Chapter 4: TISSUES  Covers body surfaces extends from the basement to the free

 Distinct cell surfaces surface.

TISSUE – a group of cells with similar structure
and function, plus the extracellular substance  Cell and matrix connections
 Nonvascular 2. Stratifies epithelium – consists of more
surrounding them.
 Capable of regeneration than one layer of cells, but only basal
HISTOLOGY – study of tissues attaches the
deepest layer to
TYPES OF TISSUES the basement
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue. membrane.
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue 3.
type that makes up part of every organ in Pseudostratified
the body. epithelium – special type of simple
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or epithelium
shortens, making movement possible. that appears
4. Nervous - responsible for coordinating to be falsely
and controlling many body activities. stratified.
Consists of
EPITHELIAL TISSUE one layer of
cells with all
- Epithelium.
FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES the cell attached to the basement
- Covers and protects surfaces, both
membrane.
outside and inside the body.  Protects underlying structures.
- Classification of epithelial tissues:  Acts as a barrier. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO ITS
exocrine and endocrine.  Permits passage of substances. SHAPE
- Exocrine glands – secrete sweat, tears,  Secretes substances.
saliva, milk and digestive milk. 1. Squamous cell – flat or scale like.
 Absorption of substances. 2. Cuboidal cell – cube-shaped, about as
- Endocrine glands – release hormones
into the bloodstream. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER wide as they are tall.
- classified primarily according to the OF CELL LAYERS 3. Columnar cell – tends to be taller than
number of cell layers and the shape of they are wide.
1. Simple epithelium
the superficial cells. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
– a single layer of
EPITHELIAL TISSUE CHARACTERISTICS cells, each cell - Single layer of thin flat cells.
 Mostly composed of cells - Some substances easily pass through
this thin layer of cell, but others do not.
 - The lungs allow for gas exchange.
- The kidneys help filter wastes from the
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
blood while keeping blood cells inside the
blood vessels. - single layer of tall, thin cells.
- Found lining the cavities of the body - The large size of these cells enables
including the pericardial, pleural and them to perform complex functions, such
peritoneal cavities. as secretion. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
- areas where passive diffusion occurs, - The simple columnar epithelium of the
such as glomeruli in the kidney and small intestine produces and secretes - forms a thick epithelium because it
alveoli in the respiratory tract. mucus and digestive enzymes. consists of several layers of cells.
- Functions: diffusion, filtration, secretion - often specialized for absorption and - There are two types of stratified
and some protection against friction. usually has apical cilia or microvilli. These squamous epithelia: keratinized and
cells line your stomach and intestines. nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelia.
KERATINIZED STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
EPITHELIUM – the outer layer of skin is
comprised of this epithelium. The keratin reduces
the loss of water from the body. Found in skin,
the epidermis of the palm of the hand, and the
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
sole of the foot, and the masticatory mucosa.
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
- single layer of cube-like cells that carry
EPITHELIUM NONKERATINIZED STARTIFIED SQUAMOUS
out active transport, facilitated diffusion,
EPITHELIUM - provides protection against
or secretion. - secretes mucus, which covers its free
abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier.
- They have a greater secretory capacity surface.
Found in some parts of the lining of oral cavity,
than. - Cilia in the airways move the mucus and
pharynx, conjunctiva of eye, upper one-third
- typically found in glandular (secreting) accumulated debris toward the throat,
esophagus, rectum, external female genitalia,
tissue and kidney tubules. where it is swallowed.
and vagina. An example: the moist in our mouth.
- Found in the nasal passage of the upper
respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi of the  The key difference: keratinized epithelium
lower respiratory tract, inner ear, vas is impervious (Impermeable) to water
deferens, prostate gland, epididymis, and while nonkeratinized epithelium is
endometrium. pervious (permeable) to water.
 keratinized epithelium is an effective columnar but the deeper cells are
barrier. irregular or cuboidal in shape.
- relatively rare, found in the mammary
gland ducts, the larynx, and a portion of
the male urethra.
- Functions: This epithelium carries out
secretion, protection, and some
absorption
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM - a special type of stratified epithelium that
can be greatly stretched.
- consists
- The shape of the cells change as the
of more
epithelium is stretched.
than one
- Transitional epithelium lines cavities that
layer of
can expand greatly, such as the urinary
cuboidal FREE CELL SURFACE
bladder.
epithelial
- It also protects underlying structures, like - Most epithelia have a free surface that is
cells.
the urinary bladder, from the caustic not in contact with other cells and faces
- relatively
effects of urine. away from underlying tissues.
rare and
is found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian - The characteristics of the free surface
follicular cells, and the salivary glands. reflect its functions.
- It functions in absorption, secretion, and - The free surface can be smooth or lined
protection. with microvilli or cilia.

STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM CILIA – move materials over the top of the cell.

- consists of MICROVILLI – increases surface area.

more than CELL CONNECTIONS
one layer of
epithelial - Cells have several structures that hold
cells; the one cell to one another or to the
surface cells basement membrane.
are
 - These structures do three things: - secretory organs that secrete substances 3. TUBULOACINAR/TUBULOALVEOLAR
mechanically bind the cells together, help onto a surface, into a cavity, or into the – glands with a combination of the two.
form a permeability barrier, and provide a bloodstream.
mechanism for intercellular - Glands are composed primarily of
communication. epithelium, with a supporting network of
connective tissue.
DESMOSOME –
- Both exocrine and endocrine glands are
mechanical links that
lined with epithelium.
bind the cells together.
ENDROCRINE GLANDS – ductless glands, they
HEMIDESMOSOME –
secrete their products into the bloodstream.
anchor cells to the
(products = hormones).
basement membrane.
EXOCRINE GLANDS – glands with ducts. Most
TIGHT JUNCTIONS - prevent the passage of
are multicellular. Some are composed of single
materials between epithelial cells because they
cell (like goblet cells that secretes mucus).
completely surround each cell, similar to the way
a belt surrounds the waist. Tight junctions are CLASSIFICATION OF MULTICELLULAR
found in the lining of the intestines. EXOCRINE GLAND
GAP JUNCTIONS - 1. Simple gland - single, non-branched
small channels that duct, some have branched ducts.
allow small 2. Compound gland - have multiple,
molecules and ions branched ducts.
to pass from one
SECRETORY REGIONS
epithelial cell to an
adjacent one. Most 1. TUBULAR - Glands with secretory
epithelial cells are connected to one another by regions shaped as tubules (small tubes).
gap junctions. Molecules or ions moving through Can be straight or coiled.
the gap junctions act as communication signals 2. ACINAR/ALVEOLAR – shaped in saclike
to coordinate the activities of the cells. structures. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HOW THE
PRODUCTS LEAVE THE CELL
GLANDS
(EXOCRINE GLANDS)
 1. Merocrine secretion - the release of  Enclose and separate other tissues
secretory products by exocytosis.  Connecting tissues to one another
(Sweat Glands)  Supporting and moving parts of the body
2. Apocrine secretion - the release of  Storing compounds
secretory products as pinched-off  Cushioning and insulating
fragments of the gland cells.  Transporting
(Mammary glands)
 Protecting
3. Holocrine secretion - the shedding
of entire cells. CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS
- The specialized cells of the various
THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
connective tissues produce the
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
extracellular matrix.
- Found in connective tissue are cells 1. Ground substance
associated with the immune system, such - consists of non-fibrous protein and
as white blood cells. other molecules.
- responsible for the functional
OSTEOBLAST – form bone, osteocytes (bone
characteristics of connective
cell) maintain it and osteoclast break it down.
tissues—for example, they enable
FIBROBLAST – cells that form fibrous bones and cartilage to bear
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it. weight.
- Proteoglycans - large molecules
CHONDROBLAST – form cartilage and that consist of a protein core
chondrocytes maintain it. attached to many long
CONNECTIVE TISSUE polysaccharides. They trap large
MACROPHAGES - large cells that are capable
- a diverse primary tissue type that makes of moving about and ingesting foreign quantities of water between the
up part of every organ in the body. substances, including microorganisms in the polysaccharides, which allows
- it consists of cells separated from each connective tissue. them to return to their original
other by abundant extracellular matrix. shape when compressed or
MAST CELL - non-motile (stationary) cells that deformed.
- diverse in both structure and function.
release chemicals, such as histamine, that 2. Protein fibers - help form most
- Connective tissue is comprised of cells,
promote inflammation. connective tissues.
protein fibers, and an extracellular matrix.
Three Types of Protein Fibers
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
FUNCTIONS:
 i. Collagen fibers - i. Areolar CT - consists of collagen bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular
resemble microscopic fibers and a few elastic fibers. space.
ropes, are very flexible but Provides support and helps protect
Two Major Subcategories of Dense CT
resist stretching. organs and other tissues. The most
ii. Reticular fibers - very common cells in loose connective i. Dense Collagenous CT - has an
fine, short collagen fibers tissue are the fibroblasts. extracellular matrix consisting mostly
that branch to form a of collagen fibers. Have the collagen
supporting network. fibers oriented in the same direction is
iii. Elastic fibers - have the termed Dense regular. the collagen
ability to return to their fibers oriented in the multiple
original shape after being directions is termed Dense irregular.
stretched or compressed,
giving tissue an elastic
quality. ii. Adipose CT - consists of adipocytes
3. Fibers (cell that makes up adipose tissue), or
TWO MAIN TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES fat cells, which contain large amounts
of lipid for energy storage, protects
1. Embryonic connective tissue parts of the body and acts as a
2. Adult connective tissue thermal insulator.
By eight weeks of development, most of
the embryonic connective tissue has
become specialized to form the types of ii. Dense Elastic CT - has abundant
connective tissue seen in adults. elastic fibers among its collagen
fibers. The elastic fibers allow the
THREE MAIN CATEGORIES OF ADULT CT
tissue to stretch and recoil. Examples
I. Connective Tissue Proper iii. Reticular CT - forms the framework include the dense elastic connective
of lymphatic tissue, such as in the tissue in the vocal cords.
1. Loose connective tissue - consists of
spleen and lymph nodes, as well as in
relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy
bone marrow and the liver. Has
network, with numerous spaces filled with ground
fibroblast and fibrocytes.
substance and fluid. Works to hold organs,
tissues, etc. in place. 2. Dense connective tissue - has a relatively
large number of protein fibers that form thick
Three Subdivisions of Loose CT
 ii. Fibrocartilage - has more collagen 2. Bone - a hard connective tissue that consists
and is able to withstand compression of living cells and a mineralized matrix.
II. Supporting Connective Tissue and resist tearing or pulling. Osteocytes are located within lacunae. The
Fibrocartilage is found in the strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix
1. Cartilage - composed of chondrocytes,
intervertebral disks. enables bones to support and protect other
located in spaces called lacunae within an
tissues and organs.
extensive matrix.
Two Types of Bone Tissue
- Collagen in the matrix gives
cartilage flexibility and strength. i. Spongy Bone - has spaces between
- Cartilage is resilient because the trabeculae or plates, of bone and
proteoglycans of the matrix trap therefore
water. resembles a
- Cartilage provides support, but if iii. Elastic Cartilage - contains elastic sponge.
bent or slightly compressed, it fibers in addition to collagen and ii. Compact
resumes its original shape. proteoglycans. The elastic fibers Bone - more
appear as coiled fibers among solid, with
Three Types of Cartilage
bundles of collagen fibers. Elastic almost no
i. Hyaline Cartilage - the most cartilage is able to recoil to its original space between many thin layers of
abundant type of cartilage and has shape when bent. The external ear, mineralized matrix.
many functions, such as covering the epiglottis, and auditory tube contain III. Fluid Connective Tissue
ends of bones, where they form joints. elastic cartilage.
1.Blood - a liquid
connective tissue. It
contains a liquid
matrix, termed the
plasma, along with
formed elements. The formed elements are digestive tract and emptying the urinary
erythrocytes (white blood cell), leukocytes (red bladder. Smooth muscle cells are tapered
blood cell), and platelets. It functions in transport at each end, have a single nucleus, and
of food, oxygen, waste, hormones, and other are not striated.
substances.
MUSCLE TISSUE
- The main function is to contract, or
shorten, making movement possible.
- Muscle
2. Cardiac muscle – the muscle of the
contraction
heart, responsible for pumping blood all
results from
throughout the body. Cylindrical but are
contractile
shorter than skeletal muscles. They are NERVOUS TISSUE
proteins
striated and usually have one nucleus per
located - forms the
cell. They are often branched and
within the brain, spinal
connected to one another by intercalated
muscle cells. cord, and
disks.
nerves.
THREE TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
- It is
1. Skeletal muscle – attaches to the responsible for
skeleton and enables the body to move. coordinating and controlling many body
They are striated, or banded, because of activities.
the arrangement of contractile proteins - Nervous tissue consists of neurons and
within the cells. Located either attached support cells, termed glial cells.
to bone or other connective tissue. - The neuron is responsible for conducting
action potentials. It is composed of three
parts: a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

3. Smooth muscle – forms the walls of

hollow organs. Found in the skin and the
eyes. They are responsible for a number
of functions:
moving food
through the
 delicate layer of loose connective tissue. They do  Inflammation is usually a beneficial
not contain glands, but they secrete a small process occurring when tissues are
amount of fluid called serous fluid, which damaged.
lubricates the surface of the membranes.  When viruses infect epithelial cells of the
upper respiratory tract, inflammation and
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES - line the cavities of
the symptoms of the common cold are
freely movable joints. They are made up of only
produced.
connective tissue and consist of modified
 The inflammatory process occurs in
connective tissue cells. Synovial membranes
TISSUE MEMBRANES stages.
produce synovial fluid, which makes the joint
- a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers very slippery, thereby reducing friction and  Inflammation mobilizes the body’s
a structure or lines a cavity. allowing smooth movement within the joint. defenses and isolates and destroys
- Most membranes consist of epithelium microorganisms, foreign materials, and
INTERNAL MEMBRANE damaged cells so that tissue repair can
and the connective tissue on which the
epithelium rests. proceed.
- There are four tissue membranes in the  Inflammation produces five major
body: cutaneous, mucous, serous, and symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain,
synovial. and disturbance of function.

CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE – the skin, an

external body surface membrane.
MUCOUS MEMBRANE – line cavities that open
to the outside of the body, such as the digestive,
respiratory, and reproductive tracts. Consists of
epithelial cells, their basement membrane and a
thick layer of loose connective tissue. Many but
not all secrete mucus. The functions of mucous
membranes include protection, absorption, and
secretion.
SEROUS MEMBRANES - do not open to the
TISSUE INFLAMMATION
exterior of the body, such as the pericardial,
pleural, and peritoneal cavities. It is consists of
three components: a layer of simple squamous
epithelium, its basement membrane, and a TISSUE REPAIR
 Tissue repair involves substitution of
dead cells for viable cells.
 Tissue repair can occur by regeneration
or by fibrosis.
 In regeneration, the new cells are the
same type as those that were destroyed,
and normal function is usually restored.
 In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type
of tissue develops that eventually causes
scar production and the loss of some
tissue function.
 Regeneration can completely repair some
tissues, such as the skin and the mucous
membrane of the intestine. In these
cases, regeneration is accomplished
primarily by stem cells.
 Stem cells are self-renewing,
undifferentiated cells that continue to
divide throughout life.
 Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.