain of tangent function. The reason
is that cosine is not defined at the end points.

3.6 Exponential Function

The function of the form y = a x where a > 0 is a real number is called an

exponential function with the base a. This function is positive for all
values of x.
There are two cases to consider depending on whether 0 < a < 1 or
1 < a < ∞ . We note that if a = 1 then a x = 1for every real number x. Recall
1
also from the rules of indices that a − x = x if a and x are integers. This
a
property in fact holds for all real numbers a and x. You may consult
other text books for the proof of this.

Case I: y = ax , 1< a < ∞

In this case we see that as x becomes big, the corresponding

values of y also become bigger and bigger. On the other
hand, when x becomes bigger but negative, by writing
1
x = −k , k > 0 we have y = a x = a −k = k . Since the
a
denominator in the last term becomes bigger as k grows
bigger, the corresponding values of y approach zero. It is
then easy to check that the graph of the function is given as
below:

78