Nature and Scope of

Public Administration
 Outline
• Nature and scope of Public Administration
– Definition of concepts
– The role of public administration in the state
– Public administration: an “art” or a “science”
– Public Administration versus Private Administration
– The principles of public administration
– Public administration theory
 Definition of Concepts
• Public: this refers to any facility or service
provided by or owned by the state.

• It may also refer to a phenomenon that

concerns or affects the people in general.

• It can therefore be used interchangeably with

the words state or government.
 Definition of Concepts
• Administration: This refers to the management of
affairs or provision of services.

• It can also mean to care for, look after people, to

manage affairs, to direct, to control, to govern or
to minister.

• Administration involves the mobilization of

resources and directing efforts towards the
attainment of specific goals.
 Definition of Concepts
• Public Administration Defined
• According to Percy MacQueen, “Public
Administration is administration related to the
operations of government whether central or
local.”

• Public Administration was also defined by

Waldo as “the art and the science of
management as applied to the affairs of
state.”
 Public Administration Defined
• Sam-Quarm & Ako-Adjei (2015) defines public
administration as an essential social force
charged with planning and implementing the
needs of people within a nation.

• To L.D. White, “Public Administration consists

of all those operations having for their
purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of
public policy.”
 Public Administration Defined
• Three main issues can be derived from the
above definitions. These are that;

– Public administration is concerned with people.

– Public administration is concerned with the
activities of government.
– Public administration is distinct from private
administration.
 Role Of Public Administration
• Public Administration has a very important
place in the life of any society as it is the
branch of government that touches the life of
the human beings more strictly and more
directly than any other.

• The role played by public administration

includes the following:
 Role Of Public Administration
– Public administration is the core of government
business: No government can exist or function
effectively without administration.

– Public Administration maintains law and order:

The survival of human beings in society depends
on the protection provided by public
administrators who have to enforce law and order.
(e.g. the police, military and the judiciary)
 Role Of Public Administration
– Public administration promotes human welfare:
Public administration in modern societies is
concerned with activities of human welfare. All
essential welfare services are provided by
organizations and agencies managed by public
administrators. (e.g. hospitals, schools, water,
electricity etc.)

– Public administration is an instrument of social

change: In all societies, public administration has to
act as an instrument of economic development and
social change. (providing social amenities and making
developmental decisions and formulating and
implementing government policies.
 Role Of Public Administration
• Employment opportunity:
• Formulate and implement laws and policies:
 Public Administration: an “Art” or a
“Science” ?
• Public Administration as a science.
– The term science means systematized knowledge or a body of
knowledge derived from experience and observation.

– It can also be defined as the intellectual and practical activity

encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behaviour
of the physical and natural world through observation and
experiment.

– Several experiences and observations in the field of public

administration have been pooled together, analysed, correlated
and systematized which has led to the formulation of certain
principles of administration which serve as a guide to public
administrator.

– This make public administration a science.

 Public Administration: an “Art” or a
“Science” ?
• Public Administration not a Science.
The following arguments can be advanced to explain that
public administration is not a science.
– No Common Definition: There is no agreement even on the
definition of the subject. The subject has been treated from
different angles. Some look at it from legal aspects, while others
approach it from the managerial aspect. But in science there is
always an absolute agreement on the definition of the subject, or a
concept, or a scientific law.

– No Agreed Principles: There are no agreed principles of public

administration. Hardly do any two thinkers agree about them. Each
has his own version of these principles.

– Factors Influencing Public Administration: Various factors influence

the application of public policies. The best policy of today may
prove useless or become the worst policy tomorrow.
 Public Administration: an “Art” or a
“Science” ?
• Public Administration not a Science.
– No Universality: Laws lack universality. Administrative policy changes
from country to country due to the differences in their political
systems. The cherished administrative policy of one country may be
the rejected one for the other. But in the case of scientific laws, they
are universal in their expression, understanding, and applicability.

– Administrative Behaviour is Irrational: Administrative behaviour is

not always completely rational. Irrational elements of human nature
like hopes, fears, likes and dislikes etc. play a large part in
administration, as rational thinking.

The rules and principles of science are exact and verifiable.

Science is exact; its facts can be isolated and have relative
uniformity. And as the characteristics of exactness, uniform
applicability and predictability are missing in public
administration, public administration has therefore no claim to
be a science.
 Public Administration: an “Art” or a
“Science” ?
• Public Administration as an “Art”
– According to Sam-Quarm & Ako-Adjei (2015), the doing of anything is an art.

– Gwynedd (2016) defines “Art” as a way of grasping the world. Not merely the
physical world, which is what science attempts to do; but the whole world,
and specifically, the human world, the world of society and spiritual
experience.

– As such, Public Administration is an art, because it is concerned not only with

formulation of the general principles, but also with the actual running of
administration.

– Though knowledge of the principles of public administration would help an

administrator to good action, the knowing is not a substitute for doing.
Before taking action, the mind is to be made up on the basis of science. But,
ultimately, there must be an action to achieve the desired result. And action
is an art!
 Public Administration: an “Art” or a
“Science” ?
• Public Administration is both a “Science” and an
“Art”
– Public administration may be regarded as both a science
and an art.

– It stands for the process or activity of administering

governmental affairs. This makes it an art.

– It is also an area of intellectual investigation to discuss

principles. This makes it a science.

– In fact, it is more of an art than a science because it is much

more practical than theoretical. Both aspects of
administration should be harmoniously blended in order to
obtain best results.
 Public Administration: an “Art” or a
“Science” ?
• The fact that public administration has both the
features of science and art led to it being referred to
as a “Craft” by some people.

• A craft is a activity or a profession that

requires particular skills and knowledge of
skilled work.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
Similarities between Public and Private Administration
• No doubt, there are some points of similarity between
public and private administration. A few of them are
discussed below;

– The personnel practices in private administration resemble

those of public administration i.e. hiring, training and
development, compensation, and welfare services.

– Both kinds of administration are guided and regulated by

certain common rules and regulations.

– Irrespective of whether administration is of public affairs or of

private affairs, some general principles and procedures are to
be followed to achieve the objectives.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
Similarities between Public and Private
Administration
– Many techniques of management and organisation are
common to both public and private administration. Many
of the skills like the maintenance of files, notes taking,
statistics, etc., are common to both types of
administration.

– Both public and private administrations serve the same

market, i.e. the people.

– They both require the effective mobilization of human and

material resources to achieve their goal.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
The differences between public administration &
private administration

• The following are the main points of difference

between the two types of administration:

– Political Direction: The great distinction between public

and private administration lies in the fact that unlike
public, private administration is not subjected to political
direction. The ends it pursues are of its own objectives,
and do not depend upon political decisions. Under public
administration, the administrator has to carry out the
orders which he gets from the political executive with no
option of his own.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
The differences between public administration & private
administration
– Nature and scope of Functions: Public administration is more
comprehensive. It deals with the various types of needs of the
people or a wide range of services. It is mostly concerned with the
economic and social needs of life. Public Administration carries out
functions which are vital for the very existence of the people; for
instance, the defense of the country, and the maintenance of law
and order. Private administration is concerned with less vital
functions.

– Profit Motive: Whiles public administration is not interested in the

profit it will receive from providing its services, the main aim of
private administration is profit making.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
The differences between public administration & private
administration

– Public Responsibility: Public administration has responsibility

to the public. It has to face the criticism of the public, the
media and political parties. Private administration does not
have any great responsibility towards the public. Its
responsibility is towards its owners.

– Customer Relations: Where as private administration is focus

on attracting more customers or clients, public administration
is least interested in that. This is usually due to the kind of
services they provide and the monopolistic nature of their
activities.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
The differences between public administration & private
administration
• Uniformity/consistency in Treatment: Again, public
administration is consistent with the procedure, and
uniform in its dealings with the public. However, with
private administration, it is not always so.

• Psychological Difference: There is much of ownership

attitude among people in private administration than
their public counterparts. This is due to the fact that
many people regard government work as belonging to
nobody. There is also less resort to strikes as the tool
for getting what they want in private administration.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
The differences between public administration &
private administration
– Monopolistic: public administration has monopoly in
most of the services it provides. No private individual
can undertake any of these functions. In private
administration, more than one organisation undertakes
the same activity, e.g., supply of cloth, car hiring etc.

– Security of tenure: all other things being equal, a public

administrator can stay on his job till retirement.
 Public Administration versus Private
Administration
• The differences between public administration
& private administration

• Strict adherence to rules: laws governing public

administration are expected to be followed
religiously.
The Principles of Public Administration
• Several principles of public administration have
been identified by writers, but we will consider
the following for the purpose of this course.

• These principles include;

– The Principle of Political Direction
– The Principle of Social Necessity
– The Principle of Authority
– The Principle of Public Responsibility
– The principles of Administration
The Principle of Political Direction
• Public administration is an agency of government. It is
subordinate to the political executive which is the
supreme organisation.

• The administrative machinery obeys the general

directions as issued by the political authority.

• It is directed by the political laws and statutes.

• The objective of administrative action are defined and

authorized by the political authority in a state
possessing power to compel members of the society
over which it presides to act in certain ways.
 The Principle of Social Necessity
• Every department of public administration has its
own place and importance, and therefore every
office in public administration is a necessity.

• We cannot reasonably say that one office is more

necessary than the other office.

• The services provided by public administration

are usually of necessity to the public.
 The Principle of Authority
• Public administration is carried out by persons who have certain
powers or authority.

• Authority is the power or right of a person commanding other

people to do things, and in general of getting work done by them.
The authority comes to an administrator from the nature of things.
It results from the position of superiority occupied by some people
over others.

• The authority which a superior exercises is of three sorts.

– The first one is legal or statutory referred to as legal authority.
– The second authority follows from the nature of the position the
superior holds called legitimate authority.
– And the third authority is from the superior’s own personality called
personal authority.
 The Principle of Public Responsibility
• The principle of public responsibility simply
means that the public servant is responsible for
all his acts to the political executive. The political
executive is in turn is responsible to the public.

• Thus public administration is directly or indirectly

responsible to the people for its acts.

• Public administration must be sure of the

grounds on which it acts since it can be
questioned at any time.
 The Principle of Efficiency
• No governmental machinery can be successful unless its civil service is
efficient.

• Efficiency cannot be omitted from a set of administrative principles because

without it the subject would lack a standard by which its performance could be
assessed.

• How is this efficiency to be achieved? This question brings in the idea of

rational planning. Unless the basis of public administration is rational, i.e., all
departments and their functions stand on the grounds of rationality, efficiency
cannot be achieved.

• There must be a rational point of view in all the activities of public

administration.

• For instance, the creation of a new post, the split-up of a department into two
separate departments, or the shifting of administrative office from one place
to another, the enlargement or curtailment of powers of any officer should
carry sound reason along with them.
 The Principle of Public Relations
• Public Administration is a means, and not an end in itself.

• It exists for the welfare of individuals. And since it affects

their welfare, it is essential that it must understand the
needs and desires of the people.

• The principle of public relations enjoins effective

interaction between the administration and the public
affected by the administration.

• It points to the need for an integration of democratic

experience and will with the administrative agencies
designed for its expression.
 The Principle of Organisation
• This principle draws attention to the need for careful organisation or
structuring of the administrative machinery.

• Upon this principle depends in large measure the value of the

contribution public administration can make to social well-being.
Though the organisation must be economical, yet it should not be
lacking.

• Every department of public administration must be correlated with

each other. The government is a single unit, and must be run as a unit.
Important and independent activities by MDAs, and MMDAs, units,
sections, and divisions should be integrated at one place.

• Coordination of the work of all the parts of administration is

absolutely necessary to make the administrative system work
effectively.
 Public Administration Theory
• There are three main types of theories or approaches to
the field of public administration.

• These approaches or theories help us to understand the

importance and functions of public administration.

• These theories offer different perspectives on how

administrators and managers practice public
administration

• Key types of public administration include;

– Classical Public Administration theory
– New Public Management theory
– Postmodern Public Administration theory.
 Public Administration Theory
Classical Public Administration Theory:
This theory is often associated to Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urvick.

It is otherwise better known as the structural theory of public

administration.

The theory promotes the managing of government institutions

through the bureaucracy.

The main elements of classical theory including;

– Unity of command
– Hierarchical coordination
– Specialization
– Division of labour
– Formal rules
– Delegation and Span of Control.
 Public Administration Theory
New Public Management theory
• New public management is an ideological perspective that aims
to improve organizational performance.

• Here, reforms place an emphasis on the need to make public

Organizations business-like.

• The theory emphasizes that public organizations have become

competing entities with the private sector, hence there is a need
for the adoption of a business model.

• The key elements include;

– cutting the red tape.
– making a people-based economy.
– customer-first business approach.
– evaluation of the competition in the market.
 Public Administration Theory
Post-Modern Public Administration Theory
• Founded by Charles Fox and Hugh Miller.

• It proposes discourse to improve the model of public

administration and enhance policy-making
procedures and structures.

• The theory emphasizes major elements like:

– empirical research.
– policy analysis.
– administrative discourse.
Thank you!
Arms Of Government
Outline
• Organs of Government
• Executive
• Legislature
• Judiciary
Organs Of Government
• Government refers to the art of administering a state in order to
maintain law and order so as to protect lives and property within the
state.

• Governance, involves three main processes. These are the processes

of law making or legislation; law implementation, and settlement or
adjudication of disputes. These three processes are performed by
three separate staff of men or institutions, namely the legislature,
executive and judiciary.
The Executive
• This is one of the important organs of government, which
initiate and implements policies in a state.

• It controls an enormous power and influence in the state. As

a result, its decisions determine national priorities.

• That is, what the executive decides often determines what

the country will do. Often though, this is constrained by the
actions of the legislature and the judiciary.

• It normally comprises the President and, or the Prime

Minister, the Vice President (if any), the Cabinet, Council of
State, and all ministers of state.
The Executive
• The Executive Branch of Government is responsible for implementing
the laws passed by parliament.

• Members of the executive are often drawn from the largest political
party in parliament, which by virtue of its majority has won an
electoral mandate to govern.
Types of Executive
• Monocephalous Executive: By its very name, monocephalous
executive refers to a situation where only one person holds the
positions of head of state and head of government. e.g. The
Presidents of Ghana and USA.

• Bicephalous Executive: Under this type of Executive, as the prefix

'bi' means, two people hold the two positions of head of state
and head of government e.g. Britain, India, Togo and Germany.

• In this arrangement, one person takes the position of head of

state (President, King or Queen) and the other takes that of head
of government popularly called the Prime Minister.

• Quite often, countries that practice monarchical government take

this option. e.g. Morocco, Swaziland and Britain.
 Executive
It normally comprises the President and or the Prime Minister,
the Vice President (if any), the Cabinet, Council of State, and all
ministers of state.

• The President
The President is the Head of the Executive. He or she is ‘Head
of State and Head of Government and Commander in-Chief of
the Armed Forces’.

The key duty of the President include making appointments

to various public offices, including the Chief Justice, Inspector-
General of Police, the Auditor-General and ministers of state.

The appointments are made in consultation with the Council

of State and approved by parliament.
Executive
• The Vice- President
Beneath the President in the hierarchy is the Vice-
President who is responsible for presidential duties if
the President is unable to perform them.

If the President dies, resigns, is removed from office ,

or is out of the country, the Vice-President takes over.

If, for any reason, the Vice-President is unable to fulfill

these duties, the Speaker shall assume them.
 Executive
• The Cabinet
A Cabinet is simply a small group of people selected by a President or
Head of State to assist him in taking important decisions of his
government, though he is the one ultimately responsible for those
decisions. It is the highest decision-making body of every government.

Article 76 clause 1 of the 1992 Constitution provides for a Cabinet

consisting of the President, His Vice, between Ten (10) to Nineteen (19)
ministers of state at most, and a Secretary.

The President presides over its meetings, but in his absence, his vice
presides. Appointment to the Cabinet is highly political.

A change in ministerial portfolios may therefore result in admission of

new members into the Cabinet and the exit of old ones. While a change
in government results in the dissolution of the entire Cabinet, because
the new government would also have to form its own Cabinet.
 Executive
• The Council of State
The Council of State is a relatively neutral body responsible for counseling
or advising the President in the performance of his functions.

Its role can be likened to the traditional practice of chieftaincy, where chiefs
are surrounded by council of elders.

According to article 89 clause 2, the composition of the Council of State

include the following:
• A former Chief Justice.
• A former Chief of Defense Staff of the Armed Forces.
• A former Inspector-General of Police.
• The President of the National House of Chiefs.
• An elected representative from each region of Ghana.
• Eleven other members appointed by the president.

(The representative from each region is elected by an electoral collages

which are composed in the regions by two appointees from each of the
District Assemblies in that region. )
Executive
• Ministers Of State
To make the administration of the state easier, ministries
are created to be responsible for the management of
various aspects of national life.

Ministries are the biggest units of the executive branch of

government, covering broad areas of government
responsibility.

A minister of state is appointed to head each ministry and

he or she may be assisted by one or two deputy ministers.

It should be noted that each of the massive organizations

called ministries is divided into subsidiary departments,
agencies, bureaus, offices and units.
 Functions of the Executive
The executive arm of government performs a number of functions.
These include;

• Initiate and Implement Policies

The main function of the executive arm of government is to
initiate policies and programmes.

By initiating, the executive conceives or brings an idea as to what

should be done as a government. Often though, this idea would be
brought to the legislature for discussion and consideration. If it is
accepted by the legislature, it is sent back to the executive, to go
ahead and implement.

After initiating policies, the executive also proceeds to implement

them, monitor or supervises the implementation process and at
the end of the implementation, evaluates the entire policy to
ascertain its overall success or otherwise.
 Functions of the Executive
• Preparation of the Annual Budget
The executive prepares the annual financial estimates
otherwise known as the annual budget for the running of the
country.

The budget so prepared must be approved by parliament

before it can be put into effect.

• Supervision of Government Departments

The executive, through the ministers of state, supervises the
activities of government ministries, departments and
agencies to make sure that they conform to the broad
policies of the government.
 Functions of the Executive
• Ceremonial Functions
The head of the executive, the head of state, performs some
ceremonial functions. The head of state receives important
dignitaries from abroad, takes salutes on national days and also
confers honours on deserving citizens.

He or she is also the commander-in-chief or the supreme

commander of the national army.

• Day-to-day Administration of a Country

The executive as the most powerful of all the organs of
government, appoints officials, directs, supervises and coordinates
the work of both public and civil servants in ministries,
departments and units under them.

As part of the day-to-day administration, the executive plans

activities or development programmes, budgets on the projects
planned and raises revenue to finance the projects.
 Functions of the Executive
• Maintains Law and Order
The executive, through its organs like the police service and the prison
service ensure that people observe or obey the laws of the land.

Offenders are therefore arrested, prosecuted and sentenced if necessary,

according to the laws of the land.

This is to ensure that the rights of the citizens are not trampled upon with
impunity.

• Defends the State against External Aggression

The executive is also responsible to ensure that no other country invades
the country.

Therefore, the executive and for that matter the government, sets up a
defense ministry and make them responsible for this task.

Note that the military is made up of the Army, Navy and Air Force.
Functions of the Executive
• Quasi-legislative functions: "Quasi" is a Latin word
meaning "partly". So by the above statement, it means
the executive plays partly legislative functions.

• That is, the executive submits bills to the legislature to be

passed into law. Since law making is the preserve of the
legislature, this action of the executive could be
interpreted as helping in law making.

• Also, after any bill has been passed in parliament, only the
president has the right to assent to the bill before it could
become a law. This is again a law making function.
Functions of the Executive
• Quasi-judicial functions: Like the above, the executive plays partly
judicial functions. Usually, the executive institutes Administrative
Tribunals to quietly try cases within their ministries, outside the
ordinary courts and thus public view. Most dismissals and reshuffle of
ministers are as a result of offences tried at such tribunals.

• Also, the president or the chief executive of the state is vested with
the right of prerogative of mercy, generally referred to as presidential
pardon. This allows the president to order the release of any prisoner
from jail.
The Legislature
The legislature is simply that organ of government,
which has law making as its principal function among a
number of functions in a state. It is called differently in
different countries.

Below are some of them.

Britain
Ghana Parliament
Nigeria
USA - Congress
Israel - Knesset
Soviet Union - Supreme Soviet
India - The Sabha
 The Legislature
• The Legislature is the component of the Ghanaian state
responsible for making laws, and hence law-making is
parliament’s primary function.

• It does this by debating and passing bills, which are assented

to by the President to become laws.

• The 1992 Constitution stipulates that there must be ‘not less

than one hundred and forty elected members’ (MPs).

• The Speaker is in charge of all the proceedings of parliament.

He or she ensures that parliamentary procedure and protocol
are followed. The Speaker also acts as a spokesperson for the
House in dealing with other state institutions, including the
President.
Types of Legislatures
Legislatures the world over, perform almost the same
function (law making), even though with minor
differences. But due to the expansion of society and
other factors, countries opt for different types of
legislature. These are;

• Unicameral Legislature: This simply refers to the

existence of one (single) legislature in a country. Some
countries prefer this type of legislature, primarily due
to its advantages. These include;
• Speedy passage of bills
• Low expenditure on government
• Prevents conflicts between the two houses
Types of Legislatures
• Bicameral Legislature: As the meaning of the prefix "Bi"
denote, a bicameral legislature on the other hand, refers to
the existence of two legislatures in a state.

• The two houses are called differently in different countries.

For instance, the Lower house is called the “House of
Representatives” in the USA; while the upper house is called
the “Senate” in the USA. The Lower house is called the
“House of Commons” in Britain, while the upper house is
called the “House of Lords”.

• The Merits of Bicameral Legislatures

• Prevents the passage of hasty bills
• Reduces work load on single legislature
 Recruitment/ Membership of
Legislatures
• Members of the legislature (legislators) are chosen
differently in different countries. These are:

• By Popular Election: This means that all qualified adult

citizens are allowed to vote in choosing the members of the
legislature. In most cases, the elections are conducted on
Single Member Constituency basis, which simply means that
only one person can represent a constituency in the
legislature. Examples of countries that elect legislators
include Ghana, Togo, etc.

• Through Electoral Colleges: An electoral college is just a

group of people who have been elected to, in turn, elect a
president, member of a legislature etc. In some countries,
the election of members of the legislature is done through
this process. E.g. France.
Recruitment/ Membership of Legislatures
• By Nomination and Appointment: Some members of the legislature,
especially the upper chambers of many countries, are nominated.
They do not go through elections. Some are nominated based on
their noble achievements in the state, as in Britain. But others are
nominated for life (until they die), as in Canada.

As a general practice, almost all legislators of military regimes are

merely appointed. In fact, the legislatures of military regimes are
termed councils, and their laws are called Decrees.

• By Heredity: In Britain, the right to be a member of the upper house

(House of Lords) is inherited. That is, when one's father, for instance,
dies as a member of the House of Lords, the right is passed on to his
children. By this process, the successor does not need any election
or appointment, to be a member. He simply goes to replace the
deceased in the House of Lords.
 The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
• Every organization is expected to have leaders who will
steer its affairs. Parliament is not an exception to this.
There are a number of officers who lead various sections
of the legislative body.

• The highest officer of the legislative body is called the

Speaker of Parliament. Apart from the Speaker there are
other leaders in the legislative body such as the Majority
and Minority leaders and their respective deputies,
Majority and Minority Chief Whips and their deputies as
well as shadow ministers.
The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
• Every legislative house is divided into two, namely the
majority and minority groups. Members or
representatives of the party or parties that has the
highest number of seats in the house constitute the
majority, while those with a relatively small number of
seats also form the minority in the house. Each side of the
body has their respective leaders - the Majority and
Minority leaders respectively.

• The Chief Whips maintain discipline in the respective

sections in the house. They make sure that their
respective party members in parliament attend meetings
and also vote to support their party’s policies on issues on
the floor of the house.
 The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
The structure of the legislature in Ghana is as follows:

The Speaker
• The highest officer of the legislative body is the Speaker.

• The Speaker of Parliament is elected on the first sitting of the legislature,

after a general election. He may be elected from either among the
members of parliament, that is, within the house or outside.

• He is nominated by the party with majority seats in the house however,

his or her nomination is subject to the approval of the whole house.

• The Speaker is assisted in the discharge of his or her functions by two

deputy Speakers. There are for example the First and Second Deputy
Speakers of Parliament.

• The speaker enjoys the same status as a minister of state.

 The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
The Roles / Functions of the Speaker
• The Speaker chairs or presides over all meetings of the House. He or she also controls
and supervises all debates in Parliament. In so doing, the Speaker ensures that all
members of the House abide by the rules and regulations called the standing orders, to
maintain order. The Speaker himself does not take part in the debate. He only presides.

• The Speaker ensures that debates and voting in the House are conducted in a fair
manner to protect the interest of both the majority and minority members. He or she
should maintain absolute neutrality in the discharge of his or her functions.

• When debates and voting on a bill are completed, the Speaker records the results and
signs a certificate to authorize the bill to be sent to the head of state for his or her
assent.

• It is also the responsibility of the Speaker of Parliament to see to the formation of the
appropriate committees – standing, select and ad-hoc committees of the house.

• When both the President and his or her Vice-President travel outside the country or are
unable to perform their functions the constitution gives the Speaker the power to
perform executive function as the acting President.
 The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
Deputy Speakers
• The Speaker is assisted in his duties by two deputies - First and Second Deputies - who
are elected from either sides of the house. As a rule, the First Deputy is elected from the
majority and the Second Deputy from the minority.

Majority and Minority Leaders

• After the two deputies, the next persons in line are the Majority and Minority Leaders
who are assisted by their deputies (Deputy Majority and Minority Leaders) to lead their
respective parties in the house.

• As the names suggest, the Majority leader is the leader of the party with majority seats
in the house while the Minority leader is the leader of the opposition.

• As leaders, their roles are important for effective deliberations in the house. Of particular
importance is the role of the Majority Leader. The following are some of their functions:
• In collaboration with the Speaker and the Minority Leader, ensures business of the house flows
smoothly; champions the goals of the ruling government; urges members to support or defeat
measures on the floor of the house; champions the legitimate rights and privileges of members of
the house and acts as a liaison between civil society and members of the house.
 The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
The Whips
• The Whip is the name given to a member of the legislature
who has been appointed to organize party members in the
house. That is, he is the party organizer in parliament.

• Their main duty is to organize party members in parliament

to follow party position on issues on the floor of the house.

• There is therefore, the Majority Whip who is also called the

Chief Whip, assisted by two deputies (First and Second
Deputy Majority Whips).

• On the opposition side, there is the Minority Whip, the First

Deputy Minority Whip and then the Second Deputy Minority
Whip
The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
Members of Parliament
• These are the elected representatives of the electorate in the various
constituencies.

• Their functions include lobbying for development projects in their

constituencies, articulating the concerns of their constituents,
contributing to discussions on the floor, seeking sponsorships from
benevolent organizations, supporting development initiatives in their
areas and also initiate Bills in the house.
The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
The Committees
• Due to the sheer volume of business that Parliament needs to
conduct various Committees are set up to deal with different Bills,
policy matters and other public issues in detail.

• There are three main types of Committees in parliament namely:

• Standing Committees
• Select Committees
• Ad Hoc Committees
The Organisation and Structure of the
Legislature
• Standing Committees: this deals with aspects of business
that are of continuing importance to the house.

• Select Committees: this committees have the responsibility

to scrutinise the expenditure, the management and the
policies of ministries, government departments and other
public agencies.

• An Ad Hoc Committee: this is established to investigate any

matter of public significance or to scrutinise any bill that
does not come under the remit of any of the existing Select
Committees. Decisions within committees are made by a
majority vote of the members.
 Functions of the Legislature
The work of parliament may be grouped into four(4) main categories:
• Law - Making: This is the major function of legislatures. The legislature is
empowered to make new laws in a state. They are also mandated to
amend existing laws and repeal (remove) some of the existing laws of the
land, if they are found to be irrelevant or obsolete in the life of the state.

• Control of the public finance: Another function performed by the

legislature has to do with the control of public finance or government
revenue and expenditure.

It lies within the mandate of parliament to authorize all proposed policies

by the government to raise revenue in the country through taxation and
other sources as well as how such revenue should be spent.

In other words, parliament must approve the national budget, that is, the
proposed revenue and expenditure by the government before it can be
put into effect.
 Functions of the Legislature
• Representation of Interests: Members of the legislature are often
there to represent certain groups of people in a state. As such the
interests and wishes of the people they represent should always
be dear to them.

• Supervision, scrutiny and surveillance: Another major function of

the legislature is to supervise the activities of government
through a number of committees. Again, they conduct
investigations into how government policies are implemented and
act as a watchdog on all public officials.

The legislature also exercises supervision over the activities of the

executive organ of government. This supervisory role is done
many ways including:
• Scrutinizing government budgets and expenditure, especially through the
public accounts committee of parliament.
• Vetting of ministerial nominees.
• Questioning of ministers and other officials.
• Etc.
 Functions of the Legislature
• Interest Articulation and Aggregation: The legislature is a forum (place),
where demands of the different interest groups are made known to the
government (executive) for decisions to be taken on. That is, parliamentarians
use the legislature as a place to request for roads, hospitals etc. for their
people.

• The Executive hears them and eventually, these things are provided. However,
because the government cannot provide everything for all the groups at the
same time, a compromise is always found, so that every group gets one or two
of their requests at a time. This is the aggregation, which is necessary to
ensure that no single interest dominates all the others.

• To be able to remember all the things the members of parliament say on the
floor of the House, their discussions are recorded in a document called the
HANSARD, named after Thomas Curzon Hansard, who compiled parliamentary
report of the House of Commons in 1812.
Parliamentary Supremacy
• This is the exclusive and unlimited power given to the
legislature to decide on a number of activities in a
state.

• In short, these functions are never delegated to any

other institution.

• Below are some of such parliamentary supremacy:

Examples of Parliamentary Supremacy
• Suspension of rights: Parliament can deny people their
rights and liberties especially through curfews.
• E.g. The approval of curfew in the Dagbon and
Nkonya/Alavanyo areas of Ghana, following clashes over the
years.

• Authorizing revenue generation: Only parliament can

authorize the government to raise and spend public
funds like taxes. This explains why government budgets
are always presented to parliament for approval and
no other institution. Parliament is however, not obliged
to approve just any budget. When they find the budget
not to be good enough, they can reject it, and the
Executive would have to prepare a new one.
Examples of Parliamentary Supremacy
• Quasi-Judicial functions: Parliament, as the
representatives of the people of the country, has the
mandate to constitute itself as the highest court of the
land to try cases involving the three highest persons of
the land, namely, the President and the Prime Minister
and his or her Vice-President in impeachment
proceedings if any of them is found to have committed
an act that will bring the high office they occupy into
disrepute.
 Examples of Parliamentary Supremacy
• Power to overthrow a government: Every parliament can
remove the government from office. In Presidential systems,
“impeachment” is used while the “Vote of No Confidence” is
used in parliamentary systems. For instance, in the year
2005, the Canadian Parliament passed a vote of non-
confidence in the government led by Paul Martin, the then
Prime Minister. While former US President Bill Clinton, was
taken through a grueling but unsuccessful impeachment
process.

• Power to join or separate countries: Normally, only

parliament has the power to approve the joining or
separation of states. For instance, in 1701 the British
parliament passed the Act of Union to join Scotland, England
and Wales to form the United Kingdom. In the same way, the
parliament passed a law that separated Britain from the
European union in 2017 (BRIXIT)
The Law - Making Process
• A Bill is simply a proposal presented to a legislative
body for possible enactment as a law.

• Generally, the Bill will begin from the particular

department that wants that law to be made.

• It is then submitted to the Ministry in charge of that

particular department. The minister would then
submit it to the Cabinet for consideration.
The Law - Making Process
• At this point, the Bill is sent to the Attorney-General's Department to
be put into a proper legal format, and brought back to the Cabinet.

• When all these are completed, the Bill is then published in the
Gazette for fourteen (14) days (in Ghana). After the 14 days, the
minister whose ministry proposed the Bill presents it to the
legislature.

• This is the first reading of the Bill. As a rule, all Public Bills are
presented by a minister on behalf of the executive.
The Stages of a Bill becoming an ACT
• Presentation stage/ first reading: This is the beginning
stage of every bill. At this stage, the minister responsible
presents the bill to the house for the first time, and the
clerk of the house reads it to the whole house. At this
stage only the
title of the bill is read out. This is because all MPs are
literates.

• This presentation is done fourteen (14) days after the

intended bill has been published in the Gazette. No
debate or discussion is allowed at this stage. Rather, the
Bill is referred to the appropriate committee to work on.
The Stages of a Bill becoming an ACT
• Committee stage: The committee may invite the public to submit
memoranda, as a way of contributing to the making of the Bill.

• When the committee finishes its work, they then submit their final
report on the Bill to the house.

• It is this report, which will be read to the house during the Second
Reading.
The Stages of a Bill becoming an ACT
• Second Reading : As mentioned earlier on, the final report of the
committee is now read to the house.

• Based on the committee's report, any member can call for the Bill to
be rejected at this stage, if the move is seconded and the vote
carried, the Bill will be rejected.

• It is generally said that the second reading is the most important

stage in the passage of a Bill.
 The Stages of a Bill becoming an ACT
• Consideration / Debate Stage: Forty-eight (48) hours (excluding non-
sitting days), after the second reading, the Bill is then taken through a
rigorous examination by the entire house, at the consideration stage.

• Here, every part of the Bill is read clause - by- clause, paragraph - by-
paragraph and sentence -by-sentence, for members to accept or reject.

• Where members do not accept a portion properly, they may call for an
amendment to that portion of the Bill, or request that it be deleted
entirely. Once again, any member who is dissatisfied with the Bill can
move for its rejection at this stage.
 The Stages of a Bill becoming an ACT
• Third Reading & Voting Stage: By the time the Bill gets to this stage, all the
necessary corrections have been made already. As a result, no debate or
discussion is allowed. Rather, the Bill is just read to the members, to be sure that
all the suggested corrections have been made.

• After this reading, the Bill is put to vote and if voted for, it is duly passed.

• In Ghana, after the Bill has been presented to the president, he has up to seven
(7) days to give his assent to the Bill or refuse. If he refuses his assent after the
seven days, he is obliged to give his reasons within fourteen (14) days of his
refusal.

• If he assents to it, the process ends and the Bill becomes a law.
Problems of Legislatures in Developing
Countries
• Inexperienced Members of Parliament.

• Poor facilities and logistics for Members of Parliament.

• Over-politicization and lack of consensus in the legislature.

• Excessive demand on legislators by constituents.

• Excessive manipulation by the executive. E. g. through appointments, etc.

 Judiciary
• The Judiciary is the component of the Ghanaian state responsible for
interpreting the law or the administration of justice.

• The Constitution guarantees that the Judiciary ‘shall be independent and

be subject only to [the] Constitution. It is therefore impartial.

• At the head of the Judiciary is the Chief Justice who is responsible for its
administration and supervision.

• He or she is appointed by the President, acting in consultation with the

Cabinet and subject to parliamentary approval.
 Judiciary
Types of Courts
• The Ghanaian Judiciary has two strata of courts: the Superior Courts and
the Lower Courts.

• The Superior Court consists of:

• The Supreme Court
• The Appeal Court
• The High Court
• The Regional Tribunals

• The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in Ghana. It also has
exclusive jurisdiction over constitutional matters and has supervisory
jurisdiction over all other courts in Ghana.
 Judiciary
• The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and at least nine other
presidentially-appointed Justices. It is responsible for enforcing and
interpreting the constitution.

• Beneath the Supreme Court is the Appeal Court, which serves as the
appellate body for all of Ghana’s High Courts. It comprises of the chief
justice and not less than ten justices and any other justice of superior
jurisdiction as the chief justice may sign. It hears appeals on judgement from
high courts.
Judiciary
• The High court comprises of the chief justice and not less than twenty
justices and any other justice of superior jurisdiction as the chief
justice may sign. It deals with civil and criminal matter. It has divisions
like the Fast Track High Court, the Commercial Court and the Human
Rights Court.

• Regional Tribunals consist of the chief justice, a chairman and not

less than two members who may or may not be lawyers. These try
offences against the state as parliament may by law prescribe
(specialized criminal cases).
 Judiciary
• Beneath the Superior Courts are the Lower Courts, consisting of Circuit Courts and District
Courts.

• Each Circuit Court is presided over by a Circuit Judge. The jurisdiction of a Circuit Court includes
civil action arising under contract, recovery of small claims and cases pertaining to land law,
wills, and matters relating to the custody of children.

• The majority of cases in Ghana are handled by District Courts. Such courts have civil jurisdiction
over any personal action arising under contract and any actions related to land law, up to a
certain value.

• In criminal matters, District Courts have jurisdiction to try summarily any offence punishable by a
fine not exceeding 500 penalty units or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years.

• District Courts can also serve as a Juvenile Court or a Family Tribunal. The former hears any
criminal or civil matter concerning a person under the age of eighteen; the latter deals with
actions arising under the Children’s Act 1998.
 Functions of the Judiciary
• Settle Disputes
The Judiciary peacefully settles disputes and disagreements
between citizens and between citizens and the state, and fine
those found guilty. They also prescribe prison terms and
sometimes death penalty for serious offences. All these are done
to ensure order in the state.

• Custodian of the Constitution

The courts of the country are the custodians of the constitution.
The courts use all powers at their disposal to protect the
constitution from being flouted or treated with contempt by
people in authority. The judiciary uses its power given by the
constitution to protect and safeguard by ensuring that its
provisions are respected and obeyed by all. It is for this reason that
any time a person feels that his or her right has been violated the
court becomes one of the places to go to seek redress.
Functions of the Judiciary
• Interpret the Law (Constitution)
By interpreting the law, the judiciary tells the meaning of the various
provisions, when new problem or situations arise. After a law is made, it is
the judiciary that tells the actual meaning of that law so made. Thus, they
are the only people who can tell the meaning of laws made.

• Protect Individual Rights:

Another function of the judiciary is to ensure that ordinary citizens are
protected against unfair treatment, especially by government. They ensure
that individual rights and liberties are not trampled upon with impunity.
Functions of the Judiciary
• Advises the government: The court especially the Supreme Court
advises the president on the exercise of prerogative of mercy. They
also advice the government, on the signing of treaties.

• Administer Oaths: The judiciary usually swears in all Public officials

such as heads of State, Council of State, etc. They also take people
through the swearing of affidavits etc.
Judicial Independence
• Judicial independence simply refers to the freedom given to the
judiciary to dispense justice without fear or favour.

• It also means the absence of external influence on the judiciary in the

discharge of their duties.
Methods of Ensuring Judicial
Independence
• Security of tenure: This means that judges are protected from
premature and wrongful dismissals, as long as they exhibit
good behaviour. It means that a judge can only be dismissed
upon a specific breach of the law. Apart from this, no
government can dismiss a judge based upon his own whims
and caprices.

• Mode of Appointment: The process by which judges are

appointed is such that the executive influence is reduced
drastically, if not eliminated outright. That is in some countries,
the appointment of judges especially to the Supreme Court, is
done by the Head of State in consultation with the judicial
council and the council of state. Not all, other countries like
Georgia in the USA appoint their judges through elections. This
reduces any manipulations by the appointing bodies.
Methods of Ensuring Judicial Independence
• Salaries and remuneration: In most countries, judges are
among the most highly paid civil servants, to prevent them
from accepting bribes. For instance, in Britain, Lord Justices
of Appeal and High Courts, receive almost the same salary
as the British Prime Minister, And again, to ensure that
judges' salaries are not increased nor reduced
unnecessarily to manipulate them, they are paid from the
consolidated fund like all civil servants.

• Immunity from Prosecution: Judges the world over enjoy a

special protection under the law, which allows them to say
virtually anything at all while trying a case in court. Again,
no legal action can be taken against any judge for insulting
or disgracing an accused in court. Also, a judge cannot be
punished or sued for a wrong decision. This protection is
often entrenched in the constitution.
Methods of Ensuring Judicial Independence
• Political Neutrality: Due to the sensitive position of judges (their
ruling often bother on people's lives), they are expected to stay away
from any partisan activities. That is, judges are to be non-partisan
(not identify themselves with any political party).

• Even though they may belong to a political party, this should however,
be kept to themselves. A judge should not openly show that he is a
CPP, NDC, NPP or any other political party member.
Limitations to Judicial Independence
• Nature Of The Political System: The political system in
a country often affects the independence of the
judiciary in that country. While Democratic countries
normally
allow the judiciary greater independence, Autocratic,
Totalitarian and Communist regimes do otherwise. In
Nigeria, after the military take over of 26th July, 1975,
the new military leaders sacked most judges without
giving reasons whatsoever. In
Ghana, during the PNDC era, three High Court Judges
and a military officer were
abducted and killed. So in most of these undemocratic
regimes, the judiciary does as
it is told. They administer laws without any question.
Limitations to Judicial Independence
• Executive Powers: This refers to the special powers that the executive
has in taking certain decisions. Examples are the right of prerogative
of mercy (presidential pardon), passing of executive instruments, etc.
Due to these powers, the executive especially in Africa, use threats,
dismissals, control of promotion and appointments, to manipulate
the judiciary. For instance, in Ghana, the 1963 referendum gave
Nkrumah immense powers such that, in 1964, he was able to dismiss
Justices Sir Arku Korsah, Van Lare and Akuffo Addo for acquitting
Tawiah Adamafio, Ako Adjei and Kofi Crabbe over subversion charges.
Another Supreme Court judge, Justice R.
S. Blay, who tried to protest against these dismissals, was also sacked
a day after.
Limitations to Judicial Independence
• Supremacy of Parliament:
• Due to the supremacy that parliaments in most countries enjoy, the judiciary is often
restricted in discharging some of their duties. For instance, in Britain, the judiciary cannot
challenge any law duly passed by parliament, because the parliament is supreme. In
Ghana, in 1957, parliament passed a law in just one day, to give immunity to the then
Minister of Interior, who was being tried for contempt of court, for trying to deport some
Moslem opposition leaders. With the passing of that law, the court became powerless
and therefore
stopped the trial.
•
• Membership of Secret Societies:
• It is believed that the oath of brotherhood of these secret societies enjoins members to
help one another. As a result, if an accused person is brought before a judge who is in the
same society with him, the judge, by their oath of brotherhood, has to rule in his favour
or reduce the punishment drastically.
The Civil and Public Service
 The Civil Service
• The task of managing the affairs of the state is the business of the executive
organ of government.

• The staff of the executive branch of government can be categorized into two.
They are the politicians and administrators.

• The politicians comprise the president and his vice, ministers and their deputies,
the metropolitan, municipal and district Chief Executives (MMDCEs), presidential
staffers, special assistants and all other appointees of the president whose
assumption and exit of office depend on the success or failure of their political
parties in national elections.

• The employment of this category of personnel is relatively temporary. They

assume office when the political party they support wins or commands the
majority of votes in a general election. They also lose their jobs and leave the
corridors of power when their parties lose elections.
 The Civil Service
• The administrators are the employees of the government ministries,
departments and agencies. They are in the civil service, they are known as
civil servants.

• The administrators or civil servants on the other hand are professionals or

officials who are appointed (not elected) to their offices or jobs permanently
to assist the politicians to discharge their duties.

• The civil servants work in the civil service.

• It is primarily a body of professional administrators as opposed to politicians

within the executive organ of government whose main business is to assist
the politicians to formulate public policies.
 Structure of the Civil Service
Generally five (5) main divisions can be identified namely, the Administrative,
Professional, Executive, Clerical and Manipulative classes.

Administrative Class: -
❑The administrative class is the highest, elite and the most highly paid staff of the service.
They are in close touch with the politicians.

❑They actually advise the politicians on policy choices and directions and assist them in
their formulation.

❑Among the staff of the administrative class are professionals such as doctors, surveyors,
statisticians, engineers, economists, architects, lawyers, meteorologists, chemists,
geologists, physicists and others who work in the government ministries to assist the
politicians with professional advice.
 Structure of the Civil Service
The Executive Class: -
❑The Executive class is responsible for implementing (Executing) decisions
taken by government.

❑Principal and Senior Executive Offices are usually found in this class.

The Professional Class: -

❑This class includes Accountants, Lawyers, Engineers Surveyors and
Architects. This class has become very important due to the increased
functions of government.

❑The duty of the professional class is to work on technical matters related

to their field of expertise like road construction, housing and agriculture.
 Structure of the Civil Service
The Clerical Class: -
• This class is made up of officers and typists who service the
government machinery.

Manipulative/ Manual Class: -

• This is the manual labour force of the ministries and departments.
Among them are messengers, drivers, cleaners etc.
The Characteristics/ Features of the Civil Service
The features of the civil service are permanence, neutrality, anonymity, impartiality and
uniformity of administration.

• Permanence: - Civil Servants are usually employed until retirement. Except for dismissals,
no civil servant can loose his position when there is a change of government. Once
appointed, he is assured of security of office and his entitlements.

• Impartiality: - Civil servants are expected to eschew discrimination in the discharge of

their duties to the public. That is, they should suppress all their political inclinations and
show devotion to all governments that come to power. They should also endeavour to
render equal services to all citizens without bias.

• Uniformity of administration: - There is similarity in the pattern of administration in every

branch of the service. That is, all branches of the service operate in almost the same way.
This is because the service is governed by Precedents, General Orders, Regulations and
Departmental Policies.
The Characteristics/ Features of the Civil Service
• Anonymity: - This means undisclosed identity while working under a
political head. Everything is done in the name of the political head or
minister. If policies are successful, the politician takes the credit and vice
versa. Political neutrality and anonymity of the civil service are important
because they ensure continuity, stability, efficiency, responsibility and
accountability in the civil service.
•
• Neutrality: - This is defined as being non-partisan at all times, and
prepared to work with whichever party in power. Political neutrality
means civil servants do not take part in active politics.
 The Importance of Neutrality and Anonymity
❑To maintain their jobs when there is a change in government.

❑To maintain the confidence that government has in them.

❑To ensure peace and stability in the state.

❑To promote objectivity and efficiency in the civil service.

❑To maintain quality personnel in the service.

 Functions of the Civil Service
The civil service is a very important institution in the administration of a state.
This is because of its role in the formulation and implementation of public
policies. The civil service performs a wide range of functions. These include:

• Policy formulation: The bureaucrats, through the administrative class, help the
politicians or government ministers to formulate public policies for the
administration of the state. They expose the ministers to a variety of policy
options and after a choice has been made, the servants help to formulate
policies and also give advice to the politicians.

• Policy implementation: The civil servants are also responsible for the
implementation of government policies and programme. In addition, the
service monitors and evaluates such government policies and programme
approved for implementation. It also identifies those that need to be modified
to ensure efficiency.
 Functions of the Civil Service
• Information gathering for policy advice: The civil service institution collects
or gathers information and statistical data in the course of performing their
routine functions. The civil servants analyze such relevant information and
use it to advise the government for planning and administration purposes.
The personnel of the service also assist the ministers to prepare and deliver
speeches at public functions.

• Supervision of subordinate institutions: The service supervises the work of

the subordinate institutions, departments and agencies under the various
ministries to ensure that their work conforms to the broad policies of the
government.
 Problems of the Civil Service
• Lack of qualified personnel: The great expansion in the functions of
government has not been matched with a corresponding increase in
the availability of qualified personnel in the administrative set up. As
a result, the service is full of unqualified personnel.

• "Red - tapeism" or bureaucracy: There is always the tendency of civil

servants tying their official duties to rules and regulations, Strict
compliance with general order; therefore slows down action, to the
annoyance of the public.
 Problems of the Civil Service
• Low morale of workers and Negative attitude of workers: Lack of
incentives and poor conditions of service act as disincentives as such
most civil servants regard their jobs as government work. They
therefore do not give off their best.

• Political interference: Some political heads try to influence

appointments and promotions, which greatly undermine confidence
and discipline in the service. Political instabilities in West Africa have
also compounded the situation.
 The Public Services
• The public service is broader in scope than the civil service.

• It consists of governments and all publicly controlled and publicly funded

agencies, enterprises and other entities that deliver programme, goods or
services, to the public.

• It includes the civil service itself.

• In Ghana, the public service is defined to include the public or state owned
enterprises, the public services created by the Constitution.
 The Public Services
• The 1992 Constitution of Ghana lists the Public Services of the country to include the following:
A.
• The Civil Service
• The Judicial Service
• The Audit Service
• The Education Service
• The Prisons Service
• The Parliamentary Service
• The Health Service
• The Statistical Service
• The National Fire Service
• The Customs, Excise and Preventive Service
• The Internal Revenue Service
• The Police Service
• The Immigration Service
• The Legal Service
B) Public corporations other than those set up as commercial ventures
C) Public services established by this Constitution
D) Such other public services as Parliament may by law prescribe.
 The Distinction
• The staff of most of these institutions are not bound by the principles that
characterize the civil service.

• Also employees of both institutions render services to the state, however,

due to the blurred distinction between the civil service and the public
services it is difficult to strike clear distinction in functions of the two
entities.

• What can perhaps help to clarify the confusion is that civil servants render
services by offering services to politicians, while the services rendered by
the public servants are consumed directly by the public.
 The Organization of Government Ministries and
Departments
• The power to administer the affairs of a state is vested in the president.

• To make the administration of the state easier, ministries are created to be

responsible for the management of various aspects of national life.

• Ministries are the biggest units of the executive branch of government, covering
broad areas of government responsibility.

• Ministries can be created to manage every aspect of national life which the
government of the day deems relevant. Ministries can be created to manage areas
such as education, energy, agriculture, industry, health, labour and employment
relations, finance and a host of others.
 The Organization of Government Ministries and
Departments
• Each ministry is in charge of a defined sector of the economy and is responsible
for the determination of policy direction in the sector and the supervision of
activities in it.

• The president or head of government has the prerogative to establish,

reorganize, merge or split ministries and assign names to them.

• A minister of state is appointed to head each ministry.

• A minister may be assisted by one or two deputy ministers. The minister is the
political head of the ministry. There are also administrative heads of the
ministries. They are called Chief Directors.
 The Organization of Government Ministries and
Departments
• Each ministry has its own Chief Director who supervises the routine
operations of the ministry.

• It should be noted that each of the massive organizations called

ministries is divided into subsidiary departments, agencies, bureaus,
offices and units.

• The Ministry of Education for instance has subsidiary departments such

as the Ghana Education Service (GES), the Non-Formal Education Division
(NFED) and the Ghana Library Board (GLD) and the Curriculum Research
Development Division (CRDD) among others.
The Organization of Government Ministries and
Departments
• A department within a ministry is also subdivided into units.

• The Ghana Education Service (GES) for example, is further divided

into sub units like the Division of Basic Education, Division of
Secondary Education, Division of Technical and Vocational Education,
Teacher Education Division etc.

• There are also offices, bureaus and desks such as the Girl Child
Education unit, Mathematics, Science and Technology Education unit,
Study-Leave unit etc.
 Ministry of Education

Non-Formal Curriculum Research

Ghana Education Ghana Library Development
Education
Service (GES Board (GLD Division (CRDD)
Division (NFED)

Division of Division of Division of Technical Teacher

Basic Secondary and Vocational Education
Education Education Education Division

Girl Child Education Mathematics, Science and

unit Study-Leave unit
Technology Education unit
 Ministerial Reshuffle
• The appointment of ministers is the prerogative of the president. He
reserves the right to reshuffle the ministerial team.

• The word ‘reshuffle’ refers to the process of changing jobs or

responsibilities of people in a particular group or organization. For
example, head teachers do reshuffle their teachers from time to time.

• Reshuffles involving ministers are called ministerial reshuffles and it refers

to the periodic changing of ministers by the head of government.

• It can also be explained as the periodic reallocation, redistribution and

reassignment of sectorial responsibilities, political portfolios or ministerial
positions within the national government by the head of government.
 Ministerial Reshuffle
• It is not all ministers who survive ministerial reshuffles.

• Some ministers are dropped as heads of ministries and therefore lose their
portfolios completely.

• Of those who survive the reshuffle, some retain their portfolios, while others are
re-assigned to new portfolios or different ministries. Others may be promoted
or elevated and some others may be demoted.

• A deputy regional minister can for example be appointed as the substantive

regional minster. In some instances too, a minister can be dropped from a high
profile ministry and re-assigned to a low profile ministerial portfolio.
 Ministerial Reshuffle
• A number of factors influence presidents or heads of government to effect
changes in their ministerial teams periodically.

• In fact it is not easy to determine why reshuffles are carried out by heads of
government since they are not obliged to make public the reasons for effecting
such changes. However, some attempts have been made to explain some
factors that most likely influence the decisions of heads of government to
reshuffle their ministerial teams.

• Some of them are discussed as follows:

✓When a new ministry is created, it necessitates the appointment of a new minister to
head it. New ministries can be created by reorganization or realignment, splitting or
merger of existing ministries. For example President Kufuor created completely new
ministries such Ministries of Aviation, Fisheries, Ports, Harbours and Railways, Women and
Children Affairs, Chieftaincy and Culture and Public Sector Reforms.
 Ministerial Reshuffle
✓When a scandal occurs in a ministry and is so damning such that it tarnishes the image
of the ministry, the sector minister is sacked and replaced immediately to save the image
of the government and the party in power.

✓Resignations of incumbent ministers also result in reshuffles. When a minister or a

number of ministers resign their posts, they must be replaced to avoid vacuum.

✓Reshuffles are also effected to inject efficiency and effectiveness in an administration.

This happens when the president of head or government at any point in time realizes
that a minister or some ministers are not performing efficiently in a particular ministry or
ministries. In this regard, Ministers who are deemed to be non-performing or under-
performing are reassigned to new ministries or they are dropped altogether.

✓Some reshuffles are made to satisfy the interests of ethnic, regional, religious or other
groups who are thought to be under represented in government. In selecting ministers
after the inauguration of a new government, cconsideration should be given to regional,
religious, ethnic and gender balance.
 The Local Government System
• Local government refers to a governing process through which residents of a
defined locality participate in the key decision-making process by determining
what their priority concerns, are and how resources should be raised for the
management of the locality.

• Local government can best be understood as administration of local communities

by either appointed or elected local representatives. It is essentially, democracy
at the door step of the people.

• Local government units are created by Acts of Parliament which specify their
powers and functions.

• Even though local government units are subject to the directives and regulations
of the central government in many ways, they possess a considerable amount of
responsibility and discretionary powers.
 The Local Government System
• Local government authorities are described as semi-autonomous
units or bodies by the Central Government, to undertake certain
functions within their own influence.

• The powers and functions are therefore delegated and the central
government exercises supervisory control over them.
The Structure of Local Government in Ghana
• As mentioned earlier, modern day Local Government was first
introduced in Ghana by the Local Government Act 1961. This was
followed by the PNDC Law 207 of 1988 and later, by Articles 240 to
256 of the 1992 Constitution.

• This created a three-tier structure, namely

➢Regional Co-ordinating Councils.
➢District/Metropolitan/Municipal Assemblies (along with the Sub-
Metropolitan, Urban, Town and Area Councils).
➢Unit Committees.
 The Regional Co-ordinating Council
• The Regional Co-ordinating Council (RCC) is the highest political
authority in the region. There is one in each of the ten regions in Ghana.

• A Regional Co-ordinating Council is made up of:

❑The Regional Minister is the chairman of the council, with the Regional Co-
ordinating Director (RCD) as the secretary. The Regional Minister, presides over
its meetings
❑The Deputy Regional Minister, who is an ex-officio member
❑All the District Chief Executives (DCEs) in the region
❑All the Presiding Members (PMs) of District Assemblies in the region.
❑Two chiefs from the regional house of chiefs.
 Functions of the Regional Coordinating Council

• The council co-ordinates, monitors and evaluates the functions of the

District Assemblies in the region.

• It monitors the implementation of approved plans, programmes and

projects within the region and evaluates the performance of such projects.

• It plans at the regional level and integrates all departmental programmes in

the region.
Functions of the Regional Coordinating Council
• The council reviews and co-ordinates public services generally in the
region.

• It is responsible for the maintenance of peace, security and public

safety in the region. In this regard, the council works together with
the national and regional security agencies to ensure this.

• The council performs such other functions as may from time-to-time

be assigned to it by the central government.
 District/Metropolitan/Municipal Assemblies
• According to the Local Government Act 1993 (Act 462) of Ghana;

❑A district assembly must have a population of not less than seventy -five
thousand (75,000) people.
❑In the case of a municipality, the inhabitants must not be less than ninety -
five thousand (95,000).
❑Two hundred and fifty thousand (250,000) for a metropolis.
 Composition of the Assemblies
• A District Assembly consists of:

❖The District Chief Executive (DCE) who is nominated by the government and
approved by 2/3 majority by members of the District Assemblies.

❖The member(s) of parliament (MP) in the district, municipality or metropolis.

❖Elected Assembly members who constitute two-thirds (2/3) of the total

members.

❖Members appointed by the government in consultation with the traditional

council and identifiable groups who also constitute the remaining one-third
(1/3).
 Composition of the District Assemblies
• A metropolitan, municipal or district assembly is headed by the
metropolitan, municipal or District Chief Executive (MMDCE). He or she is
the political head of the metropolis, municipality or district.

• A meeting of the District Assembly is however presided over by a Presiding

Member (PM), who is more or less the Speaker of the Assembly. The
presiding member is elected from among the Assembly members.

• The administrative head of the municipality, metropolis or district assembly

is the Co-ordinating Director, who is a civil servant. The Co-ordinating
Director is the secretary to the District Assembly.
 Qualification of a Member of District Assembly
in Ghana
• To be eligible for appointment or election into the Assembly, one

➢Must be a citizen of Ghana either by birth, naturalization or by adoption

➢The person must have attained the age of eighteen (18) years and above and must be
of sound mind.
➢The individual must be a registered voter. He or she must thus have registered with
the electoral commission as a voter.
➢The person must not be a criminal, or a convicted or a wanted person. That is, he or
she must have a clean criminal record.
➢A prospective member of the District Assembly in Ghana must have fulfilled his or her
tax obligations to the state.
➢The person must have resided in the electoral area or unit for a considerable period
of time.
 Duties of a Member of District Assembly
• A member of District Assembly shall, as appropriate, perform the following
functions:
✓The Assemblyman or woman must maintain close contact with the people in his or
her electoral area. He or she must consult the people on issues to be discussed in
the District Assembly and collate their views, opinions and proposals and present the
aggregate of such views, opinions and proposals as collated to the District Assembly
for consideration and action where necessary.

✓He or she must report to his or her electorate the general decisions of the Assembly
and its Executive Committee and the action he or she has taken to address or solve
problems raised by the resident in his or her electoral area.
Duties of a Member of District Assembly
✓The member of the District Assembly shall attend sessions of the Assembly and
meetings of sub-committee of which he or she is a member. He or she must actively
participate in the work of the sub-committee of the Executive committee.

✓The member must devote or select at least one day in every two weeks for a
meeting with the people in his or her electoral areal who may wish to see him.

✓The member must bring to bear on any discussion in the Assembly the benefit of his
or her skill, profession, expertise, experience or specialized knowledge.

✓The member must organize and take part in communal and development activities in
the area or district.
 Functions of the Assembly
• The Metropolitan, Municipal or District Assembly initiates programme
for the development of basic infrastructure and provides works and
services in the district or municipality. It thus prepares and submits to
the Regional Co-ordinating council the district’s development plan
and budget for approval.

• The Assembly is responsible for the development, improvement and

management of human settlements in the metropolis, municipality or
district. An example of this is planning the layout of towns and
villages under their management.
Functions of the Assembly
• The Assembly is responsible for the maintenance of security and public
safety in the metropolis, municipality or district. To this end, it co-operates
with the national and local security agencies to maintain peace.

• It ensures ready access to the courts and other tribunals in the metropolis,
municipality or district for the promotion of justice.

• In addition to the above, the Assembly is to ensure that approved

development plans are executed. Thus it monitors the execution of
approved projects in the district, metropolis or municipality.
Functions of the Assembly
❖The sub-metropolitan, urban, town and area councils recommend to the
Assembly the naming of all streets in its area of authority and cause all
buildings in the streets to be numbered.

❖They are to enumerate and keep records of all rateable properties in areas
under their authority.

❖They are responsible for the day-to-day administration of the urban, town or
area under their jurisdiction.
 The Unit Committee (UC)
The Unit Committee (UC) is the lowest and the third on the three-tier
structure of the new local Government structure. It was established to
replace the Town and Village Development Council of the previous local
government structure.

Composition
• A Unit Committee is made up of fifteen persons ordinarily resident in the
unit.

• Ten of the members are elected by residents in the localities in local

elections and the remaining five are appointed by the District Chief
Executive acting on behalf of the President.

• A member of a unit committee shall hold office for four years and shall be
eligible for re-election or re-appointment as the case may be.
 Functions of the Unit Committee
❖They assist any person authorized by the Assembly to collect revenue due the
Assembly.

❖They also help to protect the environment by taking measures to prevent and control
fire outbreaks including bushfires, indiscriminate tree felling, and sand wining. In
addition, the councils plant trees to further protect the environment from
degradation.

❖They also perform such other functions as may be delegated to them by the Assembly.
 The Functions of Local Government
The local government units or local authorities perform a wide range of functions in a
state. For the sake of clarity and convenience they have been grouped under social,
environmental, economic, political and legal functions.

Social Functions
• One basic function performed by local government bodies is the provision of social
amenities. Local authorities provide essential services like schools, health posts and
clinics, public places of convenience, street lighting and drainage systems, portable
water and streets.

• They also provide recreational and welfare facilities like football fields, recreational
grounds, public parks and community and social centres in areas under their
jurisdiction. It is also maintains public amenities.

• Naming of streets and avenues as well as the numbering of houses also falls within the
ambit of the local authorities.
The Functions of Local Government
Environmental Functions
• Local government units undertake projects and programmes to keep the
environment safe. They collect and manage refuse, provide good sewage
and drainage systems, plant trees and grow grass to protect the
environment from degradation. They as well, take measures to protect the
environment from being degraded through unscrupulous activities like
sand winning, over grazing, bush burning and indiscriminate tree felling.

• They are also responsible for planning the layout of towns and villages
under their management unit and also undertake beautification projects in
the areas of their operation.
 The Functions of Local Government
Economic Function
• Local authorities cannot function effectively and efficiently without sound
financial base. To this end, they engage in some economic activities at the
local level to generate revenue and to boost economic development.

• They, for instance, construct and maintain markets, market stalls, and lorry
parks and collect tolls for their use.

• The bodies also collect various forms of taxes such basic rates, market and
lorry park tolls, property tax and artisan fees among others to undertake
development project.
 Advantages of Local Government
Many reasons have been assigned for the establishment of local government
authorities. The following are therefore some of them:
✓It promotes participation at the local level. Political participation at all
levels of the administrative structure, is very crucial for a sustained
development. Local government authorities are therefore, established to
bring as many people as possible into the decision making process, either
directly or indirectly. This makes them feel they are part of the system, and
are therefore prepared to contribute towards its success.

✓It answers the problem of remoteness. Local government administration

is an element of decentralization, and therefore, brings the government
closer to the people. In a highly centralized system, central government
institutions are removed from the rural areas who feel neglected.
Therefore, through Local Government, these bodies are brought closer to
the people.
 Advantages of Local Government
✓It is an agency of the Executive. The Assembly therefore, has the
responsibility of implementing policies of the central government in
the various localities. At that level, it is possible to ascertain properly,
local needs before they are implemented.

✓It serves as a training ground for future politicians. Local

government authorities provide viable avenues for the training of
individuals for national assignment.
 Advantages of Local Government
✓It reduces the pressure on central government. It is therefore
necessary to establish a local government, to tap the resources at the
local level, to provide some of the services outlined above. The local
people are better able to formulate local policies and implement
them without reference to the central government. This relieves the
central government of some of its responsibilities, to concentrate on
major national issues.
 Sources of Revenue for Local Authorities
In order to carry out their functions efficiently and effectively, local authorities
need money to operate. The Central Government therefore, provides grants to
them, and on their own, levy taxes on the people for services rendered. Local
government revenues may also be derived from loans and property tax. These
revenues are generally referred to as Internally Generated Funds (IGF).

• Grants from the central government. Grants to local authorities have therefore,
increased at a faster rate, and in consequence of this they are made highly
dependent on the central government.

• Rates and tolls. Local authorities also obtain revenue by collecting taxes in the
form of rates and tolls from its inhabitants. The popular example is the poll tax.
E.g. Property rates, market tolls etc.
 Sources of Revenue for Local Authorities
• Court fines. Customary courts that operate at the local level impose fines
on cases that come before them.

• Loans from financial institutions. Local government authorities also obtain

revenue from loans granted by financial institutions, to carry out specific
projects.

• Service charges. Charges for services provided may also form another
source of income for local authorities. For instance, fees from licenses of
bicycles, drinking bar operators, land permits are all sources of revenue for
local government authorities.
 Problems of Local Authorities
• Inadequate funds: The first major problem of local authorities is
inadequate funds. The grants given by the central government are
inadequate. Apart from that, the Assemblies are unable to generate
enough local revenue for development. Many people in the urban areas
especially, refuse to pay their basic rates, because of the notion that
monies collected are not put to good use.

• Lack of qualified personnel: In all developing countries, unskilled labour is

abundant, while qualified manpower is scarce in relation to the demand for
them. In rural areas, the prevailing conditions actually contribute to this
problem. There is absence of good drinking water, poor accommodation
facilities and other necessities of life. The result is that many people refuse
appointments to the rural areas. The authorities therefore engage the
services of unqualified personnel, and the outcome is inefficiency and
various forms of corruption.
 Problems of Local Authorities
• Interference from central government: A local government as a public
authority must be allowed some measure of autonomy or freedom, to
fulfill the purpose for which it was set up. Unfortunately, this has not
been the case. In Ghana and West African States, which have
experienced political instabilities, each government either changes the
structure, personnel or the functions of the Assemblies. These frequent
changes do not augur well for effective administration.
 Problems of Local Authorities
• Influence of partisan politics: The operation of the party system may
also pose problems to local authorities. Due to this problem, elections
into District Assembly in Ghana are non-partisan. Individuals are
allowed to contest on their own merit not as representatives of
political parties.

• Improper Demarcation of Districts: Another problem that District

Assemblies is poor delimitation of local government boundaries. The
result is that some districts are too large and difficult to run than
others, while some are created just for political expediency.
 Ways of Improving the Revenue Base of Local
Authorities
✓Proper zoning and numbering of houses.
✓Intensive tax education for the inhabitants.
✓Proper training of revenue staff.
✓Develop potential tourist sites
✓Adequate remuneration and motivation of revenue collectors
✓Provision of adequate logistics.
✓Effective supervision of revenue collectors.
✓Judicious use of revenue collected.
✓Stiff and prompt sanctioning of defaulters.
 Leadership Defined
• Leadership is a relationship through which one person
influences the behaviour or actions of other people
(Mullins, 2006).

• The ability to inspire or influence others towards the

leader’s goal has been defined as leadership.

• According to Levine, leaders need to focus on moving

people and organisations forward by increasing the
competency of staff and the co-operation of teams in
order to improve the organisation.
 Leadership and Management
• Leadership does not necessarily take place within the hierarchical
structure of the organisation but management does.

• Many people operate as leaders without their role ever being clearly
established or defined, however the roles of management are clearly
defined.

• The work that leadership encompasses in the context clearly is not

assigned but comes about spontaneously.

• Managers tend to adopt impersonal or passive attitudes towards goals.

Leaders adopt a more personal and active attitude towards goals.

• In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level

of emotional involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people
and give attention to what events and actions mean.
 The Importance Of Leadership
• Good leadership helps to develop teamwork and
the integration of individual and group goals.

• It aids intrinsic motivation by emphasizing the

importance of the work that people do.

• It aids in successful implementation of change.

• It helps in improving organizational performance.

 Styles Of Leadership
• Leadership style is the way in which the functions
of leadership are carried out, the way in which
the manager typically behaves towards members
of the group.

• The attention given to leadership style is based

on the assumption that subordinates are more
likely to work effectively for managers who adopt
a certain style of leadership than they will for
managers who adopt alternative styles.
 Styles Of Leadership
• There are many dimensions to leadership and
many possible ways of describing leadership
style, however, the style of managerial leadership
towards subordinate staff and the focus of power
has been classified by Kurt Lewin within three-
fold heading namely;

– The authoritarian style

– The democratic style
– The laissez-faire style
 Styles Of Leadership
• The authoritarian (or autocratic) style: This is
where the focus of power is with the leader, and
all interactions within the group move towards
the leader.

• The manager alone exercises decision-making

and authority for determining policy, procedures
for achieving goals, work tasks and relationships,
control of rewards or punishments.
 Styles Of Leadership
• The democratic style: This is where the focus of
power is more with the group as a whole and
there is greater interaction within the group.

• The leadership functions are shared with

members of the group and the manager is more
part of a team.

• The group members have a greater say in

decision-making, determination of policy,
implementation of systems and procedures.
 Styles Of Leadership
• The laissez-faire style: This is where the leader
observes that members of the group are working well
on their own.

• The manager consciously makes a decision to pass the

focus of power to members, to allow them freedom of
action ‘to do as they think best’, and not to interfere;
but is readily available if help is needed.

• There is often confusion over this style of leadership

behaviour. This is to be contrasted with the leader who
could not care, who deliberately keeps away from the
trouble spots and does not want to get involved.
 Styles Of Leadership
• Belbin distinguishes between two broad contrasting or
diverging styles of leadership in industry:
– The solo leader
– The team leader

• The Solo Leader: This type of leader enjoys free range, and
rules almost absolutely.

• The leader takes no risks with other people, adopts a

directive approach, prefers specific tasks and goals, expects
compliance and acts as a model for others to follow.

• In times of crisis or urgency the talented solo leaders have

been effective in overcoming departmental barriers and
obstacles, and implementing decisions quickly.
 Styles Of Leadership
• The Team Leader: This type of leader declines to rule
absolutely, and deliberately limits his or her role.

• The leader creates a sense of mission, expresses

greater respect for and trust in subordinates,
recognises the skills and strengths of others, and is
more inclined to delegate.

• Belbin suggests that increasing uncertainty and

continuous change together with societal pressure for
the sharing of power has led to increasing attention to
team leadership.
 Styles Of Leadership
• Burns also distinguished between two fundamental forms of
leadership:
– Transactional leadership
– Transformational leadership

• Transactional leadership: This is based on legitimate

authority within the bureaucratic structure of the
organisation.

• The emphasis is on the clarification of goals and objectives,

work task and outcomes, and organisational rewards and
punishments.

• Transactional leadership appeals to the self-interest of

followers. It is based on a relationship of mutual dependence
and an exchange process of: ‘I will give you this, if you do that’.
 Styles Of Leadership
• Transformational Leadership: This is a process of
stimulating higher levels of motivation and
commitment among followers.

• The emphasis is on generating a vision for the

organisation and the leader’s ability to appeal to higher
ideals and values of followers, and creating a feeling of
justice, loyalty and trust.

• In the organisational sense, transformational

leadership is about transforming the performance or
fortunes of a business.
 Main Forces In Deciding Type Of
Leadership
• Tannenbaum and Schmidt suggest that there
are three factors, or forces, of particular
importance in deciding what types of
leadership are practicable and desirable.

• These are:
– Forces in the leader
– Forces in the followers
– Forces in the situation
 Main Forces In Deciding Type Of
Leadership
• Forces in the leader: The leader’s behaviour will be
influenced by their own personalities, backgrounds,
knowledge and experiences.

• These internal forces will include:

– Value systems of the leader
– Confidence in himself
– Leadership preferences
– Feelings of security in an uncertain situation
– Personality
– Background of the leader
– Knowledge and experiences of the leader
 Main Forces In Deciding Type Of
Leadership
• Forces in the followers: followers are influenced by many
personality variables and their individual set of
expectations about their relationship with the leader.

• Characteristics of the followers are:

– The readiness to assume responsibility for decision-making
– The degree of tolerance for ambiguity
– Interest in the problem
– Necessary knowledge and experience to deal with the problem

• The greater the positive response to these characteristics,

the greater freedom of action can be allowed by the
manager.
 Main Forces In Deciding Type Of
Leadership
• Forces In The Situation: The manager’s
behaviour will be influenced by the general
situation and environmental pressures.

• Characteristics in the situation include:

– Type of organisation/the value system of the
organization
– Complexity of the task at hand
– The issue of confidentiality
– Pressure of time
 Main Forces In Deciding Type Of
Leadership
• Tannenbaum and Schmidt conclude that successful
leaders are keenly aware of those forces which are
most relevant to their behaviour at a particular time.

• They are able to behave appropriately in terms of their

understanding of themselves, the individuals and the
group,, and environmental influences.

• Successful managers are both perceptive and flexible.

 Power and Leadership Influence
• Within an organisation, leadership influence will be dependent
upon the type of power that the leader can exercise over the
followers.

• The exercise of power is a social process which helps to explain

how different people can influence the behaviour/actions of
others.

• Five main sources of power upon which the influence of the

leader is based have been identified by French and Raven as
– Reward power
– Coercive power
– Legitimate power
– Referent power
– Expert power
– Legal power
 Power and Leadership Influence
• Reward power is based on the subordinate’s perception
that the leader has the ability and resources to obtain
rewards for those who comply with directives; for
example, pay, promotion, praise, recognition, increased
responsibilities, allocation and arrangement of work,
granting of privileges.

• Coercive power is based on fear and the subordinate’s

perception that the leader has the ability to punish or to
bring about undesirable outcomes for those who do not
comply with directives; for example, withholding pay rises,
promotion or privileges; allocation of undesirable duties
or responsibilities; withdrawal of friendship or support;
formal reprimands or possibly dismissal. This is in effect
the opposite of reward power.
 Power and Leadership Influence
• Legitimate power is based on the subordinate’s perception that the
leader has a right to exercise influence because of the leader’s role or
position in the organisation.

• Legitimate power is based on authority, for example that of managers

and supervisors within the hierarchical structure of an organisation.

• Legitimate power is therefore ‘position’ power because it is based on

the role of the leader in the organisation, and not on the nature of the
personal relationship with others.

• Referent power is based on the subordinate’s identification with the

leader. The leader exercises influence because of perceived
attractiveness, personal characteristics, reputation or what is called
‘charisma’.

• For example, a particular manager may not be in a position to reward or

punish certain subordinates, but may still exercise power over the
subordinates because the manager commands their respect or esteem.
 Power and Leadership Influence
• Expert power is based on the subordinate’s perception
of the leader as someone who is competent and who
has some special knowledge or expertise in a given
area.

• Expert power is based on credibility and clear evidence

of knowledge or expertise; for example, the expert
knowledge of ‘functional’ specialists such as the
personnel manager, management accountant or
systems analyst.

• The expert power is usually limited to narrow, well-

defined areas or specialism.
 Power and Leadership Influence
• Legal power: the power given to an individual
by law.
 Leadership Traits
• While great leaders may sometimes be born that
way, there are certain traits that great leaders
share in common that anyone can practice and
adopt to become more effective.

• Research shows that to be a highly effective

leader, an individual must have/be the following:
 Leadership Traits
• Inspire Action: Try to paint a vision of the future that inspires
your people to do whatever it takes to get there.

The best leaders also clear away the organizational roadblocks

that constrain employees’ natural creativity and initiative,
unleashing a tremendous amount of energy in the process.

• Optimistic: We all want to work with and for people who lift us
up into the clouds instead of dragging us down into the mud.

Make sure to seek out the positives in your people, helping

them overcome their own feelings of self-doubt and spreading
optimism throughout your organization.
 Leadership Traits
• Integrity: Research shows that the top thing that
employees want from their leaders is integrity.

Be honest, fair, candid and forthright, and treat everyone in

the same way that you yourself would want to be treated.

• Enthusiasm: Leaders are usually seen as active, expressive,

and energetic.

Overall, they are generally quick and alert and tend to be

uninhibited.
 Leadership Traits
• Confidence: Highly effective leaders know deep down
inside that they and their team can accomplish anything
they set their minds to. Failure is not an option.

Tentative leaders make for tentative employees. If you’re

confident, your people will be too.

• Communicate: In any organization, knowledge is power,

and great leaders ensure that every employee, from the
very top to the very bottom of the organizational chart, is
provided with complete and up-to-date information about
the organization’s goals, performance, successes and
failures.
 Leadership Traits
• Decisive: One of the most basic duties of any leader is to make
decisions.

Highly effective leaders aren’t afraid to be decisive and to make tough

calls quickly when circumstances require it.

Once you have all the information you need to make an informed
decision, then don’t hesitate--make it.

And once you make a decision, then stick with it unless there is a
particularly compelling reason for you to change it.

• Emotional stability: Good leaders must be able to tolerate frustration

and stress. Overall, they must be well-adjusted and have the
psychological maturity to deal with anything they are required to face.
 Leadership Traits
• Risk takers: Leaders tend to be spontaneous risk-takers.

They are usually socially aggressive and generally thick-skinned.

Overall, they are responsive to others and tend to be high in

emotional stamina.

• Tough-mindedness: Good leaders are practical, logical, and to-

the-point.

They tend to be low in sentimental attachments and

comfortable with criticism.

They are usually insensitive to hardship and overall, are very

poised.