Lecture Notes 3

General Chemistry
(CHM111)
First Semester 2021/2022
 General Chemistry
Fourth Edition

Julia Burdge

Lecture PowerPoints

Periodical trends in the

properties of atoms.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McG raw-Hill Education
 7.1 Development of the Periodic Table (2)

Development of the Periodic Table

In 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev
and the German chemist Lothar Meyer
independently proposed a much more extensive
tabulation of the elements based on the regular,
periodic recurrence of properties—a phenomenon
known as periodicity

3
 7.1 Development of the Periodic Table (3)

Development of the Periodic Table

Mendeleev ordered the elements based on atomic mass,
which led to inconsistencies.

For example, argon and potassium would switch places

on the periodic table if it were ordered by atomic mass.

In such a case, potassium (very reactive) would be

grouped with neon and helium (unreactive) and argon
(unreactive) would be grouped with sodium and lithium
(very reactive).

This seriously upsets the idea of periodicity!

4
 7.1 Development of the Periodic Table (4)

Development of the Periodic Table

The key to periodicity turns out to be atomic number
instead of atomic mass.

Modern periodic table orders the elements by atomic

number.

Elements in a column of the modern periodic table

have very similar chemical properties.

5
 7.2 The Modern Periodic Table (1)

Classification of Elements
Based on the type of subshell containing the outermost
electrons, the elements can be divided into categories—the
main group elements, the noble gases, the transition
elements (or transition metals), the lanthanides, and the
actinides.

The main group elements (also called the representative

elements) are the elements in Groups 1A through 7A.

6
7.2 The Modern Periodic Table (2)

7
 7.2 The Modern Periodic Table (3)

Classification of Elements
The outermost electrons of an atom are called
valence electrons, which are the ones involved in
the formation of chemical bonds between atoms.

The similarity of the valence electron configurations

(i.e., they have the same number and type of valence
electrons) is what makes the elements in the same
group resemble one another chemically.

For instance, the halogens (Group 7A) all have outer

electron configurations of 𝑛𝑠 2 𝑛𝑝5 , and they have
similar properties.
8
 7.2 The Modern Periodic Table (4)

Classification of Elements

9
 7.2 The Modern Periodic Table (5)

Representing Free Elements in Chemical Equations

Metals
Because metals typically do not exist in discrete
molecular units but rather in complex, three-
dimensional networks of atoms, we always use their
empirical formulas in chemical equations.

The empirical formulas are the same as the symbols

that represent the elements.

For example, the empirical formula for iron is Fe,

the same as the symbol for the element.
10
 7.2 The Modern Periodic Table (6)

Representing Free Elements in Chemical Equations

Nonmetals
For nonmetals that exist as polyatomic molecules, we
generally use the molecular formula in equations:
H2 , N2 , O2 , F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , I2 , and P4 , for example.

In the case of sulfur, however, we usually use the

empirical formula S rather than the molecular formula
S8 .

S 𝑠 + O2 (𝑔) → SO2 𝑔

11
 7.2 The Modern Periodic Table (7)

Representing Free Elements in Chemical Equations

Noble Gases
All the noble gases exist as isolated atoms, so we use
their symbols: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn.

Metalloids
The metalloids, like the metals, all have complex
three-dimensional networks, so we also represent
them with their empirical formulas—that is, their
symbols: B, Si, Ge, and so on.

12
7.3 Effective Nuclear Charge

Topics
Effective Nuclear Charge

13
7.3 Effective Nuclear Charge (1)

Effective Nuclear Charge

Nuclear charge (Z) is simply the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom.

An electron in a many-electron atom is partially

shielded from the positive charge of the nucleus by
the other electrons in the atom.

Effective nuclear charge (𝐙𝐞𝐟𝐟 ) is the actual

magnitude of positive charge that is “experienced” by
a shielded electron in the atom. Because of shielding,
the effective nuclear charge is less than the actual
nuclear charge.
14
7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements

Topics
Atomic Radius
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity
Metallic Character
Explaining Periodic Trends

15
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (1)

Atomic Radius
There are two ways in which the atomic radius is
commonly defined.

One is the metallic radius, which is half

the distance between the nuclei of two
adjacent, identical metal atoms.

16
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (2)

Atomic Radius
The other is the covalent radius, which is half the
distance between adjacent, identical nuclei in a
molecule.

17
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (3)

Atomic Radius
The atomic radius decreases as we move from left to
right across a period and increases from top to bottom
as we move down within a group.

18
7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (4)

19
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (5)

Atomic Radius

The increase down a group is fairly easily explained.

As we step down a column, the outermost occupied

shell has an ever-increasing value of n, so it lies
farther from the nucleus, making the radius bigger.

20
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (6)

Atomic Radius
As we move from left to right across a period, the
effective nuclear charge increases and each step to
the right adds another electron to the valence shell.

So, there will be a more powerful attraction between

the nucleus and the valence shell when the
magnitudes of both charges increase.

The result is that as we step across a period the

valence shell is drawn closer to the nucleus, making
the atomic radius smaller.
21
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (8)

Ionization Energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum energy
required to remove an electron from an atom in the
gas phase.

Sodium, for example, has an ionization energy of

495.8 kJ/mol, which is the energy input required to
drive the process
Na 𝑔 → Na+ 𝑔 + 𝑒 −
Specifically, this is the first ionization energy of
sodium, 𝐼𝐸1 (Na), which corresponds to the removal of
the most loosely held electron.
22
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (9)

Ionization Energy

23
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (11)

Ionization Energy
In general, as effective nuclear
charge
increases, ionization energy also
increases.

Thus, 𝐼𝐸1 increases from left to right

across a period.

Despite this trend, 𝐼𝐸1 for a Group

3A
element is smaller than that for the
corresponding Group 2A element.

24
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (12)

Ionization Energy

Likewise, 𝐼𝐸1 for a Group 6A

element
is smaller than that for the
corresponding Group 5A element.

Both of these interruptions of the

upward trend in 𝐼𝐸1 can be
explained
by using electron configuration.

25
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (13)

Ionization Energy

26
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (14)

Ionization Energy
TABLE 7.2 Ionization Energies (in kJ/mol) for Elements 3 Through 11*
Z 𝑰𝑬𝟏 𝑰𝑬𝟐 𝑰𝑬𝟑 𝑰𝑬𝟒 𝑰𝑬𝟓 𝑰𝑬𝟔 𝑰𝑬𝟕 𝑰𝑬𝟖 𝑰𝑬𝟗 𝑰𝑬𝟏𝟎
Li 3 520 7,298 11,815
Be 4 899 1,757 14,848 21,007
B 5 800 2,427 3,660 25,026 32,82
7
C 6 1,086 2,353 4,621 6,223 37,83 47,27
1 7
N 7 1,402 2,856 4,578 7,475 9,445 53,26 64,36
7 0
O 8 1,314 3,388 5,301 7,469 10,99 13,32 71,33 84,07
0 7 0 8
F 9 1,681 3,374 6,050 8,408 11,02 15,16 17,86 92,03 106,434
3 4 8 8
Ne 1 2,080 3,952 6,122 9,371 12,17 15,23 19,99 23,06 115,380 131,43
0 7 8 9 9 2
Na 1 496 4,562 6,910 9,543 13,35 16,61 20,11 25,49 28,932 141,36
1 4 3 7 6 2 27
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (15)

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity (EA) is the energy released (the
negative of the enthalpy change 𝐻) when an atom in
the gas phase accepts an electron.

Cl 𝑔 + 𝑒 − → Cl− 𝑔 ∆𝐻 = −349.0 kJ/mol

28
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (16)

Electron Affinity

29
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (18)

Electron Affinity
Like ionization energy, electron affinity increases
from left to right across a period.

This trend in EA is due to the increase in effective

nuclear charge from left to right (i.e., it becomes
progressively easier to add a negatively charged
electron as the positive charge of the element’s
nucleus increases).

30
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (19)

Electron Affinity
There are also periodic interruptions of the upward trend
of EA from left to right, similar to those observed for 𝐼𝐸1 ,
although they do not occur for the same elements.

31
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (20)

Electron Affinity

32
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (21)

Metallic Character
Metals tend to
• Be shiny, lustrous, and malleable

• Be good conductors of both heat and electricity

• Have low ionization energies (so they commonly form

cations

• Form ionic compounds with chlorine (metal chlorides)

• Form basic, ionic compounds with oxygen (metal

oxides)
33
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (22)

Metallic Character
Nonmetals tend to
• Vary in color and lack the shiny appearance
associated with metals
• Be brittle, rather than malleable
• Be poor conductors of both heat and electricity
• Form acidic, molecular compounds with oxygen
• Have high electron affinities (so they commonly
form anions)

34
 7.4 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements (23)

Metallic Character
Metallic character increases from top to bottom in a group
and decreases from left to right within a period.

Metalloids are elements with properties intermediate

between those of metals and nonmetals.

35
 7.5 Electron Configuration of Ions (1)

Ions of Main Group Elements

The 1𝑠 2 configuration of He and the 𝑛𝑠 2 𝑛𝑝6 (𝑛 2)
valence electron configurations of the other noble
gases are extraordinarily stable.

Other main group elements tend to either lose or gain

the number of electrons needed to achieve the same
number of electrons as the nearest noble gas.

Species with identical electron configurations are

called isoelectronic.

36
 7.5 Electron Configuration of Ions (2)

Ions of Main Group Elements

To write the electron configuration of an ion formed
by a main group element, we first write the
configuration for the atom and either add or remove
the appropriate number of electrons.

Electron configurations for the sodium and chloride

ions are
Na: 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠 1 → Na+ : 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6
Cl: 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠 2 3𝑝5 → Cl− : 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠 2 3𝑝6

37
 7.5 Electron Configuration of Ions (3)

Ions of Main Group Elements

We can also write electron configurations for ions
using the noble gas core.
Na:[Ne]3𝑠1 → Na+ : Ne

Cl: [Ne]3𝑠 2 3𝑝5 → Cl− : [Ne]3𝑠 2 3𝑝6 or [Ar]

38
 7.6 Ionic Radius (1)

Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius

When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons to
become an ion, its radius changes.

The ionic radius, the radius of a cation or an anion,

affects the physical and chemical properties of an
ionic compound.

The three-dimensional structure of an ionic

compound, for example, depends on the relative sizes
of its cations and anions.

39
 7.6 Ionic Radius (2)

Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius

When an atom loses an electron and becomes a
cation, its radius decreases due in part to a reduction
in electron-electron repulsions (and consequently a
reduction in shielding) in the valence shell.

A significant decrease in radius occurs when all of an

atom’s valence electrons are removed.

This is the case with ions of most main group

elements, which are isoelectronic with the noble
gases preceding them

40
 7.6 Ionic Radius (3)

Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius

41
 7.6 Ionic Radius (4)

Isoelectronic Series
An isoelectronic series is a series of two or more
species that have identical electron configurations,
but different nuclear charges.

For example, O2− , F − , and Ne constitute an

isoelectronic series.

Although these three species have identical electron

configurations, they have different radii.

42
 7.6 Ionic Radius (5)

Isoelectronic Series
In an isoelectronic series, the species with the
smallest nuclear charge (i.e., the smallest atomic
number Z) will have the largest radius.

The species with the largest nuclear charge (i.e., the

largest Z) will have the smallest radius.

43
7.6 Ionic Radius (6)

44
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements

Topics
General Trends in Chemical Properties
Properties of the Active Metals
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Comparison of Group 1A and Group 1B Elements
Variation in Properties of Oxides Within a Period

45
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (1)
General Trends in Chemical Properties
We have said that elements in the same group resemble
one another in chemical behavior because they have
similar valence electron configurations.

This statement, although correct in the general sense,

must be applied with caution.

Chemists have long known that the properties of the

first member of each group (Li, Be, B, C, N, O, and F) are
different from those of the rest of the members of the
same group.

46
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (2)
General Trends in Chemical Properties
Another trend in the chemical behavior of main
group elements is the diagonal relationship.

Diagonal relationships refer to similarities

between pairs of elements in different groups and
periods of the periodic table.

47
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (3)
General Trends in Chemical Properties
The reason for this phenomenon is the similarity of
charge densities of their cations.

48
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (4)
General Trends in Chemical Properties
Hydrogen (𝟏𝒔𝟏 )
There is no completely suitable position for hydrogen
in the periodic table (it really belongs in a group by
itself).

49
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (5)
Properties of the Active Metals
Group 1A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟏 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
These elements all have low ionization energies,
making it easy for them to become M + ions.

In fact, these metals are so reactive that they are

never found in nature in the pure elemental state.

They react with water to produce hydrogen gas and

the corresponding metal hydroxide:
2M 𝑠 + 2H2 O 𝑙 → 2MOH 𝑎𝑞 + H2 𝑔
50
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (6)

© The McGraw-Hill Companies,

Inc./Charles D. Winters, photographer

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen

Frisch, photographer

51
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (7)
Properties of the Active Metals
Group 1A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟏 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Lithium forms lithium oxide (containing the oxide
ion, O2− ):
4Li(𝑠) + O2 (𝑔) → 2Li2 O(𝑠)

The other alkali metals all form oxides or peroxides

containing the peroxide ion, O2−
2 ):
2Na(𝑠) + O2 (𝑔) → Na2 O2 (𝑠)

52
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (8)
Properties of the Active Metals
Group 1A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟏 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Potassium, rubidium, and cesium also form
superoxides (containing the superoxide ion, O−
2 ):

K 𝑠 + O2 𝑔 → KO2 (𝑠)

53
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (9)
Properties of the Active Metals
Group 2A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
As a group, the alkaline earth metals are somewhat
less reactive than the alkali metals.

Both the first and the second ionization energies

decrease (and metallic character increases) from
beryllium to barium.

Group 2A elements tend to form M 2+ ions, where M

denotes an alkaline earth metal atom.

54
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (10)

55
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (11)
Properties of the Active Metals
Group 2A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
The reactions of alkaline earth metals with water
vary considerably.

Beryllium does not react with water; magnesium

reacts slowly with steam; and calcium, strontium, and
barium react vigorously with cold water.
Ca(𝑠) + 2H2 O(𝑙) → Ca OH 2 (𝑠) + H2 (𝑔)
Sr(𝑠) + 2H2 O(𝑙) → Sr OH 2 (𝑠) + H2 (𝑔)
Ba(𝑠) + 2H2 O(𝑙) → Ba OH 2 (𝑎𝑞) + H2 (𝑔)

56
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (12)
Properties of the Active Metals
Group 2A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
The reactivity of the alkaline earth metals toward
oxygen also increases from Be to Ba.

Beryllium and magnesium form oxides (BeO and

MgO) only at elevated temperatures, whereas CaO,
SrO, and BaO form at room temperature.

57
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (13)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 3A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟏 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Boron, the first member of the group, is a metalloid;
the others (Al, Ga, In, and Tl) are metals.

Boron does not form binary ionic compounds and is

unreactive toward both oxygen and water.

Aluminum, the next element in the group, readily

forms aluminum oxide when exposed to air:
4Al 𝑠 + 3O2 𝑔 → 2Al2 O3 (𝑠)

58
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (14)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 3A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟏 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Aluminum forms the Al3+ ion. It reacts with
hydrochloric acid according to the equation:
2Al 𝑠 + 6H + 𝑎𝑞 ⟶ 2Al3+ (𝑎𝑞) + 3H2 (g)

The other Group 3A metals (Ga, In, and Tl) can form
both M + and M 3+ ions.

As we move down the group, the M + ion becomes the

more stable of the two.

59
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (15)

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen

Frisch, photographer

60
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (16)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 4A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟐 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Carbon, the first member of the group, is a nonmetal,
whereas silicon and germanium, the next two
members, are metalloids.
Tin and lead, the last two members of the group, are
metals.
They do not react with water, but they do react with
aqueous acid to produce hydrogen gas:
Sn 𝑠 + 2H + 𝑎𝑞 ⟶ Sn2+ (aq) +H2 (g)
Pb 𝑠 + 2H + 𝑎𝑞 ⟶ Pb2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
61
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (17)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 4A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟐 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
The Group 4A elements form compounds in both the
+ 2 and +4 oxidation states.
For carbon and silicon, the +4 oxidation state is the
more stable one.
In tin compounds the +4 oxidation state is only
slightly more stable than the +2 oxidation state.

In lead compounds the +2 oxidation state is the more

stable one.
62
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (18)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 4A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟐 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
The outer electron configuration of lead is 6𝑠 2 6𝑝2 ,
and lead tends to lose only the 6p electrons to form
Pb2+ rather than both the 6p and 6s electrons to form
Pb4+ .

63
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (19)

© The McGraw-Hill Companies,

Inc./Charles D. Winters, photographer

64
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (20)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 5A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟑 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals, arsenic and
antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a metal.

Because Group 5A contains elements in all three

categories, we expect greater variation in their chemical
properties.

65
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (21)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 5A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟑 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Elemental nitrogen is a diatomic gas (N2 ).

It forms a variety of oxides

(NO, N2 O, NO2 , N2 O4 , and N2 O5 ), all of which are gases
except for N2 O5 , which is a solid at room temperature.

Nitrogen has a tendency to accept three electrons to

form the nitride ion (N 3− ). Most metal nitrides, such
as Li3 N and Mg 3 N2 , are ionic compounds.

66
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (22)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 5A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟑 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Phosphorus exists as individual P4 molecules (white
phosphorus) or chains of P4 molecules (red phosphorus).

It forms two solid oxides with the formulas P4 O6 and

P4 O10 .

67
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (23)

68
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (24)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 6A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟒 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
The first three members of the group (oxygen, sulfur,
and selenium) are nonmetals, whereas the last two
(tellurium and polonium) are metalloids.

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, diatomic gas;

elemental sulfur and selenium exist as the molecules
S8 and Se8 , respectively; and tellurium and polonium
have more extensive three-dimensional structures.

69
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (25)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 6A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟒 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Oxygen has a tendency to accept two electrons to
form the oxide ion (O2− ) in many compounds.

Sulfur, selenium, and tellurium also form ions by

accepting two electrons: S 2− , Se2− , and Te2− .

The elements in Group 6A (especially oxygen) form a

large number of molecular compounds with
nonmetals.

70
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (26)

71
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (27)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 7A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟓 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
All the halogens are nonmetals with the general formula
X 2 , where X denotes a halogen element.

Like the Group 1A metals, the Group 7A nonmetals are

too reactive to be found in nature in the elemental form.

The halogens have high ionization energies and large,

energetically favorable electron affinities.

Anions derived from the halogens (F − , Cl− , Br − , and I − )

are called halides.

72
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (28)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 7A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟓 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
The vast majority of alkali metal halides are ionic
compounds.

The halogens also form many molecular compounds

among themselves, such as ICl and BrF3 , and with
nonmetals in other groups, such as NF3 , PCl5 , and
SF6 .

The halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen

halides:
H2 𝑔 + X 2 𝑔 ⟶ 2HX(g)

73
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (29)

74
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (30)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 8A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟔 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
All the noble gases exist as monatomic species.

With the exception of helium, which has the electron

configuration 1𝑠 2 , their atoms have completely filled
outer ns and np subshells.

Their electron configurations give the noble gases

their great stability.

75
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (31)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 8A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟔 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
The Group 8A ionization energies are among the
highest of all the elements.

Their electron affinities are all less than zero, so they

have no tendency to accept extra electrons.

76
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (32)
Properties of Other Main Group Elements
Group 8A Elements (𝒏𝒔𝟐 𝒏𝒑𝟔 , 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐)
Beginning in 1963, compounds were prepared from
the heavier members of the group by exposing them
to very strong oxidizing agents such as fluorine and
oxygen.

Some of the compounds that have been prepared are

XeF4 , XeO3 , XeOF4 , KrF2 , and most recently, HArF.

77
7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (33)

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer

78
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (34)
Comparison of Group 1A and Group 1B Elements
Although the outer electron configurations of Groups
1A and 1B are similar (members of both groups have
a single valence electron in an s orbital), their
chemical properties are very different.

The first ionization energies of Cu, Ag, and Au are

745, 731, and 890 kJ/mol, respectively.

Because these values are considerably larger than

those of the alkali metals, the Group 1B elements
are much less reactive.
79
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (35)
Comparison of Group 1A and Group 1B Elements
The higher ionization energies of the Group 1B elements
result from incomplete shielding of the nucleus by the
inner d electrons (compared with the more effective
shielding by the completely filled noble gas cores).

Consequently, the outer s electrons of the Group 1B

elements are more strongly attracted by the nucleus.

In fact, copper, silver, and gold are so unreactive that

they are usually found in the uncombined state in
nature.
80
 7.7 Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties of the
Main Group Elements (36)
Variation in Properties of Oxides Within a Period

Most oxides can be classified as acidic or basic

depending on whether they produce acidic or basic
solutions when dissolved in water (or whether they
react as acids or bases).

Some oxides are amphoteric, which means that they

display both acidic and basic properties.
81