IEB ESSENTIALS GRADE

12
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Content Acknowledgement
Many thanks to those involved in the production, translation and moderation of this book:
R Bartholomew, L Couperthwaite, N Cullinan, W Cloete, C de Beer, S Dippenaar, T Fairless, I Govender,
C Hare, L Kroukamp, R Lodge, K Munnik, C Orchison, M Peyper, S Pienaar, Y Patterson, R Ramsugit,
S Roberts, C Steyn, K Storm, S Sapsford, X Sithenjwa , A Theron, C Visser, B Ward

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Core Theory Summaries

Physics:
Physics Data 3
Motion in 1D 7
Vertical Projectile Motion 8
Vectors in 2D 11
Newton’s Laws of Motion 13
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 17
Momentum 18
Work, Energy and Power 21
Electricity 25
Electrostatics 27
Electromagnetism 29
Electrodynamics 30
Photoelectric Effect 32

Chemistry:
Chemistry Data 35
Organic Chemistry 39
Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change 46
VSEPR Theory and IMF 49
Energy and Chemical Change 50
Rates of Reactions 51
Chemical Equilibrium 52
Acids and Bases 55
Electrochemistry 58

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Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Grade 12 Physics Definitions
Vector: A physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction
Scalar: A physical quantity that has magnitude only
Resultant vector: A single vector which has the same effect as the original vectors acting together
Distance: Length of path travelled
Vectors and Scalars
Displacement: A change in position
Speed: Rate of change of distance
Velocity: Rate of change of position (or displacement)
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity

Weight (Fg): The gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface
Normal force (FN): The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it
Frictional force due to a surface (Ff): The force that opposes the motion of an object and acts parallel to the surface with
which the object is in contact
Newton's First Law of Motion: An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with constant) velocity unless acted
upon by a net or resultant force
Newton’s Laws Inertia: The property of an object that causes it to resist a change in its state of rest or uniform motion
Newton's Second Law of Motion: When a net force, Fnet, is applied to an object of mass, m, it accelerates in the direction
of the net force. The acceleration, a, is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass
Newton's Third Law of Motion: When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously exerts an oppositely
directed force of equal magnitude on object A
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: Every particle with mass in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centres
Gravitational field: The force acting per unit mass

Momentum: The product of the mass and velocity of the object

Newton’s Second Law in terms of Momentum: The net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of
momentum
Momentum and Impulse: The product of the net force and the contact time
Impulse Law of conservation of linear momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant (is
conserved)
Elastic collision: A collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
Inelastic collision: A collision in which only momentum is conserved

Work done on an object: The product of the displacement and the component of the force parallel to the displacement
Gravitational potential energy: The energy an object possesses due to its position relative to a reference point
Kinetic energy: The energy an object has as a result of the object’s motion
Mechanical energy: The sum of gravitational potential and kinetic energy at a point
Law of conservation of energy: The total energy in a system cannot be created nor destroyed; only transformed from one
Work, Energy and form to another
Power Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: In the absence of air resistance or any external forces, the mechanical
energy of an object is constant
Work-energy theorem: Work done by a net force on an object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the object
Power: The rate at which work is done OR rate at which energy is transferred
Watt: The power when one joule of work is done in one second
Efficiency: The ratio of output power to input power

Coulomb's law: Two point charges in free space or air exert a force on each other. The force is directly proportional to the
Electrostatics product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the the distance between the charges.
Electric field at a point: The force per unit positive charge

Potential difference: The work done per unit positive charge

Current: The rate of flow of charge
Ohm's law: Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the conductor at constant
Electric Circuits
temperature
Resistance: A material’s opposition to the flow of electric current
Emf: The total energy supplied per coulomb of charge by the cell

Magnetic flux density: Is a representation of the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux linkage: Product of the number of turns on the coil and the flux through the coil.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: The emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
Electrodynamics
(flux linkage)
Lenz's law: The induced current flows in a direction so as to set up a magnetic field to oppose the change in magnetic flux
Diode: A component that only allows current to flow in one direction

Optical Phenomena Threshold (cut-off) frequency (fo): the minimum frequency of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from a
and Properties of particular metal
Materials Work function (Wo): the minimum amount of energy needed to emit an electron from the surface of a metal

6
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Motion in 1D SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

VARIABLES Calculations:
A racing car starting from rest on the grid, travels straight Position vs Time Velocity vs Time Acceleration vs Time
u vi initial velocity along the track and reaches the 400 m mark after 8,6 s.
a) What was its average acceleration? Stationary (velocity = 0 m·s−1)
v vf final velocity
a a acceleration

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
u vi 0 Let forward be positive.
s ∆x / ∆y displacement
1

x (m)
Δx = vi Δt + a t2
t ∆t change in time v vf / 2
1
EQUATIONS OF MOTION a a ? 400 = (0)(8,6) + 2 a8,62 Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
Old symbols New symbols Leaves out −2
s ∆x 400 m a = 10,82 m ⋅ s forward
v = u + at vf = vi + a Δt s or Δx Constant velocity (acceleration = 0 m·s−2)
1 1 t ∆t 8,6 s
s = ut+ a t2 Δx = vi Δt a Δt 2 v or vf
2 2
v2 2
= u + 2a s vf2 = vi2 + 2a Δx t or Δt

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
b) What was its velocity at the 400 m mark?
1 1 vf = vi + aΔt

x (m)
s = (u + v)t Δx = (v + vf )Δt a
2 2 i
Steps to using the equations: vf = 0 + (10,82)(8,6)
Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
vf = 93,05 m ⋅ s− 1 forward
a) Draw a driagram of the motion of the object.
b) Identify each stage of the motion (where the accel- Increasing velocity (constant positive acceleration)
eration has changed). c) At the 400 m mark, the brakes are applied and the car
c) Choose a positive direction and use the same conven- slowed down at 2 m·s−2 to come to rest. Calculate the time it
tion throughout.

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
took for the car to stop.
d) Record the information given and value required by

x (m)
writing next to each variable. Check the unit and direc- NB! New stage of motion.
tion. Find the new value of each variable.
e) Select correct equation and solve for unknown. Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
f) Include units and direction in your answer.
Remember: u vi 93,05 m·s-1 Decreasing velocity (constant negative acceleration)
‘starting from rest’ means: u or vi = 0 Let forward be positive.
v vf 0
‘comes to a stop’ means: v or vf = 0 vf = vi + aΔt

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
Slowing down means: acceleration is negative (a < 0), a a -2 m·s−2 0 = 93,05 − 2t
while still moving in a positive direction. Δt (s)

x (m)
Constant velocity means: a =0, u = v or vi = vf
s ∆x / t = 46,53 s
Use a new set of variables for each stage of the motion. t ∆t ?
Conversion of units: 1 m.s-1 = 3,6 km.h-1.
Δt (s) Δt (s)

Displacement-Time Velocity-Time Acceleration-Time

• 1 is positive acceleration • 1 is positive acceleration • 1 is positive acceleration
• 2 is constant velocity • 2 is constant velocity • 2 is constant velocity (a = 0)
• 3 is negative acceleration • 3 is negative acceleration • 3 is negative acceleration

a (m·s–2)
• 4 is at rest • 4 is at rest, v = 0 m.s–1 • 4 is at rest or constant v
v (m·s–1)
x (m)

GRADIENT: GRADIENT: GRADIENT:

Velocity Acceleration n/a
AREA BELOW GRAPH: AREA BELOW GRAPH: AREA BELOW GRAPH:
n/a ΔDisplacement ΔVelocity
t (s) 7 t (s)
t (s)
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Vertical Projectile Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

PROJECTILE MOTION PARTS OF PROJECTILE PATH

Only vertical movement (up and down) is considered, no hori- EXAMPLE:
A projectile is an object that moves freely under the influ- zontal movement is taken into account. The path of projectile
An object is projected vertically upwards. 4 seconds later, it is caught at the same
ence of gravity only. It is not controlled by any mechanism motion can be analysed using the 4 sections as shown below.
height (point of release) on its way downwards. Determine how long it took the
(pulley or motor). The object is in free fall, but may move The combination of these 4 parts will depend on the actual
ball to pass a height of 8 m in the upward direction. Choose downward as posi-
upwards (thrown up) or downwards. path travelled by the projectile. Example: Dropped projectile is tive direction.
Forces on a projectile sections C and D only. Object thrown upwards and falls on roof 1
is sections A to C.
Δy = viΔt + 2
at 2
In the absence of friction, the gravitational force of the earth total time = 4 s
1
is the only force acting on a free falling body. This force al- ∴ t up = 2 s − 8 = − 19,6t + 2
(9,8)t 2
ways acts downwards. Time:
tA = tD 0 = 4,9t 2 − 19,6t + 8
Because the gravitational force is always downward, a projec- vf = vi + aΔt
tile that is moving upward, must slow down. When a projec- tB = tC
tile is moving downward, it moves in the direction of the B C 0 = vi + (9,8)(2)
SAME Displacement:
− b± b 2 − 4ac
gravitational force, therefore it will speed up. vi = − 19,6 t =
HEIGHT ΔyA = ΔyD 2a
Acceleration due to gravity ΔyB = ΔyC ∴ vi = 19,6 m ⋅ s − 1 u p
− (− 19,6) ± (− 19,6) 2 − 4(4,9)(8)
All free falling bodies near the surface of the earth have the
A D Velocity: t = 2(4,9)
same acceleration due to gravity. This acceleration is 9,8
m·s−2 downward. viA = vfD
− b± 2
b − 4a c t = 0,46 s OR 3,54*
vfA = viD x=
Ignoring air resistance/friction; If a marble and a rock are SAME ∴ t = 0,46 s *time for downward
viB = vfC 2a
released from the same height at the same time, they will VfB = ViC = 0 m·s−1 direction
strike the ground simultaneously, and their final velocity will HEIGHT
be the same.
GRAPHS OF PROJECTILE MOTION
Their momentum (mv) and kinetic energy (½mv2) are (Eg. A ball is thrown into the air and is caught at the same height.)
not the same, due to a difference in mass. Graph manipulation:
Area
If two objects are released from different heights, they have Change in positive direction:
the same acceleration, but they strike the ground at different Flip graph along x-axis Δy vs Δt v vs Δt a vs Δt
times and have different velocities. Change in reference position:
Shift x-axis (Δy-Δt only) Gradient
vf = vi + aΔt Nega%ve
a
Ne
ga

UP POSITIVE
Δy = displacement (m) %
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy Posi%ve
ve
a

v (m·s−1)

a (m·s−2)
Δt = time (s) Δy

Nega
ve v
Δy (m)
Δt (s) Δt (s)
vi = initial velocity (m·s−1) Ne Nega%ve
1

Posi%
Nega%ve Δv

%ve
ga Δy
Δy = viΔt + aΔt 2 %v
ea
vf = final velocity (m·s−1)

v
2
a = acceleration (m·s−2)
vi + vf (9,8 m·s−2 downwards) Δt (s)
Δy = ( )Δt Posi%ve
2 a
DOWN POSITIVE

a
ve
REMEMBER: si% Posi%ve

a (m·s−2)
o
Nega

ve v

v (m·s−1)
P Posi%ve Δv
Δy (m)

1. Draw a sketch diagram Δy

Δt (s) Δt (s)
Posi%

Nega%ve
%ve

2. Write down given variables Δy

v

3. Choose positive direction

4. Solve
Δt (s)
8
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 Path of a Projectile
ALL EXAMPLES:
Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
UP POSITIVE, POINT OF RELEASE IS REFERENCE
OBJECT DROPPED FROM HEIGHT (C+D) OBJECT THROWN DOWN FROM HEIGHT (D) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT (B+C+D)

vi = 0 m·s−1 vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 vi(down) = 0 m·s−1

vi ≠ 0 m·s−1

Δy (m)
Δy (m)

Δy (m)
vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1

Δt (s) Δt (s)
Δt (s)
v (m·s−1) Δt (s) Δt (s)

v (m·s−1)
Δt (s)

v (m·s−1)
vf vf vf(down)
a (m·s−2)

Δt (s)

a (m·s−2)

a (m·s−2)
Also applies to objects Δt (s) Also applies to objects Δt (s)
dropped from a downward dropped from an upward
moving reference. moving reference.

OBJECT THROWN UP AND CAUGHT (A+B+C+D) OBJECT THROWN UP, LANDS AT HEIGHT (A+B+C) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT, BOUNCES (B+C+D)

vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down) vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down)

Δy (m)

Δy (m)
B
A
C
Δt (s)

Δy (m)
B D

v (m·s−1)
A
vf(down) D

C C
E
Δt (s) Δt (s) E
Δt (s)
Accera&on due to force
v (m·s−1)

by surface during bounce

v (m·s−1)
Δt (s) vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1
Vi(up) = Vf(down)

a (m·s−2)
Δt (s)
Δt (s)
A B D E

C
a (m·s−2)

a (m·s−2)

Δt (s) Δt (s) If the collision is perfectly elastic, the downward velocity before the bounce
and the upward velocity after the bounce is equal in magnitude.
Treat the 2 projectile paths (before and after bounce) as separate paths.
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Special Projectile Paths SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

HOT AIR BALLOON LIFT BOUNCING BALL – Ball falls from rest and bounces
Contact time
When an object is dropped Lift moving up Lift moving down
A C
from a moving reference B
D
(hot air balloon), the initial

Δy (m)
Δyli%

Δy (m)
velocity will be equal to that
of the reference. The accel-
eration of the object will be

li% height
D
downwards at B A C
Δt (s)
9,8 m·s−2, regardless of the

li% height
Δyball Δyball Δt (s) Contact time
acceleration of the refer-
ence.
Bounce
Apex

v (m·s−1)
v (m·s−1)
A B C D
A B C D Δt (s)
Δyli%
EXAMPLE: Apex
A hot air balloon ascends with a constant Δt (s) Bounce
Δyball = lift height + Δylift
velocity of 5 m·s−1. A ball is dropped from the
hot air balloon at a height of 50 m and falls gradient = g = +9,8 m.s–2 gradient = g = –9,8 m.s–2
EXAMPLE:
vertically towards the ground. Determine (a)
the distance between the hot air balloon and A lift accelerates upwards at a rate of 1,4 m·s−2. As the lift
ball after 2 seconds and (b) the velocity of the starts to move, a lightbulb falls from the ceiling of the lift. 10
ball when it reaches the ground. Determine how long it takes the lightbulb to reach the EXAMPLE:
lift’s floor. The height from the ceiling of the lift to its floor The velocity-time graph below represents the 5
(a) Take downwards as positive: Δt (s)

v (m·s−1)
Distance travelled by balloon : is 3m. bouncing movement of a 0,1 kg ball. Use the
graph to answer the questions that follow:
1 Take downwards as positive:
Δy = vi Δt + 2
aΔt 2
movement of lift :
1
= (− 5)(2) + 2
(0)(22 ) Δylif t = vi Δt +
1
aΔt 2 a) Which direction of movement is positive?
−8
2
= − 10 Downwards
1
∴ Δy = 10 m up ylif t = (0)t + (− 1,4)t 2
2 b) How many times did the ball bounce?
2 3 times
∴ ylif t = − 0,7t
Distance travelled by ball :
1 c) What does the gradient of the graph represent?
Δy = vi Δt + 2
aΔt 2 Acceleration of the ball
movement of bulb :
1
= (− 5)(2) + 2
(9,8)(22 ) Δybu lb = vi Δt +
1
aΔt 2
d) Are the collisions between the ball and ground elastic or inelastic?
2 After each bounce there is a decrease in magnitude of the velocity of the ball,
= − 10 + 19,6 1 and therefore a change in kinetic energy. The collisions are inelastic as kinetic
3 + ylif t = (0)t + (9,8)t 2
∴ Δy = 9,6 m down 2 energy is not conserved.
3 − 0,7t 2 = 4,9t 2
∴ total distance = 10 + 9,6 e) If the ball is in contact with the ground for a duration of 0,08 s, determine the impulse on
= 19,6 m apart 3 = 5,6t 2 the ball
∴ t = 0,73s
Impulse = Δp
(b) Take downwards as positive: = m (vf − vi )
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy Simultaneous equation is needed be-
cause there are 2 unknown variables: = (0,1)(− 8 − 10)
vf2 2
= (− 5 ) + 2(9,8)(50) = − 1,8
•Distance that lift moved
∴ Impulse = 1,8 N ⋅ s upwards
vf = 25 + 980 •Time to reach floor
f) Predict why the ball stopped moving.
vf = 31,70 m ⋅ s− 1 downwards
it was most likely caught
10
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Vectors in 2D SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

RESOLVING INTO COMPONENTS Fx COMPONENTS ON A SLOPE

x
Diagonal vectors can be broken into compo- θ When forces act on objects on a Fg // = Fg sin θ
nents. When vectors are broken into the x- and slope, it is useful to resolve vectors
y-components, we are determining the horizon- Fx = F cos θ into components that are parallel (//) Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ F g//
tal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis) effect of the F or perpendicular (⟂) components.

Fy
vector. Fy = F sin θ The most common force resolved into
Fg θ

F g⟂
components on a slope is weight (Fg).
θ
y
CONSTRUCTING FORCE TRIANGLE
When forces are not co-linear, force triangles can be used to determine resultant forces or the equilibrant. When force triangles are formed, basic geometric rules can be used to determine vectors or resultants.
Tail-to-head Parallelogram Manipulation
Used for consecutive vectors (vectors that occur in sequence). Used for vectors that act concurrently on the same object. The vector arrows can be manipulated to form a force triangle to determine the
The resultant is the diagonal of a parallelogram that originates resultant forces or an equilibrant. The vectors/arrows may only be moved if the
Eg. A boat travels 90 m east, and then moves 50 m north.
y from the tail of the vectors. magnitude and direction are both kept constant.
y When manipulating the vector arrows, the following has to remain the same:
• Length of arrow (magnitude)
• Angle of the arrow (direction)
• The direction of the arrow head
t
Vector 2

tan
su l
Re Eg. An object is suspended from a ceiling by 2 cables. Below is a free body dia-

Vector 2

nt
gram as well as a force triangle that can be used to calculate the values of T1 and

l ta
su
T2.

Re
x Free body diagram Force triangle
Vector 1
x
This principle can also be applied to more than 2 vectors Vector 1
taken in order. The resultant is from the tail of the first vector
to the head of the last. Eg. Two tugboats apply a force of 6 000N and 5 000N at bear-
y ings of 60° and 120° respectively on a cargo ship.
y
Vect
or 4
nt
Resulta

N
00
60
or 3

Resultant
x
Vect

x 50
00
N
Vector 1

o r2
ct
Ve

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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
2D Vectors- Resultant and Equilibrant SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

RESULTANT: The single vector which has the same effect as the EQUILIBRANT: The force that keeps a system in equilibrium.
original vectors acting simultaneously on an object.
The equilibrant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant force.
PYTHAGORAS (90° ONLY) COMPONENT ADDITION
Pythagoras can only be applied to vector triangles that are right angle triangles. The resultant of diagonal forces can be determined using Pythagoras by determining the x-resultant and
y-resultant first. This is especially useful for determining resultants when more than 2 forces act on an
FOR FINDING SIDES: FOR FINDING ANGLES:
object and a force triangle can not be used.
o a o
R2 = x2 + y2 sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = EXAMPLE:
h h a
Three forces act on an object as shown in the diagram below. Determine the resultant force on the ob-
ject.
EXAMPLE:
1.Determine the x- and y-components of each force.
A boat travels 90 m due east, and then moves 50 m due north. Determine the displacement 11N force:
of the boat. y Fy = F sin θ
Fx = F cos θ
= 11 cos 70 = 11 sin 70 11 N
= 3,76 N right (90o ) = 10,34 N up (0o ) 70°
40° 35°
30N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ 30 N 20 N
nt
su lta = 30 cos 40 = 30 sin 40
Re = 22,98 N left (270o ) = 19,28 N down (180o )

50 m
20N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 20 cos 35 = 20 sin 35
θ x = 16,38 N right (90o ) = 11,47 N down (180o )
90 m
R2 = x2 + y2 2. Determine the x- and y-resultants of components. 2,84 N
2 2
R = 90 + 50 Take left (270o) as positive Take down (180o) as positive
R = 102,96 m Fx = − 3,76 + 22,98 − 16,38 Fy = − 10,34 + 19,28 + 11,47
= 2,84 N left (270o ) = 20,41 N down (180o )

20,41 N
o
tan θ = a
R
tan− 1( 50
90 )
3. Find resultant-Pythagoras. 4. Find angle- trigonometry
θ = o
R2 = x2 + y2 tan θ = a
∘
θ = 29,05 20,41
R = 2,842 + 20,412 θ = tan− 1 2,84
∘
Remember that θ calculated is relative to the x-axis, R = 20,61 N θ = 82,08
∘ ∘ ∘
∴ bearing = 90 − 29,05 = 60, 95
∴Resultant = 20,61 N at a bearing of 187,92°
∴ Displacement = 102,96 m at a bearing of 60,95∘

12
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

FORCES

Non-contact force: A force exerted between Contact force: A force exerted between
A force is a push or a pull action exerted on an object by another object. This action can be exerted
objects over a distance without physical contact. objects that are in contact with each other.
while objects are in contact (contact force) or over a distance (non-contact force).
Electrostatic force (FE) Applied force (FA)
Because forces have magnitude and direction, they are vectors. Force is measured in newton (N). 1 N is
Gravitational force (w/Fg) Tension (T or FT)
the force required to accelerate a 1 kg object at 1 m·s-2 in the direction of the force. We can therefore
say that 1 N = 1 kg·m·s-2.
Magnetic force Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

Normal force (N/FN)

Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it. Frictional force due to a surface is the force that opposes the motion of an object in contact
with it.
FN
FN is NOT a fixed value. The reaction force of the surface on an object Friction is the parallel component of the contact force on an object by the surface on which
helps to keep vertical equilibrium. The normal force is equal to the it rests. The friction between the contact surfaces is determined by the properties of both the contact
perpendicular component of gravity if there are no other surfaces of the object and surface. The coefficient of friction (µs/µk) is a description of the roughness of
forces acting on the object. the surface. The rougher the surface, the greater the coefficient of friction.
FN = Fg Fg
Static friction (fs) Kinetic friction (fk)
Static friction is the frictional force on a sta- Kinetic friction is the frictional force on a mov-
If alternative forces act on the object, the normal force will change depending on the direction and mag- tionary object that opposes the tendency of ing object that opposes the motion of the
nitude of the applied force. All vertical forces must be balanced if there is no acceleration in the vertical motion of the object. The magnitude of the object. The magnitude of the kinetic friction is
plane. static friction will increase from 0N as the parallel constant for the specific system at all velocities
FA FA component of the applied force is increased, until greater than zero, and irrespective of the applied
FN FN maximum static friction is reached. fs(max) is the force.
θ θ magnitude of friction when the object just starts
to move.

fs(max) = μs FN fk = μk FN

Fg Fg fs(max) = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)

μs = coefficient of friction (no unit) μk = coefficient of friction (no unit)

FN + FAy − Fg = 0 FN − Fg − FAy = 0
FN = normal force (N) FN = normal force (N)
FN + FA sin θ = Fg FN = Fg + FA sin θ
If the applied force is greater than the maximum static friction, the object will start to move.

Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no

normal force, as there is no surface on which the object rests. fsmax
FT
The tension is equal to the perpendicular component of

Fric%on (N)
)
gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object (f s
n
OR the full magnitude of Fg for vertically suspended
c $o
objects that are stationary/moving at constant velocity.
c fri Kine%c fric%on (fk)
a$
St
FT + (− Fg ) = 0
Fg
Applied force (N)
13
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Newton’s First Law of Motion Newton’s Second Law of Motion Newton’s Third Law of Motion
An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with When a net force is applied to an object of mass, it acceler- When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simulta-
constant) velocity unless it is acted upon by a net or resultant ates in the direction of the net force. The acceleration is neously exerts an oppositely directed force of equal mag-
force. directly proportional to the net force and inversely propor- nitude on object A.
Newton’s First Law is due to inertia- the resistance of an object to tional to the mass.
change its state of rest or constant/uniform motion.
NB!
Newton’s Second Law is dependent on the resultant force- Newton’s Third Law describes action-reaction force pairs. These
Fnet = 0 N a = 0 m ⋅ s− 2 The vector sum of all forces acting on the same object. are forces on different objects and can not be added or sub-
tracted.
A 3kg object moves up an incline surface at an angle of 15º with a
constant velocity. The coefficient of friction is 0,35. Determine Fnet = m a a ≠ 0 m ⋅ s− 2
the magnitude of the applied force. FA on B = − FB on A
FA
FN A 20 N force is applied to a 5 kg object. The object accelerates
up a frictionless incline surface at an angle of 15º. Determine Force pairs properties:
the acceleration of the object.
• Equal in magnitude
Fg// FA • Opposite in direction
FN • Acts on different objects (and therefore DO NOT CANCEL each
fk other out)
15° Fg T

NOTE:
Take upwards as positive: Fg// The force pairs shown
Fnet⊥ = 0 here are gravitational
FN + (− Fg ⊥ ) = 0 Fman on earth forces.
FN = Fg ⊥
15° Fg
Fearth on man Gravity and Normal force
T
FN = m g cos θ are NOT force pairs.
FN = (3)(9,8)cos 15∘
Take upwards as positive:
FN = 28,40 N
Fnet// = ma
∴ FN = 28,40 N ⊥ up from slope
FA + (− Fg // ) = ma
20 − (5)(9,8)sin 15∘ = 5a Fman on wall
Fnet// = 0 20 − 12,68 = 5a
FA + (− Fg // ) + (− fk ) = 0 7,32
a =
FA = Fg // + fk 5

FA = m g sin θ + μk FN ∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s− 2 // up the slope

FA = (3)(9,8)sin 15∘ + (0,35)(28,40)
∴ FA = 17,55 N
Effect of Newton’s Second Law on overloading:
According to Newton’s Second Law, the acceleration of an object
Importance of wearing safety belts: is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional Fwall on man
According to Newton’s First Law, an object will remain in motion at a to the mass of the object. If a vehicle is overloaded, the stopping
constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant force acts upon it. When a distance will increase which can lead to serious accidents. When
car is in an accident and comes to a sudden stop, the person inside the Newton’s Third Law during an accident
brakes are applied, the net force and brake force remain the
car will continue with a constant forward velocity. Without a safety According to Newton’s Third Law, the force that two objects exert
same, but the increase in mass causes a decrease in negative ac-
belt, the person will make contact with the windscreen of the car, caus- on each other is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. If
celeration, increasing the time (and distance) it takes for the vehi-
ing severe head trauma. The safety belt acts as an applied force (new two cars are in an accident, they will both exert the same amount
cle to stop.
Fnet), preventing the forward motion of the person. of force on each other irrespective of their masses.
14
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 ALL EXAMPLES:
Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Horizontal Slopes
The vertical resultant = 0 N. The perpendicular (⟂) resultant = 0 N. Fg // = Fg sin θ
The horizontal resultant determines acceleration. The parallel (//) resultant determines acceleration.
Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ
Pulled at an angle REMEMBER: Use components of weight.
FA FN Force applied down the slope Force applied up the slope
FAy
FN θ FN Ff FA FN FA
FN Ff FN
Ff Ff FAx
Fg// Fg//
Fg// Fg//
Fg Fg FA Fg⟂ Ff
FA fk Fg⟂
Horizontal: Vertical: θ Fg T
θ Fg T
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
FAx + (− Ff ) = m a (− Fg ) + FN + FAy = 0 Parallel: Perpendicular: Parallel: Perpendicular:
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
Pushed at an angle Fg ∥ + FA + (− Ff ) = m a Fg ⊥ + (− FN ) = 0 (− Fg ∥) + (− Ff ) + FA = m a Fg ⊥ + (− FN ) = 0
FN FA FN
No force applied
θ
Parallel:
Ff FAx Ff FN Ff FN Ff Fnet = m a
Fg ∥ + (− Ff ) = m a
FAy
Fg Fg Fg// Fg// Perpendicular:
Fnet = 0
Horizontal:
Fnet = m a
Vertical:
Fnet = 0 Fg
Fg⟂ Fg ⊥ + (− FN ) = 0
θ T

FAx + (− Ff ) = m a Fg + (− FN ) + FAy = 0

Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)

FT FT FT
Suspended FT
Vertical: Vertical: Vertical:
Horizontal resultant = 0 N.
Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
Vertical resultant determines acceleration.
Fg + (− FT ) = 0 Fg + (− FT ) = m a Fg = m a
REMEMBER: No normal or friction forces. Fg
Fg
Fg
Fg
Acceleration will be in the direc-
Fg Fg
tion of the greatest force.
15
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 ALL EXAMPLES:
Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Connected objects (e.g Pulley Systems) Objects attached by rope/cable

Do separate free body diagrams for each object. FN FN FN FN
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in mag- Horizontal: Horizontal:
nitude and direction. Fnet = m a
Ff FT FT FA Ff FA Fnet = m a
Applied forces are applied to only one object at a time. (− Ff ) + FT = m a Ff FA + (− FT ) + (− Ff ) = m a
Simultaneous equations for acceleration and tension are FT
sometimes needed. Fg
Ff Fg
Fg Fg
REMEMBER:
Ropes/cables- The tension forces on Objects in contact
the objects are the same in magnitude
but opposite in direction. FN FN
FN FN
Touching objects- Newton’s Third Law FA
Horizontal: A FBA FAB B Horizontal:

Fnet = m a Ff FA Ff Ff FAB Fnet = m a

Same axis Ff
FA + (− FBA) + (− Ff ) = m a (− Ff ) + FAB = m a
Can be horizontal (multiple objects on a surface) or vertical FBA
(multiple suspended objects). Fg Fg
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in mag- Fg Fg
nitude and direction.
Multiple axes
Multiple axes
FN
Horizontal (objects on a surface) AND vertical (suspended
FT1 FN FN
objects). In these examples,
FT1 FT2
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in
Ff FT1 clockwise is positive: Ff
magnitude NOT DIRECTION. Right positive FT2
Fg Ff
Fg Down positive Fg Fg
Vector direction on multiple axes FT2
Clockwise: Fg
Right and Down positive
Fg
Left and Up negative
FN FT2 FN FN FT2
FT1
Ff FT1 Ff FT1 Ff FT2
OR
FT1
Anti-clockwise: Fg Fg Fg Fg Fg
FT2 Fg
Left and Up positive
Right and Down negative Horizontal: Vertical: Vertical: Horizontal: Horizontal: Vertical:
Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
FT1 + (− Ff ) = m a Fg + (− FT1) + FT 2 = m a Fg + (− FT 2 ) = m a FT1 + (− Ff ) = m a FT 2 + (− FT1) + (− Ff ) = m a Fg + (− FT 2 ) = m a
16
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with RATIOS CALCULATIONS
a force which is directly proportional to the product of their 1. Write out the original formula. Gm1m2
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance 2. Manipulate unknown as subject. The gravitational force can be calculated using F =
between their centres. 3. Substitute changes into formula (Keep symbols!). r2
4. Simplify ratio number. REMEMBER:
Gm1m2 5. Replace original formula with unknown symbol. Mass in kg
F= EXAMPLE:
r2 Two objects, m1 and m2, are a distance r apart and experience a
Radius in m
force F. How would this force be affected if: Radius: centre of mass to centre of mass.
F = force of attraction between objects (N)
G = universal gravitational constant (6,7 ×10−11 N·m2·kg−2 ) a) One mass is doubled and the distance between the masses is Direction is ALWAYS attractive.
m= object mass (kg) halved?
Both objects experience the same force.
r = distance between object centers (m) Gm1m2
F= Write out the formula (Newton’s Third Law of Motion)
r2
A uniform sphere of matter attracts a body that is outside the shell as if G(2m1)m2 EXAMPLE:
all the sphere’s mass was concentrated at its center. = Substitute changes into formula
( 1 r)2 The earth with a radius of 6,38 x 103 km is 149,6 x 106 km
2
away from the sun with a radius of 696 342 km. If the earth
2 Gm1m2 has a mass of 5,97 x 1024 kg and the sun has a mass of
= Simplify ratio number
1 r2 1,99 x 1030 kg, determine the force between the two bodies.
4
Gm1m2
= 8( )
Thus, the distance is determined between the centers of the two bodies. r2 r = 6,38 × 10 3 km + 149,6 × 106 km + 696 342 km
∴ Fnew = 8 F Replace original formula = 6,38 × 106 m + 149,6 × 109 m + 696 342 × 10 3 m

b) Both the two masses as well as the distance are doubled? = 1,5 × 1011 m
Gm1m2
F= Write out the formula
r2
rmoon Gm1m2
rman G(2m1)(2m2 ) F=
= Substitute changes into formula r2
NOTE: NOTE: (2r)2
6,7 × 10− 11(5,97 × 10 24 )(1,99 × 10 30 )
The radius of the earth is added The radius of object 4 Gm1m2 F=
= Simplify ratio number (1,50 × 1011)2
to the distance between the (man) on the earth is 4 r2
earth and the moon. negligibly small. Gm1m2 F= 3,54 × 10 22 N attraction
= 1(
r2 ) The force of gravitational attraction is a vector, therefore all vec-
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE! ∴ Fnew = 1 F Replace original formula tor rules can be applied:
g vs G • Direction specific
DETERMINING GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION (g)
g: Gravitational acceleration (9,8 m·s−2 on earth) • Can be added or subtracted
Gm object mPlanet
g is the acceleration due to gravity on a specific planet. F = m object g and F=
r 2Planet
G: Universal gravitational constant (6,7×10−11 N·m2·kg−2)
Proportionality constant which applies everywhere in the universe. Gm o mP
m og =
r 2P Take right as positive:
Mass vs Weight
Gm o mP
Mass (kg) g= Fnet on satallite = Fm on s + Fe on s
m o r 2P
= − ( )+ ( )
A scalar quantity of matter which remains constant everywhere in the Gm m m s Gm e m s
GmP
universe. ∴g= rms 2 res 2
r 2P
∴ ( )= ( )
Weight (N) [gravitation force] Gm m m s Gm e m s
Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object. Weight Therefore the gravitational acceleration of an object only depends rms 2 res 2
differs from planet to planet. Fg = mg. Weight is a vector quantity. on the mass and radius of the planet. Object mass is irrelevant!
17
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Momentum and Impulse SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

MOMENTUM VECTOR NATURE OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Momentum: the product of the mass and ve- Momentum is a vector quantity and has both mag- Newton’s second law in terms of momentum: The net force acting Derivation from Newton’s
locity of the object. nitude and direction. It is therefore important to on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum. Second Law
always include direction in all momentum calcu-
Momentum can be thought of as quantifying the Fnet = m a
lations. Momentum has the same direction as the
motion of an object. The following equation is used According to Newton’s Second Law, a net force applied to an object will
to calculate momentum:
velocity vector.
cause the object to accelerate. When the net force on an object changes, Δv
Fnet = m
EXAMPLE: so does its velocity and hence the momentum. Δt
mvf − mvi
A golf ball of mass 0,05 kg leaves a golf club Fnet = resultant force (N) Fnet =
at a velocity of 90 m·s 1 in an easterly direc- Δp Δt
tion. Calculate the momentum of the golf Fnet = Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s− 1) Δp
p = momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s ) −1 ball. Δt Fnet =
Δt = time (s) Δt
p = mv m = mass (kg) p = mv
IMPULSE (J)
v = velocity (m ⋅ s− 1) = (0,05)(90)
Impulse (J): the product of the net force and the contact time.
= 4,5 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s− 1 east
By rearranging Newton’s second law in terms of momentum, we find that impulse is equal to the change
in momentum of an object according to the impulse-momentum theorem:
CHANGE IN MOMENTUM
Impulse = FΔt
When a moving object comes into contact with another object (moving or stationary) it results in a
change in velocity for both objects and therefore a change in momentum (p) for each one. The change Impulse = Δp Impulse (J), FΔt , is measured in N·s.
in momentum can be calculated by using: mΔv = Δp Δp is measured in kg·m·s−1
Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s− 1)
The change in momentum is directly dependent on the magnitude of the resultant force and the dura-
Δp = pf − pi pf = final momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s− 1) tion for which the force is applied. Impulse is a vector, and has the same direction as the net force
vector.
pi = initial momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s− 1)
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Due to the vector nature of momentum, it is very important to choose a positive direction.
A golf ball with a mass of 0,1 kg is driven from the The following graph shows the force ex-
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: tee. The golf ball experiences a force of 1000 N while erted on a hockey ball over time. The
A 1000 kg car initially moving at a constant A cricket ball with a mass of 0,2 kg approaches a in contact with the golf club and moves away from the hockey ball is initially stationary and has a
velocity of 16 m·s 1 in an easterly direction cricket bat at a velocity of 40 m·s 1 east and golf club at 30 m·s 1. For how long was the golf club mass of 150 g.
approaches a stop street, starts breaking and leaves the cricket bat at a velocity of 50 m·s 1 in contact with the ball?
comes to a complete standstill. Calculate the west. Calculate the change in the ball’s momen- Fnet Δt = m Δv
change in the car’s momentum. tum during its contact with the cricket bat. 1000t = (0,1)(30 − 0)
t = 3 × 10− 3 s
Choosing east as positive: Choosing east as positive:
EXAMPLE:
Δp = pf − pi Δp = pf − pi Calculate the magnitude of the impulse
Why can airbags be useful during a collision? State
Δp = mvf − mvi Δp = mvf − mvi your answer by using the relevant scientific principle. (change in momentum) of the hockey ball.

Δp = (1000)(0) − (1000)(16) Δp = (0,2)(− 50) − (0,2)(40) Fnet Δt = area under graph

The change in momentum remains constant, but the
Δp = − 16 000 Δp = − 18 use of an airbag prolongs the time (t) of impact dur- 1
impulse = b ⊥h
ing the accident. The net force experienced is in- 2
∴ Δp = 16 000 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s− 1 west ∴ Δp = 18 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s− 1 west versely proportional to the contact time (F ∝ 1/t), 1
impulse = (0,5)(150)
2
therefore resulting in a smaller net force (Fnet) (Δp is
impulse = 37,5 N ⋅ s
constant).
18
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Conservation of Momentum SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S THIRD LAW AND MOMENTUM

Conservation of linear momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated system re- During a collision, the objects involved will exert forces on each other. Therefore, according to Newton’s
mains constant (is conserved). third law, if object A exerts a force on object B, object B will exert a force on object A where the two
forces are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
( ptotal)before = ( ptotal)after
pA(before) + pB(before) = pA(after) + pB(after)
The magnitude of the force, the contact time and therefore the impulse on both objects are
mAu A + mBu B + . . . = mA vA + mBvB + . . . equal in magnitude.

System: A set number of objects and their interactions with each other. Forces are applied between objects during:
Internal forces: Forces applied on each other by objects within the system - such as the contact forces
Collisions: Move off together, collide and deflect, object dropped vertically on moving object.
between colliding cars.
External forces: Forces outside of the system, e.g. friction, air resistance Explosions: Explosions, springs, firearms
Isolated system: Is on that has no net external force acting on it.

Collisions Explosions
Move off together Explosions

When objects collide and move off

vA vB = 0 vA+B Objects that experience the same vA+B = 0 vA vB
together, their masses can be explosion will experience the same
added as one object force.
mA mB Collision mA+B mA+B Explosion mA mB
The acceleration, velocity and mo-
mentum of the object is dependent
Objects that are stationary (B) on the mass.
have an initial velocity of zero. ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
Objects that are stationary (A+B)
mA u A + mBu B = (mA + mB)v have an initial velocity of zero. (mA + mB)u = mA vA + mBvB
Collide and rebounds Springs

Objects can collide and move off vA vB vA vB The spring will exert the same vB = 0 vB = 0 vA vB
separately force on both objects (Newton’s
Third Law).
mA mB mA mA mB Push mA mB
REMEMBER: The velocity and
Collision mB The acceleration, velocity and mo-
mentum of the object is dependent
momentum are vectors (i.e. direc-
on the mass.
tion specific). Velocity substitution
( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
must take direction into account. ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after Objects that are stationary (A+B)
mA u A + mBu B = mA vA + mBvB have a velocity of zero. (mA + mB)u = mA vA + mBvB

Object dropped vertically on a moving object Firearms/ cannons

Example: A stuntman jumps off a vA+B The gun and bullet will experience
bridge and lands on a truck. vA MB the same force. vG+B = 0 vG vB
Linear momentum= momentum
vB = 0 The acceleration of the weapon is Shoot
significantly less than the bullet mG+B mG mB
along one axis. mA Collision mA+B due to mass difference
A dropped object has a horizontal
Recoil can be reduced by increas-
velocity of zero, ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after ing the mass of the weapon.
mA u A + mBu B = (mA + mB)v (m G + mB)u = m G vG + mBvB
∴viB= 0m·s 1

19
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Momentum and Energy SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ELASTIC VS INELASTIC COLLISIONS PENDULUMS

Elastic collision: a collision in which both momentum and kinetic

energy are conserved.
Inelastic collision: a collision in which only momentum is conserved.
DOWNWARD SWING:
Conservation of mechanical en-
In an isolated system, momentum will always be conserved. To prove ergy (EM) to determine velocity at
that a collision is elastic, we only have to prove that kinetic energy is the bottom of the swing:
conserved.
Kinetic energy can be calculated using the mass and velocity of an EM(top) = EM(bottom)
object:
1 1
mv 2 = mg h + mv 2
mg h + 2 2 h
EK = kinetic energy (J)
1 COLLISION:
EK = mv 2 m = mass (kg)
2 Conservation of linear momentum to deter-
v = velocity (m ⋅ s− 1) mine the velocity of the block after impact.
( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
Elastic collision: Ek(before) = Ek(after)
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
Inelastic collision: Ek(before) ≠ Ek(after)
mA u A + mBu B + . . . = mA vA + mBvB + . . .
(some energy is lost as sound or heat)

EXAMPLE:
The velocity of a moving trolley of mass 1 kg is 3 m·s 1. A block of
mass 0,5 kg is dropped vertically on to the trolley. Immediately
UPWARD SWING:
after the collision the speed of the trolley and block is 2 m·s 1 in
the original direction. Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Prove your Conservation of mechanical en-
answer with a suitable calculation. ergy (EM) to determine height that
the pendulum will reach:
1 1
EK(before) = mt vt2 + m v2
2 b b
2 EM(bottom) = EM(top)
1 1
= (1)(3)2 + (0,5)(0)2 1 1
2 2 mg h + 2
mv 2 = mg h + 2
mv 2
= 4,5 J

1
EK(after) = 2
mt+ b vt+2 b COLLISION:
1 Conservation of linear momentum to deter-
= 2
(1 + 0,5)(2)2 mine the velocity of the pendulum after impact.
= 3J ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
EK(before) ≠ EK(after) mA u A + mBu B + . . . = mA vA + mBvB + . . .
∴ Kinetic energy is not conserved and the collision is inelastic
20
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Energy SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

The ability to do work Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: In the absence of air
Unit: joules (J) resistance or any external forces, the mechanical energy of an EMECHA = EMECHB
Scalar quantity object is constant. (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
Gravitational Potential Energy (EP) Kinetic Energy (EK) The law of conservation of mechanical energy applies when there is no friction
1 1
The energy an object possesses The energy an object has or air resistance acting on the object. In the absence of air resistance, or other (m g h + 2 m v 2 )A = (m g h + 2 m v 2 )B
due to its position relative to a as a result of the object’s forces, the mechanical energy of an object moving in the earth’s gravitational
reference point. motion field in free fall, is conserved.
General law of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, merely transferred.
In the following instances the gravitational potential energy of an object is converted to kinetic energy (and vice versa), while the
Amount of energy transferred when an Amount of energy transferred
mechanical energy remains constant.
object changes position relative to the to an object as it changes
earth’s surface. speed. EXAMPLE 1: Object moving vertically EXAMPLE 2: Object moving on an inclined plane
A 2 kg ball is dropped from rest at A, determine the maximum velocity A 2 kg ball rolls at 3 m·s−1 on the ground at A, determine the maximum
1 of the ball at B just before impact. height the ball will reach at B.

EP = mg h EK = mv 2
2
g = 9,8 m·s–2, m is mass in kg, m is mass in kg,
h is height in m above the ground v is velocity in m·s–1

Example: Example:
Determine the gravitational potential Determine the kinetic energy (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
energy of a 500 g ball when it is placed of a 500 g ball when it travels (m g h + 1 m v 2 )A = (m g h + 1 m v 2 )B 1
(m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h +
1
m v 2 )B
2 2 2 2
on a table with a height of 3 m. with a velocity of 3 m.s–1.
1 1
(2)(9,8)(4) + (2)(0 2 )
2
= (2)(9,8)(0) + (2)vB2
2
(2)(9,8)(0) + 1 (2)(32 ) = (2)(9,8)(h B ) + 1 (2)(0 2 )
2 2
EP = mg h EK =
1
m v2
2 78,4 + 0 = 0 + 1vB2 0+ 9 = 19,6h B + 0
= (0,5)(9,8)(3) 1 9
= (0,5)(32 ) vB = 78,4 = hB
= 14,7 J 2 19,6
= 2,25 J vB = 8,85 m ⋅ s− 1 downwards hB = 0,46 m
EXAMPLE 3: Pendulum EXAMPLE 4: Rollercoaster
Mechanical Energy (EM) The 2 kg pendulum swings from A at 5 m·s−1 to B, on the ground, The 2 kg ball rolls on a toy rollercoaster from A, at 20 m above the
The sum of gravitational potential and kinetic energy of an where its velocity is 8 m·s−1. Determine the height at A. ground, to B where its height is 8 m and velocity is 14 m·s−1. Calculate
its starting velocity at A.
object at a point

EM = EP + EK
1
EM = mg h + 2
mv 2
EXAMPLE:
A ball, mass 500 g, is thrown horizontally through the air. The ball travels
at a velocity of 1,8m·s −1 and is 2,5 m from the ground. Determine the (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
mechanical energy of the ball. (m g h + 1 m v 2 )A = (m g h + 1 m v 2 )B
1
(m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h +
1
m v 2 )B
2 2 2 2
EM = EP + EK 1
(2)(9,8)(h A ) + (2)(52 ) =
1
(2)(9,8)(0) + (2)(82 )
1
(2)(9,8)(20) + (2)(vA2 ) =
1
(2)(9,8)(16) + (2)(142 )
2 2 2 2
1
EM = mg h + 2
m v2 19,6h A + 25 = 0 + 64 392 + vA2 = 313,6 + 196
1 64 − 25
EM = (0,5)(9,8)(2,5) + 2
(0,5)(1,82 ) 19,6
= hA vA = 313,6 + 196 − 392
EM = 13,06 J hA = 1,99 m vA = 10,84 m ⋅ s− 1 to the right
21
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Work, Energy and Power SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

WORK No Work done on an object (moving at a constant velocity) if the force and NET WORK ON AN OBJECT
Work done is the transfer of energy. Work done on an displacement are perpendicular to each other. A number of forces can act on an object at the same time. Each force
object by a force is the product of the displacement Consider a man carrying a suitcase with a weight of 20 N on a ‘travelator’ can do work on the object to change the energy of the object. The net
and the component of the force parallel to the dis- moving at a constant velocity. work done on the object is the sum of the work done by each force act-
placement.
W = FΔx cos θ FA = 20 N W = Fx Δx cos θ ing on the object.

W = work (J) Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system.

NOTE:
F = force applied (N) If Wnet is negative, energy is removed from the system.
Work is a scalar quantity, Direc)on
Δx = displacement (m) i.e. NO DIRECTION for of mo)on
θ = Angle between F and Δx F or x! Fg = 20 N Work and Energy are SCALARS, and NOT direction specific.

The joule is the amount of work done when a force of one EXAMPLE:
newton moves its point of application one meter in the di- Calculate the net work done on a trolley where a force of 30 N is ap-
rection of the force. Δx plied to the trolley. The trolley moves 3 m to the left. The force of
FA is perpendicular to the displacement: θ = 90° ; cos 90° = 0. friction is 5 N to the right.
Work always involves two things:
Work done by applied force: Work done by frictional force:
1. A force which acts on a certain object. (F) No force in the plane of the displacement, hence, NO WORK IS DONE by
2. The displacement of that object. (Δx / Δy) FA and Fg and no energy is transferred. We can also say that FA / Fg does WA = FΔx cos θ Wf = Ff Δx cos θ
not change the potential energy (height) or kinetic energy (vertical velo- = (30)(3)cos 0 = (5)(3)cos 180
F city) of the object.
= 90 J gained = − 15 J "lost"
A force/force component in the direction of the displacement does positive
work on the object. The force increases the energy of the object. Work done by gravity Work done by normal force:
Δx Wg = FgΔx cos θ WN = FN Δx cos θ
Positive work means that energy is added to the system.
When a resultant force is applied to an object, the resultant = (Fg )(3)cos 90 = (FN )(3)cos 90
force accelerates the block across distance Δx. Work has
been done to increase the kinetic energy of the block. F Direc+on = 0J = 0J
of mo+on W = Fx Δx cos θ
Wnet = WA + Wf + WN + Wg
θ Fx = F cos θ = 90 − 15 + 0 + 0
Δx
If a resultant force is applied to an = 75 J nett energy gained
object vertically, the resultant force
Alternative method for determining net work:
lifts the block through distance Δy.
0° ≤ θ < 90° ; +1 ≥cos θ > 0 1. Draw a free body showing only the forces acting on the object.
Work has been done to increase the F
potential energy of the block. Δy A force/force component in the opposite direction of the displacement does 2. Calculate the resultant (net) force acting on the object.
“Lifting” usually implies at a constant negative work on the object. The force decreases the energy of the 3. Calculate the net work using Wnet = FnetΔx cos θ
velocity. object. Step 1: Freebody diagram
Negative work means that energy is being removed from the FN
system.
W = Fx Δx cos θ
F
Fx = F cos θ Direc+on
of mo+on FA = 30 N Ff = -5 N
θ F θ Fg
Δx
Take left as positive:
Δx
90° < θ ≤ 180° ; 0 > cos θ ≥ −1 Step 2: Calculate Fnet Step 3: Net work
Work is only done in the direction of the displacement.
Work is done by the component of the force that is parallel Fnet = FA + Ff Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ
to the displacement. The angle between the force and the = 30 − 5 = (25)(3)cos 0
displacement is θ. If no displacement takes place due to NB: Never use a – for F in the opposite direction. The cos θ = 25 N left = 75 J gained
the applied force, no work is done. makes provision for that.
22
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Work, Energy and Power SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

WORK ENERGY THEOREM NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES POWER

(FT, FA, Ff, Fair resistance)
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, when a resultant force Power is the rate at which work is done OR the rate at
acts on an object, the object accelerates. This means there is a which energy is transferred.
change in velocity of the object, and therefore a change in kinetic A force is a non-conservative force if: W E
energy of the object, since Ek = ½ mv2
1. The work done by the force in moving an object from point A to P= =
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM: The work done by a net force on point B is dependent of the path taken.
Δt Δt
an object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the P = power (watt)
object 2. The net work done in moving an object in a closed path which starts W = work (J)
and ends at the same point is not zero. Δt = time (s)
Wnet = ΔE K
1 EXAMPLE:
Fnet Δx = 2
m(v 2f − v 2i ) A non-conservative force does not conserve mechanical energy.
A certain amount of energy is converted into other forms such as internal Calculate the power expended by an engine when an object
CONSERVATIVE FORCES energy of the particles which the objects is made of. An example of a of mass 100 kg is lifted to a height of 2,2 m in a time of 3 s,
non-conservative force is the frictional force. at a constant velocity.
A force is a conservative force if:
Consider the crate on a rough surface being pushed with a constant
W NOTE:
1. The work done by the force in mov- EP = EP force FA from position 1 to position 2 along two different paths. P=
Δt
ing an object from point A to point B
is independent of the path taken. FA FA = FΔx cos θ
Fnet = 0 N
Ff Δt
∴ Wnet = 0 J
2. The net work done in moving an Ff =
(100)(9,8)(2,2)cos 0
3 ∴ Pnet = 0 W
object in a closed path which starts
and ends at the same point is zero. = 718,67 W
FA
AVERAGE POWER (CONSTANT VELOCITY)
1 Ff 2
Conservative force conserve mechanical energy. Example of We can calculate the average power needed to keep an object
conservative forces are gravitational force and spring force. The work done by FA is more when the longer path is taken. The work moving at constant speed using the equation:
done to overcome the friction will result in the surface of the crate be-
coming hotter. This energy is dissipated (as sound and/or heat) and is Paverage = Fvaverage
very difficult to retrieve, i.e. not conserved.
Δx
Paverage = F
Δt
Note: the total energy of the system is conserved in all cases, whether
the forces are conservative or non-conservative. EXAMPLE:
Wnc = ΔE K + ΔEP A man lifts a 50 kg bag of cement from ground level up to a
The work done by gravity on each ball is independent of the path 1 height of 4 m above ground level in such a way that the bag
taken. Only the h⟂ is considered. = 2
m(v 2f − v 2i ) + mgΔh of cement moves at constant velocity (i.e. no work is done to
change kinetic energy). Determine his average power if he
does this in 10 s.
EXAMPLE: ΔEP = mgΔh ΔE K = E Kf − E Ki
= mg(h f − h i ) =
1
m(v 2f − v 2i )
An 800 kg car traveling at
= (800)(9,8)(0 − 100 sin 30∘ )
2 Paverage = Fvaverage
15 m·s−1 down a 30° hill needs 1
100 = (800)(0 2 − 152 )
to stop within 100 m to avoid m = − 392 000 J 2 Δy
= F
an accident. Using energy calcu- = − 90 000 J Δt
lations only, determine the mag- Wnc = ΔE K + ΔE P 4m = (50)(9,8)( 10
4
)
nitude of the average force that FA Δx cos θ = ΔE K + ΔEP
must be applied to the brakes = 196 W
FA (100)cos 180 = − 90 000 − 392 000
over the 100 m. Assume that
− 482 000
the surface is frictionless. FA = − 100
30° This cannot be used for object in freefall, unless the object has
FA = 4 820 N reached terminal velocity.
23
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Work, Energy and Power SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

When to use which formulae

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY ALTERNATIVE METHODS TO DETERMINE WORK DONE BY Fg ON A SLOPE
WITHOUT RESOLVING Fg INTO Fg⟂ AND Fg//
E MA = E MB
1. When an object moves up a slope 2. When an object moves down a slope
(E P + EK )A = (E P + EK )B with a known angle with a known angle

• When there are no external force (FA/Ff) present.

• Any track/pendulum with a curve that is not a straight line. 4m
4m 120° 120°
60° 60°
WORK-ENERGY PRINCIPLE 30°
Fg = 100 N
30°
Fg = 100 N

Wnet = ΔEK
1 1
= 2
mv 2f − 2
mv 2i Wg = Fg Δx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
= (100)(4)cos 120∘ = (100)(4)cos 60∘
= − 200 J = 200 J
• If an object is accelerating on a horizontal/incline plane.
Any of the following methods may be used:

FN
FA
3. When an object moves up a slope without a 4. When an object moves down a slope without a
given angle, but with specified height given angle, but with specified height

Fg 3m 3m
30°
A. Fnet → Wnet A. Wnet = ∑W Fg = 100 N Fg = 100 N
1. Determine Fnet separately 1. Determine W of each force seperately
Fnet = FA − F f − Fg // WA = FAΔx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
Fnet = FA − Ff − Fg sin θ WN = FN Δx cos θ
= (100)(3)cos 180∘ = (100)(3)cos 0∘
Fnet = FA − Ff − (100 sin 30∘ ) Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
= − 300 J = 300 J
Wf = Ff Δx cos θ

2. Apply Fnet to Wnet 2. Apply ∑W to Wnet

1 1 1 1
Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ = m v 2 − m vi2 WA + Wf + Wg + WA = Wnet = m v 2 − m vi2
2 f 2 2 f 2

24
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

If resistors are added in series, the If resistors are added in parallel, the total resistance will decrease Series circuit Parallel circuit
total resistance will increase and the and the total current will increase, provided the emf remains
total current will decrease provided constant. 10 V V1
V1
the emf remains constant.
CURRENT is the rate of flow of charge.
Q
I=
t
I is the current strength, Q the charge in coulombs and t the time in seconds. SI unit is ampere (A). 3A A3
A1 A2 V2
A1 R1 A1 R1 R2

A1 R1 R2 A2 R1
2Ω 5Ω 4Ω
A2 R2 A2 R3
R1 R2 12 Ω
R2
IT = I1 = I2 IT = I1 + I2 IT = I1 + I2 a) Determine the total resistance.
I1 = IR1 = IR2 a) Determine the total resistance. 1 1 1
= +
Rp R1 R2
RESISTANCE is the material’s opposition to the flow of electric current. Rtot = R1 + R2
1 1
V = IR = 2+ 5 = +
4 12
R is the electrical resistance of the conducting material, resisting the flow of charge through it. = 7Ω 1
=
Resistance (R) is the quotient of the potential difference (V) across a conductor and the current (I) in 3
it. The unit of resistance is called the ohm (Ω). ∴ Rp = 3Ω
b) Determine the reading on A1 and A2.
R1 R1 R2 V = IR b) Determine the reading on V1 and V2.
10 = I (7) V1 = IR
R1 R2
I = 1,43 A = (3)(3)
R2 R3 ∴ A1 = A2 = 1,43 A = 9V
∴ V1 = V2 = 9V
R s = R1 + R2 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + Combination circuits
Rp R1 R2 Rp R1 + R2 R3
15 V
Consider the circuit given. (Internal resistance is negligible)
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d.) is the work done per V2
NOTE: Calculate:
unit positive charge to move the charge from one point to an-
other. It is often referred to as voltage. 1. Emf ( ε ): voltage across cells when
W no current is flowing (open circuit). a) the effective resistance of the circuit.
V=
Q b) the reading on ammeter A1.
2. V term or pd: voltage across cells
V is Potential difference in V (volts), W is Work done or energy

R1
3Ω A1
when current is flowing. c) the reading on voltmeter V1.
transferred in J (joules) and Q is Charge in C (coulombs).
d) the reading on ammeter A2. 2Ω
V1 V1 V2 A2 R2
a)
1 1 1 4Ω
= +
R1 R1 R2 RP R2 R3 R3
1 1
V1 V2 = +
2 4 V1
R2 R3 3
=
R1 R2 4
V2 V3 4 b) c) d)
∴ Rp = = 1,33 Ω Vtot V1 V1
3 Rtot = RP = R2Ω =
I1 I1 I2
V4 Rtot = R3Ω + RP 15 V1 4,60
V3
4,33 = 1,33 = 2 =
= 3 + 1,33 I1 3,46 I2
Vs = V1 + V2 Vp = V1 = V2 = V3 Vp = V3 = V4 = (V1 + V2 ) = 4,33 Ω I1 = 3,46 A V1 = 4,60 V I2 = 2,30 A
25
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

PD of external
Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the po- The potential difference across a bat- ε = Vint + Vext circuit
tential difference across the conductor at constant temperature. tery not connected in a circuit is the 6V emf
V emf of the battery. PD of internal
R= Emf is the total energy supplied
resistance
I
per coulomb of charge by the cell.
How to prove Ohm’s law: Vint = Ir Vext = IRext
5V
A When connected in a circuit the poten-
The current in the circuit is changed tial difference drops due to the inter-
using the rheostat, thus current is the nal resistance of the cells.
independent variable and potential differ- ε = I(Rext + r)
ence is the dependent variable. It is In reality all cells have internal resis-
important that the temperature of the V tance (r). Internal resistors are al- EXAMPLE:
resistor is kept constant. ways considered to be connected in V
series with the rest of the circuit.
The resultant graph of potential difference vs current indicates if the con-
Determining the emf and internal resistance of a cell r
ductor is ohmic or non-ohmic.
Ohmic conductor Non-ohmic conductor ε
V
V
• An Ohmic conductor is a conduc- • A Non-ohmic conductor is a
r Gra
tor that obeys Ohm’s law at all conductor that does not obey y – intecept Inte dient
rna = N 5Ω 3Ω
temperatures. Ohm’s law at all temperatures. ε = Emf l re ega
si st -v
V V A anc e
e
• Constant ratio for I . • Ratio for I change with change 4Ω
in temperature.
• E.g. Nichrome wire I When the switch is open the reading on the voltmeter is 12 V.
• E.g. Light bulb When the switch is closed, the current through the 3 Ω resistor is 1 A.
V V a) Calculate the total current of the circuit.
Independent variable Current (I) b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.
e
nc
is ta Dependent variable Potential difference (V)
c) How will the voltmeter reading change when the 4 Ω resistor is
es removed?
t =R a) Rtop = R5Ω + R3Ω b) 1 1 1
= +
i en Controlled variable Temperature Rp Rtop R 4Ω
ad = 5+ 3
Gr = 1
+ 1
COST OF ELECTRICITY = 8Ω 8 4
I I Rtop : R 4Ω 3
Electricity is paid for in terms of the amount of energy used =
8
POWER by the consumer. Electrical energy is measured in joules (J) 8 : 4 8
2 : 1 Rp = = 2,67 Ω
but is sold in units called kilowatt hours (kWh). 3
In general, power is the rate at which work is done, however, the
electrical power dissipated in a device is also equal to the product of ∴ Itop : I4Ω ε = I (R + r)
Note:
the potential difference across the device and the current flow- 1 kWh is the amount of energy used when 1 : 2 12 = 3(2,67 + r)
P in kW
ing through it. 1 kilowatt of electricity is used for 1 hour. r = 1,33 Ω
t in hours I4Ω = 2Itop
Cost of electricity = power × time × cost per unit c) When the 4 Ω resistor is re-
W P = power (W) = 2(1)
P = moved, the external resistance
Δt Example = 2A increases and the current de-
W = work (J)
A geyser produces 1200 W of power. Calculate the Itot = Itop + I4Ω creases. (I ∝ 1/R). Emf and
P = I2R Δt = time (s)
internal resistance are constant,
cost of having the geyser switched on for 24 hours, if = 1+ 2
I = current (A) the price of electricity is 85 c per kWh. = 3A therefore a decrease in Vint (Ir)
P = VI will result in an increase in ex-
V = potential Cost = power × time × cost per kWh
ternal PD (Voltmeter reading)
V2 difference (V) = (1,2)(24)(0,85)
P =
R = R24,48 V = ε – Ir
R = resistance (Ω)
26
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

FLASHBACK!! Unit of charges: CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

Prefix Conversion Electrostatic force is a vector, therefore all vec- The force can be calculated using • Substitute charge magnitude only.
tor rules can be applied: • Direction determined by nature of
Principle of conservation of charge. centi− (cC) ×10−2 kQ1Q2 charge (like repel, unlike attract).
• Direction specific F=
Q1 + Q2 milli− (mC) ×10 −3 r2 • Both objects experience the same
Q new = • Can be added or subtracted force (Newton’s Third Law of Motion).
2
micro− (µC) ×10−6
Principle of charge quantization. 1 Dimensional
nano− (nC) ×10−9
Q Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Ne− = pico− (pC) ×10−12
qe +
3 cm 5 cm
COULOMB’S LAW A B C
3
FAB FCB
Two point charges in free space or air exert forces on each other. The force −2 nC +3 nC −1 nC
is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between the charges. kQ A Q B kQ C Q B
1 FAB = 2 FCB = 4 Fnet = FAB + FCB
r2 r2
9 × 109 (2 × 10− 9 )(3 × 10− 9 ) 9 × 109 (1 × 10− 9 )(3 × 10− 9 )
= (− 6 × 10− 5) + (1,08 × 10− 5)
This can be expressed mathematically as: = =
(3 × 10− 2 ) 2 (5 × 10− 2 ) 2 = − 4,92 × 10− 5

kQ1Q2 = 6 × 10− 5 N left (A attracts B) = 1,08 × 10− 5 N right (C attracts B) ∴ Fnet = 4,92 × 10− 5 N left
F=
r2
2 Dimensional
F = force of attraction between charges Q1 and Q2 (N)
k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2) Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Q = magnitudes of charge (C)
r = distance between charges (m) -10 μC +7 μC
15 mm 2 FCB FCB
RATIOS B C
θ θ
In ratio questions, the same process is used as with Newton’s Law of Uni-

10 mm
versal Gravitation. OR
EXAMPLE:
Fnet FAB FAB Fnet
Two charges experience a force F when held a distance r apart. How
would this force be affected if one charge is doubled, the other charge is
tripled and the distance is halved.
A
+5 μC PYTHAGORAS :
3
kQ1Q 2 F 2net = F 2AB + F 2BC
F=
r2 kQ A Q B
1 FAB = Fnet = 4 500 2 + 2 800 2
k(2Q1)(3Q 2 ) r2
= Fnet = 5 300 N
( 1 r)2 =
9 × 109 (5 × 10− 6 )(10 × 10− 6 )
2
(10 × 10− 3) 2
6 kQ1Q 2
= = 4 500 N down (A attracts B) tanθ = o
1 r2 4 a
4
θ = tan− 1 FAB
kQ1Q 2
= 24( )
kQ C Q B FCB
FCB =
r2 r2 1 4 500
θ = tan−
= 24F 9 × 109 (7 × 10− 6 )(10 × 10− 6 ) 2 800
= θ = 58,11∘
(15 × 10− 3) 2
= 2 800 N right (C attracts B) ∴ Fnet = 5 300 N at 58,11∘ clockwisefrom the positive x − axis

27
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

An electric field is the region around an electric charge where another charge (or Electric field strength at any point in space is the force per unit charge experienced by a
charged object) will experience an electrostatic force. The direction of the electric positive test charge at that point.
field at a point is the direction that a positive test charge (+1C) would move if
placed at that point. F kQ
E= E=
Single point charges q r2

E = electric field strength (N·C−1) E = electric field strength (N·C−1)

F = force on charge q (N) k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2)

+ − q = charge (C) Q
r
=
=
charge (C)
distance from charge Q (m)

q is the charge that experiences the force. Q is the charge that creates the electric field.
Unlike charges
Force due to
charge Q Certain point
Q
+ − F
r X
in space

Charge experiencing
Q the electric field due Distance between
q to charge Q charge Q and point X
Like charges
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

− − + +
Charge B experiences a force of 2 N due to charge A.
Determine the electric field strength at point B.
Determine the electric field strength at point P due to
charge Q.

A B Q
5mm P
Parallel plates
+2μC −5μC +3μC
+ − F kQ
E = q E =
+ − r2
+ − 2
9 × 109(3 × 10− 6 )
=
+ − 5 × 10− 6 =
+ − (5 × 10− 3) 2
= 4 × 10 N ⋅ C− 1 to the right
5
+ − = 1,08 × 109 N ⋅ C− 1 to the right

Charged hollow spheres DIRECTION OF E: DIRECTION OF E:

Direction that charge q would move Direction that point in space ( X )
+ + − − IF it was positive. would move IF it was positive.
+ + − −
+ + − − NOTE:
+ + − −
Electric field strength is a VECTOR. All vector rules and calculations apply.
(linear addition, 2D arrangement, resultant vectors, etc.)
28
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electromagnetism SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is induced When a magnet is brought close to a metal wire, it causes movement Transformers can be used to increase (step-up trans-
around the wire. of charge in the wire. As a result, an EMF is induced in the wire. Only a former) or decrease (step-down transformer) the potential
change in magnetic flux will induce a current. difference of alternating current through mutual induc-
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right hand
tion.
thumb rule. For a straight, single wire, point the thumb of your right hand The magnetic flux is the result of the product of the perpendicular com-
in the direction of the conventional current and your curled fingers will point ponent of the magnetic field and the cross-sectional area the field lines When alternating current flows through the primary coil, a
in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. pass through. Magnetic flux density (B) is a representation of changing magnetic field is induced. The changing mag-
the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field. netic field induces a changing electric field in the secon-
dary coil, therefore inducing alternating current in the sec-
ɸ= magnetic flux (Wb)
I I I out of page I into page B= magnetic flux density (T)
ondary coil. Direct current can not be stepped up or down,
ϕ = BA cos θ A= area (m2)
as there is no change in magnetic field. The coils have to
be wrapped around a soft iron core.
θ= angle between magnetic field line and normal
The ratio between the number of windings in the primary
B and secondary coil, will determine the ratio between the
B Normal Normal
primary and secondary coil potential difference. In an ideal
B θ θ θ transformer, the input power is equal to the output power.
θ STEP-DOWN STEP-UP
For a wire loop, the magnetic field is the sum of the individual magnetic A=l ×b S
fields around the single wires at each end. Use the right hand rule for a sin- A=πr2 P S P
gle wire at each end of the loop. VP IP = VSIS
F F NS Vs
Faraday’s law states that the emf induced is directly propor- =
tional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage). NP VP
Magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns on
the coil and the flux through the coil.
FORCE ON A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR
I NOTE THAT NO CALCULATIONS ARE REQUIRED,
ONLY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor will experience a force.
F F ε = emf (V)
− NΔϕ NOTE THAT NO CALCULATIONS ARE REQUIRED,
N= number of turns/windings in coil
ε= Δɸ= change in magnetic flux (Wb)
ONLY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES
Δt
Δt= change in time (s)
F = Iℓ Bsinθ
I DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT
As a bar magnet moves into a solenoid, the needle of the galvanometer F = Force on current-carrying conductor (N)
is deflected away from the 0 mark. As the bar magnet is removed, the I = Current strength in conductor (A)
For a solenoid, curl your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of the needle deflects in the opposite direction. The magnetic energy is con- ℓ = Length of conductor (m)
conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction of the North verted to electrical energy. The direction of the induced current can be B = magnetic flux density/ field strength (T)
pole. This is know as the right hand solenoid rule. determined using Lenz’s law. θ = Angle between conductor and magnetic field
I Lenz’s Law states N

B that the induced S To increase the force on a conductor:

current flows in a
S •Increase the length of the conductor (multiple loops)
direction so as to •Increase the current through/emf across the conductor
N
set up a magnetic N •Increase the strength of the magnetic field
field to oppose •Place the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic
N
the change in S
flux (sin 90°)
magnetic flux. S

29
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrodynamics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

GENERATORS INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF

Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. A generator works on the principal of mechanically rotating a conductor in a magnetic − NΔϕ
ε=
field. This creates a changing flux which induces an emf in the conductor. Δt
Direct (Not IEB) Alternating From the equation, the induced emf can be increased by

A direct current generator uses a split ring commutator to connect the The alternating current generator is connected to the external circuit by 2 • Increasing the number of turns in the coil.
conductor to the external circuit instead of a slip ring. slip rings which are connected to the conductor. The slip rings make • Increasing the area of the coil.
contact with brushes which are connected to the external circuit. • Increasing the strength of the magnets.
• Decreasing the time it takes to change the magnetic flux.
B C B C

N S N S
A D A D

V V
The current in the external circuit does not change direction and is known The direction of the current changes with every half-turn of the coil. The
as direct current (DC). current that is produced is known as alternating current (AC).

B C B C B C B C
C B B C C B C B B C C B

C B C B C B C B

I I
ε

ε
Turns/ Rotations ½ ¾ Turns/ Rotations
0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1
1½ 0 ¼ 1¼ 1½

ɸ ɸ

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO (GENERATOR) RULE

The Right hand Rule is used to
predict the direction of the in-
duced emf in the coil. Using your F B C B C
right hand, hold your first finger,
second finger and thumb 90° to B
each other. Point your first finger
in the direction of the magnetic N S N S
A D A D
field (N to S), your thumb in the I
direction of the motion (or force)
of the conductor. The middle
finger will point in the direction V V
of the induced current.
30
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrodynamics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

MOTORS DIODES
Electric motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. It consists of a current carrying armature, connected to a Diodes are components that only allow current to flow in one direction. A
source by a commutator and brushes and placed in a magnetic field. single diode produces half wave rectification where either the positive or negative cur-
rent is able to pass through, while the other half is blocked, producing a pulsating out-
put in one direction. This is known as half-wave rectification, as the only half of the
Direct Alternating (Not IEB)
original wavefront passes through the load. The average potential difference of the
A direct current motor uses a split ring commutator to The alternating current motor is connected to the external output is lower.
connect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a circuit by a slip ring. The slip ring makes contact with
slip ring. brushes which are connected to the external circuit at-
tached to an alternating current source. LIGHT GREY- FORWARD BIAS:
Allows current to pass through.

DARK GREY- REVERSE BIAS:

Does not allow current to pass through.

Pd across the load with half-wave

difference (V)
rectification
The split ring commutator allows the current in the coil to The direction of the current in the coil is constantly chang-

Potential
alternate with every half turn, which allows the coil to con- ing, which allows the coil to continue to rotate in the same
tinue to rotate in the same direction. direction.
Δt (s)
When a charge moves in a magnetic field it experiences a force. The force experienced on both sides of the ar-
For full wave-rectification a bridge rectifier is used. Full wave rectification converts both
mature creates torque which makes it turn. The direction of the force can be explained using the left hand rule.
positive and negative currents to the same direction, producing an output with a
higher average potential difference that flows in one direction only (DC).
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE
The Left hand Rule is used to predict the direction of the movement of the coil in the motor. Using your left hand, hold
your first finger, second finger and thumb 90° to each other. Point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field, Forward bias is applicable to di-
your second finger in the direction of the conventional current and your thumb will then point in the direction of the force. 4 1 odes 1 + 3, allowing current to
pass through. When the current

OUTPUT
direction reverses, diodes 2 + 4
3 2 are forward biased. The current
through the output is always in
the same direction, hence DC.
F B C
B

I
N S Full-wave rectification
A D

difference (V)
Potential
Δt (s)
31
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Photoelectric Effect SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT THRESHOLD FREQUENCY (f0), WORK FUNCTION (W0) AND FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
The photoelectric effect occurs when light is shone on a metal’s
ELECTRON ENERGY An increase in frequency will increase the kinetic energy of
surface and this causes the metal to emit electrons. The frequency required to provide enough energy to emit an electron is called the electrons. On a graph of Ek(max) vs frequency, the
x-intercept indicates the threshold frequency.
Metals are bonded in such a way that they share the threshold frequency (f0). The threshold frequency (f0) is the minimum
their valence electrons in a sea of delocalized frequency of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from
No emission Emission
electrons. In order to get an electron to be re- a particular metal. The work function (W0) is the minimum amount of
moved from the surface of a metal, it has to be energy needed to emit an electron from the surface of a metal. The work f < f0 f > f0

EK(max) (J)
provided with enough energy in order to escape function is material specific.
the bond. Each electron has to receive a photon If the energy of the photons exceed the work function (i.e. the frequency of light
of a minimum energy content. exceeds the threshold frequency), the excess energy is transferred to the liber-
ated electron in the form of kinetic energy only.
The energy that light provides enables the electron to escape from f0 f (Hz)
the surface and this phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. The kinetic energy of each electron can be determined by:
NOTE: Similarly, on the graph of Ek(max) vs wavelength, the
PHOTON ENERGY 1 x-intercept indicates the maximum wavelength of light
E = W0 + E K(max) = hf + m eV2 Sometimes work function is given in
2 eV. Convert from eV to J: that can emit an electron. Wavelength is inversely pro-
Photons are “little packets” of energy called quanta, which act as portional to frequency and energy.
1eV = 1 ×10−19 J (info sheet)
particles. The energy of the photon (light packet) can be calcu- f < f0 f = f0 f > f0 J = eV × 1,6×10−19
lated in one of two ways: Emission No emission
hc
E=

EK(max) (J)
E = hf OR c/! > f0 c/! < f0
λ
E = energy of the photon measured in joules (J) e-
EK(max) = ½ mv(max)2
h = Planck’s constant, 6,63 × 10−34 (J·s) e-
f = frequency measured in hertz (Hz) W0 = hf0
# = wavelength measured in meters (m) e- Maximum
! (m)
wavelength
c = speed of light, 3 × 108 (m·s−1)

INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

Increasing the intensity (brightness) of the light (radiation) means that there are more photons from the same frequency. This The higher the intensity of the radiation, the more electrons are emitted per sec-
will result in more electrons with the same amount of energy being emitted. Thus the number of electrons emitted per second ond. Therefore an increased intensity will increase the current produced (ammeter
increases with the intensity of the incident radiation. I = Q/t reading will increase).
Light
LOW INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY The higher the frequency, the more kinetic energy is provided to the same number
source
Metal of electrons. The rate of electron flow STAYS THE SAME (constant ammeter read-
ing).
.
. ..
. . .

ejected per second (current)

. . .
f0
. . . . .
. .
. . .
. . .
. . .
High-intensity light
. .. .

Number of electrons
V Metal Electron Photon

Note that the energy of the electrons remain the same. If the frequency of the incident radiation is below the cut-off frequency, Low-intensity light
then increasing the intensity of the radiation has no effect, i.e. it does not cause electrons to be ejected. To increase the en-
ergy, the frequency of the radiant light needs to be increased, to reach the threshold frequency.

INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS

INCREASE FREQUENCY AT CONSTANT INTENSITY = INCREASE KINETIC ENERGY OF EMITTED ELECTRONS Frequency of light on cathode (Hz)
32
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Emission Spectra SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ENERGY LEVELS

When white light shines through a prism, the light is dispersed into a spectrum The lines on the atomic spectrum (line emission spectrum) are as a result of
of light (phenomenon is called refraction). It is called the continuous spectrum. electron transitions between energy levels. As electrons gain energy (from
White light is made up of all the colours of the spectrum, and when dispersed heat, electricity or any other source) they move to a higher state of energy,
we are able to see all the components of white light. This is the same range as hence a higher energy level, further away from the nucleus. As the element
the visible spectrum, which we see as a rainbow. cools the electrons drop back down to the lower energy state and a position
closer to the nucleus. As they do this they emit the absorbed energy in the
R O Y G B I V form of light (photons). Therefore, each electron gives off a frequency of
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet light which corresponds with the line emission spectrum.
n=4

The white light is emitted from a bulb or any incandescent source, therefore the continu- n=3
ous spectrum is an emission spectrum.
ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA n=2

When an element in the gaseous phase is heated, it emits light. If the light
produced is passed through a prism, a spectrum is produced. However, this
n=1
spectrum is not continuous, but consists of only some lines of colour. This is
known as line emission spectrum and is unique for each element. Electrons in the n = 1 energy level are closest to the nucleus and have the
lowest potential energy. Electrons in the energy level furthest from the nu-
Each element has their own light signature as no two elements have the same cleus (eg. n = 4) has the highest potential energy. If an electron is free from
spectrum, like a bar code or finger print. the atom then it has zero potential energy. The potential energy is always
given as a negative value due to a decrease in potential as the electrons get
close to the nucleus.
As the electrons transition from their energized state back to their normal
state they give off energy that is equal to the difference in potential energy
between the energy levels.

ΔE = E 2 − E1
ΔE = difference in potential energy between two energy levels
E2 = the highest energy state
E1 = the lowest energy state
NB: Remember to use NEGATIVES for the values when substituting E1 and
E2 individually
The amount of energy that is released relates directly to a specific frequency
or wavelength (thus colour) of light.
hc
E = hf E=
λ
EXAMPLE:
A sample of hydrogen gas is placed in a discharge tube. The electron
from the hydrogen atom emits energy as it transitions from energy level
E6 (−0,61×10−19 J) to E2 (−5,46×10−19). Determine the wavelength of
light emitted.
E = hc
λ
ΔE = E 6 − E 2
− 19 (6,63 × 10− 34 )(3 × 108 )
BLUE RED = − 0,61 × 10− 19 − (− 5,46 × 10− 19 ) 4,85 × 10 =
λ
= 4,85 × 10− 19 J λ = 4,1 × 10− 7 = 410 nm

33
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www
Grade 12 Science Essentials Grade 12 Chemistry Definitions SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Molar mass: Mass in grams of one mole of that substance

Solution: Homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent
Solute: Substance that is dissolved in the solution
Quantitative Solvent: Substance in which another substance is dissolved, forming a solution
Chemistry Concentration: Amount of solute per unit volume of solution
Standard solution: Solution of known concentration
Yield: A measure of the extent of a reaction, generally measured by comparing the amount of product against the amount of
product that is possible

Intramolecular bond: A bond which occurs between atoms within molecules

Electronegativity: A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons
Covalent bond: A sharing of at least one pair of electrons by two non-metal atoms
Non-polar covalent (pure covalent): An equal sharing of electrons
Chemical Bonding
Polar covalent: Unequal sharing of electrons leading to a dipole forming (as a result of electronegativity difference)
Ionic bond: A transfer of electrons and subsequent electrostatic attraction
Metallic bonding: A metallic bond is between a positive kernel and a sea of delocalized electrons
Intermolecular force: A weak force of attraction between molecules, ions, or atoms of noble gases

Heat of reaction (∆H): The net change of chemical potential energy of the system
Exothermic reactions: Reactions which transform chemical potential energy into thermal energy
Endothermic reactions: Reactions which transform thermal energy into chemical potential energy
Energy Change and Activation energy: The minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction OR The energy required to form the activated
Rates of Reaction complex
Activated complex: A high energy, unstable, temporary transition state between the reactants and products
Reaction rate: Change in concentration per unit time of either a reactant or product
Catalyst: Substance that increases the rate of the reaction but remains unchanged at the end of the reaction

Closed system: A system in which mass is conserved inside the system but energy can enter or leave the system freely
Open system: A system in which both energy and matter can be exchanged between the system and its surroundings
Chemical Le Chatelier’s Principle: When an external stress (change in pressure, temperature or concentration) is applied to a system in
Equilibrium dynamic chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium point will change in such a way as to counteract the stress
Yield: A measure of the extent of a reaction, generally measured by comparing the amount of product against the amount of
product that is possible

Lowry-Brønsted theory:

Base: a proton (H+ ion) acceptor

Acid: a proton (H+ ion) donor
Ionisation: The reaction of a molecular substance with water to produce ions
Dissociation: The splitting of an ionic compound into its ions
Strong acids: An acid that ionises completely in an aqueous solution
Acids and Bases Strong bases: A base that dissociates completely in an aqueous solution
Weak acids: An acid that only ionises partially in an aqueous solution
Weak bases: A base that only dissociates/ionises partially in an aqueous solution
Amphoteric (Amphiprotic): A substance that can act as either an acid or a base
Salt: A substance in which the hydrogen of an acid has been replaced by a cation
Hydrolysis of a salt: A reaction of an ion (from a salt) with water
Neutralization/equivalence point: The point where an acid and a base have reacted so neither is in excess

Redox: A reaction involving the transfer of electrons

Oxidation: A loss of electrons
Reduction: A gain of electrons
Oxidising agent: A substance that accepts electrons.
Electrochemistry
Reducing agent: A substance that donates electrons.
Anode: The electrode where oxidation takes place
Cathode: The electrode where reduction takes place
Electrolyte: A substance that can conduct electricity by forming free ions when molten or dissolved in solution

Functional group: an atom or a group of atoms that form the centre of chemical activity in the molecule
Hydrocarbon: a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms
Homologous series: a series of similar compounds which have the same functional group and have the same general formula,
Organic Chemistry in which each member differs from the previous one by a single CH2 unit
Saturated compound: a compound in which all of the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds
Unsaturated compound: a compound in which there is at least one double and/ triple bond between carbon atoms
Structural isomer: Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulae

38
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Organic molecules SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Organic molecules contain carbon atoms, with the exception of CO2,, CO, diamond REPRESENTING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
graphite, carbonates (or bicarbonates), carbides and cyanides. These compounds
can be in the gaseous, liquid, or solid phase. All living matter contains organic We use a variety of ways to draw or write organic compounds. We either make use
compounds. of the molecular formula, condensed formula or we use full structural formulae.

UNIQUENESS OF CARBON H H H
Carbon is very unique and is the basic building block of all organic compounds. Car- Atoms are represented by their chemical
bon’s atoms have a valency of four in a tetrahedral arrangement. This means it is Structural formula symbols and lines are used to represent H C C C H
able to make four bonds. It forms strong carbon to carbon bonds and permits ALL of the bonds between the atoms.
long chains to form. The is called catenation. H H H
NOTE:
Carbon atoms can form single or double bonds.
Carbon atoms have
to form 4 bonds, The way in which atoms are bonded but
C C C C but not necessarily
Condensed formula
NOT ALL bond lines are shown. CH3CH2CH3
with 4 other atoms

HYDROCARBONS
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms. This is a chemical formula that indicates
These compounds can be saturated (single bonds) and unsaturated (double or tri- Molecular formula the type of atoms and the correct
number of each in a molecule.
C3H8
ple bonds).
Hydrocarbon: A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Saturated compound: Unsaturated compound:
ISOMERS
A compound in which all of the bonds A compound in which there is at least
Structural Isomers: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulae.
between carbon atoms are single bonds. one double and/or triple bond between
carbon atoms. butane methylpropane

H H H H H H H H
H These have the same H H H H
H C C C H C C C H molecular formula but different H C C C H
Chain isomers
H types of chain structures H C C C C H
H H H H (i.e. branching) H H
H H H H H C H
(Alkanes) (Alkenes and alkynes)
H
Saturation test with Br2 (aq) propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
These have the same H H
Unknown solution molecular formula but the
Positional isomers same functional group is in a H H O H O H
different position on the
parent chain. H C C C H H C C C H
Unsaturated solution Saturated solution
(alkene or alkyne) Add test (alkane) H H H H H H
substance propanoic acid methyl ethanoate
(Br2) These have the same
molecular formula but a H H O H O H
Functional isomers different functional group.
Solution remains clear/ Solution changes H C C C O H H C C O C H
Carboxylic acids and esters
discolours rapidly colour/discolours slowly are functional isomers.
(at room temperature) (at room temperature) H H H H

39
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Organic molecules- Naming SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

All organic compounds belong to a specific group which allows us to

identify or name the compound. The group that compounds belong Number of
to, known as the homologous series, depends on the the func- carbon atoms Root name
Substituent Formula Structural formula Name
tional group of the compound. in main chain

Homologous series: A series of similar compounds which have the 1 meth−

same functional group and have the same general formula, in which H
each member differs from the previous one by a single CH2 unit. 2 eth−
Functional group: An atom or a group of atoms that form the cen-
3 prop−
CH3− C C H methyl−
tre of chemical activity in the molecule.
General formula: A formula that is applicable to all members of a
4 but− H
homologous series. Alkyl
NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 5 pent− H H
Every distinct compound has a unique name, and there is only one
possible structure for any IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
6 hex− CH3CH2− C C C H ethyl−
Applied Chemistry) name. The IUPAC method for naming is a set 7 hept− H H
pattern. It indicates the longest chain (the longest continuous
chain), the functional group and names of substituent groups 8 oct−
(side chains) or atoms attached to the longest chain. X repesents a halogen:

Three parts of an IUPAC name: Number of Fluorine: fluoro−

Substituent prefix Halogen X− C X
substituents Chlorine: chloro−
Substituent Functional Bromine: bromo−
Root name 2 di (eg. dimethyl) Iodine: iodo−
Prefix group suffix

The root name indicates the number of carbon atoms in the long- 3 tri (eg. triethyl) EXAMPLE:
est chain. This chain must contain the functional group. The Write down the name of the molecule below:
prefix indicates the number and location of atoms or groups 4 tetra (eg. tetramethyl)
(substituents) attached to the longest chain. The suffix identifies
NOTE:
the functional group.
A maximum of THREE substituent chains (alkyl
Steps to naming organic compounds: substituents) are allowed on the main chain
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain which must contain NOTE:
the functional group. comma between numbers
2. Number the longest carbon chain beginning at the carbon (car- number , number
bon 1) nearest to the functional group with the alkyl substitu- dash between letter and number
ents on the lowest numbered carbon atoms of the longest chain. letter − number − letter
3. Name the longest chain according to the number of carbons in NB SAG REQUIREMENT:
the chain. (the root name)
For DIOLS
4. The suffix of the compound name is dependent on the func- the “e” before the suffix is not removed
tional group. Substituents Main chain Functional group
e.g. butane–1,2–diol ✓ BUT butan–1,2–diol ✗
5. Identify and name substituents (alkyl and halogen substituents), 1−chloro 7 = hept 1,4−diene
For DIENES:
indicating the position of the substituent 2,4−diethyl
an “a” must be added before the suffix
6. For several identical side chains use the prefix di-, tri-, tetra- e.g. buta–1,3–diene ✓ BUT but–1,3–diene ✗ 3−methyl
7. Arrange substituents in alphabetical order in the name of the GENERAL RULE: 5,6−dibromo
compound, ignore the prefix di-, tri-, tetra- (substituent pre- There must be 1 vowel and 1 consonant on
fix) either side of the numbers. There may not be 2 5,6−dibromo−1−chloro−2,4−diethyl−3−methylhepta−1,4−diene
8. Indicate position using numbers. vowels or 2 consonants.
40
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Organic Functional Groups SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Examples
Homologous
series and Functional
Suffix Properties
General group
formula Condensed
Structural formula Name
formula

Saturated hydrocarbon H H H
Polarity: Non-Polar
Alkanes IMF: Weak London
CnH2n+2
-ane H C C C H CH3CH2CH3 propane
Reactions: Substitution, Elimination,
Combustion
H H H
Double carbon- H H H
carbon bonds
Polarity: Non-polar
Alkenes
CnH2n
-ene H C C C H CH3CH=CH2 propene IMF: London
Reactions: Addition, combustion

H
Halogen atom bonded Br Cl H
to a carbon atom fluoro−
Haloalkane/ Polarity: Polar
chloro−
Haloalkene
bromo− H C C C H CH2BrCHClCH3 1−bromo−2−chloropropane IMF: Dipole−Dipole
(Alkyl halide) Reactions: Elimination, Substitution
iodo−
H H H
Hydroxyl group H H H
Polarity: Polar
Alcohols IMF: Strong Hydrogen bonds
CnH2n+2O
-ol H C C C O H CH3CH2CH2OH propan−1−ol
Reactions: Substitution, Elimination,
Esterification, Combustion
H H H
Carboxyl group H H O
Polarity: Polar
Carboxylic acids
CnH2nO2
-oic acid H C C C O H CH3CH2COOH propanoic acid IMF: Strong Hydrogen bonds
Reactions: Esterification
H H
Ester group
H H O H H
Polarity: Polar
Esters -yl -oate CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
−COO− (alch.) (carbox.) H C C C O C C H (carbox.) (alch.)
ethyl propanoate IMF: Dipole−Dipole
Reactions: Formed by esterification
H H H H

41
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Organic Intermolecular Forces SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules in the solid, liquid and gaseous phases. They are electrostatic COMPARING IMF
attractive forces. The strength of the IMF will determine the freedom of the particles, determining the phase of the sub- 1. Identify the type of intermolecular force.
stance (solid, liquid, gas). 2. Discuss the difference between the two compounds ( → ).
Intermolecular force are a weak force of attraction between molecules, ions or atoms of noble gases 3. Discuss how this difference either ↑ or ↓ the strength of the intermolecular force.
4. Discuss how the physical property is affected (↑ or ↓ ).
The types of intermolecular forces that exists between different types of organic molecules and the strength of the intermo- 5. Discuss energy required to overcome forces.
lecular forces will affect the physical properties of a molecule.
TYPE OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP
The more polar the molecule, the stronger the IMF
● Strongest of all the intermolecular forces Alcohols
● Act over shorter distances. (1 bonding site)

Haloalkane

Carboxylic
Hydrogen Bonds
● Between molecules that are strongly polar that contain hydrogen Carboxylic Acids

Alcohol
carbon
Hydro-
bonded to a small highly electronegative atom such as N, O or F. (2 bonding sites)

Ester

acid
TYPES OF IMF

INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME

● Stronger than Dispersion forces. Aldehydes London Dipole-dipole Hydrogen
Dipole-Dipole ● Between slightly polar molecules. Ketones (dispersion) bonding
Forces ● Force of attraction between the δ+ end of the one molecule and the Esters
δ– end of another. Alkyl Halides NUMBER OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
An increase in functional groups increase the IMF
OH H H OH OH H OH OH OH
London forces
● Very weak Van der Waals forces.
(Induced Dipole Alkanes H C C C H H C C C H H C C C H
● Between non-polar molecules that form induced (temporary)
forces/Dispersion Alkenes
dipoles and these temporary dipoles attract each other H H H H H H H H H
forces)
INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND IMF CHAIN LENGTH: ELECTRON DENSITY
The greater the number of carbon atoms in the chain, the greater the electron
density. An increase in electron density increases the IMF
PHYSICAL PROPERTY RELATIONSHIP TO IMF
H H H H H H

H C H H C C H H C C C H
Melting Point:
The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at H H H H H H
Directly proportional
equilibrium. It is the temperature where solid particles will undergo a phase change INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
(melt) and become a liquid.

CHAIN LENGTH: BRANCHES

More branching results in a smaller surface area and lower the strength of the
Boiling Point: IMF
The temperature at which vapour pressure of the substance equals
Directly proportional CH3 CH3
atmospheric pressure. It is the temperature where liquid boils and turns into a vapour
(gas).
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH3 CH3 C CH3

CH3

DECREASING IMF, LESS ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME

42
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ADDITION REACTIONS (UNSATURATED → SATURATED) ELIMINATION REACTIONS (SATURATED → UNSATURATED)

Addition reactions are reactions where atoms are added to an organic molecule. The double or triple An elimination reaction is a reaction where atoms or groups of atoms are removed from an organic mole-
bonds break open and the new atoms are added to the carbon atoms on either side of the double or cule to form either a double or triple bonded compound.
triple bond.
This reaction is the opposite reaction to the addition reactions and is the removal of hydrogen (H2), a
We can add hydrogen (H2), a halogen (Group 7 – e.g. Cl2), a Hydrogen halide or water H2O. In addition halogen (Group 7 – e.g. Cl2), a hydrogen halide or water H2O. In elimination reactions, alkanes form either
reactions alkenes or alkynes form an alkane chain as a product. an alkene or alkyne chain as a product.
1) Hydrogenation – add H2 Reaction conditions: 1) Dehydrohalogenation – remove HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
H H H H H H The alkene needs to be dis- (Major product)
H solved in an organic solvent H H H H
H2 + H C C C H C C C H H H H H
and needs to have a catalyst
H H H H present eg. Pt, Ni or Pd. H C C C C H HX + H C C C C H
hydrogen + alkene → alkane In a H2 atmosphere. Reaction conditions:
H H X H H H Takes place in the presence of
2) Halogenation – add X2, (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) (Minor product) hot concentrated NaOH/KOH in
H H H H H H Reaction conditions: H H H H ethanol as the solvent. (i.e. in
No water to be present if it is to H C C C C H the absence if water)
X2 + H C C C H H C C C H take place.
H (Refer to Saturation test) H H Zaitzev’s rule: H atom is re-
H X X
haloalkane → hydrogen halide + alkene moved from the carbon atom
halogen + alkene → haloalkane
with the least number of H at-
3) Hydrohalogenation – add HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) oms. (Keeps biggest H groups)
(Major product) OR
H H H H H H Reaction conditions:
No water to be present if it is to
HX + H C C C H H C C C H
take place.
H H X H
(Minor product)
Markovnikov’s rule: The H
H H H
atom will bond to the carbon
H C C C H atom which has the greater haloalkane + base → alkene + ionic salt + water (H2O)
number of H atoms bonded to
H H X it. (Form biggest H groups)
hydrogen halide + alkene → haloalkane 2) Dehydration – remove H2O from any alcohol
4) Hydration – add of H2O (Major product)
Reaction conditions:
H H H H H H H H Requires the heating of an alco-
(Major product)
H H H H H H Reaction conditions: hol with concentrated acid cata-
H C C C C H H2O + H C C C C H
Suitable catalyst e.g. H2SO4 or lyst eg. H2SO4 or H3PO4. The
H2O + H C C C H H C C C H H3PO4 acid should be in excess
H H O H H H
H H O H Heat in the form of steam (Acid catalyzed dehydration)
H
H (Minor product) Sulfuric acid is known
(Minor product) Markovnikov’s rule: The H
H H H H as a dehydrating agent.
atom will bond to the carbon
H H H
atom which has the greater
H C C C H number of H atoms bonded to
H C C C C H Zaitzev’s rule: H atom is re-
moved from the carbon atom
it. (Form biggest H groups) H H with the least number of H at-
H H O
oms. (Keeps biggest H groups)
H alcohol → water (H2O) + alkene
water (H2O) + alkene → alcohol
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS (SATURATED → SATURATED) ELIMINATION (Cracking)

Substitution reactions is when an atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule are replaced or Hydrocarbons can be made up of very long chains of hundreds of carbons. Crude oil is a mixture of
swopped/exchanged for another atom or group of atoms. Substitution reactions take place between com- many large hydrocarbons and each source of crude oil is different resulting in different types and
pounds that are saturated alkanes, haloalkanes and alcohols. amounts of hydrocarbons.
Shorter chain hydrocarbons are more useful to use as fuels as they burn more readily and are more flam-
mable. Cracking is the breaking up of long hydrocarbon chains into smaller more useful hydrocarbons.
1) Alkanes: Halogenation (free-radical halogenation) - Substitute X2 (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, An alkene and alkane will be the products as a result of cracking. Cracking is a type of elimination reac-
Br2, I2) tion.

H H H H H H
Reaction conditions:
Reaction takes place in the H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C C C H + X2 H C C C H + HX
presence of UV light/heat H C C C C C C H H C C C H + H C C C H
H H H H X H
H H H H H H H H H H
alkane + halogen → haloalkane + hydrogen halide
alkane → alkane + alkene

2) Haloalkanes: Hydrolysis - Substitute H2O

Reaction conditions: Thermal cracking
H H H H H H The haloalkane is dissolved This method makes use of high pressures and high temperatures to crack the long hydrocarbon chains
H2O / HX /
H C C C H + NaOH / H C C C H + NaX / in an ethanol solution and with no catalyst.
treated with hot aqueous
H X H KOH H O H KX dilute NaOH/KOH solution. Catalytic cracking
H OR Heat under reflux in a This method uses a catalyst to crack long carbon chains at low pressure and low temperature. The
dilute alkali solution heated crude oil is passed into a fractional distillation column and passed over a catalyst. The column is
hottest at the bottom and coolest at the top. The crude oil separates according to boiling points and
haloalkane + H2O/NaOH/KOH → alcohol + HX/NaX/KX condenses as the gas rises up the column. The substances/chains with the longest chains will have
higher boiling points and condense at the bottom and vice versa.

COMBUSTION/OXIDATION REACTIONS
Hydrocarbons are the main source of fuel in the world at the moment. They are used in the production
CONDENSATION (Esterification)
of electrical energy and as fuel for various engines. When hydrocarbons and alcohols react with oxygen This is a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid in the presence of a concentrated acid
they form water and carbon dioxide. These reactions are exothermic and produce large quantities of catalyst, H2SO4. This reaction is a type of an elimination reaction and is also known as a condensation
heat energy. reaction as two organic molecules form one organic molecule and water is removed from the reactants
and forms as a product in the reaction. Esters are responsible for the various smells which occur in na-
Complete combustion (excess oxygen): C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O + energy ture and they are generally pleasant smells like banana and apple etc.

Balancing: C → H → O

H H O H H H H O H H
H C C O H + H O C C C H H C C O C C C H + H2O

H H H H H H H H

alcohol + carboxylic acid → ester + water

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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Summary of Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Quantitative aspects of chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

The Mole Concentrations of solutions Molar Volumes of Gases

Atoms, molecules and ions are too small to count, and there are so many Solutions are homogeneous (uniform) mixtures of solute and solvent. If different gases have the same volume under the
particles in even the smallest sample of a substance. The solvent and solute can be a gas, liquid, or solid. The most common sol- same conditions of temperature and pressure, they
The mole is the SI unit for amount of a substance. A mole of particles is vent is liquid water. This is called an aqueous solution will have the same number of molecules.
an amount of 6,02 x 1023 particles. 6,02 x 1023 is known as The molar volume of a gas, VM, is the volume
Avogadro’s number, NA. occupied by one mole of the gas.
number of particles Solution Solute Solvent
N salt water salt water VM for all gases at STP is 22.4 dm3·mol−1.
n=
number of mole (mol) NA Avogadro’s number
soda water carbon dioxide water
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) is
(6,02 x 1023) Concentration 273 K (0°C) and 1,013×105 Pa (1 atm).
The concentration of a solution is the number of moles of solute
EXAMPLE: This also means that for reactions at constant tem-
per unit volume of solution.
Determine the amount of H+ ions in 3 mol of H2SO4. perature and pressure, gas volumes will react in the
N(H2 SO4 ) = nNA H2 SO4 : H + number of moles (mol) same ratio as the molar ratio.
= 3(6,02 × 10 23) 1:2 n
= 1,81 × 10 24 H2 SO4 molecules 1,81 × 10 24 : 3,62 × 10 24 concentration (mol ⋅ dm− 3) c=
∴ N(H + ) = 3,62 × 10 24 ions V volume (dm3)

Molar Mass can also be calculated with

Particles are too small to weigh individually.
Molar mass (M) is defined as the mass in grams of one mole of that
m
c=
substance (atoms, molecules or formula units) and is measured in the MV
unit g.mol-1.
m mass of substance (g)
Concentration is the number moles of solute per 1 dm3 of solution
number of mole (mol) n= i.e. mol·dm-3. If a solution of potassium permanganate KMnO4 has a
M molar mass (g ⋅ mol− 1) concentration of 2 mol.dm-3 it means that for every 1 dm3 of solution, there
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
EXAMPLE: are 2 moles of KMnO4 dissolved in the solvent.
Determine the number of moles in 13 g of CuSO4. 1 mol + 2 mol → 2 mol
M(CuSO4 ) = 63,5 + 32 + 4(16) m
n= EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
− 1
M 1 dm3 + 2 dm3 → 2 dm3
= 159,5 g ⋅ mol
= 13 A solution contains 10 g of sodium Calculate the mass of solute in
159,5
= 0,082 mol hydroxide, NaOH, in 200 cm3 of 600 cm3 of 1,5 mol·dm-3 sodium volume of gaseous
solution. Calculate the concentra- chloride solution. V substance (dm3)
Percentage Composition tion of the solution. n=
n(NaOH) =
m V = 600 cm3 = 0,6 dm3 VM
molar mass of element M
Percentage composition of element= × 100 M(NaCl) = 23 + 35,5
M of compound 10 mumber of moles (mol) molar gas volume at STP
= 23 + 16 + 1 = 58,5 g ⋅ mol− 1 (22,4 dm3 ⋅ mol− 1)
Consider these iron ores: haematite and magnetite – which con- = 0,25 mol
tains more iron by mass? EXAMPLE:
3 3 n = cV A gas jar with a volume of 224 cm3 is full of chlo-
Ore Haematite Magnetite V = 200 cm = 0,2 dm rine gas, at STP. How many moles of chlorine gas
= 1,5 × 0,6
Formula Fe2O3 Fe3O4 are there in the gas jar?
n
= 0,9 mol
Relative (2 x 56) + (3 x 16) (3 x 56) + (4 x 16) c(NaOH) = V n =
V
molecular mass =160 =232 VM
0,25
= m = nM 0,224
% iron by mass
[(2 x 56) /160] x 100 [(3 x 56) / 232] x 100 0,2
= 0,9 × 58,5 = 22,4
= 70% = 72% = 1,25 mol ⋅ dm− 3
∴ magnetite contains more iron
= 52,65 g = 0,01 m ol

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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Quantitative aspects of chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

Calculating Empirical Formula Empirical formula to Molecular Formula Limiting Reactants

from Mass
The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule. In a reaction between two substances, one reac-
The molecular formula is actual ratio of the atoms in a molecule. tant is likely to be used up completely before the
1.Determine the mass of the elements.
2.Determine mol of each substance. The molecular formula can be calculated from the empirical formula and the relative other. This limits the amount of product formed.
3.Simplify the atomic ratio. molecular mass. Consider the reaction between magnesium and
STEPS TO DETERMINE MOLECULAR FORMULA: dilute sulphuric acid. The balanced chemical equa-
tion is
EXAMPLE: 1. Determine the empirical formula (if not given).
A sample of an oxide of copper contains 8 g of copper combined 2. Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula. Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
with 1 g of oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the compound. 3. Determine the ratio between molecular formula and empirical formula.
This means that 1 mole of magnesium reacts with
4. Multiply the ratio into the empirical formula 1 mole of sulphuric acid. Both reactants will be
Steps Copper Oxygen
EXAMPLE: completely used up by the time the reaction stops.
Step 1:
8g 1g An unknown organic compound has the empirical formula CH2. What happens if 1 mole of magnesium and 2 mole
Mass of element
The molecular mass of butene is 56g·mol-1. Determine the mo- of sulphuric acid are available to react? There is
n=m/M n=m/M lecular formula of the compound. now insufficient magnesium to react with all of the
Step 2: Mol
= 8 / 63,5 = 1 / 16 sulphuric acid. 1 mole of sulphuric acid is left after
(divide by mass of 1 mol) 1. Empirical formula given: CH2
= 0,126 mol = 0,0625 mol the reaction.
2. Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula.
Step 3: Atom ratio 0,125/0,0625 0,0625/0,0625 M(CH2 ) = 12 + 1 + 1 All of the magnesium is used up, We say the mag-
(divide by smallest no in ratio) ≈2 =1 nesium is the limiting reactant. Some sulphuric
−1
= 14g ⋅ mol acid is left after the reaction. We say the sulphuric
Empirical formula: Cu2O
acid is in excess.
3. Determine the ratio between molecular and empirical.
molecular formula mass
Calculating Empirical Formula from ratio number = empirical formula mass
The amount of limiting reactant will deter-
mine:
Percentage Composition 56
The empirical formula of a compound can also be found from its per-
= 14 • The amount of product formed.
centage composition. We assume that 100 g of the compound is = 4 • The amount of other (excess) reactants used.
analysed, then each percentage gives the mass of the element in
grams in 100 g of the compound.
4. Multiply the ratio into the empirical formula
CH2 × 4 = C4 H8 Determining limiting reactants
An oxide of sulphur contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen by
mass. Determine the empirical formula of this oxide of sulphur. 1. Calculate the number of moles of each reactant.
Approach to reaction stoichiometry 2. Determine the ratio between reactants.
3. Determine limiting reactant using the ratios.
Steps Sulphur Oxygen 1. Write a balanced chemical equation.
2. Convert the ‘given’ amount into mole (use limiting reactant if applicable).
Step 1: 40 60 3. Determine the number of mole of the ‘asked’ substance using the mole ratio.
% of element 4. Determine the ‘asked’ amount from the number of mole.
Step 2: 40 60 NOTE:
Mass of element (g)
Concentra0on Concentra0on Concentra0on Concentra0on If one reactant is in excess, it means
Step 3: n=m/M n=m/M that there is more than enough of it.
Mol = 40 / 32 = 60 / 16 If there are only 2 reactants and one is in
= 1,25 mol = 3,75 mol excess, it means that the other is the limit-
Step 4: 1,25 / 1,25 3,75 /1,25
MOL + MOL MOL + MOL ing reactant.
Divide by smallest =1 =3
mol ratio
Mass Volume Mass Volume Mass Volume Mass Volume
Empirical formula: SO3

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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Quantitative aspects of chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

EXAMPLE: Percentage Purity Percentage Yield

A 8,4 g sample of nitrogen reacts with 1,5 g hydro- Sometimes chemicals are not pure and one needs to calculate the Yield is the measure of the extent of a reaction, generally measured by comparing
gen. The balanced equation is: percentage purity. Only the pure component of the substance the amount of product against the amount of product that is possible.
will react. For an impure sample of a substance:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) Some of the product may be lost due to evaporation into the surrounding air, or due
to a little being left in solution. Some of the reactants may not react. We say that the
Determine (a) which reactant is the limiting reac- reaction has not run to completion.
Mass of pure substance
tant, and (b) the mass of ammonia that can be Percentage purity = × 100
produced. Mass of impure substance This results in the amount of the product produced being less than the maximum
theoretical amount you would expect. We can express this by the percentage yield:
(a)
1. STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PURITY
n(N2 ) = m Actual yield
M 1. Determine moles of products. Percentage yield = × 100
8,4 2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants Theoretical yield
=
28 and products.
= 0,3 mol 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of reactants.
Percentage yield is usually determined using mass, but can also be determined with
4. Determine the mass of pure reactant.
mol and volume.
5. Calculate the percentage purity of the sample.
m
n(H2 ) =
M STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE YIELD
1,5
= EXAMPLE: 1. Determine moles of reactants.
2
2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants and products.
= 0,75 mol An impure sample of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, contains calcium 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of products and convert to mass.
sulphate, CaSO4, as an impurity. When excess hydrochloric acid 4. Determine the theoretical mass of product.
2. was added to 6g of the sample, 1200 cm3 of gas was produced 5. Calculate the percentage yield.
N2 : H2 (measured at STP). Calculate the percentage purity of the cal-
1 : 3 cium carbonate sample. The equation for the reaction is: EXAMPLE:
0,3 mol : 0,9 mol
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2(g) 128g of sulphur dioxide, SO2, was reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide,
0,25 mol : 0,75 mol SO3. The equation for the reaction is:

V 1,2 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

3 . 1. n(CO2 ) = = = 0,054mol
If all nitrogen is used, 0,9 mol hydrogen is VM 22,4 140g of SO3 was produced in the reaction. Calculate the percentage yield of the
needed, However, only 0,75 mol hydrogen is avail- reaction.
2. 3.
able. The hydrogen will run out first, therefore CaCO3 : CO2
hydrogen is the limiting reactant. CaCO3 : CO2 m 128
1 : 1 1. n(SO2 ) = = = 2mol
1 : 1 M 64
0,054 : 0,054
(b) 2. 3.
∴ 0,054mol CaCO3 reacted SO2 : SO3 SO2 : SO3
Because the hydrogen is the limiting reactant, it
will determine the mass of ammonia produced: 4.
2 : 2 1 : 1
m(CaCO3) = nM = (0,054)(40 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 5,4g 1 : 1 2 : 2
H2 : NH3 ∴ 2mol SO3
5.
3 : 2 Mass of pure substance 4. m(SO3) = nM = (2)(32 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 160g
Percentage purity = × 100
0,75mol : 0,5mol Mass of impure substance
5.
5,4 Mass of product produced
Percentage purity = × 100 Percentage yield = × 100
m(NH3) = nM 6,0 Maximum theoretical mass of product
= (0,5)(17) Percentage purity = 90 % Percentage yield = 140
× 100
160
= 8,5g
Percentage yield = 87.5 %
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Molecular Structure SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

A) Covalent Bonding INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (IMF) STRENGTH OF IMF

(Between non-metals) Intermolecular forces are weak forces of attrac- Hydrogen bonding > Ion-dipole > dipole-dipole > ion-induced dipole
Covalent bonding is the sharing of at least one tion between molecules or between atoms of > dipole-induced dipole >London dispersion forces
pair of electrons by two atoms. noble gases.
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Non-polar (pure) covalent IMF vs Intramolecular bonds
An equal sharing of electrons Hydrogen
Eg. H P bond: $EN = EN(P) EN(H) = 0 Intermolecular forces are not the same as intramol- IMF’s involving ions Van der Waals Forces
bonding
ecular bonds.
Weak polar covalent Ion- Dipole- London
Intramolecular bonds occur between atoms within Hydrogen Ion- Dipole-
Eg. H Br bond: $EN = EN(Br) EN(H) = 0,7 induced induced dispersio
a molecule. bonding dipole dipole
dipole dipole n forces
Polar covalent
Intermolecular forces exist between molecules or A type of dipole- IMF that Ion IMF that Polar IMF
An unequal sharing of electrons leading to a di-
between atoms of noble gases. dipole attraction, occur induces a occur molecule between
pole forming
Eg. H O bond: $EN = EN(O) EN(H) = 1,4 but much between dipole in between induces a non-polar
‘Intra’ STRONGER. an ion an atom or polar dipole in an molecules
B) Ionic Bonding Between small, and a in a non- molecules atom or in a that form
+ + highly polar polar (same or non-polar temporary
(between metals and non-metals)
Ionic bonding is a transfer of electrons and sub- + + ‘Inter’ + + electronegative
atoms.
molecule
(dipole).
molecule.
Eg. Cl-ion
not the
same
molecule.
Eg. O2 in
dipoles.
Eg. CO2
sequent electrostatic attraction.
Elements N,O,F Eg. NaCl in and C6H14 molecules). water.
bonded to H. water. (hexane). Eg. H2S;
1. Involves a complete transfer of electron(s).
2. Metal atom gives e- to non-metal. + + Eg. H2O. CH3Cl.
3. Metal forms a positive cation.
4. Non-metal forms a negative anion. IMF AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
5. Electrostatic attraction of ions leads to formation of
giant crystal lattice. PHYSICAL PROPERTY RELATIONSHIP TO IMF

Ionic Bonding takes place in two steps. Melting Point: The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at equilibrium. It
Directly proportional
1. Transfer of e-(s) to form ions is the temperature where solid particles will undergo a phase change (melt) and become a liquid.
2. Electrostatic attraction
Boiling Point: The temperature at which vapour pressure of the substance equals atmospheric pressure.
Electron transfer from Directly proportional
sodium to chlorine It is the temperature where liquid boils and turns into a vapour (gas).
- Vapour Pressure: This is the pressure that an enclosed vapour at equilibrium exerts on the surface of its
Na + Cl Na+ Cl liquid.
Inversely proportional

Viscosity: this is the measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. A liquid with high viscosity resists motion e.g.
Directly proportional
C) Metallic Bonding syrup and a liquid with low viscosity are runny e.g water.
(between metals)
Solubility: Substances will only dissolve in substances that are like bonded. A non-polar substance will dissolve in a
Metallic bonding is the bond between the posi- Inversely proportional
non-polar substance. A polar substance will dissolve only in polar substances.
tive metal kernels and the sea of delocalized
electrons.
Density: Density is a measure of the mass per unit volume. The solid phase of the substance is generally
Directly proportional
more dense than the gaseous and liquid phase.
The metal atoms release their
valence electrons to surround
Flammability: The ability to burn in air or ignite causing combustion. Most organic compounds are
them. There is a strong but Inversely proportional
flammable and burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
flexible bond between the
positive metal kernels and a Odour: Different functional groups attach differently to different receptors in our nose. Different organic substances
sea of delocalised electrons. Inversely proportional
give off odour quicker based on their intermolecular forces and distinct odours.

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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Energy and Chemical Change SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ENERGY CHANGE ENTHALPY AND ENTHALPY CHANGE

The energy change that takes place occurs because of bonds being broken and new bonds being formed. Enthalpy (H) is the total amount of stored chemical energy (potential energy) of the reactants and the
products. During chemical reactions, energy can be exchanged between the chemical system and the
When bonds are broken, energy is absorbed from the environment. (endothermic)
environment, resulting in a change in enthalpy. This change in enthalpy, $H, represents the heat of the
When bonds are formed, energy is released into the environment. (exothermic) reaction measured in kJ·mol−1.
The net energy change will determine if the reaction is endothermic or exothermic. The heat of reaction ($H) is the net change of chemical potential energy of the system.

ACTIVATION ENERGY
CHEMICAL SYSTEM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
In order to start a reaction, energy first needs to be absorbed to break the bonds. This energy is known
as the activation energy – the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction OR the The chemical system is the reactant and product molecules.
energy required to form the activated complex.
The environment is the surroundings of the chemical system, including the container in which the reac-
Once the bonds have been broken, the atoms in the chemical system form an activated complex – a tion takes place, or the water in which the molecules are dissolved.
high energy, unstable temporary transition state between the reactants and the products.

CATALYST
ENDOTHERMIC EXOTHERMIC
In order for a reaction to occur, enough en-
A reaction which transforms thermal energy into A reaction which transforms chemical potential energy ergy has to be provided (activation energy)
for particles to collide effectively.
chemical potential energy into thermal energy
The amount of required energy can be de-
More energy absorbed than released More energy released than absorbed creased by using a catalyst. A catalyst is a
chemical substances that lowers the activa-
Net energy change is energy absorbed from the environment Net energy change is energy released into the environment tion energy required without undergoing
chemical change. By lowering the activation
The chemical system’s energy increases ($H>0) The chemical system’s energy decreases ($H<0) energy, the rate of the reaction can also be
increased.
The environment’s energy decreases The environment’s energy increases A catalyst is a substance that increases
the rate of the reaction but remains
Temperature of the environment decreases (test tube gets colder) Temperature of the environment increases (test tube gets hotter) unchanged at the end of the reaction
POTENTIAL ENERGY PROFILE GRAPH OF AN ENDOTHERMIC REACTION POTENTIAL ENERGY PROFILE GRAPH OF AN EXOTHERMIC REACTION
IMPORTANT REACTIONS
Ac+vated Ac+vated
ENDOTHERMIC
Complex Complex
Photosynthesis
Effect of Effect of 6CO2 + 6H2 O
light
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ; $H>0
Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)

Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)

catalyst catalyst
EA
Products EXOTHERMIC
Reactants Cellular respiration
EA ΔH ΔH C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O ; $H<0

Combustion
Reactants Products
CH 4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O ; $H<0
C 2 H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2 O ; $H<0
Course of reac+on Course of reac+on
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Rates of Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

RATES OF REACTIONS FACTORS INFLUENCING REACTION RATE

Temperature Nature of reactants
The change in concentration per unit time of either a reac-
Increasing temperature increases rate of reaction. When the temperature is increased, The physical and chemical properties of certain
tant or product.
the kinetic energy of the particles are increased. More particles have sufficient energy molecules make them more likely to react.
Δ[products] Δ[reactants] to overcome the activation energy, and more effective collisions can take place per
Rate = Rate = unit time.
For example:
Δt Δt • O2 has many effective orientations
Unit: Change in concentration over time (mol·dm−3·s−1). EA • F’s electronegativity makes it more reactive

Number of par0cles

Amount of product
• Tertiary alcohols have limited effective collision

re
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
Rate may also be

pe h
e
ous rat

tu
m ig
orientations due to molecule structure
antane

ra
te H
Hi
given in terms of st w re
Lo ratu

gh
nt = in • Simple (Ca2+) and complex (C2O4−) ions.
change in mass per Gradie tion
of reac pe

T
em
Low
unit time (g·s−1) OR m State of division / surface area (solids only)
te

p.
change in volume per Increased state of division (powder instead of

Tem
Δ[product]

unit time (dm3·s−1) ate chunks) increases rate of reaction. Increasing the
er n

p.
OR change in number g surface area exposed to collisions increases that
of moles per unit time era tio
(mol·s−1). = av reac number of particles that will undergo collisions, and
t of Energy Time (s) more effective collisions can take place per unit
ie n time.
The gradient of a rate ad
graph indicates the
Gr Concentration (gases and solutions only)
Increasing concentration increases rate of reaction. The greater the concentration, the

Amount of product
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
rate of the reaction at more particles occur per unit volume. More particles have sufficient energy to over-
Δt

er
that point in time. come the activation energy, and more effective collisions can take place per unit

wd

lar
time. If the concentration of a limiting reactant is increased, more product can be

Po

u
COLLISION THEORY

an
formed. High conc.

Gr
The conditions for successful collisions are: 1M E A Limiting react.

Number of par0cles

Amount of product
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
1. Particles must collide with correct orientation
onc.
The structure of the molecules and their relative orientations to High c act.
each other is important for effective collisions. Some catalysts s s re
0,5M Exce Time (s)
function by improving molecular orientation.
Pressure (gases only)
2. Particles must collide with sufficient energy (kinetic .
nc Increased pressure (by decreasing volume) in-
energy ≥ activation energy) co creases the concentration of the gas thus increas-
w
The molecules have to collide with sufficient amount of energy Lo ing the rate of reaction.
for bonds to break and the reaction to occur (activation energy). (See ‘Concentration’)
MAXWELL-BOLTZMAN DISTRIBUTION CURVE Energy Time (s)

Amount of product
The Maxwell-Boltzman distribution curve shows the distribution of Catalyst

(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
the kinetic energy of molecules. The area under the graph to the The presence of a catalyst decreases the activation energy (EA). More particles have

pre igh
re
right of the EA line represents the particles with sufficient kinetic sufficient energy to overcome the lowered activation energy, and more effective colli- w
Lo sure

ssu
H
energy
most particles have moderate energy
sions can take place per unit time. res
p
∴ average EK EA (catalyst)
Number of par0cles

Amount of product
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
number of

t
lys
particles

ta
few particles have
EA (no catalyst) t
ou

Ca
EA very high energy Time (s)
∴ high EK ith lyst
W ta
ca WAYS TO MEASURE RATE
1. Change in mass
energy 2. Volume of gas produced
few particles have 3. Change in colour
Par$cles with sufficient energy
very little energy 4. Turbidity (precipitation)
∴ low EK
for an effec$ve collision Energy Time (s) 5. Change in pH
51
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Chemical Equilibrium SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

An open system is one in which both energy and matter can LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
be exchanged between the system and its surroundings - it
interacts continuously with its environment. When an external stress (change in pressure, temperature or concentration) is applied to a system in dynamic chemical
A closed system is one in which energy can enter or leave equilibrium, the equilibrium point will change in such a way as to counteract the stress.
the system freely, but no reactant or products can leave or Factors which affect equilibrium position
enter the system. 1. Concentration
A reaction is a reversible reaction when products can be Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in Removing HI (t1):
converted back to reactants. Reversible reactions are repre- concentration of either reactants or products. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
When HI is removed, the system re-
sented with double arrows. • Adding reactant: forward reaction favoured HI H2

Concentra/on (mol·dm−3)
H2(g) establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
• Adding product: reverse reaction favoured removed added
For example: tion that will produce more HI. Because the
Hydrogen reacts with iodine to form hydrogen iodide: forward reaction is favoured, some of the reac-
Equilibrium will shift to increase any decrease in
H2 (g) + I2 (g) → 2HI(g) tants are used.
concentration of either reactants or products.
I2(g)
Hydrogen iodide can decompose to form hydrogen and iodine: • Removing reactant: reverse reaction favoured Adding H2 (t2):
2HI(g) → H2 (g) + I2 (g) • Removing product: forward reaction favoured
HI(g) When adding H2, the system re-establishes
Therefore the reversible reaction can be written as: equilibrium by favouring the reaction that uses
The concentration can be changed by adding/
H2. Because the forward reaction is favoured,
Forward reac*on removing reactants/products that are in solution
the reactants are used and more products
(aq) or a gas (g). Changing the mass of pure sol-
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) Time (min) t1 t2 form.
ids (s) or volume of liquids (l) will not disrupt the
Reverse reac*on
equilibrium or change the rate of the reactions.
Dynamic chemical equilibrium refers to a reversible 2. Pressure (gases only)
reaction in which the forward reaction and the reverse reaction A change in pressure can be identified on a graph Pressure decrease (t1):
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
are taking place at the same rate. The concentrations of the by an instantaneous change in concentration of When the pressure is decreased, the system
reactants and products are constant. Chemical equilibrium can all gasses due to a change in volume.) Pressure Pressure re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the

Concentra/on (mol·dm−3)
N2(g) decrease increase
only be achieved in a closed system. Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in reaction that will produce more moles of gas.
Equilibrium pressure by favouring the reaction direction that The reverse reaction is favoured, reacting 2
Concentra/on (mol·dm−3)

H2(g) produces less molecules. mol gas and forming 4 mol gas.
reached H2(g)
Equilibrium will shift to increase any decrease in
Pressure increase (t2):
Concentra/on pressure by favouring the reaction that produces
more molecules. When the pressure is increased, the system
I2(g) remains constant
Do determine which reaction is favoured, com- re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the
a?er equilibrium
pare the total number of mol of gaseous reaction that will produce less moles of gas.
reached
reactants to the total number of mol of gaseous NH3(g) The forward reaction of favoured, reacting 4
HI(g) products. mol of gas and forming 2 moles of gas.
Time (min) t1 t2
3. Temperature
If the temperature is increased, the endo- 2NO2(g) N2O4(g); ΔH = -57 kJ Temperature increase (t1):
Time (min) t1
thermic reaction will be favoured. When the temperature is increased, the system
Forward reac0on Temperature Temperature

Concentra/on (mol·dm−3)
If the temperature decreases, the exother- increase decrease re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) Equilibrium NO2(g)
mic reaction is favoured. tion that will decrease the temperature (i.e. the
reached
Rate of reac0on

endothermic reaction). The reverse reaction will

The heat of the reaction, ΔH, is always be favoured because the forward reaction is exo-
Equilibrium: used to indicate the forward reaction. thermic. The gas mixture becomes brown.
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
NOTE: An increase in temperature in- Temperature decrease (t2):
Reac0on rate creases the rate of both the forward
remains constant When the temperature is decreased, the system
and the reverse reaction, but shifts
aAer equilibrium re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
Reverse reac0on the equilibrium position.
reached N2O4(g) tion that will increase the temperature (i.e. the
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g)
NOTE: Temperature change is the only exothermic reaction). The forward reaction will be
Time (min) t1 t2
Time (min) t1 change that affects Kc. favoured. The gas mixture becomes colourless.
52
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Chemical Equilibrium SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

COMMON ION EFFECT EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (KC) EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT TABLE

When ionic substances are in solution, they form ions: General equation: aA + bB ⇌ cC The equilibrium constant table assists in calculating the concentration of reactants
and products when the reaction has reached equilibrium.
Where A,B,C are chemical substances (ONLY aq and g, NOT s or l !)
NaCl(s) ⇌ Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) EXAMPLE:
and a,b,c are molar ratio numbers
wh i t e c ol ou r l ess 3 moles of NO2 are placed in a 1,5 dm3 container and the following equilibrium
[C]c is established:
Kc = If no volume is given,
If HCl is added to this solution, the concentration of [A]a[B]b 2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g)
Cl− ions will increase because Cl− is a common ion. assume volume = 1 dm3
Kc value is a ratio and therefore has no units.
The system will attempt to re-establish equilibrium by At equilibrium it was found that 0,3 mol of NO2 was present in the container.
favouring the reverse reaction, forming a white so- If Kc > 1 then equilibrium lies to the right – there are more products Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction.
dium chloride precipitate. than reactants.
If Kc < 1 then equilibrium lies to the left – there are more reactants
The disturbance of a system at equilibrium that occurs NO2 N2O4
than products.
when the concentration of a common ion is increased,
is known as the common ion effect. Kc values are constant at specific temperatures. If the temperature of Ratio 2 1
the system changes then the Kc value will change. [N2 O4 ]
CATALYST AND EQUILIBRIUM Initial (mol) 3 0 Kc =
[NO 2 ]2
When a catalyst is added, the rate of the forward, as Temperature Kc of Exothermic Kc of Endothermic
(0,9)
well as the reverse reaction, is increased. The use of a Change (mol) -2,7 +1,35 =
(0,2) 2
catalyst does not affect the equilibrium position or the Increase Decrease Increase
Equilibrium (mol) 0,3 1,35 = 22,5
Kc value at all.
Decrease Increase Decrease
Forward reac0on Eq. concentration 0,3/1,5 1,35/1,5
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) EXAMPLE: in (mol·dm−3) = 0,2 =0,9
Rate of reac0on

Consider the following equilibrium system:

Catalyst
added CoCl 4 2− (aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ Co(H2 O)6 2+ (aq) + 4Cl− (aq) ΔH < 0 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
bl u e pi nk (The Haber Process) : N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH<0
For each change made to the system state and explain the colour
Reverse reac0on change seen. Temperature: The forward reaction is exothermic, thus a decrease in tempera-
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) ture will favour the forward exothermic reaction. However, a decrease in tempera-
a) Water added ture will also decrease the rate of the reaction. Therefore, a compromise be-
Time (min) t1 Adding water decreases the concentration of all the ions. According tween rate and yield is found at a temperature of around 450 °C to 550 °C.
to Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium will shift in such as way
so as to produce more ions. Thus the forward reaction will be fa- Pressure: As there are fewer reactant gas particles than product gas particles,
DESCRIBING EQUILIBRIUM SHIFT AC- an increase in pressure will therefore favour the production of products. Thus this
voured, forming more product and the solution turns pink.
CORDING TO LE CHATELIER reaction is done under a high pressure of 200 atm.
1. Identify the disturbance b) AgNO3 added Catalyst: Iron or Iron Oxide
Adding/removing reactants or products, pressure Adding AgNO3 creates an insoluble precipitate of AgCl. This
change, temperature change. decreases the Cl− ion concentration. According to Le Chatelier’s (The Contact Process): 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) ΔH < 0
principle the equilibrium will shift in such a way so as to produce
2. State Le Chatelier’s principle Temperature: The forward reaction is exothermic, thus a decrease in tempera-
more Cl− ions. The forward reaction will be favoured, more product
ture will favour the forward exothermic reaction. However, a decrease in tempera-
3. System response is made and the solution turns pink.
ture will also decrease the rate of the reaction. Therefore, a compromise be-
Use up/create more products or reactants, make
tween rate and yield is found at a temperature of around 450 °C
more/less gas molecules, increase/decrease tem- c) Temperature is increased
perature. The temperature of the system is increased. According to Pressure: There are more reactant gas particles than product gas particles, there-
Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium will shift in such a way to fore an increase in pressure will favour the production of product. However, in
4. State favoured reaction
reduce the temperature. The reverse endothermic reaction is fa- practice a very high yield is obtained at atmospheric pressure.
5. Discuss results voured. This decreases the temperature and produces more reac-
Catalyst: Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
Equilibrium shift, change in colour/concentration/ tant and the solution turns blue.
pressure/temperature.
53
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Chemical Equilibrium - Rate and Concentration SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

1: Increase in pressure 2: Decrease in pressure

Le Chatelier: The forward reaction is favoured, Le Chatelier: The reverse reaction is favoured,
less gas particles are formed and the pressure more gas particles are formed and the pressure
decreases. increases.

2 NO + O2 ⇌ 2 NO2 ∆H<0 Concentration:

Concentration of all gasses increases sharply.
Concentration:
Concentration of all gasses decreases sharply.
The forward reaction is favoured. The reverse reaction is favoured.
1 2 3 4 5 6 [NO2] gradually increases, [NO], [O2] gradu- [NO2] gradually decreases, [NO], [O2] gradu-
ally decreases. ally increases.

NO Rate: Concentration of all gasses increases, Rate: Concentration of all gasses decreases,
therefore the rate of both the forward and the therefore the rate of both the forward and the
reverse reaction increases. reverse reaction decreases.
According to Le Chatelier the forward reaction According to Le Chatelier the reverse reaction is
Concentration

will be favoured, therefore the forward reaction favoured, therefore the reverse reaction experi-
O2 experiences a greater increase in rate. ences a smaller decrease in rate.

3: O2 is added 4: NO is removed
Le Chatelier: The forward reaction is favoured Le Chatelier: The reverse reaction is favoured
to decrease the [O2]. to increase the [NO].

Concentration: Concentration:
NO2
Concentration of O2 decreases sharply. Concentration of NO decreases sharply.
The forward reaction is favoured. The reverse reaction is favoured.
[NO 2 ] increases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ] [NO 2 ] decreases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ]
decreases gradually. increases gradually.

Rate: An increase in concentration of a reactant Rate: A decrease in concentration of a reactant

Forward
leads to an increase in the rate of the and leads to an decrease in the rate of the forward
reaction forward reaction. and reverse reaction.
Rate of reaction

5: Increase in temperature 6: Decrease in temperature

Le Chatelier: The reverse (endothermic)reac- Le Chatelier: The forward (exothermic) reac-
tion is favoured to decrease the temperature. tion is favoured to increase the temperature.

Concentration: Concentration:
The reverse reaction is favoured. The forward reaction is favoured.
[NO 2 ] decreases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ] [NO 2 ] increases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ]
Reverse increases gradually. decreases gradually.
reaction
Rate: An increase in temperature increases the Rate: A decrease in temperature decreases the
rate of both the forward and the reverse rate of both the forward and the reverse
reactions. reactions.

54
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Acids and Bases SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ACID/BASE DEFINITIONS CONCENTRATED VS DILUTE ACIDS AND BASES INFLUENCE OF ACID/BASE STRENGTH
Concentration is the number of moles of solute per unit volume Reaction rate
n m Reaction rates increase as the strength of the acid/base in-
Lowry-Brønsted of solution. ( c = of c = )
An acid is a proton (H+) donor. V MV creases.
A base is a proton (H+) acceptor. A concentrated acid/base is an acid with a large amount of sol- Stronger acid = higher concentration of ions = greater rate of
ute (the acid) dissolved in a small volume of solvent (water). reaction.
ACID PROTICITY A dilute acid is an acid with a small amount of solute (the acid) Conductivity
dissolved in a large volume of solvent (water). Conductivity increases as the strength of the acid/base increases.
Some acids are able to donate more than one proton. The number of protons
that an acid can donate is referred to as the acid proticity. Concentrated strong acid - 1mol.dm-3 of HCl Stronger acid = higher concentration of H+ = greater
conductivity.
1 proton- monoprotic 2 protons- diprotic 3 protons- triprotic Concentrated weak acid - 1mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH
−
HCl → Cl + H +
H2SO4 → HSO4− +H +
H3PO4 ⇌ H2PO4− +H +
Dilute strong acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of HCl
COMMON ACIDS COMMON BASES
HSO4− → HSO42− + H+ H2PO4− ⇌ HPO42− + H+ Dilute weak acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH
Hydrochloric acid Sodium Hydroxide S
(Similar for bases)
HPO42− ⇌ PO43− + H+ (HCℓ) S (NaOH) T
STRONG VS WEAK ACIDS AND BASES T R
R Potassium hydroxide O
The strength of an acid/base refers to the ability of the sub- Nitric acid (HNO3) N
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS stance to ionise or dissociate. O (KOH)
N G
An acid forms a conjugate base when it donates a proton.
Sulfuric acid G
acid ⇌ conjugate base + H+ ACIDS
(H2SO4)
A strong acid ionises completely in water to form a high Sodium hydrogen
A base forms a conjugate acid when it accepts a proton. Oxalic acid ((COOH)2) carbonate (NaHCO3)
concentration H3O+ ions
base + H+ ⇌ conjugate acid
HCl (g) + H2O (ℓ) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Conjugate acid-base pairs are compounds that differ by the presence of one (strong acid → weak conjugate base) W
Sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
proton, or H+. W Calcium carbonate E
Carbonic acid E (CaCO3) A
(H2CO3) A K
EXAMPLE: A weak acid ionises partially in water to form a high
Identify the conjugate acid-base pair in the following example: concentration H3O+ ions Acetic acid / ethanoic acid K Sodium carbonate
Conjugate acid-base pair 2H2CO3 (ℓ) + 2H2O (ℓ) ⇌ 2H3O+ (aq) + CO32− (aq) (CH3COOH) (Na2CO3)
H+
(weak acid → strong conjugate base) Ammonia
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
(NH3)
HNO3 (g) + H2O (l) → NO3− (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
BASES
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid THE pH SCALE
A strong base will dissociate completely in water.
H2 O The pH of a solution is a number that represents the acidity or
NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq) alkalinity of a solution.
Conjugate acid-base pair (strong base → weak conjugate acid)
The greater the concentration of H+ ions in solution, the more
acidic the solution and the lower the pH. The lower the concen-
AMPHOLYTE/ AMPHOTERIC SUBSTANCES tration of H+ in solution, the more alkali the solution and the
A weak base will dissociate only partially in water. higher the pH.
Ampholyte- A substance that can act as either an acid or a base. H2 O
CaCO3 (s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq)
Amphoteric/amphiprotic substances can therefore either donate or accept The pH scale is a range from 0 to 14, and is a measure of the
(weak base → strong conjugate acid)
protons. Common ampholytes include H2O, HCO3− and HSO4−. [H3O+] at 25 °C (in water).

Neutral
HSO4− as an ampholyte:
Acid: HSO4− + H2O → SO42− + H3O+ NH3 is an exception, it ionises.
NH3 (g) + H2O (ℓ) ⇌ OH− (aq) + NH4+ (aq)
Base: HSO4− + H2O ⇌ H2SO4 + OH −
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
55
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Acids and Bases SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ACID REACTIONS HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS INDICATORS

Acid reactions are reactions during which Hydrolysis is the reaction of An indicator is a compound that changes colour according to the pH of the sub-
ACID BASE SALT stance. During titrations, the indicator needs to be selected according to the pH
protons (H+) are transferred. an ion with water. During
hydrolysis, the salt will form of the salt solution that will be produced (see hydrolysis).
1. acid + metal → salt + H2 Strong Weak Acidic
an acidic, alkali or neutral
2HNO3(aq) + 2Na(s) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2(g)
solution. The pH of the salt Strong Strong Neutral
(Note the change in oxidation number)
solution is determined by the COLOUR AT
COLOUR COLOUR PH RANGE OF
relative strength of the acid Weak Weak Neutral INDICATOR EQUIVALENCE
2. acid + metal hydroxide (base) → salt + H2O IN ACID IN BASE EQUIVALENCE
and base that is used to form POINT
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) Weak Strong Alkali
the salt.
How to determine the pH of a salt
3. acid + metal oxide → salt + H2O Litmus Red Blue 4,5 - 8,3
NH4Cl Na2CO3
2HCl (aq) + MgO(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) NH4Cl → NH4+ + Cl– Na2CO3 → 2Na+ + CO32–
NH4+ + H2O ⥂ NH3 + H3O+ Na+ + H2O ⥃ NaOH + H+ Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange 3,1 - 4,4
Cl– + H2O ⥄ HCl + OH– CO32– + 2H2O ⥂ H2CO3 + 2OH–
4. acid + metal carbonate → salt + H2O + CO2 Bromothymol
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) ·NH3 is a weak base ·NaOH is a strong base Yellow Blue Green 6,0 - 7,6
blue
·Equilibrium lies to the right ·Equilibrium lies to the left
·High concentration H3O+ ·Low concentratioin H+/H3O+ Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Pale Pink 8,3 - 10,0
5. acid +metal hydrogen carbonate→ salt +
CO2 + H2O ·HCl is a strong acid ·H2CO3 is a weak acid Neutral: pH 7
HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + CO2 + H2O ·Equilibrium lies to the left ·Equilibrium lies to the right
·Low concentration OH– ·High concentration OH– Neutralisation is when the equivalence point is reached. Equivalence point is
NOT when the solution is at pH 7, but when the molar amount of acid and base
+
High [H3O ], low [OH ], – +
Low [H3O ], high [OH ], –
is the same according to the molar ratio. The pH at neutralisation is dependent
Reaction 1 is a redox reaction ∴NH4Cl(aq) is acidic (pH<7) ∴Na2CO3(aq) is alkali (pH>7)
Reactions 2–5 are protolytic reactions on the salt that is formed. (see hydrolysis).

TITRATIONS Titration setup EXAMPLE:

A titration is a practical laboratory method to de- During a titration, 25 cm3 of dilute H2SO4 neutralises 40 cm3 of NaOH solution.
termine the concentration of an acid or base. The Va Burette If the concentration of the H2SO4 solution is 0,25 mol.dm−3, calculate the con-
concentration of an acid or base can be deter- Acid centration of the NaOH.
mined by accurate neutralisation using a
standard solution- a solution of known con- H2 SO4 + 2NaOH → Na 2 SO4 + 2H2 O
Stopcock
centration. Neutralisation occurs at the equiva- na = 1 nb = 2
lence point, when the molar amount of acid and ca = 0,25 mol ⋅ dm− 3 cb = ?
base is the same according to the molar ratio. Va = 25 cm3 = 0,025 dm3 Vb = 40 cm3 = 0,04 dm3
Conical flask
Vb
na cV By titration equations By first principles:
= a a Base & na c aVa
nb cbVb Indicator nb
= Acid:
c bVb
n = cV
1 (0,25)(0,025) = (0,25)(0,025)
n- number of mole of substance (mol) / mol ratio 1. Pipette known solution into conical flask (usually base). =
2 c b (0,04)
from the balanced equation = 6,25 × 10− 3 mol
c- concentration of acid/base (mol.dm−3) 2. Add appropriate indicator to flask. cb = 0,31 mol ⋅ dm− 3

V- volume of solution (dm3) 3. Add unkown concentration solution to the burette (usually acid). Base:
n
c =
V
1 mL = 1 cm3 4. Add solution from burette to conical flask at a dropwise rate (remem-
1 L = 1 dm3 ber to swirl). 6,25 × 10− 3 × 2
=
0,04
1000 mL = 1 L
5. Stop burette when indicator shows neutralisation/equivalence point
1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 = 0,31 mol ⋅ dm− 3
has been reached.
56
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Acids and Bases SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

AUTO-IONISATION OF WATER AND KW KA AND KB VALUES STRONG ACIDS

Water reacts with water to form hydronium and hydroxide When weak acids or bases are dissolved in water, only partial Strong acids ionise completely in water, meaning that all the acid molecules
ions in the following reaction: ionisation/dissociation occurs. There is a mixture of the original donate their protons (H+). The concentration of the H+ ions can be determined
reactant as well as the ionic products that are formed. The extent of from the initial concentration of the acid, taking the proticity of the acid into
H2O (ℓ) + H2O (ℓ) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH− (aq) account. For example:
ionisation can be treated in the same way as the extent to which an
The concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq) are equal, equilibrium reaction takes place. The acid dissociation constant (Ka) Monoprotic: HCl (g) → H+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
and the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water and base dissociation constant (Kb) values are like the equilibrium
constant (Kc), but specifically describe the extent of ionisation/ 1 mol : 1 mol : 1 mol
(Kw) is 1,00 ✕ 10−14 (at a temperature of 25 °C or
dissociation, and therefore the strength of the acid/base. 0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm−3
298 K), therefore:
[H3O+] [OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−14
Calculating Ka
[H3O+] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3 General equation Example Diprotic: H2SO4 (g) → 2 H+ (aq) + SO42− (aq)
[OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3 HA + H2O ⇌ A− + H3O+ CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO− 1 mol : 2 mol : 1 mol
+ H3O+
When the concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq) are 0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,6 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm−3
[A− ][H3O+ ] [CH3COO− ][H3O+ ]
equal, the solution is neutral and has a pH of 7. Ka = Ka =
[HA] [CH3COOH] Because all of he reactants are ionised, the Ka value for strong acids is greater
Calculating Kb than 1. The greater the Ka, the stronger the acid.
EXAMPLE: General equation Example
STRONG BASES
Calculate the concentration of H3O+ in a Ba(OH)2 B + H2O ⇌ BH+ + OH− NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH−
solution with a concentration of 0,35 mol·dm−3. [BH + ][OH− ] [NH +4 ][OH− ] Similarly, the Kb value of strong bases will be greater than 1. The greater the Kb
Kb = Kb = value, the stronger the base. In strong bases that contain hydroxide ions, the
Step 1: [B] [NH3]
concentration of hydroxide ions can be determined according to the molar ratio.
Write down the dissociation reaction
Monobasic: NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
H2 O
+ − EXAMPLE:
Ba(OH)2 (s) → Ba (aq) + 2OH (aq) 1 mol : 1 mol : 1 mol
0,1 mol HF is dissolved in 1 dm3 water. Determine the Ka of HF if
0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm −3
: 0,3 mol·dm−3
Step 2: the equilibrium concentration of H+ is found to be 7,94 × 10−3 . HF
Determine the mole ratio of base to OH− ions dissociates according to the following chemical equation:

1 mol Ba(OH)2 : 2 mol OH− HF (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + F− (aq) Dibasic: Mg(OH)2 (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2 OH− (aq)
1 mol : 1 mol : 2 mol
HF H+ F−
Step 3: 0,3 mol·dm−3 : 0,3 mol·dm−3 : 0,6 mol·dm−3
Ratio 1 1 1
Determine the [OH−]
Initial (mol) 0,1 0 0 INDICATOR COLOUR ACCORDING TO LE CHATELIER
[OH− ] = 2[Ba(OH)2 ] Change (mol) −7,94 ×10−3 +7,94 ×10−3 +7,94 ×10−3
Indicators are defined as weak acids in equilibrium with their conju-
= 2(0,35) Equilibrium (mol) 0,09206 7,94 ×10−3 7,94 ×10−3 gate base.
Eq. concentration Eg. Bromothymol blue: HIn (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + In− (aq)
= 0,7 mol ⋅ dm− 3 0,09206 7,94 ×10−3 7,94 ×10−3
in (mol·dm−3)
weak acid conj. base
Step 4: +
[H ][F ] − yellow blue
Determine the [H3O+] Ka =
[HF] The colour of an indicator in its acid form is different from the conjugate base
[H3O+ ][OH− ] = 1,00 × 10− 14 −3 −3 form. Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict the colour change that
(7,94 × 10 )(7,94 × 10 ) takes place.
=
[H3O+ ](0,7) = 1,00 × 10− 14 0,09206 Ka/Kb > 1; Strong acid/base Acidic solution: Excess H3O+ present due to acid, system reacts by favouring
[H3O+ ] = 1,43 × 10− 14 mol ⋅ dm− 3 = 6,85 × 10− 4
Ka/Kb < 1; Weak acid/base the reverse reaction, forming more HIn and turning the solution yellow.
Alkali solution: OH− ions from the base react with H3O+ ions to form water,
system responds by favouring forward reactions forming more In− ions and
turning the solution blue.
57
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrochemistry-Redox SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

REDOX REACTION TABLE OF STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS (REDOX TABLE)

A redox reaction is a reaction in which there is a transfer of electrons The oxidation and reduction half reactions can also be found using the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials. (We will use Table 4B).
between elements/compounds.
The reactions shown on the table are all written as reduction half reactions, with the reversible reaction arrow (⇌) shown. This
Oxidation is the loss of electrons (oxidation number increases)
means that each reaction is reversible. When a reaction is written from the table the arrow must only be one way (i.e. →).
Reduction is the gain of electrons (oxidation number decreases)
The reduction half reaction is written from the table from left to right and the oxidation half reaction is written from right to left.

(Oxidation reaction)
The oxidising agent is the substance which accepts electrons.
(It is the substance which is reduced and causes oxidation.)
Oxidising agent Reducing agent
(weak) Li+ + e- Li (strong)
The reducing agent is the substance that donates electrons.
(It is the substance which is oxidised and causes reduction.)
Positive gradient
Spontaneous reaction
The anode is the electrode where oxidation takes place.
The cathode is the electrode where reduction takes place.
F2 + 2e- 2F-
OIL: Oxidation is loss (strong) (weak)
RIG: Reduction is gain (Reduction reaction)
LEO: Loss of electrons is oxidation Once the half-reactions are identified it is possible to write a balanced reaction, without the spectator ions. A spectator ion is an ion in
GER: Gain of electrons is reduction a redox reaction that does not take part in electron transfer. Remember that the number of electrons lost or gained by each substance
must be the same.
REDCAT: Reduction at cathode
ANOX: Oxidation at anode If the line drawn between the two reactants has a positive gradient, the reaction is spontaneous.
If the line between the reactants are negative, the reaction is non-spontaneous.

STEPS TO WRITING BALANCED REDOX EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

REACTIONS USING REDOX TABLE +
Zinc metal reacts with an acid, H (aq) to produce hydrogen gas. Using Magnesium ribbon is burnt in a gas jar containing chlorine
1. IDENTIFY THE REACTANTS the oxidation and reduction half reactions write a balanced equation for gas. Using half reactions write a balanced chemical equation
this reaction. for this reaction.
2. UNDERLINE REACTANTS ON THE REDOX TABLE
STEP 1: IDENTIFY THE REACTANTS
3. DRAW ARROWS IN DIRECTION OF REACTION
Ox half-reaction: Mg → Mg2+ + 2e−
Zn(s) and H+(aq)
4. WRITE THE OXIDATION AND REDUCTION HALF-REACTIONS Red half-reaction: Cl2 + 2e− → 2Cl−
STEP 2: UNDERLINE REACTANTS ON THE REDOX TABLE
5. BALANCE ELECTRONS IF NECESSARY Overall reaction: Mg + Cl2 → Mg2+ + 2Cl−
STEP 3: DRAW ARROWS IN DIRECTION OF REACTION
6. WRITE OVERALL REACTION (LEAVE OUT SPECTATORS) EXAMPLE:
STEP 4: WRITE THE OXIDATION AND REDUCTION HALF-
REACTIONS Using half reactions, complete and balance the following reac-
tion: Pb + Ag+
Ox half-reaction: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
Ox half reaction: Pb → Pb2+ + 2e−
Red half-reaction: 2H + 2e− → H2
+
Red half reaction: Ag+ + e− → Ag
STEP 5: BALANCE ELECTRONS IF NECESSARY
STEP 6: WRITE OVERALL REACTION (LEAVE OUT SPECTATORS) Ox half reaction: Pb → Pb2+ + 2e−
Overall: +
Zn + 2H → Zn 2+
+ H2 (x2 red half reaction): 2Ag+ + 2e− → 2Ag
Overall reaction: Pb + 2Ag+ → Pb2+ + Ag

58
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrochemistry- Galvanic/Voltaic cell SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

A galvanic cell reaction is always a spontaneous, EMF OF THE CELL ZINC-COPPER CELL
exothermic reaction during which chemical energy Voltmeter
is converted to electrical energy. A electric cell/ The emf of the cell is calculated using one of the following equations:
V
battery is an example of a galvanic cell. Eθcell = Eθcathode − Eθanode
Anode Cathode
STRUCTURE Eθcell = Eθreduction − Eθoxidation A positive εθ value indicates
KCl
Two half-cells (usually in separate containers):
Anode – where oxidation takes place – negative Eθcell = Eθoxidising agent − Eθreducing agent
a spontaneous reaction
− Salt bridge +
electrode
Cathode – where reduction takes place – positive The emf of the half-cells are determined using the standard hydrogen

Zn

Cu
electrode half-cell
The anode and cathode connected together through
Standard hydrogen half-cell
an external circuit, which allows for current to flow
from the anode to the cathode The hydrogen half-cell is allocated a reference potential of 0,00 V. All Zn(NO3)2 Cu(NO3)2
Voltmeter other half-cells will have a potential which is either higher or lower
than this reference. This difference is the reading on the voltmeter The zinc half-cell (–): The copper half-cell (+):
V
placed in the circuit.
• Zinc electrode • Consists of a copper electrode
Anode Cathode • Zinc salt solution • Copper salt solution
Salt bridge H2 at Temperature (e.g. zinc (II) nitrate) (e.g. copper (II) nitrate)
− + 1 atm = 298 K • Zn is a stronger RA than • Cu2+ is a stronger OA than Zn2+,
Cu, ∴Zn oxidises ∴Cu2+ reduces
• Oxidation reaction occurs: • Reduction reaction occurs:
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e− Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu
Electrolyte • Anode • Cathode
Electrolyte
Pla3num Dilute H2SO4 • Electrode decreases in mass • Electrode increases in mass
SALT BRIDGE electrode [H+] = 1 mol·dm−3 Ox: Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
The salt bridge connects the two half-cells. It is filled Red: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
with a saturated ionic solution of either KCl, NaCl, H2 is bubbled through the electrolyte over the inert platinum electrode.
KNO3 or Na2SO4. A concentrated solution is used to Reduction potentials are measured under standard conditions: Nett cell: Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
reduce the internal resistance. The ends of the tubes temperature 25 °C; 298 K For the zinc-copper cell:
are closed with a porous material such as cotton wool concentration of the solutions 1 mol·dm−3
or glass wool. The anode reaction is: Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−; Eθ = −0,76 V
pressure 1 atm; 101,3 kPa.
Functions of the salt bridge: The cathode reaction is: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s); Eθ = +0,34 V
Completes the circuit (which allows current to flow) Eθ cell = Eθ cathode − Eθ anode
Maintains the electrical neutrality of the electrolyte The cell-notation for the hydrogen half-cell is:
solutions. Pt, H2 (g) / H+ (aq) (1 mol⋅dm−3) = 0,34 − (− 0,76)
Hydrogenthe hydrogen half-cell is always written first.
EQUILIBRIUM IN A CELL = + 1,1 V (spontaneous)
When the circuit is complete the current will begin to EXAMPLE
flow. The current and potential difference of the cell is CELL NOTATION
Consider the cell notation of the following electrochemical cell: Anode Salt bridge Cathode
related to the rate of the reaction and extent to which
the reaction in the cell has reached equilibrium. Pt,H2(g)/H2SO4(aq) (0,5 mol⋅dm−3)// CuSO4(aq) (1 mol⋅dm−3)/Cu(s)
As the chemical reaction proceeds, the rate of the for-
The experimentally determined cell potential is 0,34 V at 25 °C. Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) (1 mol·dm−3) // Cu2+(aq) (1 mol·dm−3) / Cu(s)
ward reaction will decrease, so the rate of transfer of
electrons will also decrease which results in the Eθcell If a value of 0,00 V is given to the hydrogen half-cell, it means that
value decreasing. the value of the copper half-cell must be 0,34 V. Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
The cell potential will continue to decrease gradually When the half-reactions do not include conductors (metals), unreactive electrodes
until equilibrium is reached at which point the cell Eθ cell = Eθ cathode − Eθ anode
are used, e.g. carbon or platinum.
potential will be zero and the battery is “flat”. 0,34 = Eθ (Cu) − 0,00
Le Chatelier’s principle can be applied to increase the Pt(s)/H2(g)(1 atm)/H+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3)//Br2(g)(1 atm)/Br–(aq)(1 mol·dm–3)/Pt(s)
θ
EMF, with conditions that favours the forward reaction. E (Cu) = + 0,34 V Ca(s)/Ca2+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3 )//Fe3+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3)/Fe2+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3)/C(s)
59
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrochemistry- Electrolytic cells SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

An electrolytic cell reaction is always a non-spontaneous, ELECTROREFINING OF COPPER EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM (HALL-HEROLT PROCESS)
endothermic reaction which requires a battery. The electrical
energy is converted to chemical energy. When copper is purified, the process is similar to electroplating. Aluminium is found in the mineral known as bauxite which contains primarily
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) in an impure form.
Impure (blister) copper is used as the anode and the cathode is
STRUCTURE
pure copper. Bauxite is not found in South Africa so is imported from Australia for refining.
Two electrodes (in the same container):
Step 1: Converting impure Al2O3 to pure Al2O3
Anode – where oxidation takes place – positive electrode
Cathode – where reduction takes place – negative electrode At the anode the copper is Bauxite treated with NaOH – impure Al2O3 becomes Al(OH)3
oxidised to produce Cu2+ Pure Impure
The anode and cathode are connected to an external circuit, Al(OH)3 is heated (T > 1000 °C)
ions in the electrolyte. The copper copper
which is connected to a DC power source. mass of the impure copper Al(OH)3 becomes pure Al2O3 – alumina
anode decreases.
− + Step 2: Melting Al2O3
At the cathode the Cu 2+
Cu2+
Alumina is dissolved in cryolite (sodium aluminium hexafluoride – Na3AlF6).
ions in the electrolyte is
reduced to form a pure Cu2+ Melting point reduced from over 2000 °C to 1000 °C.

− + copper layer on the

cathode. The mass of the
Reduces energy requirements, costs and less environmental impact.
Zn Ag Pt Au
cathode increases. Step 3: Molten Alumina – cryolite mixture placed in reaction vessel
Anion
(−) Anodes (+) are carbon rods in mixture

Ca#on Electrolyte The other elements and compounds found in the impure copper Cathode (-) is the carbon lining of the tank
anode are precipitated to the bottom of the reaction vessel.
(+) At cathode Al3+ ions are reduced to Al metal

ELECTROPLATING Oxidation (anode): Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− Carbon anodes (+)
Reduction (cathode): Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
Electroplating is the process of depositing a layer of one metal
onto another metal. Nett cell: Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s) Steel tank
EXAMPLE: Silver plating of a metal spoon Solu9on of aluminium
ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) CHLORIDE
oxide in molten cryolite
The anode is silver, it will be oxi-
dised to Ag+ ions. The mass of the Molten aluminium
silver electrode decreases.
Carbon lining for
The cathode is the object (spoon) − +
cathode (−)
to be plated. The Ag+ ions from the Ag+
electrolyte will be reduced to form Cl−
silver metal, which plates the Oxidation (Anode): 2O2− (aq) → O2(g) + 4e−
spoon. The mass of the cathode Ag+ Cu2+
Reduction (Cathode): Al3+ (aq) + 3e− → Al (l)
(spoon) increases. CuCl2 (aq)
AgNO3 (aq) Nett cell: 2Al2O3 (aq) → 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g)
Oxidation (anode): 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
The anode and electrolyte always Reduction (cathode): Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
contains the plating metal. Due to the high temperature of the reaction, the oxygen produced reacts
Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cl2 (g) + Cu (s) with the carbon electrodes to produce carbon dioxide gas. The carbon elec-
trodes therefore need to be replaced regularly.
Oxidation (anode): Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + e−
Reduction (cathode): Ag+ (s) + e− → Ag (s) Chlorine gas is produced at the anode, while copper metal is pro- Aluminium extraction uses a large amount of electrical energy, therefore the
duced at the cathode. cost of aluminium extraction is very high.
Nett cell: + +
Ag (aq) + Ag (s) → Ag (aq) + Ag (s)

60
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials
Electrochemistry- Electrolytic cells SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©

ELECTROLYSIS OF SOLUTIONS MEMBRANE CELL

In the electrolysis of NaCl, the Na+ ions are not reduced as might be An ion-exchange membrane is used to separate the sodium and chloride ions of the sodium chloride. The selectively permeable ion-
expected. To identify which ions are oxidised/reduced apply the exchange membrane is a fluoro-polymer which allows only Na+ ions to pass through it. The cell consists of two half cells separated by the
following rules (based on relative strength of OA/RA): membrane. The electrolytic cell has the lowest environmental impact. It is also the most cost effective to run, as the internal resistance is
OXIDATION (ANODE): far lower than that of the diaphragm and mercury cells. Chlorine gas Hydrogen gas
Either the anion or H2O will be oxidised. Anode (+) Cathode (−)
− − − −
If a HALOGEN ION (Cl , Br , I , not F ) is present, the HALOGEN ION
is oxidised. Dilute
If no halogen ion is present, water is oxidised according to: The cathode is filled with pure water NaCl (aq) NaOH (aq)
Cl2 (g) H2 (g)

TITANIUM
2H2O (l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− At cathode - Reduction:

STEEL
2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH−

Membrane
REDUCTION (CATHODE): H2O
Either the cation or H2O will be reduced. The anode is filled with the brine solution
Conc.
If a GROUP I OR GROUP II METAL CATION is present, WATER will be At anode - Oxidation: NaCl (aq) Cl− (aq) OH− (aq) H2O
reduced according to: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−

2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) Na+ (aq) Na+ (aq)
Water is reduced because it is a stronger oxidising agent than other
Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
group I and II elements. If any other cation is present, the cation will
be reduced and not water. Overall reaction: 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
ELECTROLYSIS OF NaCl (CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY) DIAPHRAGM CELL MERCURY CELL
Brine (concentrated NaCl solution) is placed in an electrolytic cell to The cell consists of two half cells separated by an asbestos dia- The mercury cell uses a mercury cathode to reduce and transport
produce chlorine gas, hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide solution. phragm. The diaphragm allows only Na+ ions, Cl− ions and water Na (ℓ) as an amalgam and react with water to form NaOH and H2 as
Overall reaction: 2NaCℓ(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ) → Cℓ2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) to pass through. products of a decomposition reaction. This process forms the highest
At the anode, Cℓ− ions are oxidised to form Cℓ2 (g). Cl2 gas bubbles Chlorine gas Hydrogen gas % purity of NaOH due to being collected in separate containers, but
Anode (+) Cathode (−) with trace amounts of toxic mercury. Mercury cells have been discon-
form on the electrode.
tinued due to high running cost and mercury toxicity.
At the cathode, water is reduced to form H2 (g) and OH− (aq). H2 (g) Cl2 (g)
bubbles form on the electrode. H2 (g)

Asbestos Diaphragm
Cl2 (g) H2 (g)
Conc.
Dilute Anode (+) Na+ (aq) + H2O NaOH (aq)
NaCl (aq)
H 2O NaCl (aq)
Na+ (aq) Na+ (aq) H2O

Cl− Na+ Cl− (aq)

Na+ (aq)
Mercury
Conc. NaOH Na(l) (in Hg)
NaCl (aq) H 2O NaCl
cathode (−)
Cl−(aq)
H2O
Oxidation (anode): 2Cl (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
− At anode - Oxidation: At cathode - Reduction:
2Cl− (aq) → Cℓ2 (g) + 2e− 2H2O (ℓ) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) Pump
Reduction (cathode): 2H2O (ℓ) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
Overall reaction:
Nett cell: 2Cℓ− (aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + OH− (aq) 2NaCℓ (aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) → Cℓ2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) At cathode - Reduction:
Overall reaction: The diaphragm has forms a low concentration NaOH compared to Na+ (aq) reduces to form an amalgam
2NaCℓ (aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) → Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) other cells. The different levels of electrolyte in anode vs cathode Na+ (aq) + Hg (ℓ) + e− → Na (ℓ)(in Hg)
In theory, this is a easy process. However, H2 and Cℓ2 recombine explo- compartments reduce the flow of OH– from cathode to anode, in At anode - Oxidation: Decomposition reaction:
sively. As a result, the electrolysis is conducted in specialised turn preventing the formation of CℓO– ions. 2Cℓ− (aq) → Cℓ2 (g) + 2e− 2Na (ℓ) + H2O (ℓ) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
electrolytic cells to control the reaction process and allow reactions to The asbestos used for the diaphragm is a health hazard, hence the Overall reaction:
occur under controlled conditions. use of diaphragm cells have been discontinued. 2NaCℓ (aq) + 2H2O (ℓ) → Cℓ2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
61
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