Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93

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Research paper

Assessing the energy dynamics of Pakistan: Prospects of biomass

energy
∗ ∗
Muhammad Irfan a , , Zhen-Yu Zhao a , , Manoj Kumar Panjwani b , Fareed Hussain Mangi b ,
∗
Heng Li c , Ali Jan a , Munir Ahmad d , , Abdul Rehman e
a
Beijing Key Laboratory of New Energy and Low Carbon Development, School of Economics and Management, North China Electric Power
University, Beijing, 102206, China
b
Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Sukkur IBA University, Pakistan
c
Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
d
School of Economics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
e
Research Center of Agricultural-Rural-Peasants, Anhui University, Hefei, China

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: The energy needs of Pakistan have increased many folds in recent years due to improved lifestyle,
Received 7 September 2019 ever-increasing population, and economic development. Biomass energy has emerged as a promising
Received in revised form 6 November 2019 renewable energy source and has an enormous potential to fulfill the energy requirements of the
Accepted 30 November 2019
country. This paper aims to assess the current situation and future projections of electricity generation
Available online 10 December 2019
by using biomass energy resources. For this purpose, we critically reviewed extensive literature
Keywords: i.e., research papers, energy reports, official statistical data, relevant regulations, and government
Biomass energy policies. Research findings reveal that the abundant biomass resources of the country include fuelwood,
Energy dynamics agricultural residues, animal dung, and municipal solid waste. 48% of the domestic energy needs are
Fuelwood being fulfilled from fuelwood, while another 32% by crop and animal residues. 85 sugar industries of
Animal dung
the country produce enough bagasse to generate 5800 GWh of electricity. Corn stalk, sugarcane trash,
Crop residues
rice straw, wheat straw, and cotton stalks are the major crop residues having a production of 6.43,
Municipal solid waste
Pakistan 8.94, 17.86, 35.6, and 50.6 Mt, respectively. The power generation potential from animal dung is 4800–
5600 MW. Similarly, the electricity generation potential of municipal solid waste by thermochemical
and biochemical conversion is 560 kWh/t and 220 kWh/t, respectively. As envisioned by the Pakistani
government to enhance the share of renewables in the total energy mix of the country from 1.1% to
5% by 2030, biomass energy has high prospects to achieve this target.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction and alternative energy sources to tackle the prevailing energy

crises and keep track of the current economy. In 2018, renewable
In terms of population, Pakistan is the 6th largest country of energy contributed 1.1% to the total energy mix of the country.
the world having 213 M population with an annual growth rate However, the government plans to increase its share by 5% until
of 2%. Out of this, 37% live in urban areas, while a significant 2030 (Iqbal et al., 2018).
portion (63%) resides in rural regions (Pakistan Economic Survey, Out of many renewable energy technologies, biomass energy
2018-19). Pakistan is located between the latitudes 240 and 370 is considered as a promising and true alternative energy option.
north and longitude 620 and 750 east (Irfan et al., 2019a). Energy Agriculture is the major profession of Pakistani people which not
demand has increased tremendously due to recent economic de- only offers employment opportunities to 38.5% of its population
velopment and ever-increasing population. The country still relies but also contributes 18.5% to the gross domestic product (GDP)
on conventional thermal sources for electricity generation. How- of the country. In an agricultural country like Pakistan, biomass
ever, these sources can no longer be relied on as primary energy has massive potential for energy generation and can reduce the
choice due to high prices and adverse environmental impacts. elevated power demand–supply gap (Javed et al., 2016).
The government of Pakistan is looking for cost-effective, clean Biomass has been the primary energy generation source since
primitive times. The consumption of biomass energy dates to
∗ Corresponding authors. ancient times. Even in the modern age, biomass has been serving
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Irfan), [email protected] as the dominant fuel source for household purposes in many
(Z.-Y. Zhao), [email protected] (M. Ahmad). developing countries (Kumar et al., 2015). Current research is

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2019.11.161
2352-4847/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93 81

in progress to find more efficient ways of biomass energy con- 2. Energy situation in Pakistan
sumption and numerous scientific experiments have been done
in this regard to get maximum benefits from this energy source The energy mix of Pakistan is mainly dependent on fossil
without damaging the environment. Biomass energy is of prime fuels, and they will continue to be the major energy source (Irfan
importance for energy-deficit developing countries due to less et al., 2019b). Fig. 1 compares the price trend of different fossil
capital investment, minimum energy production cost, accessibil- fuels for the year 2018–19 (OGRA, 2018), while Fig. 2 shows the
ity of its resources all over the year and stipulation of enormous prices of natural gas for the last six years (OGRA, 2014–2019).
employment opportunities. Owing to these facts, biomass energy A comparison of the value and quantity of imported petroleum
has the maximum weight priority of 0.318 compared with other crude and their respective prices from 2015–2019 have been
renewable technologies (Amer and Daim, 2011). depicted in Fig. 3 (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2015-16, 2016-17,
Sweden is the world leader in biomass energy generation. In 2017-18, 2018-19). Oil and gas are generating 61% of Pakistan’s
terms of per capita GDP, Sweden is one of the most prosperous electricity. These conventional sources not only costly but at the
countries. The government of Sweden has a plan to increase the same time, threatening the environment. On the other hand,
renewable energy’s share in total energy generation is merely
share of biomass energy up to 40% by 2020 (Johansson et al.,
1.1% (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19).
2004). Due to efficient government policies, the utilization of
Pakistan is confronting severe energy crises and it becomes
biomass energy mounted to 483 Petajoule (PJ) in the country, ful-
more obvious during the summer season when the power outages
filling 23% of the national electricity needs (Ericsson and Werner,
prolonged in urban areas for 6–8 h and in rural areas for 12–16
2016). Nepal, a South Asian country set an excellent example by
h (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015). Less priority to renewable sources
installing 25 M domestic biogas plants under the Biogas Support
for energy generation, inefficient use of coal and hydro resources
Program with technical assistance provided by the Netherlands
and lack of awareness are the main reasons for energy crises
Development Organization and ranked 3rd in the world. This (Mirza et al., 2007, 2009; Butt et al., 2013). Per capita electricity
support program not only saves 1.8 M liters of kerosene oil, 0.5 consumption has increased from 500 kWh to 960 kWh during
Mt of fuelwood but also replace 446,700 t of chemical fertiliz- 2012–2018 in the country. Due to an increase in per capita
ers annually (Kamaladi, 2014). Nepal is followed by Vietnam by electricity consumption, there is a massive shortage of electricity
having installed 12 M biogas plants (Surendra et al., 2011). It was in the country. In the past, the power demand–supply gap has
reported that the potential of biomass energy in Vietnam is 1,450 increased tremendously and reached a historic peak of 6,620 MW
MW, and it is generating 9,230 GWh of annual electricity in the during 2012 (NEPRA, 2017). Fig. 4 shows the power demand–
country (Kolhe and Khot, 2015). supply situation of Pakistan from the period of 2012–18 (Irfan
Rwanda, Tanzania, and Kenya have installed 12,600, 12,200 et al., 2019a).
and 8500 biogas plants respectively and performed well in the Pakistan Board of Investment reported that the total installed
African continent (Horváth et al., 2016). According to the Inter- capacity of electricity generation is 25,374 MW. However, actual
national Energy Agency (IEA), China has a total installed biomass generation ranges from 20,000–24,000 MW and peak electricity
power capacity of 1800 MW (IEA, 2019). Meanwhile, India has demand reach 23,000–25,000 MW (Tajwar, 2011). Projections of
the potential of 840 Mt of biomass/y (Joshi et al., 2013). At the electricity demand and supply from a period of 2010–2030 have
end of 2016, India has installed 72,000 biogas plants throughout been shown in Fig. 5. It is evident from Fig. 5 that energy demand
the country. The figure jumped to 4.46 M biogas plants by 2017, is continuously increasing with an annual growth rate of 5%–7%.
indicating a massive growth in this sector. The total renewable The green curve represents the projection of electricity supply
energy capacity has reached to 117,919 MW during 2019, out of if energy projects under the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor
which the share of biomass energy is 8.69% (IRENA, 2019). (CPEC) program complete on time (Iqbal et al., 2018).
Similarly, Sudan consumes 13.8 M m3 of biomass every year Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), an alternative to diesel and
(Omer, 2016). The share of biomass in the total energy consump- petrol is also in deficit. There is a shortfall of 220 M cubic feet
tion of Germany is 8% (Brosowski et al., 2016). Globally, biomass in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) and Punjab provinces/d. Federal
is fulfilling 4.1% of the energy requirements of the world (REN21, Petroleum Ministry revealed that the gas shortage has increased
2019). to 38% of the total demand in the country (Dost, 2016). Out of
3400 CNG stations, 1600 stations have been shut down due to
There is a potential of 15 M biogas power plants in Pakistan
excessive gas shortage. In 2012, 3.4 M CNG supported vehicles
(PCRET, 2010a). Sindh was the first province to install a biogas
were compromised, as the government announced to supply
power plant in 1959. Later, 22 more such plants were installed by
gas to power plants and fertilizer industries on a priority basis
the Pakistan Council of Appropriate Technology (PCAT) in 1974.
(Santana, 2012).
1300 new biogas plants were commissioned to be installed under
The immense power demand–supply gap has led the gov-
the Biogas Support Program (BSP) by 2000. Soon, this number
ernment of Pakistan to import costly oil. A substantial national
increased to 12,000 (Zvinavashe et al., 2011).
budget has been allocated for this purpose which not only wors-
National Institute of Silicon Technology (NIST) and Pakistan ened the financial condition of the country but also forced the
Council of Appropriate Technology (PCAT) were merged in 2001 National Electric and Power Authority (NEPRA) to increase elec-
to maximum deploy renewable energy in Pakistan. Later, the tricity prices. All sectors have been affected severely, especially
name was changed to the Pakistan Council of Renewable Energy Pakistan’s premier textile industry. It has been reported that 50%–
Technologies (PCERET) (Amjid et al., 2011). The government of 60% of the textile industry has shifted to China and Bangladesh
Pakistan established AEDB in 2003 to encourage, facilitate and (Khan, 2013).
promote renewable energy technologies in the country. Accord-
ing to the long-term plan of AEDB, 5% of the total energy demand 2.1. Energy mix
of the country will be fulfilled from renewable energy sources
by 2030 (AEDB, 2016). 14,500 biogas plants will be installed by The electricity installed capacity (in GW/h) from different
the Rural Support Program Network (RSPN) until 2018. A New sources has been shown in Table 1 from the period of 2008–2018
Zealand aided biogas power plant with a generation capacity of (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19). As evident from the table,
30 MW is recently completed in Karachi (Sheikh, 2010). thermal energy is the primary electricity generation source of the
82 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93

Fig. 1. Comparison of the price trend of different petroleum products for the year 2018–19 (OGRA, 2018). Notes: HOBC: High octane blending component, HSD:
High-speed diesel, LSD: Light speed diesel, Kero: Kerosene oil.

Fig. 2. Prices of natural gas from 2014–2019 (OGRA, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019). Region 1 consists of Baluchistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Potohar
(Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Gujarkhan). Region 2 consists of Punjab and Sindh.

Fig. 3. Value and quantity comparison of the imported petroleum crude from 2015–2019 (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18, 2018-19).

country, while the share of renewables in the total energy mix Fig. 6 illustrates the thermal energy generation by fuel from the
is negligible. The import of expensive oil has even deteriorated period of 2011–2017 (NEPRA, 2017).
the fragile economic condition of the country (Tajwar, 2011; Aziz
and Abdulaziz, 2010). Therefore, the government of Pakistan has 2.2. Electricity consumption situation
started giving priority to renewable energy sources (Irfan et al.,
2019c). In the long run, the Pakistani government has the plan to Fig. 7 shows sector-wise electricity consumption from 2012–
uplift renewable energy’s share to 30% until 2030 (WWEA, 2019). 2018. It is depicted in Fig. 7 that there is an increasing energy
 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93 83

Fig. 4. Trend of power demand–supply in Pakistan from 2012–18 (Irfan et al., 2019a).

Fig. 5. Projected demand–supply situation in Pakistan from 2010–2030 (Iqbal et al., 2018).

consumption trend in all sectors of life. Electricity consumption of greenhouse gases. The total installed capacity of biomass en-
increased from 76,789 GWh in 2012 to 106,927 GWh in 2018. ergy has reached 130 GW globally (REN21, 2019). As 63% of
At the same time, air quality has deteriorated due to overde- the Pakistani population resides in rural areas, the highest share
pendence on thermal energy. Thermal power plants, industrial of biomass consumption is occupied by the household sector
units and the increasing number of vehicles are responsible for i.e., 76% (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19). Animal waste,
air pollution in Pakistan (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19). forest residues, agricultural residues, and municipal solid waste
According to World Health Organization (WHO), the intensity of are the potential biomass resources that are being used for energy
suspended particulate matter was seven times higher than the generation in Pakistan. Collectively, all these resources generate
recommended value in the four big cities of the country and this 230 billion t of biomass every year (Iqbal et al., 2018). Animal
is increasing continuously (ADB, 2008). and agricultural waste resources have the potential of 652 M kg
manure, 230,000 t agricultural residues and 60,000 t solid waste
3. Research source information per day (Uddin et al., 2016; Khan and Latif, 2010). With efficient
biochemical and thermochemical ways, these biomass resources
can be modified into valuable products. Biomass is regarded as
In this study, the data for analysis purpose has taken from
highly suitable for energy generation due to its important fuel
different sources, including Pakistan Economic Survey, Pakistan
product properties (Kamran, 2018).
Council of Renewable Energy Technologies (PCRET), Federal Bu-
Compared with fossil fuels, carbon and other emissions re-
reau of Statistics, National Electric Power Regulatory Authority
leased from biomass resources are generally low in quantity
(NEPRA), Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA),
(Ramachandra et al., 2004), but not always and depends on sev-
World Bank, Alternative Energy and Development Board (AEDB),
eral factors such as type of biomass resources, how the fuel is
Oil and Gas Regularity Authority (OGRA), International Renewable
produced and transported to target areas (Deborah et al., 2015).
Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewables REN21, Food and Agriculture For instance, emissions produced during the generation of elec-
Organization of the United Nations, published articles, research tricity by using Short Rotation Coppice (SRC) chips are 35 to 85%
journals, books and some online data. less than a combined cycle gas turbine power station, whereas
35% more by utilizing straw in some cases. Similarly, emissions
4. Biomass potential in Pakistan savings could reduce between 15%–50% by transporting biomass
fuels over long distances (Bates et al., 2009). Formerly, it was
Biomass is considered as an environmentally friendly and believed that all biomass energy is carbon neutral if it based on
safe electricity generation source (Irfan et al., 2019d). Different sustainable yield. However, in recent debates, researchers have
resources of biomass, including crop residues and animal dung, revealed that a large amount of carbon is released during the
have the propensity to generate bioenergy with fewer emissions burning of biomass which is reabsorbed by plants in their later
84 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93

Table 1
Electricity installed capacity from different sources (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19).
Fiscal year Thermal Hydroelectric Nuclear Imported Renewable Total generation
2008–09 62,214 27,784 1,618 227 – 91,843
2009–10 64,371 28,093 2,894 249 – 95,607
2010–11 59,153 31,811 3,420 269 – 94,653
2011–12 61,308 28,517 5,265 274 – 95,364
2012–13 61,711 29,857 4,553 375 – 96,496
2013–14 66,707 31,873 5,090 419 – 104,089
2014–15 58,635 32,563 4,996 443 803 96,997
2015–16 61,448 34,272 3,854 463 1,549 101,123
2016–17 66,468 31,786 5,868 496 2,937 107,059
2017–18 79,849 28,239 8,720 556 3,907 120,715

Notes: All values are in GW/h.

Fig. 6. Thermal electricity generation by fuel from 2011–2017 (NEPRA, 2017).

Fig. 7. Sector-wise electricity consumption from 2012–2018 (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19).

growth. The amount of time plants needed to absorb carbon biomass resources. It is evident from the figure that emissions
more than it would have been emitted by fossil fuels is termed released from coal and gas are considerably high than biomass
as carbon payback. Plants continue carbon sequestration after resources, making biomass a preferred and environment-friendly
payback and produce carbon dividend. Therefore, biomass energy energy choice.
has an edge over fossil fuels in this regard. (Timmons et al., Air pollution is a major problem which is caused by the toxic
2016). Major carbon emissions released during harvesting, pro- gases emitted during the inefficient use of thermal power plants
duction, and energy conversion processes of biomass resources and biomass systems. This is in turn, cause several diseases in
(account for more than 90%), while transport processes cause humans including tuberculosis, abnormal births, lung cancer, and
minor emissions (Rafael et al., 2015). In another study, it was pneumonia. With the introduction of efficient biomass systems,
revealed that on a lifecycle basis, coal-fired power plants have the consequences of air pollution have been eradicated to a great
the maximum greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensities among extent in Pakistan. However, there are no such means for fossil
different electricity generation sources, whereas biomass energy fuel-based energy generation in the country. Currently, several
has significantly lower emissions (WNA, 2011). Fig. 8 compares kinds of energy devices for utilizing biomass exist, which are
the GHG emissions from fossil fuels (coal, gas) and different based on the direct combustion process to obtain useful energy.
 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93 85

Fig. 8. Comparison of GHG emissions from fossil fuels and biomass resources (Bates et al., 2009). Notes: SRC: Short rotation coppice, PKE: Palm kernel expeller.
Blue bars are the different biomass resources, while light and dark red bars are fossil fuels.

Table 2 Ahmad, 2018). In 2019, it was reported that the growth rate of
Pakistan’s forest and wooded land area from 2000–2019 (FAO, 2019). forests is 8.76% which is 2.2% less compared with 2018 (Pakistan
Category Area (hectares) Economic Survey, 2018–19). Per capita forest area is only 0.04
2000 2010 2015 2019 ha. Due to the massive increase in population, the area is further
Forest 1746 1716 1701 1689 reducing at a rapid pace (Nazir, 2015). Fuelwood consumption
Other wooded lands 20 20 20 20 was 0.21 m3 /capita during 2015. Fig. 10 depicts the projection of
Other land 614 664 679 691
wood consumption. This projection has been based on per capita
Total land area 2400 2400 2400 2400
fuelwood consumption. The consumption will increase further as
71% householders use wood for cooking, 16% use it for water
heating and 10% use it for other purposes (FAO, 2019).
In the industrial sector, these devices have been utilized in sugar Fuelwood has several advantages over fossil fuels i.e., it is
mill boilers and brick kilns to avoid harmful emissions and save a cheap source of energy generation, could mitigate environ-
the environment (Butt et al., 2013). mental pollution and has less amount of sulfur and other poi-
Feedstocks contain energy which can be used for a variety sonous gases. Different woods have different chemical compo-
of applications including electricity and heat. GHG emissions sitions. Therefore, their heating values vary considerably. How-
from feedstock generation and transportation differ considerably ever, tree branches, pellets, and softwoods are generally used for
i.e., from about 10 kgCO2 e per MWh for municipal solid waste household purposes and their heating values are high compared
to 100 kgCO2 e per MWh for pellets produced from SRC chips. with hardwoods. Green wood has a low heating value of 9.5
The major reasons for higher emissions include long transport MJ/kg, as it has a moisture content of 52%, while the heating
distance, drying of fuel chips before palletization, and utilization value of wood pallets is 19.8 MJ/kg (Iqbal et al., 2018). It has been
of nitrogenous fertilizers (Bates et al., 2009). GHG emissions re- estimated that 45,000 GWh can be added to the national grid/y
lated to the generation, processing, and transportation of different if half of the total consumption is devoted to energy generation,
feedstocks reduce significantly by adopting good practices. Good which is 49% of the aggregate energy demand of 2018 (Pakistan
practices are the attempts where the efficient processing of the Economic Survey, 2018-19). However, besides these advantages,
feedstocks is utilized. Fig. 9 depicts the GHG savings from biomass fuelwood is considered a less preferred energy option, as the
feedstocks by using good practices. risk of deforestation creates environmental problems and a tough
trade-off.
5. Potential of energy generation from major biomass re-
sources 5.2. Crop residues

5.1. Fuelwood Another vital source of biomass is crop residues (Bhutto et al.,
2011). Field residues and process residues make up crop residues.
Pakistan has a total landmass of 79,610, 000 hectares (ha), Table 3 shows the total electricity generation of crop residues, the
but the forest area only consists of 1,686,000 ha (Mongabay, production capacity of major crops/y and crop to residue ratio
2011). Crop residues and animal waste fulfill 35% of the total area (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19). The annual crop residue
(Shah et al., 2007). During the summer season, when there is an processing is 26 Mt which is enough to generate 18,74,786 TJ/y
acute shortage of electricity, fuelwood becomes the only way of (World Bank, 2016a). Meanwhile, the annual production of crop
fulfilling the energy needs of domestic users. Table 2 shows the harvesting residues is 115 Mt which has the potential to generate
wooded and forest area of the country from 2000–2019 (FAO, 524,580 GWh of electricity annually (World Bank, 2016b). Table 4
2019). briefly analyzes the common crop residues being found in the
Pakistan has a negligible forest area. The country stands at country.
112th position regarding forest area in the world (FBS, 2015). The chief cash crop of Pakistan is sugarcane. The crop pro-
Forests only cover 5% of the total landmass of the country. Natural duced 83 Mt during the fiscal year 2018–19. Fig. 11 shows the
forests and coniferous make up 55% of this forest area (Nazir and production of sugarcane form 2013–2019 (Pakistan Economic
86 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93

Fig. 9. GHG savings from feedstocks by adopting good practices (Bates et al., 2009). Notes: MDP: Medium density fiberboard.

Fig. 10. Projected wood consumption in Pakistan (FAO, 2019).

Table 3
Annual Energy potential of total crop residues (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19; World Bank, 2016a,b).
Crop type Conversion technology Crop to residue Annual potential of Energy potential of crop residues
ratio/kg of crop crop residue (1000 t)
TJ/y GWhth /y
Barley Gasification combustion pyrolysis 1.4 104 1,783 474
Rape seed Extractions 0.6 110 1,860 496
Peanuts and walnuts Transesterifications extraction 0.6 1,210 2,182 593
Sunflower Transesterifications 0.6 231 3,751 1,127
Chilly Gasification Pyrolysis 1.6 346 5,592 1,634
Millet Pellet combustion 0.4 890 15,473 3,893
Corn Gasification Pyrolysis 0.4 7,710 100,889 28,827
Sugarcane Fermentation hydrolysis pyrolysis 0.4 2,845 246,500 69,285
Rice Gasification Pyrolysis 0.3 21,195 255,773 71,851
Wheat Gasification combustion pyrolysis 2.1 35,690 498,855 139,435
Cotton Gasification combustion 2.3 50,512 742,128 206,965

Survey 2018–19). It is reported that 3.3 t of bagasse produced electricity could be produced from such an amount of bagasse
by the crushing of 10 t of sugarcane. Currently, there are 75 (Khan, 2010).
sugarcane crushing units operating in the country which produce Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) reported that
millions of tonnes of bagasse. The potential of electricity genera- high cogeneration potential exists in 25 sugar mills of the country
tion from bagasse has been estimated to be 5800 GWh (Awan and and these mills could supply 2900 GWh of electricity to the
Rashid, 2012). A precise estimation has revealed that the national national grid annually (AEDB, 2016). Table 5 summarized the
grid can be supplied with 800 MW if bagasse utilized effectively electricity generation potential of these sugar mills. Overall, Pak-
in the sugar industry (AEDB, 2016). istan can produce 1900 MW from all 85 sugar mills by utilizing
Brown coal has high calorific value as compared to bagasse. 18 Mt bagasse/yr (World Bank, 2016b).
The calorific value of bagasse with 5% ash is in the range of 1950– In 2016, AEDB given letters of intent to 12 sugar mills which
2000 kcal/kg (Ministry of Water and Power, 2008). Research generated 387 MW of electricity at the end of 2018 (Hussain,
shows that 17,900,000 t of bagasse were produced from 8 sugar 2017). In the first phase, 6 sugar mills have generated 213 MW
mills during 2009 in Pakistan. It was calculated that 1,400 MWh electricity (Table 6), while during the second phase, an additional
 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93 87

Table 4
Proximate analysis of different crop residues in the country (Masiá et al., 2007; Channiwala and Parikh, 2002).
Biomass fuel Ash (wt. %) High heating Volatile matter Fixed carbon
value (MJ/kg) (wt. %) (wt. %)
Rice husk 22.35 15.70 62.92 17.10
Cotton straw 8.76 18.79 74.26 20.95
Wheat straw 7.10 18.10 83.23 11.17
Hybrid poplar 3.80 20.13 85.892 13.50
Rice straw 21.49 15.96 66.8 14.10
Alfalfa stems 6.38 19.78 79.10 16.92
Cotton residue 7.72 17.10 73.90 21.60
Switch grass 10.25 19.17 77.70 15.45
Cotton stalk 18.30 16.94 63.10 20.13
Sugar cane bagasse 4.4 19.84 84.77 14.26

Notes: wt: Weight.

Table 5
Electricity generation potential of the largest sugar mills of Pakistan (World Bank, 2016b).
Sugar mill Gross power capacity Electricity Bagasse
output (MW) export (GWh/y) production (t/y)
Chaudhry Sugar Mills Limited 24 64 241,622
Kashmir Sugar Mills Limited 24 65 242,858
Shahtaj Sugar Mills Limited 24 76 246,215
Almoiz Sugar Mills Limited 28 79 249,010
Chashma Sugar Mills Limited Unit-1 28 81 253,517
Haseeb Waqas Sugar Mills Limited 29 84 257,711
Shakarganj Mills Limited-1, Jhang 29 88 250,336
Colony Sugar Mills Ltd.-1, Bahauddin 29 90 263,111
Faran Sugar Mills Limited 31 93 285,599
Habib Sugar Mills Limited 32 104 345,077
Mehran Sugar Mills Limited 33 106 3452,031
Ashraf Sugar Mills Limited 34 109 356,111
Layyah Sugar Mills Limited 34 111 356,974
JDW Sugar Mills Limited (Unit 2) 39 114 366,992
Tandlianwala Sugar Mills Ltd. (2) 39 118 387,298
RYK Sugar Mills Limited 39 121 389,430
Al Noor Sugar Mills Limited 43 123 398,089
Etihad Sugar Mills Limited 44 131 431,413
J.D.W Sugar Mills Limited 47 132 453,557
J.D.W Sugar Mills Ltd (Unit 3) - Ghotki 50 140 462,541
J.D.W Sugar Mills Ltd (Unit 4) -Dehrki 72 141 488,395
Kamalia Sugar Mills Limited 74 146 506,111
JDW Sugar Mills Limited 114 182 860,090
Hamza Sugar Mills Limited 134 301 1,138,598
Total 1,106 2,900 9,678,004

Table 6
Electricity generation from bagasse by cogeneration in the first phase (AEDB, 2016).
Sr. No Sugar mill Electricity Province Status
generation (MW)
1 Hamza Sugar Mill 16 Punjab Started
2 Alliance Sugar Mill 20 Sindh Started
3 Safina Sugar Mill 21 Punjab Started
4 Layyah Sugar Mill 42 Punjab Started
5 Almoiz Industries 46 Punjab Started
6 Etihad Power Generation 68 Punjab Started

174 MW electricity was generated from the rest of the mills. enormous amount of biogas is enough to fulfill the cooking needs
Sindh and Punjab provinces have ample resources of rice straw of 52 M people (PCRET, 2010b). Table 8 summarized the total
and it is considered as the main crop residue. World Bank in animals and annual dung production from 2016–2019. Municipal,
collaboration with AEDB, assessed rice husk generation and esti- agricultural and animal waste could be utilized to install and op-
mated the energy production potential from 25 rice mills located erate pilot biogas plants easily (Abbas et al., 2017). AEDB with the
in these provinces (Table 7). It was revealed that a cumulative cooperation of the World Bank conducted research and estimated
potential of 500 GWh/y exists in these mills which could be the potential of biogas production and subsequent electricity
supplied to the national grid (World Bank, 2016b). generation from three largest dairy farms of the country (Table 9).

5.3. Animal dung 5.4. Municipal solid waste

At the national level, there is a power generation potential of Organic and inorganic wastes produced by human activities
4800–5600 MW from animal dung (Zuberi et al., 2013). Currently, form Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) (Raheem et al., 2016a). The
there are 202 M animals in the country. 20 M m3 biogas could MSW potential of electricity generation from the thermochem-
be generated daily by utilizing their waste (PCRET, 2010a). This ical and biochemical conversion is 560 kWh/t and 220 kWh/t
88 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93

Table 7
Production of Rice husk and electricity generation in the top 25 rice mills of the country (World Bank, 2016b).
Rice mill Feedstock sourcing Electricity Rice husk
area (km2 /GWh) export (GWh/y) production (t/y)
Husnain Rice Mill Ratodero 0.47 20 2511
Kashif Rice Mills 0.47 20 2201
Iqbal Rice Mills 0.46 20 2119
Aaqib Rice Mill Kamber 0.46 20 1710
Masha Allah rice Mill Ratodero 0.46 0 20 1710
Bismillah rice Mill Ratodero 0.46 20 1550
Madinah Rice Mill Miro khan 0.45 20 1310
Abdullah Rice Mill Miro khan 0.45 20 1310
Aziz Rice Mill Wagan 0.45 20 1,230
Ubaidullah Rice Mill Kamber 0.45 20 1230
Jawed Rice Mill Larkana 0.45 20 1230
Faiz Masan Rice Mill Nasir Abad 0.45 20 1230
Amin Ittefaq Rice Mills 0.45 20 1110
Bismillah Rice Mill Nasir Abad 0.45 20 972
Amanullah Rice Mill Larkana 0.45 20 912
Mughari Rice Mill chamber 0.45 20 810
Kashtkar Rice Mill Larkana 0.45 20 810
Tunio Rice Mill Mirokhan 0.45 20 810
Hamid Rice Mill Wagan 0.45 20 794
Dastagir Rice Mill Badah 0.45 20 790
Muzamil Rice Mill Miro khan 0.45 20 790
Memon Rice Mill Kamber 0.45 20 770
Abadghar Rice Mill Larkana 0.44 20 570
Al-Hameed Rice Mills 0.44 20 90

Fig. 11. Production of sugarcane in Pakistan form 2013–2019 (Pakistan Economic Survey 2018–19).

Table 8 MSW is a challenging process that has increased public health

Total animals and annual dung production in Pakistan from 2016–2019 (Pakistan issues recently. Table 10 shows the MSW collection efficiency
economic survey 2018–19)..
and volume of major cities, while per capita and per time MSW
Species In millions
generation rate has been reported in Table 11.
2016–17 2017–18 2018–19
AEDB took a survey of 12 landfills and calculated that 28,000
Mules 0.2 0.2 0.2 t of MSW generated every day here with a net potential of 400
Horses 0.4 0.4 0.4
MW. By utilizing the MSW of these locations, the national grid
Camels 1.1 1.1 1.1
Donkeys 5.2 5.3 5.4 can get a total of 2747 GWh electricity annually (World Bank,
Sheep 30.1 30.5 30.9 2016a). A detailed analysis of these landfills with annual gross
Buffalo 37.7 38.8 40 electricity output and electricity supplied to the national grid has
Cows 44.4 46.1 47.8
been provided in Table 12.
Goat 72.2 74.1 76.1
(1000 t)
Dung produced
1244 1282 1322 6. Environmental and socio-economic benefits

6.1. Environmental benefits

respectively (Korai et al., 2015). The annual MSW production
Biogas convert industrial, livestock, agricultural and municipal
capacity in Pakistan is 25.5 Mt with a 2.5% growth rate. It is
wastes into energy. Therefore, it is one of the best technology
expected that the volume of MSW will further increase in the options for electricity generation. To generate electricity by us-
future. Currently, no proper recycling process is being applied to ing all these wastes will not only reduce reliance on thermal
the disposition of MSW (Khan et al., 2012). Handling enormous resources but will also help to get rid of these wastes in an
 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93 89

Table 9
Biogas production and electricity generation from the three largest dairy farms (World Bank, 2016b).
Dairy farm Daily manure Biogas production Gross electricity Annual electricity export
collected (t) (m3 /y) output (GWh/y) to the grid (GWh)
Sarsabz Dairy Farm Nestle 8 71,191 0.28 0.27
JK Dairies Pvt. Limited 29 351,510 0.95 1.9
Engro Dairy Farm Nara 63 758,637 2.8 2.8
Total 100 11,81,338 4.03 4.97

Table 10 6.2.2. Employment generation

MSW collection, efficiency and energy generation of major cities in Pakistan Out of 62 M labor force, 3.79 M people are unemployed in
(Farooq and Kumar, 2013).
Pakistan (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2018-19). Unemployed peo-
City Waste collected Efficiency Energy
(1000 t) (%) (M m3 )
ple (including male and female) have been reported in Table 13
from 2012–2018. Per 250 MW of electricity generation from
Quetta 100 75 4
Gujranwala 128 52 5 biomass processes, offer 18,028 jobs
Peshawar 149 67 7 (Chatzimouratidis and Pilavachi, 2008). Based on this scenario,
Islamabad 225 91 22 5,77,000 jobs will be created against 8000 MW potential of
Faisalabad 296 65 14 biomass energy from sugarcane and livestock and it will reduce
Rawalpindi 320 86 14
Multan 325 60 21
unemployment by 18% in Pakistan (Zuberi et al., 2013).
Hyderabad 374 72 21
Lahore 953 68 64 7. Challenges of utilization
Karachi 1,378 53 72

Though the Pakistani government has recently announced sev-

Table 11 eral programs for the quick deployment of biomass energy, still
MSW generation/capita/d of Pakistan’s major cities (FBS, 2015). the sector is confronting with several challenges. Some of these
City Waste generated Generation rate challenges related to the site, region, and technology, while some
(t/d) (kg/capita/d)
are related to policy structure, financing mechanism, market sit-
Sibi 57 1.38 uation, and regulatory framework. More specifically, these chal-
Bannu 79 0.70
lenges are given as follows.
Hyderabad 314 0.32
Bahawalpur 405 0.60
Peshawar 792 0.73 • Lack of financing and high initial costs to set up a biomass
Quetta 1,362 0.67 power project: Financial constraints and lending provisions
Faisalabad 1,860 0.60 to set up biomass energy projects especially at local level are
Lahore 5,120 0.67
on one hand hindering the smooth development of biomass
Karachi 12,142 0.50
industry and hamper the establishment of consumer service
infrastructure on the other hand (Mirza et al., 2008).
• Lack of training, awareness, and demonstration to farmers:
environmentally friendly way. Additionally, deforestation will be Residents especially rural people are unaware about the
reduced, as it substitutes fuelwood (Subedi et al., 2014). This benefits of biomass energy. There are no demonstration
will lead to less soil erosion and better watershed management. projects at the community level and a lack of training
Meanwhile, during biogas generation, the slurry is also produced which could educate farmers about the positive utilization
which is an excellent fertilizer (Wileman et al., 2012). Though of biomass energy (Javed et al., 2016).
CO2 is also emitted during the production of biogas, it is utilized • Lack of government subsidies and incentives: The interest of
by plants for photosynthesis purposes. Therefore, compared with developers and local investors in biomass projects is in-
fossil fuels, biogas generation has lesser carbon impacts. The significant due to the lack of incentives and government
generation of biogas from anaerobic digestion produces minimum subsidy programs (Iqbal et al., 2018).
amounts of Nitrous Oxide (N2 O) and Methane (CH4 ), making it an • Lack of a centralized approach: Previous organizational prac-
environmentally friendly energy choice (Seadi et al., 2008).
tices indicate that the organizations accountable for the im-
plementation and development of renewable energy projects
6.2. Socio-economic benefits
have mostly worked independently of each other. Organiza-
tions such as the Water and Power Development Authority
6.2.1. Inexpensive energy
(WAPDA) and the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Re-
The traditional and renewable energy resources have not thor-
oughly been explored in the country. Therefore, Pakistan import sources (MPNR) are responsible for infrastructure develop-
electricity to fulfill the gigantic energy needs. Electricity import is ment and energy supplies. However, limited attention was
increasing continuously in the country. Fig. 12 depicts electricity given to demand-side factors by these organizations. The
imports from 2012–2017. Without the proper utilization of local benefits are not clear cut, basic processes, more detailed
renewable energy resources, the expensive electricity import bill operations are not in place and there is a large room for
will further increase. Pakistan is an agriculture country and it error as the industry does not follow a centralized approach
can effectively utilize local biomass resources to produce enough (Mirza et al., 2009).
electricity, particularly for its energy deficit industry and agricul- • Ineffective government policies: The government policies are
ture. This electricity is not only cheap but also clean, compared not well-defined and give more preference to conventional
with thermal power, which currently has a leading share in the energy sources i.e., coal-fired power plants instead of the re-
total energy mix of the country (NEPRA, 2017). newable energy sector. Besides, private participation is neg-
According to PCRET, a biogas plant with a capacity of 10 m3 ligible due to complex procedures, delays in clearances and
can monthly save 128 kg of liquefied petroleum gas, 186 liters of allotment of land for renewable energy projects (Raheem
kerosene oil and 1600 kg of wood (PCRET, 2010a). et al., 2016b).
90 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93

Table 12
Projected electricity export to the national grid by utilizing MSW (World Bank, 2016b).
Waste management company MSW dumped (t/d on Annual biogas Annual gross Annual electricity
wet basis) production (M m3 ) electricity export to the Grid
output (GWh) (GWh)
Ratta village (Sialkot WMC) 196 9.2 20.5 19.5
Tiba Badarshar (Bahawalpur WMC) 236 10 24.7 23.5
Eastern Pass (Quetta Municipality) 386 17.5 40.4 38.4
Sector 1–12 (Capital Development Authority) 710 31.8 84.5 70.8
Gondlanwala (Gujranwala WMC) 860 38.3 90.2 85.8
Ring Road (Water and sanitation services Peshawar) 860 38.3 90.2 85.8
Makkuana Site 1 (Faisalabad WMC) 1210 49.3 126.4 110.7
Lossar (Rawalpindi WMC) 1310 53.7 36.9 120.6
Mehmood Booti (Lahore WMC) 3610 164.4 377 359.7
Bhakkay Wala (Gujranwala WMC) 6103 273.9 630 608.6
Jam Chakro (Sindh Solid Waste Management Board) 6150 273.9 630 610.7
Gondpass (Sindh Solid Waste Management Board) 6230 273.9 630 612.6
Total 27,861 1234 2781 2747

Fig. 12. Continuous import of electricity from 2012–2017 in Pakistan (NEPRA, 2017).

• Lack of legal and regulatory framework: The biomass indus- Table 13

Unemployed people in the country during 2012–2018 (Pakistan Economic Survey
try in Pakistan lacks a comprehensive legal and regulatory
2018–19).
framework. The lack of incorporation of biomass energy Year Unemployed Male Female
problems in the regulatory framework restricts technology 2012–13 3.73 2.49 1.24
penetration and further development of the sector (Irfan 2013–14 3.58 2.32 1.26
et al., 2019a). 2014–15 3.62 2.31 1.31
2017–18 3.79 2.57 1.22
• Inadequate R&D activities: R&D plays an important role in
the sustainable development of any sector and industry.
However, the country is lacking adequate R&D activities and
currently, there is no renowned national institution for the 8. Discussion and policy recommendations
R&D of the biomass industry in Pakistan. Therefore, tech-
Recent industrial development, urbanization, and population
nology is very costly and unaffordable for poor households
growth led to severe environmental complications in Pakistan.
(Naqvi et al., 2018). Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (PEPA), reported that
• Long payback time to investors: Generally, investors pre- the concentration of NO2 , CO2 , GHG, and other toxic substances
fer production choices that have comparatively low up- has increased many folds in the country (Momete, 2011). Pak-
front costs, maximum efficiency and shorter payback peri- istan mainly relies on fossil fuels for energy generation purposes
ods. On the contrary, biomass energy development requires which are responsible for environmental degradation. The adop-
enormous investments with a long payback time, totally tion of renewable energy is the only and permanent solution
unattractive for developers. For instance, some biomass en- for sustainable development. Being renewable, biomass energy
ergy projects failed in Pakistan due to long payback periods got attention recently. Though emissions also release during the
(Saeed et al., 2015). regular functioning of biomass power plants, emissions can be
reduced considerably by introducing good practices and efficient
• Undeveloped market/lack of commercial services: The biomass
technologies, including proper landfill techniques and solid waste
industry does not have a developed market in Pakistan due
management (Panepinto et al., 2015).
to the lack of marketing infrastructure, after-sales service in- Households in Pakistan are experiencing the problem of
frastructure, quality control measures, frequent fluctuations energy-security along with volatile and high electricity prices.
in price and unreliable biomass supply (Butt et al., 2013). Biomass energy has emerged to be a true alternative that not
 M. Irfan, Z.-Y. Zhao, M.K. Panjwani et al. / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 80–93 91

only assists local people in this regard but also strengthens the 9. Conclusions
national economy. Biomass could offer all the key energy carriers
i.e., gases, liquid fuels, and electricity for stationary and transport Pakistan is facing a power demand–supply gap of 3000 MW,
purposes. The local economy will be positively influenced by the which mounts to 5000 MW during the summer season when
construction of new biomass energy projects. Well-rewarding the demand for energy is at its maximum. This gap causes a
direct jobs will be created at the sites in all sectors including 3%–6% loss to the national GDP. It is expected that the energy
construction, transportation, operation and collection of biomass crises will become even worst, as the annual demand for energy
resources along with indirect jobs all over the country (Javed is at its constant peak of 8%–10% due to massive population
et al., 2016). and economic development. Pakistan is mainly dependent on
On the other hand, biomass energy has a significant social im- fossil fuels, which fulfill the 61% energy needs of the country,
pact by concealing the deficit of costly electricity and endowing whereas the share of renewable energy is only 1.1%. Due to
reliable solutions that are local, less expensive and environmen- this alarming situation, the Pakistani government has decided to
tally friendly. The most important social benefit is the electri- increase the share of renewable energy in the total energy mix up
fication of remote regions that are far away from the national to 5% by 2030. Being an agricultural country, Pakistan possesses
grid and do not have electricity access (Amer and Daim, 2011). abundant biomass resources for electricity generation. This study
Farmers can enjoy an additional income source by harvesting aims to assess the current situation and future projections of
crops which will later be utilized for biomass energy generation electricity generation by using biomass energy resources. For
purposes, directly supporting the agriculture industry (Saghir this purpose, we critically reviewed extensive literature, such as
et al., 2019). research papers, energy reports, official statistical data, relevant
The government of Pakistan issued letters of intent to establish regulations, and government policies. Research findings reveal
a 12 MW biogas power plant in Jhang and a 9 MW power that the abundant biomass resources of the country include fu-
plant in Sindh to improve the economic and social conditions of elwood, municipal solid waste, agricultural residues, and animal
the region. Keeping in view the social and economic benefits of dung. 48% of the domestic energy needs are met by fuelwood,
biomass energy, the long-term plan of government is to install whereas crop and animal residues collectively supply another
5000 biogas units throughout the country (Zuberi et al., 2013). 32%. Forests’ growth has dwindled to 8.76% in Pakistan, as only 5%
Based on our research findings, the following policy recom- landmass of the country has been covered by forests, indicating
mendations have been suggested for the Pakistani government. a negligible supply of fuelwood. The country has 85 sugar mills
which generate 4–12 Mt of bagasse. 5800 GWh of electricity could
• Establish financial mechanism: As the initial costs to set up be generated with this amount of bagasse. If bagasse utilized
biomass projects are too high; the government should es- in cogeneration, the national grid could be supplied with 800
tablish a proper financial mechanism, provide subsidies and MW. Corn stalk, sugarcane trash, rice straw, wheat straw, and
monetary benefits to local developers for the quick penetra- cotton stalks are the main crop residues with a production of 6.43,
tion of biomass energy. 8.94, 17.86, 35.6, and 50.6 Mt, respectively. The annual processing
• Launch environmental awareness and training programs: residues of all these crops are 26.38 Mt with an energy gener-
Masses should be educated about the benefits associated ation potential of 790.36 TWh/annum. Animal dung is also an
with important source of energy generation. There are 202 M animals
biomass energy and make them aware of the harms related in the country. The estimated potential of energy production from
to fossil fuel-based electricity. This can be done by launching animal dung is 4800–5600 MW. Besides, the daily amount of
environmental awareness and training campaigns at the nitrogen-enriched biofertilizer produced by animal waste is 58.6
national level. M kg. Similarly, the MSW potential for electricity generation by
• Reform policy structure: Policy structure should be reformed thermochemical and biochemical conversion is 560 kWh/t and
by giving more preference to renewable energy technologies 220 kWh/t, respectively. The country has the potential to run 15
instead of conventional energy sources. M biogas power plants successfully. As envisaged by the Pakistani
• Improve R&D activities: R&D is an essential value-adding part government, biomass energy could assist in realizing the target of
increasing the renewable energy share in the total energy mix of
of the biomass industry’s value chain. The country should
the country from 1.1% to 5% by 2030.
improve intelligent and innovative and technologies to re-
duce operational costs and fulfill the existing needs of the
Declaration of competing interest
biomass industry.
• Encourage international cooperation: International coopera-
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
tion should be encouraged to transfer knowledge, technol-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
ogy, train local professionals and learn from each other’s
to influence the work reported in this paper.
experiences.
• Explore new markets, suppliers and modern technology: There
Acknowledgment
is a need to explore new markets, suppliers and modern
biomass technology. This can be done by improving mar-
This work is supported by the Beijing Natural Science Founda-
keting and management skills.
tion, China (8192043).
• Government’s role: The role of government is crucial in the
value creation of the biomass industry. The development
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