Chapter 3 :

Defining and Measuring Variables

Frederick J. Gravetter, Lori-Ann B. Forzano (2018) Research Methods for the
Behavioral Sciences, 6E. Cengage Learning, Inc.
Chapter 3 :
Defining and Measuring Variables

3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions

3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement

3.3 Scales of Measurement

3.4 Modalities of Measurement

3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement

CRITICAL POINTS

• LO1 Define a construct and explain the role that constructs play in theories.
• LO2 Define an operational definition and explain the purpose and the
limitations of operational definitions.
3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions
3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions
3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions
C3-SectiON 1
1. What term is used for a variable that cannot be observed or measured
directly but is useful for describing and explaining behavior?
a. Construct
b. Operational variable
c. Theoretical variable
d. Hypothetical variable
C3-SectiON 1
1. What term is used for a variable that cannot be observed or measured
directly but is useful for describing and explaining behavior?
a. Construct
b. Operational variable
c. Theoretical variable
d. Hypothetical variable
C3-SectiON 1
2. What is the goal of an operational definition?
a. Simply to provide a definition of a hypothetical construct
b. Simply to provide a method for measuring a hypothetical construct
c. To provide a definition and a method for measuring a hypothetical construct
d. None of the other options describe the purpose of an operational definition
C3-SectiON 1
2. What is the goal of an operational definition?
a. Simply to provide a definition of a hypothetical construct
b. Simply to provide a method for measuring a hypothetical construct
c. To provide a definition and a method for measuring a hypothetical construct
d. None of the other options describe the purpose of an operational definition
C3-SectiON 1
3. Which of the following is a disadvantage of using an operational definition?
a. The operational definition may not be an accurate reflection of the construct.
b. The operational definition may leave out important components of the
construct.
c. The operational definition may include extra components that are not part of
the construct.
d. All of the other options are disadvantages.
C3-SectiON 1
3. Which of the following is a disadvantage of using an operational definition?

a. The operational definition may not be an accurate reflection of the construct.

b. The operational definition may leave out important components of the
construct.
c. The operational definition may include extra components that are not part of
the construct.
d. All of the other options are disadvantages.
CRITICAL POINTS

• 1. Define a positive relationship and a negative relationship.

• 2. Explain how the consistency of positive and negative relationships can be
used to establish validity and reliability.
• 3. Define the validity of measurement and explain why and how it is
measured.
• 4. Define the reliability of measurement and explain why and how it is
measured.
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
 Correlation analysis for consistency

Y Values

X Values X Values X Values

r =-1.00 Strong correlation No correlation Strong correlation r = +1.00

r = 0.00
FIGURE 3.1 r = -0.50 r = +0.50
Scatter Plots Showing Different Relationships
For the first measure, values increase from left to right.
For the second measure, values increase from bottom to top.
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
 DEVELOPMENT OF A HAPPINESS SCALE

Negative correlation Neutral correlation

Positive correlation

HAPPINESS

HAPPINESS
HAPPINESS

SELF-ESTEEM NEUROTICISM INTROVERSION

Convergent validity Convergent validity Divergent validity

3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement
C3-SectiON 2
1. Research results indicate that the more time individuals spend watching educational television
programs as preschool children, the higher their high school grades will be. What kind of relationship
exists between educational TV and high school grades?
a. Cause-and-effect
b. Coincidental
c. Positive
d. Negative
C3-SectiON 2
1. Research results indicate that the more time individuals spend watching educational television
programs as preschool children, the higher their high school grades will be. What kind of relationship
exists between educational TV and high school grades?
a. Cause-and-effect
b. Coincidental
c. Positive
d. Negative
C3-SectiON 2
2. A research study reports that participants who scored high on a new test
measuring self- esteem made eye contact during an interview, whereas
participants who scored low on the test avoided eye contact. Assuming that
more eye contact is associated with higher self-esteem, what kind of validity is
being demonstrated?
a. face
b. concurrent
c. predictive
d. convergent
C3-SectiON 2
2. A research study reports that participants who scored high on a new test
measuring self- esteem made eye contact during an interview, whereas
participants who scored low on the test avoided eye contact. Assuming that
more eye contact is associated with higher self-esteem, what kind of validity is
being demonstrated?
a. face
b. concurrent
c. predictive
d. convergent
C3-SectiON 2
3. Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between validity
and reliability?
a. Measurement cannot be valid unless it is reliable.
b. Measurement cannot be reliable unless it is valid.
c. If a measurement is reliable, then it also must be valid.
d. None of the above is an accurate description.
C3-SectiON 2
3. Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between validity
and reliability?
a. Measurement cannot be valid unless it is reliable.
b. Measurement cannot be reliable unless it is valid.
c. If a measurement is reliable, then it also must be valid.
d. None of the above is an accurate description.
CRITICAL POINTS

• 1. Compare and contrast the four scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal,

interval, and ratio) and identify examples of each.
3.3 Scales of Measurement
3.3 Scales of Measurement
3.3 Scales of Measurement
3.3 Scales of Measurement
C3-SectiON 3
1. An elementary school teacher separates students into high, medium, and
low reading skill groups. What scale of measurement is being used to create the
groups?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio
C3-SectiON 3
1. An elementary school teacher separates students into high, medium, and
low reading skill groups. What scale of measurement is being used to create the
groups?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio
C3-SectiON 3
2. After measuring a set of individuals, a researcher finds that Bob’s score is
three times greater than Jane’s score. What scale of measurement is being
used?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio
C3-SectiON 3
2. After measuring a set of individuals, a researcher finds that Bob’s score is
three times greater than Jane’s score. What scale of measurement is being
used?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio
C3-SectiON 3
3. What additional information is obtained by measuring on an interval scale
compared to an ordinal scale?
a. Whether the measurements are the same or different
b. The direction of the differences
c. The size of the differences
d. None of the above
C3-SectiON 3
3. What additional information is obtained by measuring on an interval scale
compared to an ordinal scale?
a. Whether the measurements are the same or different
b. The direction of the differences
c. The size of the differences
d. None of the above
CRITICAL POINTS

• 1. Identify the three modalities of measurement.

• 2. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of each.
3.4 Modalities of Measurement
3.4 Modalities of Measurement
3.4 Modalities of Measurement
C3-SectiON 4
1. Using a PET scan to measure brain activity while participants solve
mathematics problems is an example of using what modality of measurement?
a. Self-report
b. Survey
c. Behavioral
d. Physiological
C3-SectiON 4
1. Using a PET scan to measure brain activity while participants solve
mathematics problems is an example of using what modality of measurement?
a. Self-report
b. Survey
c. Behavioral
d. Physiological
C3-SectiON 4
2. Using an anonymous questionnaire to determine how many times students
send or receive text messages during class is an example of using what modality
of measurement?
a. Self-report
b. Survey
c. Behavioral
d. Physiological
C3-SectiON 4
2. Using an anonymous questionnaire to determine how many times students
send or receive text messages during class is an example of using what modality
of measurement?
a. Self-report
b. Survey
c. Behavioral
d. Physiological
C3-SectiON 4
3. Counting the number of times a third-grade student leaves his or her seat
without permission during a 30-minute observation period is an example of
using what modality of measurement?
a. Self-report
b. Survey
c. Behavioral
d. Physiological
C3-SectiON 4
3. Counting the number of times a third-grade student leaves his or her seat
without permission during a 30-minute observation period is an example of
using what modality of measurement?
a. Self-report
b. Survey
c. Behavioral
d. Physiological
CRITICAL POINTS

• 1. Define a ceiling effect and a floor effect and explain how

they can interfere with measurement.
• 2. Define an artifact
• 3. Explain how examples of artifacts (experimenter bias,
demand characteristics, and reactivity) can threaten both
the validity and reliability of measurement.
• 4. How can artifacts influence the results of a research
study?
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement
C3-SectiON 5
1. Why is the range effect known as a “ceiling effect” a problem for
researchers?
a. The scores are already so high that there is no chance of measuring
improvement.
b. The scores are already so low that there is no chance of measuring a decrease.
c. There is so much room for improvement that the measurements are almost
certain to increase.
d. There is so much room for lower performance that the measurements are
almost certain to decrease.
C3-SectiON 5
1. Why is the range effect known as a “ceiling effect” a problem for
researchers?
a. The scores are already so high that there is no chance of measuring
improvement.
b. The scores are already so low that there is no chance of measuring a decrease.
c. There is so much room for improvement that the measurements are almost
certain to increase.
d. There is so much room for lower performance that the measurements are
almost certain to decrease.
C3-SectiON 5
2. Why is an artifact like experimenter bias a threat to the validity of
measurement?
a. The measurements may be distorted by the artifact.
b. Different measurements may be obtained under the same conditions if the
artifact were not present.
c. The artifact may provide an alternative explanation for the results.
d. None of the other options accurately describes the threat.
C3-SectiON 5
2. Why is an artifact like experimenter bias a threat to the validity of
measurement?
a. The measurements may be distorted by the artifact.
b. Different measurements may be obtained under the same conditions if the
artifact were not present.
c. The artifact may provide an alternative explanation for the results.
d. None of the other options accurately describes the threat.
C3-SectiON 5
3. Which of the following describes participants taking on the negativistic
subject role?
a. They are concerned that their performance in the study will be used to
evaluate them.
b. They try to act so that their data are in contrast to the hypothesis.
c. They try to act so that their data are consistent with the hypothesis.
d. They try to avoid acting on the basis of their suspicions.
C3-SectiON 5
3. Which of the following describes participants taking on the negativistic
subject role?
a. They are concerned that their performance in the study will be used to
evaluate them.
b. They try to act so that their data are in contrast to the hypothesis.
c. They try to act so that their data are consistent with the hypothesis.
d. They try to avoid acting on the basis of their suspicions.
The End