2 Plant Structure and Function

WHAT YOU’LL LEARN BEFORE YOU READ

• the major types of plant cells You have already learned that cells contain many structures that
and plant tissues
have special functions. On the lines below, name three structures
• the functions of different found in plant cells.
types of plant cells and
tissues
• the structures and functions
of roots, stems, and leaves
• the types of plant responses

FOCUS ⊲ READ TO LEARN

As you read, highlight the
descriptions of the three types Plant Cells
of plant cells. In a different Every plant cell has a cell wall and a large central vacuole. Most
color, highlight the descriptions
of the four types of plant
plant cells also have chloroplasts. However, there are many types
tissues. of plant cells that carry out specific functions. Plant cells have one
or more adaptations that make it possible for these cells to
perform their functions. For example, some plant cells lose their
cytoplasm and organelles as they mature, leaving only the strong
cell wall.

What functions do parenchyma cells perform?

Most cells in a plant have flexible, thin cell walls and are known
as parenchyma (puh RENG kuh muh) cells. Mature parenchyma
cells can undergo cell division. They help repair damage or

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wounds to a plant.
THINK IT OVER Functions performed in parenchyma cells include
1. Conclude Why do the
photosynthesis, storage, gas exchange, and protection. Their
internal structures of
parenchyma cells vary? function determines the features of parenchyma cells. For
example, parenchyma cells in leaves and green stems contain
many chloroplasts. Remember, photosynthesis occurs in the
chloroplast and produces glucose. The plant uses glucose for
energy. Parenchyma cells found in roots and fruits have large
central vacuoles for storing water, starch, or oils.

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254
 What are collenchyma cells?
Collenchyma (coh LENG kuh muh) cells are elongated cells
that occur in long strands or cylinders and support the
surrounding cells. Collenchyma cells can expand and stretch.
They allow plants to bend without breaking. Mature
collenchyma cells can undergo cell division.

What distinguishes sclerenchyma cells? THINK IT OVER

Sclerenchyma (skle RENG kuh muh) cells differ from 2. Evaluate Why do plants
need cells that allow them
parenchyma and collenchyma cells. Mature sclerenchyma cells
to bend without breaking?
lack cytoplasm and other living components, but their rigid cell
walls remain. Sclerenchyma cells support the plant and help
transport materials within the plant.
Plants can have two types of sclerenchyma cells—sclereids and
fibers. Sclereids (SKLER idz) can be found randomly throughout
the plant. They give nuts and seed coats their toughness and they
help transport materials within plants.
A fiber cell is needle-shaped with a thick wall and a small
interior space. Fibers form a tough, flexible tissue. Humans use
fibers to make things such as rope and canvas. The three types of
plant cells are summarized in the table below.
TAKE A LOOK
3. Compare What do
Cell Type Functions collenchyma and
sclerenchyma cells have
Parenchyma • storage in common?
• photosynthesis
• gas exchange
• tissue repair and replacement
Collenchyma • support of surrounding tissues

Sclerenchyma • transport of materials

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• support

Plant Tissues
A tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a
specific function. Four different tissues are found in plants:
meristematic, dermal, vascular, and ground. Each tissue is
composed of one or more types of cells.

Where are new plant cells produced?

Plants produce new cells in their meristematic tissues throughout
their lifetime. Meristematic tissues make up meristems (MER uh
stemz), which are regions of rapidly dividing cells.
Cells in meristems have large nuclei and small or no vacuoles.
Cells in meristems develop into many different kinds of plant cells.
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255
 Apical meristems Cells that result in an increase in length
are apical (AY pih kul) meristems. This tissue is found at the tips
of roots and stems. The growth in tissue is called primary
growth.
Intercalary meristems Intercalary (in TUR kuh LAYR ee)
meristems produce new cells that result in an increase in stem or
leaf length. This tissue is found in one or more locations along
THINK IT OVER the stems of most monocots.
4. Summarize What are the Lateral meristems The two types of lateral meristems
three types of meristematic
tissue?
produce an increase in root and stem diameter. Nonflowering
plants, eudicots, and a few monocots have secondary growth
produced from this meristematic tissue.
Vascular cambium (VAS kyuh lur • KAM bee um) is a thin
cylinder of meristematic tissue found in roots and stems. It
produces two types of transport cells—xylem (ZI lum) and phloem
(FLOH em)—in some roots and stems.
Cork cambium produces cells that develop tough cell walls.
These cells form a protective outer layer on stems and roots.

What is dermal tissue?

The epidermis (eh puh DUR mus) is the layer of dermal cells
that makes up the outer covering on a plant. Epidermal cells
secrete a fatty substance that forms the cuticle. The cuticle
prevents water loss and blocks disease-causing organisms from
entering the plant.

What adaptations of the epidermis help

plants survive?
Plants can have several adaptations of their epidermis. The
stomata, found on most leaves and some green stems, are formed

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by two guard cells. As the guard cells swell and shrink, the
stomata open and close. Hairlike projections from the epidermis
of leaves and stems are called trichomes (TRI kohmz). They help
THINK IT OVER protect the plant from predators and keep some plants cool by
5. Describe the function of
reflecting light. Root hairs extend from some root epidermal cells.
root hairs.
They increase a root’s surface area and help the root absorb water
and nutrients.

What are the two types of vascular tissue?

Water, food, and other dissolved substances need to move from
place to place in plants. Sclerenchyma cells make up xylem and
phloem, the two types of vascular tissue responsible for the
transport function.

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256
 What is the function of xylem?
THINK IT OVER
Xylem transports water and minerals from the root to
6. Explain the function of
other parts of the plant. It is composed of sclerenchyma cells vessel elements and
called vessel elements and tracheids (TRA kihdz). tracheids.
Each mature vessel element and tracheid consists of just its cell
wall, as shown below. Water can flow freely through these cells
because the cytoplasm and other living parts are gone.
Vessel elements are tubular cells that form strands of xylem.
Mature vessel elements are open at each end, and water and
dissolved substances move freely along the strands.
Tracheids appear as long cylinders with pitted ends. They form
a tubelike strand. Mature tracheids have end walls that slow the
transport of materials. They are less efficient in transporting
substances than vessel elements.

What does phloem transport?

Phloem is a vascular tissue that transports dissolved sugars and
other organic compounds throughout a plant. It moves materials
from the stems and leaves to the roots, and from the roots to the
stems and leaves.
Phloem consists of sieve tube members and companion cells.
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Each mature sieve tube member contains cytoplasm but lacks

a nucleus and ribosomes. Companion cells have a nucleus and
are found next to each sieve tube member.
Plants produce and use glucose for energy. Glucose not needed
by a plant is converted to carbohydrates and stored in regions of
the plant called sinks. The process by which phloem transports
carbohydrates and other substances to sinks is known as
translocation (trans loh KAY shun).

What are the functions of ground tissue?

Ground tissue consists of parenchyma, collenchyma, and
sclerenchyma cells and has many functions, including
photosynthesis, storage, and support. Most of a plant consists of
ground tissue. The specific type of cells found in each ground
tissue depends on the function of the tissue.
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257
 Roots
For most plants, roots take in water and dissolved minerals,
anchor plants in place, and support the plant against the effects
of gravity, extreme wind, and moving water.

What protects roots as they grow?

The root is usually the first structure to grow out of the seed.
The tip of the root is covered by the root cap. The root cap
consists of parenchyma cells that help protect the root tissues.
The root’s apical meristem produces cells that increase the root’s
length and replace cells rubbed off as the root grows. Various root
tissues develop from these cells.
An epidermal layer covers the root. The cortex (KOR teks)
is the layer below the epidermal layer. It is composed of ground
tissues made up of parenchyma cells. As water and minerals are
taken in by the epidermis, they move through the cortex to the
vascular tissues. The vascular tissues transport the substances to
other parts of the plant.

What is the function of the endodermis?

The endodermis (en duh DUR mus) is the layer of cells at the
inner boundary of the cortex. This layer of cells creates a
waterproof seal around the root’s vascular tissue. Water and
dissolved minerals are forced to pass through the cells of the
endodermis to reach the vascular tissue.
Next to the endodermis is the pericycle (PER ih si kul).
It is the tissue that produces lateral roots. In some plants, the
vascular cambium develops from part of the pericycle. The
structures of a plant’s roots are shown in the figure below.

TAKE A LOOK

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Pericycle Endodermis with
7. Identify Highlight the name Casparian strip
of the structure that
produces lateral roots. Root hair
Cortex
H2O Casparian
Epidermis strip
H2O

Root hair
Root hair H2O
H2O
Root cap

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258
 What are the two major types of root systems?
Taproots and fibrous roots are the two major types of root
systems. Taproots are single, thick structures with smaller
branching roots. Some taproots, such as carrots and radishes,
store food in their parenchyma cells. Others grow deep in the soil
in search of water.
Fibrous roots have many small branching roots that grow from
a central point. Plants, such as sweet potatoes, also can store food
in fibrous roots. Other root types are the result of adaptations to
diverse environments.

Stems THINK IT OVER

Herbaceous (hur BAY shus) stems are soft, flexible, and 8. Compare If you are pulling
weeds from moist soil,
green. The chloroplasts in these stems perform photosynthesis. which type of root system
Most annual plants have herbaceous stems. Trees, shrubs, and will likely be more difficult to
many perennial plants have woody stems that do not perform remove without using any
photosynthesis. Some plant stems are covered with bark that tools?
protects them from damage and keeps insects out.

What is the structure and function of stems?

THINK IT OVER
A stem’s main function is to support the leaves and reproductive
9. Identifythe main function
structures of the plant. Vascular tissue in the stem provides support of a plant’s stem.
and transports water and other substances. The tissues are arranged
in bundles or groups and are surrounded by parenchyma cells.
Primary growth from the apical meristems lengthens the stem.
The stem’s diameter widens as the plant grows taller. This
provides additional support for the plant. Most of the increase in
diameter is due to an increase in cell size. Cells produced in the
vascular cambium of some plants cause the increase in stem
diameter. Xylem and phloem, produced throughout the year, also
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increase stem diameter. They produce the annual growth rings

found in tree trunks.
All stems have adaptations that help plants survive. These
adaptations allow stems to store food and to survive weather
extremes. Some stems do not look like typical stems. For
example, the white potato is a stem called a tuber. Tulip bulbs are
thick, short stems surrounded by leaves.

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259
 Leaves
The main function of leaves is photosynthesis. The flattened
Make a folded book with
the names of layers of a portion of most leaves is called the blade. The blade provides
leaf. Use it to organize your a large surface area that receives sunlight. In some plant species,
notes on the structure and the blade is attached to the stem by a stalk called a petiole (PET
function of a leaf. ee ohl). In plants that don’t have petioles, the blades attach
directly to the stem.
Leaf structures, shown below, are well-adapted for
photosynthesis. Most photosynthesis occurs in the cells directly
Cuticle below the leaf’s upper epidermis. These column-shaped cells
contain many chloroplasts and make up the palisade mesophyll
(pa luh SAYD • MEHZ uh fihl) tissue.
Blade
Leaf

Cuticle Petiole
TAKE A LOOK Upper Leaf Tissue

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10. Highlightthe name of the epidermal
cell
structure where most Palisade
photosynthesis occurs. mesophyll
cell
Air space
Vascular
bundle
Spongy
mesophyll
cells Guard cell
Lower Cuticle Stoma
epidermal
cell
Ribosome

What is the shape of spongy mesophyll cells?

The spongy mesophyll lies below the palisade mesophyll. The
spongy mesophyll consists of irregularly shaped cells that are
loosely packed with spaces around them. Oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and water vapor move through the spaces of this

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structure.

What is transpiration?
Most plant leaves contain stomata in their epidermis. In the last
lesson, you read that the stomata is formed from two guard cells.
The shapes of the guard cells change to allow water and gases to
diffuse in and out of the leaf.
Water travels from the plant’s roots through its stem to the
leaves. Some water is used in photosynthesis. Some water
evaporates from the inside of the leaf to the outside through the
stomata in a process called transpiration.

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260
 What differences in leaves help people identify plants?
Some people identify plants by the differences in size, shape,
color, and texture of leaves. The arrangement of leaves on the
stem and the arrangement of veins in a leaf can also be used to
identify plants. Unique characteristics of leaves are shown in the
figure below.
Leaf type Leaf venation Leaf arrangement

Simple Palmate Opposite TAKE A LOOK

11. Apply Circle the name of
the leaf type that is most
common in the plants
Pinnate Alternate around your school.
Compound

Parallel Whorled

Plant Responses
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Events such as vines climbing a pole and trees dropping their
leaves are plant responses to their environments. A response of a
plant that causes movement independent of the direction of the
stimulus is a nastic response. A Venus flytrap plant exhibits a
nastic response. Its leaves snap shut when it senses movement on
the surface of the leaves.

What are tropisms? TAKE A LOOK

A plant’s growth response to an external stimulus is called a 12. Drawon a separate sheet
of paper a plant displaying
tropism (TROH pih zum). Common tropisms are listed in the each of the tropisms listed
table below. Growth responses toward the stimulus are called below. Label your drawing
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positive tropisms. In contrast, negative tropisms result in plant with the type of tropism
growth away from a stimulus. and the type of response
(positive or negative).

Positive or
Tropism External Stimulus Plant Response
Negative Tropism

Phototropism light growth toward light source positive

Gravitropism gravity growth downward positive for roots

negative for stems
Thigmotropism mechanical growth toward point of positive
contact, such as a vine
climbing a fence

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