Global

Development
Topic Completed in class Looked over Revised/Questions
completed
Defining and measuring
development
Terminology
Theories of development
Globalisation
Aid
Trade
Agencies of development
Industrialisation

Urbanisation
The Environment
War and conflict
Employment
Education
Health
Demographic change
Gender

Development: The process by which society changes.

 Notes in class:
Western views of Africa
violent, uncultured and backward. Africa not the 54 countries that make it

RICHEST 1% HAVE 43% OF THE WORLDS WEALTH OVER 96 TRILLION

BOTTOM 80% HAVE ONLY 6% OF THE WORLDS WEALTH
RICHEST 300 PEOPLE HAVE THE SAME AS THE POOREST 3,000,000,000

Before colonialism the biggest countries were only 3x as much wealth as the poorest countries..
BUT AFTER COLONIALISM IT WAS 80x.

Distinguishing features of the developing world

• colonial past
• LEG (low economic growth)
• vast inequalities in ownership and access to land
• large sections of population unemployment
• a subsistance standard of living I.e $1-2 or less a day
• young and fertile and rapidly growing population
• hardly any basic educational
• hardly any sanitation
• low life expectancy
• high infant mortaility
• death from preventabel stuff
• low levels of adult literacy
• lack of basic infrastructure and service
• lack of civil and human rights
• totlitaian and repressive
• patriarchal forms of inequality

the industrialised world is the richest, the non-indi world is the poorest
 Terminology
In this A2 course, use terminology very carefully as things can reference the same thing but
mean totally different things.

Three worlds
In the cold war the world was divided into 3,
1. Industrialised capitalist world. Industrialised means that the countries economies are
based on industry and not agriculture. Capitalism is an economic system where the
owners of the means of production, the industry, investment and distribution are private
individuals or corporations who want to profit. Countries like the USA, the west of Europe
and Japan.
2. Industrialised communist world. Mostly made up of the soviet union and those
countries which followed it.
3. Third world refers to the poorest countries, like Africa, South America and the Middle
East.
Third world is used today, and covers a range of countries in lots of different stages in
progression. Also it was referred to as a third world because they were not aligned with either
USA or Soviet Russia. Outdated

Forth and fifth world

The 4th includes all woman in a patriarchal world (radical feminist), faced with oppression,
development is hindered because of male values. Radically different development process.
The 5th world, woman across all nations tend to be used for cheap labour (social-feminist)

North and South

Because of the Brandt (1980) commission which was developing strategies to deal with poverty
there was a distinction between the industrialised northern hemisphere (Global north) and the
undeveloped countries in the southern hemisphere (Global south). But this doesn't really work
because Australia and New zealand which are wealthy and industrialised are in the south.

Majority and Minority worlds

This is reference to the huge inequality in the world, the majority of the worlds population (2/3)
living in what would be referred to as the 'third world' and only a minority of the worlds
population are rich and wealthy, and this is only available to the privileged.

Rich countries and Poor countries

Wealthy country: Only looks at wealth and not resources. Conceals inequalities WITHIN a
country. Does not show social progress. Shows inequalities of wealth between countries.

Developed, Un-Developed and Under-developed

This is all perspective, un-developed meaning the poor are just behind the western
industrialised countries and can catch up, but under-developed means that the poor have been
made poor by the exploitation form the rich.

MEDC'S, FCC'S NIC's, LEDC'S AND LLEDC'S

These terms to talk about economic development. On the other hand it intends to include social
development in this, but it doesn't as countries that are classed as MEDC'S can be very
different. MEDC's (More economically developed)-- West and Australia and Japan. FCC's are
former communist countries. NIC's (newly industrialised countries)--China, Singapore, Hong
Kong. LEDC's (less economically developed countries)-- India, Brazil. LLEDC's (least
economically developed countries)--Struck by poverty, Afghanistan, Niger, Ethiopia. Assumes
all countries experience economic and social problems in the same way. E.g Mozambiqure in
Africa and Honduras in Central America both experience subsistence property (survival at basic
level) but in different ways (culture/location).
The Bottom Billion
Paul Collier coined this term to refer to what was called the Third World and how there are
some countries in that developing now. He has an issue with the lack of development in Africa
and other countries plagued by war. These other countries Collier refers to as the 'Africa plus',
there are 58 of them. Collier says that these countries make up about a billion people and the
Millennium Developmental goals needs to target these places not the other 6 billion .

TNC Transnational corporations

Defining and Measuring Development

Essentially all of the definitions hang on the same notion that whatever 'development' entails it
is a 'good change' that has occurred.
Good change essentially means, there is some kind of economic growth (defined by the
growth of national income, measured by GNP -gross national product-), this economic growth
is dependant on a change from an economy based on food farming and small family owned
workshops to mega factories which would include import/export goods. Also development can
be seen on a social level So there are some things to consider;
• There has to be some sort of vision of the future that society can aim for
• It is a natural process over years or even hundreds of years. A progression of changes.
• Then there should be some deliberate policies introduced to promote development and
change and a rise in living standards.
• And them some development bodies who try and not let things get worse before they get
better.
The social aspect includes stuff like, education, health, human rights, equality, happiness
and well-being and sustainability. Sustainability is essentially the ability for something to
continue at the same level forever. For example, if somehow you made renewable fuel and took
the fuel at the same rate as you made the fuel then it's sustainable and can last forever.

Measuring development:
There are 3 main ways to measure development; Economic Well-Being, the Human
Development Index and Social Development.

Economic Well-Being
This is measured by totalling the values of goods and services produced in a year, it's done
in two ways, GDP- gross domestic product- (measured per capita – per person in population-
US dollars) and GNP-gross national product, take the total and divided by population-. But GNP
also includes income from abroad, so it has a advantage of usefulness compared to GDP.
GDP reveals the massive inequalities between developed and developing countries because it
is per person in terms of income.
• E.growth does not cover everything like education and health improvements. A rise
in GDP doesn't mean people are happier or education achievement is rising.
• Also GDP is not every individuals GDP but an average. So super rich people in a country
will skew the poorest GDP and hide inequalities within an economy.
• GDP doesn't cover everything on the scale, like if you 'grow you own' veg, and also as
these are done stereotypically by woman it could be argued there is a gender bias.
• Continuous E.growth does not automatically mean it is sustainable. A great example of
the criticism is if I clear-cut a forest and sell the timber it adds to GDP in the current year
but significantly reduces the chance the economy can have the same performance the
future years.
• Lacks reliability; no consistency on measures between countries.
• Overlooks the illegal economy
• Fails to tell wealth in country (TNC's)
• GNP reflects western values and assumption that materialism.

Social well-being
There are two educational measures; literacy rates and leaving age for school. Literacy is
important as if the population are literate there are more job opportunities and education
opportunities
Health wise there are all kinds of mortality rates; children, infants, mothers in birth, as well as
the ratio of doctor/nurses to patients. In the UK there seems to be a shortage, does that mean
we are not well developed? If the workforce is healthy then they will work more and develop.
Democratically everyone should be (above a certain age; e.g 18) allowed to vote in fair and
free (not corrupted or cheating) elections.
In all of these measures, we can look at gender differences; more woman achieving a school,
or look at whether there are more men in high paid jobs ect.

Why is important to examine social well-being as a measure of development:

• It doesn't just show a monetary value on development, it shows more of the own people's
views and how they are being effected by changes that are happening in their country.
• The people are the most important part of the state, not the money it makes, so looking
at how happy they are, how well looked after in terms of what health infrastructure is
available, what education level the majority have ect.
• Individuals motivation is affected by how generally happy they are
• Women with equal status will promote the same values to their children and workers.
Woman play primary care giver role
• If people feel that they are active in their political participation and feel that the system is
fair then they may invest more in it and develop it.

Human Development Index (HDI)

The United Nations Development programme (UNDP) measure what they think is best in a
country and puts it on a scale, giving each country a number based on it. The three are;
 • Material standard of living (GDP)
• Education (leaving age and literacy rates)
• Health (life expectancy)
The scoring system in the HDI is between 0 and 1, being the best. Iceland was ranking the
highest with 0.968 in 2007/8 on the HDI, the lowest ranking was Sierra Leone with 0.336. It
also categorising human development, so high development, low development and medium
development. In 2007/8 there were 70 countries which were high development on the scale, the
countries with the lowest development were in Africa. The highest GDP countries were
Luxembourg and the lowest Malawi. There are some countries which are high in HDI but not in
GDP because what they make they put back into to make the society better. But when it is the
other way around, the money made is not put back into the country, like in Saudi Arabia.
+Good at giving a general view of development and the link between economy and social well-
being.

In 2013: the USA ranked 0.914 and Nigeria ranked 0.504

The human development report:

1. The human development index (HDI)
2. The human poverty index (HPI)
3. The gender-related development index (GDI) which is where the HDI is adjusted for
gender.
4. The gender-empowerment measure (GEM), how equally men and woman are
represented in political and economic decisions.

Evaluating development as economic and social well being:

Kingsbury et al 2004:
• Gov onlys helps other countries out of self interest. Two things,
◦ Idealogical interest: in the cold war to try and get back up to western views and
international terrorism
◦ Economic gains: increasing purchasing power by generating more international trade
and opening up the market

Maggie Black 2002:

• Originally on a compassionate grounds and promote social justice or guilt felt about the
colonial times.
• TNS and banks soon changed it to be about money.

Remenyi 2004:
• in the 80's recession hit, many govs cut aid money.
• The World Bank development policy focussed on making developing nations honour their
loan contracts.
• IMF promised assistance only if these governments agrees to cut back/abandon welfare
policies aimed at poverty reduction.
• This western economic well-being took precedent over social well-being of developing
countries.

Sustainability development:

Brundtland report 1987:

Proposed by the UN that development should be eco-friendly. Social and economical
development is very good but not at the jeopardy of future generations. The report realised that
poverty in sub-Saharan Africa is caused by environmental degradation.

Black 2002
Sustainable development should tackle species loss, global warming, deforestation, toxic waste
and the depletion of words natural resources.
Measuring Poverty
Rather than individually whole countries poverty can be measured by GDP as it is an average.
Individually using the UN's Millennium Development Goals (8 targets to achieve progression
to development) the World Bank has said that absolute poverty is whether a person has more
that 1 American dollar (increased to $1.25 in 2008) for purchasing. Because of this definition in
2004 980million (1/6) were in extreme poverty. As well as last year there is relative poverty;
which could be defined as having half of the median income in a country, or being excluded
from society. The HDR includes the poverty at the individual level in the HPI. It includes things
like;
• The amount of the population living below the poverty line.
• The adult literacy rate
• The probability of birth and surviving until 40
• Percentage of people under 5 who are underweight
• Percentage of people who do not have access to clean water

The Millennium Development Goals

The 8 goals;
• To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; by 2015, to halve the number of the worlds
population living in poverty whose income is less than $1.25 a day. The target of
reducing extreme poverty rates by half was met five years ahead of the 2015 deadline.
Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and
young people. Globally, 384 million workers lived below the $1.25 a day poverty line in
2011—a reduction of 294 million since 2001.Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
proportion of people who suffer from hunger

• To achieve universal primary education. Enrolment in primary education in developing

regions reached 90 per cent in 2010, up from 82 per cent in 1999, which means more
kids than ever are attending primary school. Even as countries with the toughest
challenges have made large strides, progress on primary school enrolment has slowed.
One in ten children of primary school age was still out of school in 2012.

• To promote gender equality and to empower woman. In many countries, gender

inequality persists and women continue to face discrimination in access to education,
work and economic assets, and participation in government. For example, in every
developing region, women tend to hold less secure jobs than men, with fewer social
benefits. The world has achieved equality in primary education between girls and boys.
Violence against women continues to undermine efforts to reach all goals.

• To reduce child mortality. Despite population growth, the number of deaths in children
under five worldwide declined from 12.7 million in 1990 to 6.3 million in 2013, which
translates into about 17,000 fewer children dying each day. Despite determined global
progress in reducing child deaths, an increasing proportion of child deaths are in sub-
Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. Four out of every five deaths of children under age
five occur in these regions.

• To improve maternal and reproductive health. In Eastern Asia, Northern Africa and
Southern Asia, maternal mortality has declined by around two-thirds. Only half of women
in developing regions receive the recommended amount of health care they need. Fewer
teens are having children in most developing regions, but progress has slowed.

• To combat HIV/AIDs, malaria and other diseases. The number of new HIV infections per
100 adults (aged 15 to 49) declined by 44 per cent between 2001 and 2012.
• Comprehensive knowledge of HIV transmission remains low among young people, along
with condom use. Between 2000 and 2012, the substantial expansion of malaria
interventions led to a 42 per cent decline in malaria mortality rates globally.
 • To ensure environmental sustainability. Between 1990 and 2012, 2.3 billion people
gained access to improved drinking water sources. Global emissions of carbon dioxide
(CO2) have increased by more than 50 per cent since 1990. The world has met the
target of halving the proportion of people without access to improved sources of water,
five years ahead of schedule. 863 million people are estimated to be living in slums in
2012 compared to 650 million in 1990 and 760 million in 2000

• To develop a global partnership for development. Eighty per cent of imports from
developing countries enter developed countries duty-free. Aid to landlocked developing
countries fell in 2010 for the first time in a decade, while aid to small island developing
States increased substantially. The debt burden on developing countries remains stable
at about 3 per cent of export revenue, which was a near 75 per cent drop since 2000.

Between 1990 and 2004, the proportion of people in developing countries that were living below
a dollar a day fell from 31.6% to 19.2%. However inequalities between and within countries
were increasing.

Western influence on definitions and perceptions of Development or progress

Development is influenced by western,industrial, capitalist and patriarchal views because it is;
1. ethnocentric
2. has a negative view of cultural values of developing countries. e.g. extended families
3. sees western industrialisation as perfect and ignores its own problems such as
poverty and pollution
4. sees western democracy as better than socialist models of developmental creates
problems in the developing world, e.g loss of homeland and internal inequalities
5. applies a blanket approach to developing countries and ignores diversity between and
within them
6. seen by critics as a sham because its main aim is to exploit and subjugate rather than
assist the developing world. Thus the widening gap between rich and poor countries
7. Asian tiger economies do appear to have successfully followed western development
model

Alternative models of development/progress

Those rooted in the religious beliefs of the developing world. E.g Islam.
Those who see liberation from the west as the main way of development or progress.
Rejection of western-style democracy and economics. E.g socialist countries like Cuba.
People centred/local models of development, where the local community are given a voice
and power regarding their progress

Theories of Development

Modernisation Theory
This is a cold war theory and needs to be seen in this context. Essentially, this theory is from
the 1960's during the cold war and counted development as turning towards a capitalist
structure. After 1947 the USA launched the Marshal plan to rebuild western Europe and
basically keep them aligned with the west and not Russia with $17billion. They offered the Third
world a way out of poverty if they adopted western ways. W.W. Rostow was a pioneer of
this in the American state department who believed this.
This is closely linked with America and showed the third world that only capitalism could lift
them out of poverty and to development. They measured success in the third world by whether
there was mass consumption like the US. Countries needed to become modern and west by;
• Technology; using more advanced tech
• Agriculture; a move to commercial production
 • Industry; moving to machine power
• Geographical; urbanisation
• Political; a move to western liberal democracy
• Social and culture; a move away from immediate gratification to deferred gratification. A
move away from nuclear families to modern ones.
Talcott Parsons was a structural functionalist sociologist and thought that there were
'evolutionary universals' that each society would pass through in order to develop in the
modern way. Traditional values were very collectivist and where status was given, sometimes
by birth right; modern societies were based on individual achievement where status is not just
given it is gained.
-But, not all modern societies drop traditions and not all traditional societies have no modern
elements so we can question whether this is a false dilemma (given two opposites as the only
options with no middle ground).

What prevents development? (Modernisations theory)

• The wrong values; they don't have deferred gratification which McCelland (1961) calls
'the need for achievement'. Also a lack of people with business smarts and
entrepreneurial skills. Also want too many children and so birthrates skyrocket up.
• Lack of institutions; these countries lack banks and institutions which are built to gain
economic growth and lack the tech needed for this.
• poverty

There are two theories of modernisation:

Rostow (1960) want economic modernisation to essentially bring the poorer countries to a
western standard so that they would have lots of growth, but more importantly be the USA's ally
in the cold war. Its all about an evolutionary process. Parsons was a functionalist who thought
that we should look at cultural factors. Whereas Functionalist modernists like Hoselitz (1952)
argued that there should be more of a primary on the social blockades poorer countries have.

Rostow argues that the economic growth was more important, and countries had to pass
through 5 stages of economic growth before they could be considered developed and that this
would take 60 years from the get go to the everyday. The five stages
1. Traditional values hold back the development of social change. These places survive on
substance farming (farming for the family not market).
2. Preconditions for take off: This is where the western views and values need to be
taken on board. New stuff to modernise the country needs to come in, like new roads,
technologies in farming that mass produces what they make, new institutions like
education and health ect. These have to come before 3.
3. Take off: Step 2 takes effect and breeds a new class of people who have internalised
these values and are ready to take a risk in investment and growing the economy. It
becomes self-replicating. New wealth filters to the population.
4. Drive to maturity: Step 3 leads to rising standards and new investment. Starting to
mature.
5. Age of mass-consumption: High mass consumption, about the stage the USA was in
the 60's, high standards of life.

Parsons: Cultures that block development:

Traditional values block a country from developing e.g valuing the extended family block
geographical mobility.
Traditional values; Modern Values
Ascription Achievement
Particularism Universalism
Collectivism Individualism

Ascription is where a role is given based on family or close group not ability
Achievement is the effort you put in to work (education/skills) which results in this role.
Particularism is treating someone on the basis of them being a member of a specific group
Universalism is where people are treated according to the role they have
Collectivism is where the group is more important than the individual
Individualism is where the individual is more important than the group.

In order for societies to develop they need to acquire the modern values.

Education allows people to come from ascription to achievement. In our country because of the
industrial revolution new skills needed to be learnt.
Ascription and collectivism is key to modernisation because they are intertwined with the other
two. If you grow up in a collective environment you won't move away, you will take up the job
that your parents did.

The role of the west:

1. Western investment in factories, expertise and equipment. Loans from the world bank
2. Western funding to introduce meritocratic education (modern values)
3. Mass media to disseminate modern ideas e.g nuclear families
4. Urbanisation (growth of towns and cities)

How would this help the developing world?

A. capitalist entrepreneurial middle class to develop business opportunities
B. high mass consumption
C. an urban populations
D. Lifestyles of conspicuous consumption

Modernisation theory in the modern day

Like Functionalists generally in sociology, modernisation theories have largely been dismissed
as irrelevant but stuff remains to be true today from what they have said.
• Westerns ways and economies still seem to be the aspirations of developing countries.
• China was predicted by Rostow to be in the 3rd stage (take-off) about now, and they
seem to be correct predictions.
• Communism has proved to not be as effective in economic growth as capitalism.

Criticisms of Modernisation theory:

-Ethnocentric-
it devalues traditional values and social institutions. E.g extended families
ignores increasing inequalities within and between countries
not a neutral theory as it suggests (western values)
-Education
Will only benefit the small elite in the developing world, and then the elite leave for the
developing world.
-Assumes there are these unlimited resources in these developing countries where they can
manufacture them
-Assumes development occurs in the same way everywhere, historical context is important.
-The culture of developing countries, importance of the family, may be a response to economic
insecurity and low levels of material well-being not the cause of it (Inglehart and Baker 2000)

Positives
-They have promoted that these countries cannot develop on their own they need help.
paternalism of NGO's (non-gov organisation)
-Neo-liberals want a free market and advocate 'helping' poor countries.

Neo-liberal stress idea of cultural values:

-Christian traditions and values led to economic prosperity for the western zone. Non-western
zones resent this prosperity. Christianity is tightly linked to capitalism because
-Some may reject modernisation an return to fundamentalism Eg the Arab world and fostering
of international terrorism.
Dependency Theory
Global system made up of two different systems- Metropolis or core nations- and -satellite or
peripheral countries-. It's essentially a Marxist theory of metropolis exploiting satellites.
External factors hinder/help development. There is a dynamic relationship between the two
states.
Andre Gunder Frank (1969) was the pioneer of this and studied Latin American economies.
He argued underdevelopment paved the way for the development of the West.

Dependency is created by international capitalist systems. Division of labour- poor countries

provide raw materials, cheap labour- the western more developed countries (former colonial
powers) got these products exported to them and then sold in the international market. Some
money does go into the poorer nations to build roads/infrastructure to help access to raw
materials. The dominant country decide where / what money is spent.

From this underdevelopment occurs (see terminology page).

What prevents development?

Dependency theorists see how the obstacles faced by the poor developing countries are
actually imposed on by the outside. After colonialism ended neo-colonialism began, meaning
political and aid dependency on the West, and full of exploitation but less direct links.
Modernisation theorists see a helping hand form the west, Dependency theorists see
exploitation and neo-colonialism.

Key ideas in the Dependency theory

1. Rejects the modernisation theory- problems are imposed on the Third world not in them.
2. Capitalism is based on exploitation and that is not ok
3. The reason these places are poor and under-developed are because of the structure of
exploitation, capitalism and world trade. Modernisation tends to forget the historic
experience of the Third World.
4. The rich countries benefit from the under-developed ones, by means of cheap labour and
raw materials
5. Want nationalism and self-reliance from under-developed countries, not reliance on Aid.

What's under-development?
Developed rich countries have made and are keeping the poorer countries poor and under-
developed, 'kicking the ladder away' (a meteraphor by Ha Joon Chang in 2003). There is a
chain of dependency from the core rich states and the satellite poor states dependent on
them. The rich states buy off the biggest and best in the poor countries, leaving the poor
countries helpless to help their own people. These bought off people exploit their own nation to
prevent change, to keep a reserve pool of workers for the rich.
Modernisation says that development is an evolutionary cultural process, but poor people
cannot do this because they have been stripped bare.
Key words for this are Metropolis (the centre of economic activity, profiting from an
exploitative relationship with satellites. Satellites are deformed and dependent economies of
undeveloped.

How did we get to such inequalities?

It's better to know that as much as modernisation theorists push the idea of taking up western
ways to be developed, it doesn't work like that. Modernisation theorists forget their own history,
the West was not formed from nothing and became something; when European's went over
there, it was already a thriving and complex society with the Aztec's and the Inca
populations. The America's did not go from under-developed to developed, it went form
undeveloped to developing to developed.(Frank 1966).The way the world is now can be traced
on time line, in three stages; Mercantile capitalism, colonialism, and neo-colonialism.
 • Mercantile Capitalism; essentially in the 15th and 16th centuries Europeans went all over
the world trading goods and selling them back in Europe for loads more than they were
worth. Then they started to force and threaten traders into free trade, often plundering
and stealing rather than trading. This saw the beginning of the Triangular trade from
Europe, West Africa and the Americas. Because the Europeans were so profit thirsty
they destroyed entire complex and stable societies.

•
• Colonialism; It got worse, not only did they kill loads of people, the Europeans (Brits and
French) decided to take direct control of lands rather than just violently trade with them.
These places were exploited for extra cheap goods, and local industry was destroyed
so that it wouldn't become competition. Everything was turned into money so that the
workers could pay taxes through their wages. This led to a legacy of exploitation and
lasting benefits for the West.

• Neo-colonialism; Essentially in the end Europe stopped holding direct control over
colonies, but instead just controlled their economy indirectly (according to dependency
theorists) through giving them a market to sell their ridiculously under priced produce to.
But because the ex-colonies were brainwashed by western ideas they wanted freedom
and Europe didn't want that, so there were wars. For example, in Malaysia and Algeria.

The Legacy of Colonialism- how it affects under-developed countries

Dependency Theorists say that history of these developing countries puts them on a whole
different level to already developed countries. Potter (2000) says there is some stuff still left
behind after the colonialism years that is present today;

• Being ruled: During the colonialism period the decisions for the country were made by
outside forces; now they are vulnerable to outside forces as they don't have this back
bone now and can be exploited. Not only that, they now don't have any experience on
how to rule!
• Force: Colonial powers took down the opposition by force in developing governments so
they would be uncontested, now they are gone this method still lives on in corrupt
governments.
• Economy: Because the colonial powers controlled their economy through the
governments, the people didn't know how to and no ruling class formed, making them
start from scratch again when the colonial powers left.
• Ideology: The colonial powers before taking over had to persuade them that they had a
right to take over as the bigger and better force, that ideology is still present and needs to
change.

How should they develop?

Dependency Theorists say that they need to get out of the dependant relationship and look
after itself for a bit. Keep out foreign capital for a while, as well as isolating themselves like
China for a bit, and breaking away when the metropolis is weak (e.g eat war).

Today D. Theorists are seen as a critical theory of modernisation rather than an explanation
for how to develop.

+Highlights external barriers

+Formed basis of other theories, like Wallersteins world systems model
-Over-generalises about the long term impact of colonialism, and no real solutions for
overcoming underdevelopment
-Defining and measuring development/exploitation; Frank doesn't do it too well.

Neo-Liberalism: Neo-liberal economy theory

This replaced modernisation theories as the 'official' thing to do. They are very critical of aid
believing it to be what is stopping development, but say that to develop we should create Free-
trade. They are a trade development theory. Peter Bauer argues that corruption and economic
mismanagement are reasons for under development.

It looks at internal factors like the free market and privatisation, and said the best way to
promote development was to remove obstacles against a free market in that country. Liberals
are all for freedom of individual choice and getting as far away from the state as possible whilst
still having the benefits of one. To do this they needed to;
• Privatisation: Making public services owned by private sources to improve them.
• Getting rid of government regulation: No regulation of prices of things or distribution.
• State spending: Cutting its spending on welfare so the gov didn't have so much of a
stake in the economy.
• Taxes: Less government interference means less taxes, meaning more money to spend
how people want.
• Free trade: Removing tariffs on imports/exports
• Integrating into the global economy

They argue that if the majority world (the poorest undeveloped countries) were to invest just 5%
into international trade they would generate $350 billion, 7x more than they would get in aid.
-Asian countries have rapid development because of their investment in the
international market.

The best way to develop is to drop economic protectionism (import tariffs, subsidising local
producers etc) and adopt policies on free trade. This would mean that local and foreign trade is
seen as the same and dealt with as the same, driving up competition. They think economic
protectionism is bad because it creates insular markets within countries and makes imports very
expensive which drives down competition. Neo-liberal's thinks that competition is what develops
organisation and businesses to be more dynamic and make higher quality produce. Imports and
tariffs therefore breed inefficiency.

International government organisations (IGO) like, the international monetary fun (IMF)
and the World bank (gives loans to members to fight poverty) have created the structural
adjustment programme to impose neo-liberal policies like the free market onto countries to aid
them to development, other countries did this willingly. This agreement from the WB and the
IMF is often referred to at the Washington Consensus. The structural adjustment programme
as some core ideas;
• An agreement not to subsidise producers and to reduce import tariffs
• Turning over provision of public services to the private sector
• Focusing production on exports
• Deregulation, or cutting red tape, to reduce labour and environmental laws and business
taxes
Its aim is to attract outside investment from TNC's which will nurture new business inside an
export around the globe.

Hower SAP's are not widely accepted by the poor which will only feel the downsides of SAP's.
For instance privatisation will mean downsizing, loss of jobs a need for retraining and a use of
money which they don't have. For instance the privatisation of water in Bolivia by a Californian
company has meant that even rain water is privately owned.

Now neo-liberalism is not as widely accepted as not all countries that have adopted these
policies have developed. Although the neo-liberalists argue that change that has happened is
their doing. Also how can this theory expect a strong government to develop something that
undermines it?

The world bank has now replaced SAP's with Poverty Reduction Strategies Papers (PRSP)
which are very similar and have been dubbed a simple re-branding of SAP's.

The impact of Neo-liberalists goals

In a report from the Centre for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) they compared the
block of 1960-80 and the block of 1980-2000 where the neo-liberal policies were introduced.
Essentially they didn't work. The report looked at, income per capita, life expectancy, mortality
rates, literacy and education. Essentially before 1980 it was better, there was faster
development, less mortality and higher uptake of education. The report DOES NOT say that the
neo-liberals caused the decline in progress, but it DOES SAY that there is no proof for their
claims that the Washington Consensus would help development. (Weisbrot et al. 2001)

Evaluation:
+It is based on firm economic principals of how to prompt, sustain and manage growth.
+Minimising government control has secondary benefits, by increasing social and cultural
factors such as individuals right to beliefs.
+It has made a great contribution to the debate about aid and has influenced aid to be more
transparent and accountable.
-It places emphasis on the rest of the world in addressing corruption (aid to corrupt
governments) and inadequate governance.
-The free market has some detrimental effects, focusing on maximising profit has bad
consequences on the people and the environment.
-The already developed TNC's and countries would have an advantage over the majority world
in the global market.
-It may not even be a 'free market' because the rich governments still subsidise their producers
which is unfair.
-Poorer countries are thrown into the global market without protection and no health and safety
laws or even minimum wage
-Privatisation leads to the poorest being locked out of basic provisions like education, health
care or water supplies.
-Ha-Joon Chang says that there is a great hypocrisy from the US in implementing these policies
when it did not develop this way, in fact Abraham Lincoln said that America should not get rid of
economic protectionism for at least another 200 years until it is able to stand on its own two feet
without a government.

Traditional Marxism
Marx believed that Capitalism was a necessary stage to pass through in order to get to the
ultimate form of state run by the socialist theory. Traditional Marxists say that capitalism is
unmatched for its ability to have such economic growth, it's just way unequal. Undeveloped
countries need capitalism to grow their economy, as soon as it does, Marxists want it to share
out the money equally and run itself under a socialism.

This form of Marxism is sorta like the modernisation theory, except it see a dramatic
change rather than gradual and also sees a step after the USA influenced state, socialism.

Bill Warren brought this theory back in 1980 and said that there was evidence of growth in the
Third World independently with a capitalist system, and that the reason there was some lack of
growth in areas was because of internal reasons.

World Systems theory: Macro approach

This is associated with Immanuel Wallerstein in the 70's and develops from Dependency
theory from Marxists roots. This theory thinks of the world as one unified setting for capital to
transfer around. It's called the Modern World System.

Where dependency theory sees individual countries at the brunt of the western world being
exploited, WST sees the country in relation to its position around other countries. Where
dependency theory sees the metropolis (core) and the satellites (periphery) WST sees the core
nations which are the develop countries, the periphery as the poor dependent nations and an
extra of the semi-periphery which are the industrialised countries.

It believes that if a country can specialise in a certain product then it should focus entirely on
that. If a country is best at producing high tech goods it should focus on that, if one is good at
producing bananas it should do that. WST sees it as a win win situation.

However it could be argued that this is what is being forced onto countries now and it is not a
win win situation. For instance Veitnams main export is coffee and its government has put a lot
of money into specialising in coffee however it hasnt got any richer in fact it might have
decreased in its development. Also if countries specialise and suddenly the demand drops
because of a lifestyle change (dont drink that much coffee) then the poorer countries will suffer
most.
Criticism #1: Specialisation in low-tech production (e.g., bananas) may produce profits in the
short term…
But, there is a cost: countries fail to develop industry and sophisticated technology that could
lead to greater profits in the future
Argument: In the long run, countries would be better off developing high-tech industry, rather
than just producing coffee
Criticism #2: trade is asymmetrical Rich countries don’t need coffee/bananas badly and,
they can buy them from many sources. But, poor countries critically depend on trade to get
technology, machinery to develop their economies. Thus: Poor countries are dependent on
rich ones. They need manufactured goods… and are forced to pay high prices and, they must
sell their raw materials and agricultural products very cheaply.

World systems theorists think that foreign aid into the periphery does no good, this is
because the core capitalists countries take a lot from the periphery in terms of profits. So giving
aid is like giving back their own profit. Plus the only aid the core would give would involve
foreign farmers moving in making plantations and roads for their benefit not for the country.

Other key concepts in WST is that they want trade concentration: this is where countries in the
periphery only trade with a few core countries or just one. Investment concentration is the
same concept, with only investment coming from a few core nations or only one to the
periphery.
-High concentration may make peripheral countries vulnerable if the core country decides to halt
trade or investment, economic disaster would follow. Peripheral countries must please core
trading partners they lose political autonomy to do what is best for its people.

Dependency theorists such as A. G. Frank found evidence in studies of Latin America

Key observation: Latin American economies and trade was unusual:
• They mainly produced “cash crops” and raw materials
• Trade was almost entirely with the U.S.
• High “Trade Concentration”
• Foreign investment resulted in foreign-owned plantations, not expanded industry &
“development”.

Frank’s interpretation:
Global capitalism forced countries into a state of under-development
1. They can’t to compete with industries from high-tech economies
2. They do not develop high-profit industries: cars, etc.
3. Instead, they trade commodities (coffee)
4. They must compete with other poor countries for sales… so they don’t make much profit
So, they remain underdeveloped…
It could be argued that the periphery states should band together and stop this core
dependency, this happen over oil in In 1970s, Oil-producing countries created “OPEC”, and
restricted the flow of oil to the core Result: High gas prices; OPEC countries got rich
Though eventually the West made friends with Saudi Arabia and others… who lowered prices.

Wallerstein has some reasons for this though largely for stability of the world system;
1. Military dominance of the West. Ex: US overthrew any Latin American governments that
tried to oppose the US
2. Ideological commitment to the system. People believe capitalism is “fair”. Similar to Marx:
false consciousness
3. The existence of the semi-periphery
Most important, according to Wallerstein
Semi-periphery is doing OK, so they support the core
Prevents everyone from ganging up on the core

Economic power of core countries and multi-national corporations is so great that the periphery
will always be exploited. The idea that governments and international institutions can make the
system “fair” is an illusion. Governments and international institutions (e.g., the WTO) will
always reflect interests of capitalists. Therefore, WST scholars are pessimistic about the role of
global governance in solving social problems. They don't like globalisation.

Wallerstein also has some solutions that dependency theory does not offer about how to get
out of these dependent relationships, or rather how to never get involved.
1. Peripheral countries must avoid exploitative economic relations with the core. Beware of
trade and foreign investment, which can lead to exploitation and foreign control
2. Try to nurture domestic industries, don’t sell coffee and rely on core for high-tech. Try to
develop advanced industries locally
3. Band together with other peripheral and semi-periphery nations, trade with each other.

Concept: “Import substitution” – developing local industries to avoid importing products.

Criticisms of WST:
1. Research findings are mixed at best. The specific WST predictions about sources of global
inequality/poverty have often been wrong. It is true that there is horrible poverty in the world…
Are people worse off than if there was no global economy? That is less clear.
2. WST doesn’t make clear predictions. After the fact, almost any action can be interpreted as
“serving the interests of global capitalists” A theory that can fit any evidence is not so useful.
3. Reverse causality. WST argues: Countries that are dependent on the core of the world
capitalist system will be trapped into a state of underdevelopment. BUT, maybe it works the
other way around; poverty produced “dependent” relations in the first place. Poor countries can’t
produce high-tech goods, so they trade commodities (e.g., bananas). But, this doesn’t
necessarily mean that trading bananas made those countries poorer or “trapped” them into
poverty.
The Theory Impasse
Modernisation, Dependency and Traditional Marxists theories were not holding. In the 80's
referred to as the lost decade of development, there was a dramatic slow of development in
developing countries, and sometimes reversal. Also there was an end of communism in some
Asian countries, that none of these theories could explain. David Booth wrote 'theory impasse'
in 1985 about this.

The reasons for the impasse:

• Failure of development: development slowed or reversed in some countries and
theories couldn't explain why the take-off stage of development did not take off.
Dependency theory couldn't explain the different rates of development in different
countries, and Marxists couldn't explain the change out of communism in Asia.
• Post-modernism: undermined the whole idea of development. They argued these
assumptions about development were western. Talked about post-development instead
• Globalisation.

Counter industrial movements:

Different types of theory; including environmentalism and sustainability. Development in the
west is not a good thing because it damages the environment. If all poor counties develop in the
same way as the west then we will not have a very safe or sustainable environment.
Industrialisation is not a good thing, so we shouldn't try to develop all countries in this way. They
focus on development on a personal level, not economic development; education, health and
promoting the standard of life.

Case studies:
The coffee trail:
Hanoi- Vitenam, used to be 0-1% of worlds coffee marker, now number 1 exporter. There was a
French-indo china, including Cambodia and Laos. The French exploited the Vietnam and built
up infrastructure to benefit themselves (transport for exports). After 1954 Vietnam was split into
the north (communist) and the south (American backed). DEPENDANCY THEORY SAYS THE
FRENCH COLONIALISATION RESTRICTS DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAM.
MODERNISATION THEORY SAYS THEY ARE STUCK IN TRADITIONAL COMMUNIST
SOCIETY SO DON'T DEVELOP.

Coffee industry provides lively hood for large population. They produce a million and a half
tones of coffee (family farm example). The industry is worth £40bill. It accounts for half of all
exports of tropical products. MDOERNISATION THEORY SAYS THAT THE MONEY FAMILIES
MAKE CAN BE SPENT ON EDUCATION AND EXPANSION, WHICH PROMOTES CHANGE
IN VALUES AND PRODUCTION.

People still work in the coffee fields even though the country is smothered in unexploded
bombs, unexploded bombs claim thousands of lives each year. 2 ½ mill (Vietnam) people
employed in coffee industry. NEO-LIBERALS PROMOTE THE FREE MARKET AND FREE
TRADE. Entrepreneurs come into the country and invest in the coffee trade to grow it and then
export it to the West. DEPENDENCY THEORY thinks that Chairman Bo has big dreams of
developing his coffee industry to the rest of the world, but the west will not allow this (Starbucks,
Costa ect) if these big brands band together to disadvantage him he will not succeed, they have
more money and power to beat him in the market (luckiest peanut in the world).
If everyone grows coffee in the country then the demand goes down, prices go down, if bad
weather happens they don't grow and the whole country is affected. These cash crops were
made during colonialisation. We now get 2x as much coffee as we did in the 70's The
Vietnamese over use fertilize and over use scare water sources. Coffee farming will become
less economically viable, and so the family farms will not be able to make as much coffee and
therefore not as much money. COUNTER-INDUSTRIAL THEORY SAYS THAT THIS IS NOT
SUSTAINABLE AND DAMAGING TO THE ENVIRONMENT..loss of habitat for elephants
because of coffee farmers chopping are down trees, there used to be thousands of wild
elephants and now there are only a dozen. There is also a fragmentation of around 50 ethnic
minority groups in vietnam, which are exploited and arrested from farm land.

DEPENDANCY THEORY In the main city there is a huge nestle factory where most of the
coffee ends up. Nestle is the biggest food company in the world. The Vietnamese sell coffee to
the wholesaler, they sell it to nestle for a small profit. Nestle pay for the raw materials, the
manufacturing of them will add so much to the value of the coffee. Therefore most of the money
goes to the company, the company is owned by Switzerland and therefore the money goes to
the developed world. This makes it difficult for Vietnam to gain profit, and their resources are
being taken from the country and not getting any back.

Coffee from Vietnam is not promoted like other countries coffee, for instance Columbian
because they do not produce the finest quality, so although it is their main export it is not going
anywhere.

The tea trail: East Africa, Kenya, Mombassa:

East Africa's biggest port exports ½ mil tons of tea a year. They hold a very important Black tea
auction in Kenya, tea from 9 east African countries is sold here, making it the biggest tea
exporter. 1/3 of all tea is sold and bought at this auction. DEPENDANCY THEORY British
colonies built train lines for tea, from Mombassa to the nile which is 580 miles. British settlers
were encouraged to farm and colonise the line. They brought tea from india and this made the
kenyan tea develop.

17 ½ acres were taken by white settlers, driving Africans off of their land and homes. 1960's riot
against British rule, caused a war from the natives and the british. Some birtish companies
stayed on in Keneya after independence was assured, and they now own huge amounts of land
where African's are paid to work. Transnational corporations like UNILEVER lie about how
much they pay workers to satisfy the west, they earn less than £1 a day which is way less than
poverty line. The supervisors at the plants require sexual activities, when the workers refuse
they have difficulties at work. There is a lot of exploitation in the work place.

There is no other work in the area, only prostitution so they have to work there.

In Uganda, Toro the main tea growing region, their economy is growing steadily. Tea is big for
the economy even if it is a really poor country, a lot of families actually rely on child labour.
Children work, they don't go to school, and so can't do better jobs in the future, they get trapped
in low paid, low skilled poor communities.
 Globalisation
Define globalisation:
• Process which previously unconnected isolated nations have become interconnected
• The result of which is that regions of the world and people who live there now influence
one another
• Multi-faceted includes economical, political and cultural aspects

Causes of globalisation:
• Economic development, new transport tech makes moveming good cheaper and cost
effective
• Political factors have sped this advancement up; EU, UN, IGO and the end of the cold
war
• Socioculturally internet has transformed access to knowledge and interaction and
satellite communication

The evidence for globalisation:

Economic-
• There is now a fully integrated global economy
◦ There is a spread of capitalism around the world in the form of free markets. Even
communist style communities are emerging in the free global market away from state
controlled economy. For instance China and Vietnam now allow capitalist
business. Because of structural adjustment programmes some countries are forced
to put the market into state owned area's like public water and energy.
◦ There is a growth of Transnational corporations (TNC's) like Unilever, Nestle, and
Sony
◦ Finance and money markets are becoming globalised, financial events which happen
on the other side of the world affects us directly. For example, the credit crunch of
2008 spread from economy to economy.
 ◦ We are becoming increasingly aware that how we change our lifestyle and our
economic spending choices affect people globally and can cause unemployment debt
and the loss of jobs for workers all over the world. For instance Vietnam relies on
heavy Coffee exports with a majority employed in this industry, if the west stops
drinking coffee and goes onto other life style means, then they loose out.
◦ Transformation of how goods are sold and produced
◦ Supply chains are much more complex with different components being produced in
different parts of the world.
◦ Growth of corporations and relative autonomy means they are dislocated from nation
state.

Political-
• With the spread of capitalism across the world writers think that liberal democracies will
follow. There are more liberal democracies and less dictatorships.
• Nation-states and local political structures are becoming less important than TNC's and
global political structures like the EU.
• Having free and fair elections is often required before Aid can be given to a country.
• There are more and more problems in the world which can increasingly not be dealt with
alone as a nation-state like climate change, terrorism, the power of TNC's and
refugee's.
• International organisations like the UN and the EU are being allowed powers over
individual nation-states because of the increased need for global decision making.
• Social movements can now operate across several nations. These social 'actors' include
Greenpeace, Red Cross and Amnesty international
• Power has come to individuals in what to boycott or what to buy. Starbucks boycott
Cultural-
• There has been a spread of American consumer culture; Mcdonalds, Coca Cola, fast-
food and clothes are examples. But also there has been a spread of religion
• We are more connection; mobiles, tablets, internet, phones, flights and other travel
services.
• 'Mcworld' western cultural becomes dominant and destroys other cultures;
• People are returning to local cultural aspects
• Much more diversity
• Interpersonal networks, facebook and bebo
• Increasing sense of homogeneity (sense of similarity), as a result of artefacts crossing
boarders. Like the sharing foods, Indian take always and Chinese.

The theories of globalisation:

McGrew (2000) says that there are 3 theoretical perspectives:
• Neo-Liberals (positive globalists)
◦ The global market is the result of a global spread of Free market Capitalism. Global
free markets lead to economic growth, the eradication of poverty and a spread of
democracy around the world. Countries which are embracing the free market are the
countries which are developing now; like India and China. The wealth produced by
the effects of a global free market; entrepreneurs; will trickle down to the rest of the
country. Cultural globalisation includes the spread of western values.
• The radicals
◦ The spread of capitalism in globalisation is bad. They see the spread of capitalism as
essentially based on money and the growth in economy will benefit some but
impoverish many but also it messes with the environment by being unsustainable.
Globalisation widens the gap between rich and poor, only benefiting the rich in society
who have the tools to trade. Cultural globalisation is a form of cultural imperialism
from the West and destroys local cultures through homogenization. Capitalism has
been globalising for centuries but now it's almost completely dominant. But now it's
different because TNC's supported by IGO's have replaced nations as the driving
force for changes. Such a view has been called 'McDonalisation' or 'Coca-
colonisation'
 • The Transformationalists
◦ They see globalisation as important in development but not like the radicals of neo-
liberals think. Globalisation can end, it can slow and even go in reverse. Some
countries can take all of the positives of globalisation and not take the negatives.
Globalisation doesn't destroy local culture, it creates a hybrid of cultures.
Globalisation reinforces the old ways of the North/South and First world/Third world.

Key terms
Hannerz (1992)- Coca-colonisation, the process of destruction of uniqueness in terms of
religion, ethnic identity and national identity.

Ritzer (1993)- McDonaldisation, the process of fast food outlets increasingly dominating
America and the rest of the world.

How far has economic globalisation gone?

It's not gone, and there aren't as many TNC's and MNC's which have a proper base in one
place, also even if government have less control there are still separate groups which offer
some protection like the EU which places limits on TNC's. Hirst and Thompson (1999) argues
that economic globalisation is a myth. Nation states still have power like the direct of the global
economy. There are international economies which are big but not global economies. Hirst and
Thompson don't see evidence for a global economy.

How far has Political globalisation gone?

Governments still work on their own, they make agreements with international organisations ,
they still wage wars and raise taxes. Although because of this spread more countries have
adopted Liberal ways, however these aren't free and fair, for example Robert Mugable in
Zimbabwe holds and wins elections and claims its all democratic but it isn't. And western
countries like the US still tolerate and trade with non-democratic countries as long as they are
allies like Saudi Arabia. Tranformationalists like McGrew (2004) argue that although nation
states aren't totally loosing all power, there is still a transformation of politics and global decision
making. People are becoming more active in politics and the way people engage in politics, like
in international organisations, but locally party membership and voting is declining in the North.

Neo-liberals claim that with the spread of global markets, there will be a spread of liberal
democracy and a lesser control from the state. But then what's the point in spreading liberal
democracy if even if people have free and fair elections the elected cannot make decisions
because they have no power, global powers make decisions.

How far has cultural globalisation gone?

Its hard to ignore the western culture nowadays and it is everywhere, but not everything that is
western has got around the world; American Football and baseball, and baseball is only played
in the big leagues between two Northern teams anyway. The east has also had an influence on
the west, in the way of Bollywood and Hong Kong film industries. Tourists going to other
countries have actually promoted local culture but appreciating it, although it may be a simplified
version of very complex cultures the tourists are promoting local cultures in the countries they
go to as well as western values.

Globalisation after 9/11

It is clear that globalisation of Western cultures is creating a resistance to the West. For
instance Islamic states show no signs of disappearing under the West. The US against public
opinion and UN approval invaded Iraq in 2003 suggesting a return to nation state rule not
international.
Kunstler (2005) argues that there is nothing inevitable about globalisation, and the fact it was
based on the relative peace of post Cold-war and the fact loads of cheap energy sources were
available then means that it will end as both of these are drastically fading. US troops and other
nations involved in Iraq and Afghanistan are under constant threat from terrorists, oil reserves
are running out, and most of the other oil is under the control of anti-western states. Kunstler
expects and end to globalisation soon.

Saul (2004) sees that globalisation hit it's high point in the 1990's with the creation of the WTO
(world trade organisation) but some countries and nation-states are coming back to a state
without globalisation under one global economy. For instance Malaysia evading the 1997 Asian
crisis; Argentina ignored IMF advice after an economic collapse in 2001 and recovered anyway.
But there are some positive effects of some lower form of globalisation with the creation of the
International Criminal Court and non-economic treaties.

Globalism:
Globalism relates to the way we live our lives today in a globalised world. Robertson (1992)
defines globalism as 'consciousness of the (problem of) the world as a single place'.
Is globalisation a good or bad thing?
+More opportunities in terms of economy, politics and culture. Promotion of interconnectedness,
to respect and value the values of other societies
+Increase trade; countries have raw materials to use for developing countries to use to promo
their own developmental
-Diseases can be spread as they are not used to themselves
-Environmental and human abuses; illegal loggers destabilising and dispersing communities
-Created a new 'Transnational capitalist class'
-Growing gap between rich and poor
-Giddens (2001) argues that there are some sceptics who believe that although communication
and economies are becoming more global, it's not a globalised world. For example it's only
really occuring in Europe, Asia-pacific, and North America

Aid
This is the process where resources from the developed world come to help the developing
world. There are two main types of aid;
• Financial grant or material gift that does not have to be paid back
• Loans with interest
It can be in capital or in the form of experts to help with an issue or practical help etc. In 2005
the quantity of aid provided by rich countries to the developing ones topped $100 billion, which
is pretty much double what it was in 2001 ($52 billion).

Aid can be classified as to where it comes from;

• Aid by voluntary agencies and NGO's like Oxfam and Christian aid.
• Official developmental assistance (ODA), where a country (which is a member of the
OEDC-explained next) has an aid budget. ODA takes the form of grants ad 'soft' loans to
promote economic development and welfare of developing countries. These can be
given directly to a country (bilateral aid) or to (multilateral) organisations like the UN,
World bank and EU.

Types of aid

Bilateral aid:
• Governments of richer developed countries giving aid to poorer developing countries.
Namely from the 'Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development' (OECD)
which is what says which countries should give aid. 25 countries are members and each
member has to have an aid budget. In the UK the Department for International
Development is what creates and manages the budget, in 2007/8 £2962m (57%) of DFID
programme was bilateral aid.
Multilateral aid:
• Involves giving money away to organisations aid programmes for them to use to develop
countries. The UK donates (43% of the DFID budget) to agencies like the World bank,
the IMF (international monetary fund), the European commission, and the UN.
Commercial banks:
• Banks give loans at commercial rates to developing countries. In 2000/1 private flows
from the UK to developing countries were £1.4bil
NGO's:
• Like Oxfam try to fundraise here and target the poorest of the poor using voluntary
groups in developing countries and generally focus on local scale rather than countries
wide schemes. For example irrigation. Generally NGO's like Oxfam raise £50mil annually
for developing countries and this is usually matched by the DFID.
Emergency aid:
• This is given in response to a specific event like war, famine, tsunami's or earthquakes
(Israel, Ethiopia, south eat Asian or Hati respectively).
Tied aid:
• With conditions, the recipient is dictated as to what it can be spent on.

The UK's record on Aid

Rich countries according to the UN should aim to allocate 0.7% of their GNP to ODA excluding
loans and military aid. Only 5 countries met the target in 2012 and 2013; Norway, Sweden,
Luxembourg, Denmark and the UK. Luxembourg gave 1.00% of the GNP, Norway, 0.93%, and
the Netherlands 0.71%. The UK only gave 0.56 in 2012 however jumped up to 0.72 in 2013.
The US didn't make the top 7.

This only shows a governments support for international development, it doesn't use private
donations from individuals. When these are taken into account the US had better standing; for
example Bill gates gives millions each and every year to combat HIV/AIDs in Africa. According
to Toussaint 2008 the financial crisis of 2007/8 caused much disarray, and a lack of want to
give credit to developing countries.
Who receives aid?
The top country to receive most DFID bilateral aid in 2009,2010, and 2012 was India in 09
(295m), India in 10 (279m) and Ethiopia (324m).
The top Asian country to receive DFID bilateral aid in 2012 was India with 284.359m
The top African country to receive DFID bilateral aid 2009, 2010, and 2012, Ethiopia 09 $214,
86m, 10 $350, 533m, 12 £324,435m

Theories of Aid

Modernisation theory:
Official aid is a crucial part of developing poorer countries because it promotes take-off. During
Rostow's writing time many developed countries were giving aid post WWII. It allows countries
to develop technologies and investment in industries.

In the developing countries, aid was spent improving agricultural industry which would them
improve productivity. Which would then create money which could be spent on industry and
infrastructure. It aimed to change cultural attitudes by setting up meritocratic education systems,
which value competition and achievement and this would lead to a shift in attitudes. It would
also develop literacy skills, promotes woman's wealth and health and education. In turn this
would impact family planning and thus free woman.

These early modernisation strategies suggested wealth would benefit the elites at first but then
trickle down to the poorest in the country. The elites which had access to education would then
build up their skills and become entrepreneurs which would invest in and develop industries.
The wealth would trickle down because their investment would make more jobs for others. Over
time development for the whole population would occur.

The main successes of aid distribution in the 1950's was that initially it lead to improvements in
infant mortality, life expectancy, and literacy levels for about 20 years. Many African countries
had economic growth.

However since the 1970's growth was not sustained, poverty still existed for large populations
and debt continues. Previously eradicated diseases (TB) have returned. There had been a
decline in growth in some countries as a result of aid; Bangladesh.

Case Study:
USAID into Pakistan for education, to get more student enrolled, better teaching standard and
more woman in education. But it hasn't done much to shift opinions of the west.

Dependency theory:
Neo-Marxist's think the role of aid is not to aid development, but instead to secure under-
development and a dependency on the west. Aid aims to sustain under-development as well as
wealth, consumption and political power of the west. Dependency theorists are critical of the
IMF and World bank because they see their aid as inappropriate and ineffective and really they
are benefiting the western TNC's.

Theresa Hayter argues that official aid is a form of Neo-colonialism and aim to reproduce,
legitimise and maintain the interests of the capitalist metropolis.

Case Study:
Bangladesh receives aid from Germany in the form of energy cells which power the large
proportions of the country without access to the power grid. They cost a lot and power houses
and systems that need electricity (70% of rural Bangladesh). Germany also funds sustainable
energy plants like Bio gas plants for cooking. But even with this, Bangladesh cannot provide
electricity for themselves, even the electricity they do have doesn't work all the time and the
government can't afford the huge demand for electricty. Bangladesh want to get into the Nuclear
power industry but German sent advisors over to stop this and suggest sustainable
environmentally friendly alternatives. So Germany create dependence on energy cells and then
try to control when the country wants cheaper alternatives.

The political agenda of aid:

Aid sometimes comes with a catch such as having to fulfil things for the US and UK. The US
and UK aid allocation depends on willingness to adopt political ideology and practices of the
west.
• Ethiopia's famine of the 1985 was forewarned by UN but both UK and US refused to help
due to it's Marxist government.
• Focus on anti-communism led to US spending 4:1 proportion of military to economic aid
in south and central America
• Kenya was rewarded with aid for providing US forces port facilities during the Gulf War in
1991 while Turkey was denied aid for refusing to let USA lease aid basis.
• In 2005 developing countries were rewarding for assisting the USA's war on international
Islamic terrorists
• Poor countries with no political, strategic or commercial advantages are neglected.
Economic agenda of aid
Neo-Marxist's argue that essentially aid is just used as the expansion of capitalism, because it
opens up new markets for western goods and services; e.g 75% of British aid is tied i.e the
recipient country has to spend the aid in the UK. The UK economy has boosted in a number of
ways because of this;
• A number of jobs depend on orders placed by developing countries using official aid.
• The DFID control what the money is spent on, for example, in other countries they may
insist that the aid they give is infrastructure or technology that the UK supplies.
• Evidence suggests that the UK aid to Malaysia and Indonesia in return of weapons,
aircraft and construction contracts for British government - HOW DO THESE AID
DEVELOPMENT
• Tied aid creates artificial trade because the aid recipient country will need spare parts
and technical advice. Interest on loans are often greater than the loan, 1993 estimation
suggests that for every £1 rich countries loan they get £3 back.
• Aid sometimes undermines the recipient countries industries; e.g food aid can
undermines crops produced by the recipient country which ends up being thrown away
and putting local farmers out of business.

The debate about aid

The case against aid:

Neo-Liberals – aid creates dependency
• Aid is like teaching people to depend on handouts, it takes away their own ability and
want to grow on their own. They think that countries are poor because of their own
issues, like war, corruption and laziness. Third world countries demand aid as their 'right',
and Neo-liberals draw lines between aid and welfare, saying that 'scroungers' also
demand a right to handouts. If something is worth doing it will attract investment and
private sector funding, if it isn't then it shouldn't be done. Peter Bauer (1995) was an
economist who said that aid is not necessary for development because the west didn't
need it, and the term aid is seen as positive and 'donors' of aid are seen as doing the
right thing, whereas they are not helping the poor people, just the third world corrupt
governments.

Neo-Marxism – aid as imperialism

• Aid is never without some form of condition or strings attached, as such it is a way for the
rich countries to exercise power over the poorer ones. It is a new form of imperialism.
Teresa Hayter argues that the West is hypocritical in saying that aid helps as it is
designed not to, it keeps the poor poor for the West's own benefit. Aid is a benefit by
giving trade ties between countries, gaining votes in international decisions, having back
up if they need it and most importantly cheap labour.
The middle ground:
Some aid works but not all and not at the rates needed to show large scale development in the
50 years of aids provision. There are some reasons why it might not work:
• aid that support corrupt or undemocratic governments, or where money is wasted
through inefficiency
• aid that is used to boost armed forces
• projects which do more harm than good and are not appropriate in the long run
• projects that are bad for the environment
• projects which employ highly trained experts with no local knowledge at all
• projects which are ignorant or with lack of thought; sending food and money to sufferers
in war zones will likely be seized by combatants.

The case for aid:

Modernisation theory – justifications for aid
• The West/North have so much to offer in terms of money, expertise, experience,
knowledge and educated body power to help the South and poorer parts of the world to
get them out of poverty. Jeffery Sachs (2005) says that we need large scale, focused
and integrated aid to lift developing countries out of poverty. Collier (2007) argues that
over the past 30 years has added one percentage point to the annual growth rate of the
countries in the bottom billion. This means that countries would have been poorer without
aid. They challenge Bauer's view that poor are poor and it's there fault because it is luck
that you are born in the North or South and through no fault of your own, they believe
that in some natural justice to give aid as a moral imperative.

Current debates about aid

Sachs (2005) vs Easterley (2006)

These are both on the middle ground, rejecting extremes.
Sachs (2005):
• There should be a 'big push' with all rich nations and IGO's working together to solve the
issue. This means increased, focused and integrated aid. E.g erradicating infectious
diseases like malaria would cost $10bil a year that is just £15 from every person in a
develop country.
Easterley (2006):
• They kick off about the 'top down' approach and say that small-local initiatives which
actually get to the poorest of the poor is best. Because big aid hardly ever gets down to
those who need it and helps. But then there is an issue over whether many small projects
would make a big impact.

Is aid good or bad?

+Provides for basic needs and infrastructure e.g roads (Cassens 1986)
+People centred aid works e.g. through immunisation Small Pox eradicated for $100million
+Aid works when practical, targeted and measurable (Sachs 2005)
+Africa Commission 2005 state aid has bought 12% growth to Mozambique
-Neo-Marxist Teresa Hayter argues that aid is a form of imperialism and that most aid doesn't
go to the people who need it the most (the poorest of the poor)
-Creates a dependency culture (Bauer 1981-Neolib)
-Money is often spent in the wrong way administration and corruption. (Erixon 2005 -neolib)
-Supporting bad economic practices that prevent investment and trade

AID or Trade:
GENDER RELATED DEVELOPMENT
Liberia; 80% of population has no formal job 58,4% of the woman are illiterate.
NGO; Made in Liberia actively helps getting woman into work. Liberty and Justice factory
employs 60 woman. They get 6 months of training by Made in Liberia so they can work in the
factory. Company mainly exports to US market. First fair trade certificated factory. They provide
long term independence for woman on a financial level, but also a good reputation for a
tarnished industry where child labour is wrongly used.

Malawi; Local residents help run African Parks (Man and Beast together), more than 4,000
tourists come each year, which is a boost to the local economy. Although before African Parks
took over, the villagers lived off of the land, selling wood etc but now that is not allowed. They
make their living either working on the park or making things for the park to sell. So the Park
has moved in but they have provided long term skills, and money for the local inhabitants.

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVICE AND DEVELOPMENT

Ghana; Nandimobile is a SMS customer service company which helps people contact different
customer services through SMS, in a place where 75% of the population has a mobile but not
PC internet access. MIST helps young Ghanan entrepreneurs by funding them between $30,00
to $500,000 US.

PEOPLE CENTRED APPROACH

Kenya; 75% of population work in agriculture,before farmers had low training, but then Honey
Care Africa came along and trained up farmers to look after bee's. They provide long terms
skills development. They get a loan from a third party Equity Bank. Honey Care promises to buy
the honey, some money goes to Honey Care some goes back to the bank. Considering that
bee's only need 2 hours a month to look after the money farmers make is good for that.

Tanzania case study:

Issues associated with AID in Tanzania
The aid given sometimes have ties and economic conditions
projects are not sustainable, when the funding runs out the project fails
some communities rely on aid and cant help themselves
often men are consulted not woman
projects are approached from a western perspective not how the community feels.

Aid in Tanzania is reducing disparity slowly, aid comes in a wide range of forms-money, ICT
Community Development is the new 'buzz' for aid and the people are driving the projects
themselves.

Trade
Global Trade. The flow of goods and services between and across the developing and
developed world offers a lot of opportunity for the economic development of the LEDC’s; but
there are also some negative effects of global trade; some sociologists suggest that trade
relationships between the rich and poor countries are exploitative. It is a form of neo-
colonialism.

Measuring Trade
Coyle 2001 argues that the ratio of exports to GDP has risen significantly for the whole world
over the past 50 years, and for most developing countries. But the least developed countries
have the smallest stake in world trade.
• For example, the 49 poorest countries with 646mil people had only 0.6% share of the
world trade in 2002. Whereas the worlds top 5 exporting (US, France, Germany, UK and
Japan) countries with 646mil people had 37%.

In world trade, the poorest countries tend to be selling ‘cash crops’ or/and raw materials as a
main export to only one or two other countries.
• For example, coffee accounts for 73% of Burundi's exports, copper 70% of Zambia's
exports. The farmers receive very little compared to what they sell, the main profits are
taken by the manufactures and shippers.

Even this small profit is at risk.

• If supply or demand change the prices will likely fall, if this is a countries main export
they are all vulnerable
• Changing tastes and lifestyles in the West/North affect demand
• Crops are vulnerable to weather changes and disease, relying on one main crop export
is risky

But developing nations have also benefited from global trade relationships. Because terms of
trade and prices of commodities change there can be positive effects for Southern countries.
For example Africa benefited because of a number of things;
• High Oil Prices: The overseas Development Institute estimates that if oil prices stay the
same than Africa will get £19bil a year, way more than aid
• A dramatic increase in trade with China: China has had a rapid industrialisation
process go on and that means it needs raw materials which Africa can supply thus
demand and process goes up and China's goods are available in African markets.
• Falling prices in consumer goods: Many goods are now available in African markets
like mobile phones (Dowden 2006).

The pattern of trade

50% of trade is between develop countries which trade mainly planes, cars and technology.
35% of trade is between the North South
15% of trade is between developing countries. Asian and Latin countries mainly export rice
wheat, sugar, and textiles

Free-trade is good because

Comparative advantage:
• If a country produces something better than the other country then they should specialise
and sell to other countries. Hopefully no countries would then take over their specialised
trade.
Economies of scale:
• The more you produce the cheaper each unit cost is going to be.

Inter-industry trade: one country needs someone but can't produce it, another can produce it
but needs something the first country can, so they trade to their advantage.
Industrialisation makes it much more efficient to produce goods, as a result of tools skills and
management of industry. Developing countries would have a comparative advantage of labour
intensive product that is low cost. Developed countries use high skill high cost but low labour
intensive work.

Against free-trade:
Too much trade can be detrimental to the domestic trade, and why tariffs can be good.
Income distribution/increased unemployment:
• Trade unions want skilled workers in their own country to be able to work in that country.
Because if there was free trade all trade would go to cheaper places to maximise profits
and thus lots of poverty here. The gap between low skilled and skilled jobs will be
 widened, the importing of textiles will be cheaper so those jobs will be paid less, but the
skilled jobs wages will go up as the values of the products will go as we are exporting it
elsewhere.
Protection of domestic industries
• Developed countries subsidised $350billion to agricultural markets, so the domestic
agriculture is not getting disadvantaged. Overseas development assistance is only
$50billion.
Labour standards
• Destruction of cultural identity
WTO violation of national independence

Evolution of international trade policy

1870-1913 Argentina became wealthiest country through export of raw materials and staples
like Meat. India doubled output, it trippeld in China. After WWi developing countries found their
exports price reduced. It made sense for them to develop their own domestic industry. Low
prices threatened domestic prices and pressured tariffs on exports.

After WWII developed countries wanted to grow so increased manufacturing and decreased
exports. Latin America suffered because of the exports tariffs on raw materials and import
subsides were used, however this did not work and hey abandoned it by 1970's.

Export oriented industrialisation:

Asian Tigers: The gov encouraged manufacturing through export subsidies, encouraging
competition in world market and this worked. Economies of scale worked in their advantaged
because they had a huge market. They had a huge market so could produce more and thus
take advantage of economies of scale. With import orientated markets they were smaller and
thus couldn't. Annual growth rate in East Asia was above 11% between 1965-1989 but for Latin
was 5%.

After WWII in 1947 developing countries signed GATT, agreement to implement lower tariffs on
each others trade. Rather than each individual country deciding what they should do about
trade, this agreement allowed international decisions on what they should do and come to a
consensual agreement. It is no longer a power system but a rule system.

1980's there was competition between East Asia (NI country) and the developed countries of
the west, in the 1990's international trade increased wage gap between blue (manufacturing)
and white collar (administrative/office based) jobs. Mass produced low skilled work in China
threatened blue collar jobs in the West.

NAFTA between Canada, Mexico and US agreement

Mexico provides cheap labour at the cost of American workers and so Trade unions are angsty.

There is agreement between economists that Free-trade as promoted welfare improvements,

however it is not distributed equally.

Theories of trade
Dependency Theory – and Radicals (Globalisation)
Trade is a form of neocolonialism over the South. Back in the colonial days the economies of
Southern countries would benefit the colonial power by providing raw materials. Southern
developing countries are dependent on trade. The North keep prices low so that the selling of
cash crops will not be sufficient to fund development.

Neo Liberalism – massively supportive of FREE TRADE but are developed countries actually
hypocrites?
They favour trade liberalisation (free markets on an international scale), this ensures that if
you have goods to sell and a price people are willing to pay, you will do well. It works by
removing protectionist policies (Quotas-limiting no. of imports and Tariffs- taxes or duty
imposed on goods imported and added to price). Developed countries subsidise agriculture and
other industries which benefit them in the global trade market, agricultural subsidise alone are
6x the value of aid given to poor countries. Oxfam suggest that in 2002 the European dairy
industry was being subsidised £16billon a year. Developed countries don't want to reduce
subsides (make less money on global market) or allow cheap good into the country that would
undermine their own products. Developing countries have no other option and have to accept
liberal policies.

How is this Neo Liberal Agenda pushed on the developing world?

The World Trade Organisation has a massive role to play.
The World Trade Organization, (WTO), is the primary international body to help promote free
trade, by drawing up the rules of international trade. It wants foreign and domestic companies to
be treated the same, and seen as the same – trade opportunities.
• Non discrimination
National treatment implies both foreign and national companies are treated the same,
and it is unfair to favour domestic companies over foreign ones. Some countries have a
most flavoured nation treatment, but under WTO the policy is that all nations should be
treated equally in terms of trade. Any trade concessions etc offered to a nation must be
offered to others.
• Reciprocity
Nations try to provide similar concessions for each other.
• Transparency
Negotiations and process must be fair and open with rules equal for all.
• Special and differential treatment
A recognition that developing countries may require “positive discrimination” because of
historic unequal trade.

Fair Trade
Fair trade is defined by being trade between companies in developed countries and producers
in developing countries in which fair prices are paid to the producers.

Fair trade promotes ideals of environmental sustainability, good working conditions and pay,
prices that cover the cost of its production, a long term relationship between producers and
purchasers, recognising trade unions, and no child labour.

Plantations in developing countries are often owned by wealthy companies/corporations in

other developed countries, which are high risk and low paid. Small scale farms sell to traders
who try to buy at low cost (no enough to sustain themselves or not reflecting the work put in).
Buyers can pick best price. In order to prevent one lone farmer being exploited, small scale
farmers come together for a cooperative. They make a deal that they will not sell below a price
and thus they all cannot be exploited. Fair trade means to pay a fair amount plus a 'trade
premium' (extra amount paid on top of cost of production). The farmers have a say in what the
premium is spent in. Fair trade foundation certifies which products are actually fair trade, they
work with companies in domestic markets to fell fair trade.

Positive evaluation of fair trade:

Setting up farmers cooperatives;
• Reduces competition
• Improves producers bargaining power
• Can offer more produce
• Deal directly with large outlets
• Fair trade can hep members to invest in technologies that allow processing raw materials
• Setting minimum prices, social and environmental responsibility
• Spending on community projects

Negatives of fair trade:

 • Small range of produce encourages producers to specialise which can result in over-
competition.
• Some corporation have used kite mark to create image of social responsibility but really
just as a marketing ploy. (It is taking away from the value of fair trade when it is just used
to attract customers).
• Some to counter criticism or divert attention away from practices that may be contrary to
aims of fair trade. For example, Nestle was under attack from selling and promoting their
baby formulae in third world countries as better, however the best food for babies is
breast milk. Nestle could in order to deviate consumers attention say all chocolate is
made with fair trade milk.

Micro-credit schemes:
Small loans which are easy to pay back to help them out to get something which can earn them
more money. Kigoma $200,000 has been leant to mostly rural woman. They must save a small
% of woman and then pay back the rest.

Case Study:
The dark side of chocolate; Mali

Children being smuggled via buses over the coast to Ivory Coast. 2007 there were 140 children
recovered by the senior bus company official who found these trafficked children and sent them
back, in 2008 he rescued over 150 children 8-14years old.

130 children have left one single village to go to the ivory coast, aged 12-15. Taken without
telling parents, or given false hope.

One trafficker even admits that he had taken several children across the boarder and says that
if people say there is no trafficking they are liars.

42% of the worlds coco production comes from the Ivory coast. Even though the coco
manufacturers signed 2001 policy to not allow child labour they still do, evidently. Interpol went
in to study the child trafficking and when they got to the area the locals told traffickers police
were there and hid them all in houses where they did not have access.

Geneva, Switzerland; ILO fight illegal child trafficking, ILO and coco manufacturers signed a
protocol to stop child labour in the industry.

Agencies of Development
Agencies of development refers to those organisations and institutions that play a part in
development. There are a few agencies of development; States, TNC's (Transnational
corporations), non-governmental organisations, and international governmental organisations.

States
A state is not the same thing as a government, a government is a body that is in temporary
control over the country or nation. A state is more permanent and includes the military, police
and legal systems which offer more continuity.

Neo-liberals favour a state which plays a fading role in ruling the country, they eventually want
TNC's to have a growing role and the state to have as little a role as possible. They also believe
that currently, the state has too big a role in the way the country works, and this prevents action
within the international market. Although they accept that the state is very important in
maintaining a cohesive social structure for the free-market to operate. States like Somalia which
does not have a functioning state to form a cohesive free-market is called a 'failed state'.

However, Marxists and Dependency theorists think almost the opposite in that they want more
state led development which is representative of the people within it. Although this is not
possible now, because in big states there exists big ruling class which favour development in
their own interests not the people.

However the state is limited in that it cannot lead development directly, it is a goal they
strive for but not something they lead. It can affect the types of development because the state
can act in the interests of the capitalist structure and allowing the free-market to flourish. On the
other spectrum, the state can also block development because it can be organised very poorly,
or work in it's own favour, e.g. corruption.

State lead development:

Before the 70's the state ran development, it ran industries like agriculture which employed
many people. Examples of successful state lead development include Japan and the Asian
'tigers'. Adrian Leftwich (1995) argues that the reason these are successful is that the
government is heavily involved with development goals, and work closely with the private sector
to make this work, this is called the 'Development State.' But also a reason why this works is
because the states were more authoritarian then democratic so their views and goals were not
disrupted by opposing parties, however in modern times with democracy spreading across the
world in forms of obligations to tied aid, this isn't likely to happen again.

State blocking development:

But states don't work all the time, this is the case in Africa. African states were created by
European colonialism and boarders were created without consideration of ethnic or social
divisions. Now African states are not allowed to shift boarders (international bodies prevent it) in
case of 'greater instability' and so the African states are helpless to help themselves develop
because of tension, a omission of national identity and wars have been waged to gain their
identity.

A 'predatory state' is a state which is poorly organised and not working in anyway on behalf of
the people. An example of this is the Democratic republic of Congo, there was a president
which used arbitrary rule fuelled by external sources (France and Belgium). Because of the
arbitrary rule there was never a civil service implemented and no way for capitalism to infiltrate
and invest in the nation. It could be argued that if external states can influence development
they should influence constructive development, this is what the World Bank and other IGO's
attempt to do.

Transnational Corporations
These are globalised companies that work globally and sell and produce internationally. Some
argues that due to globalisation TNC's are larger and have similar status to nation-states and
demonstrably more GDP than the least developed countries. Cohen and Kenned 2007 looked
at the 2004/5 data of the 120 most important economic units in the world, finding that 54 were
nation states and 66 were TNC. TNC's and Multinational corporations are different because
MNC's have very clear bases, for instance working globally but based in the UK, whereas
TNC's are not 'based' anywhere.

TNC's don't in their definition aim to aid a countries development, they want porfit for
shareholders. However in certain Export Processing Zones (EPZ's) which are countries that
encourage TNC's to set up their to add employment, with incentives like not having to pay tax,
adhere to the minimum wage or planning laws. These EPZ's are based on the assumption that
through time of TNC's being there, their profit will develop the country...however it could be
argued to simply be exploitation.

Corporate responsibility:
This is where a company has a responsibility to the people it affects; the countries it operates in
and its shareholders. It is argued that TNC's only uptake community actions and aiding the
people it works for as a way of putting off critics of their exploitative nature. Corporate social
responsibility (CSR) is voluntary and many British supermarkets support community
actions/charities.

Theories of TNC's:
Modernisation theorists argue that TNC's are great and they are essentials ways of
introducing modern values into developing countries and getting an economy going. They also
believe that any exploitation or 'abuses' that TNC's are causing in their 'aiding development' is
justifiable and a necessary part of development.

Dependency theorists argue that TNC's are bad for developing countries and in fact just
create more problems and breed dependency by stopping local businesses growing, as well as
this they commit abuses (table). TNC's work to weaken workers and strengthen capitalism; if
workers kicks off about working conditions and wages, TNC's will shut down their operations
and the workers will be unemployed. Trade unions are now taking up a more dynamic role to
give transnational workers a voice.

Costs of TNC's Benefits of TNC's

Exploitation of workers; low pay, refusing trade TNC's bring investment, jobs, resources and
unions and making works work overtime . technology that local businesses may not be
Investment from TNC's goes to those who will able to.
accept the least benefit and pay.
Exploiting the environment; non-renewable TNC's need trained workers, which would
resources, pollution and damaging mean the workers would have to be educated
ecosystems. and this would drive up education quality.
Exploiting markets; miss-selling, selling Jobs and training are often open to woman
harmful goods, and dumping out of date goods and thus provide opportunities for them.
like medicine.
Jobs created might go to expatriate rather than TNC's bring modern values; gender equality.
locals.
Profits wont stay in host country and they wont TNC's need and will pay for infrastructure like
pay tax so the country does not benefit. roads which locals might need.
Products are for export to west so locals TNC's encourage local trade and open up
unable to buy them. markets
TNC's have no loyalty to countries when their
resources dry up or when labour is cheaper
elsewhere.
Bio-Piracy; TNC's patent food and medicine
that belongs to local businesses and countries
so they cannot use them.

Why are TNC's able to act in unethical ways:

Global Economic Influence:
• Some TNC's are bigger than some nation states, so they can pressure countries, IGO's
and the World Trade Organisation. 'Bio-Piracy' is where TNC's now have the power to
patent medicines and foods that belong to that country.
Parent-Subsidiary Relationships:
• TNC's can escape prosecution by the use of subsidiary companies which legally and
financially take the blame for issues that the TNC's may have created. For example with
big clothing chains like Primark, if there is any dispute that they use child labour in
factories they can deny all knowledge of this is they do not 'own' directly the factory in
 which there clothing is made. Therefore if the child labour is proved financially and in
terms of their public image Primark is protected.
Regional Economic Influence:
• Because of TNC's influence over smaller less developed countries they have a lot of
power, for instance they can blackmail and manipulate governments into overlooking
what they do. For example, Shell's investment makes up to 90% of foreign investment in
Nigeria.
Whose Legal System?
• Because TNC's work over a lot of countries it can be difficult to organise which country
they are breaking laws in because they don't have a direct base and so it may not come
down to one country to prosecute them.
How and who to punish:
• If TNC's get caught, they barely get any damaging punishments, and it is normally just
having proportions of their profits taken away. Even then it is the consumer that is
effected and has to pay for it. And if a person in a TNC is affected like the CEO or
chairman then they shall be replaced and probably just face a fine not even a prison
sentence.

Case study TNC's- Dependency theory

Panorama - think Primark (they belong to Ethical trading initiative) and the use of child labour in
India and how the huge turn over of sales in the west leads to an increased pressure on the
factories using children to produce more, leading to subcontractors of child labour in homes and
slums for practically no money. Boycotting Primark doesn't deal with the problem it just makes
those who have little money anyway have none at all.

Non-Governmental Organisations
These organisations are not in it for profit or for any benefit for the government, purely for
humanitarian ends. NGO's are diverse in that they can work on local and global levels, they
have a lot of funding and employ a lot of people. Some focus on charity fundraising,
campaigning, or grass roots developments. Some of the largest NGO's help with disaster relief
and are members of the Disasters Emergency Committee (DEC) to fundraise. Most of these
work on development aid, Official Development Assistance can be channelled through NGO's

There are criticisms of NGO's in that they mainly get funding from the Northern countries and
arguably most of the donations are taken up in administration rather then getting to the people
who need them. Also it has been argued that some NGO's have grown so large that they are
loosing sight of their ideals of equality and social justice. Sometimes although their ideas abut
social justice, democracy and equality doesn't mean that that country gets decent wages and
standards of living which is arguably what they were striving for.

The World Bank classifies NGO's into two categories; Operational NGO and Advocacy NGO.
Operational NGO's are those who design and implement development projects, nationally,
internationally or locally.
Advocacy NGO's are there to promote a cause, by raising awareness by doing activities such
as lobbying, press work or activist events.
Positives of NGO's :
• Can be smaller and more effective than other larger organisations/bureaucracies
• Because they are not run by governments or on behalf of governments there is continuity
in their work as they are not affected by elections
• Not profit driven (although when they get large enough their goals can be blurred)
• Able to partner with local people on local issues
• More responsive and accountable to donors who they rely on.

Criticisms of NGO's:
– Some larger NGO's could work too closely with governments and rely on government
funds and so could be influenced by them
 – They could have links with TNC's and so could develop on their behalf/interests
– Unclear accountability in larger organisations because of the mass of management
– Inappropriate funding, for instance using abroad specialists rather than locals for
expertise or funding management rather than social programmes
– Could be too interested in good publicity and not the people

Global civilised society:

Essentially civil society is a term used to describe networks of groups or organisations in a
society, like between individuals, and families, and their relation to the state. The size and
vitality of these networks is often used to describe the health of society.

So for Global Civilised Society it refers to groups of NGO's, activist groups and others which
overlap with the anti-globalisation movement and how there is an emerging global society
which houses relationships between groups. NGO's have now banded with other organisations
on social issues like woman's rights and getting rid of debt, and so can be seen as a global
social movement. The anti-globalisation movement is against the neo-liberal form of
globalisation, and can also be seen as a global justice movement.

However because of the nature of all of the organisations in this grouping, it is unclear whether
they all have different views or can work together.

There some themes of GCS groups;

1. Peace and human rights
2. Children's rights
3. Developmental
4. Trade/WTO
5. Gender

International governmental organisations

Like the UN IGO's represent and ocodinate the interests of nation states across various aspects
of international relations. They can be classified by function;
• Legal-Political Institutions; this is a broad category and includes a range of issues and
organisations like the UN, EU and the African Union.
• Economic Organisations; these focus on money policy and trade agreements. These
include the Bretton Woods Institutions (World Bank, IMF, and WTO) and others like the
Organisation for Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
• Special-remit Organisations; these have a specific purpose like Interpol, the WHO, and
the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)

The World Bank, IMF and WTO:

Voting is based on financial contributions meaning that they ran by the developed nations. The
president of the WB has always been American and the managing director of the IMF has
always been Western European. Both are large bureaucratic organisations with good goals to
tackle poverty but in practice only focus on internal demands. One criticisms is that they seem
to have taken on a life of their own separate to the UN (they used to be part of the UN).

The IMF
Now this is an organisation to deal with debt, giving loans tied to them adopting IMF economic
programme. In the 90's many western countries had their structural adjustment programmes.

Criticisms of the IMF's role in development

 • It follows Neo-liberal policies yet they have never been proven effective
• It is not concerned with the human effect of SAP's
• Using the one size fits all approach means it ignores the country and whether it is
developed or undeveloped etc
• It only really deals with short term solutions no long term development
• Fails to foresee economic crisis like Asian in 1997.
• Stiglitz 2002 argues that even though the IMF set out to help countries adjust to crisis,
they actually lead to hunger, riots, poverty and only really benefited the better off
countries and only slightly.

The World Bank

This has a clearer development purpose, it raises money on the financial market at a much
lower rate than many commercial banks, and then passes this on to its members. In this way
developing countries can borrow loans are much lower interest rates than they could get
commercially. It is also a part of the International Development Association (IDA) which loans to
the poorest countries at zero interest.

Criticisms of the World Bank's role in development

• In the past it often gave loans for dams which were inappropriate.
• It works with the IMF so closely related to the SAP.

The World Trade Organisation

This was instigated by the US and works to push neo-liberal policies onto trade. There are no
votes in the WTO only decisions are made by consensus and decisions are hardly ever agreed
on.

Criticisms of the WTO

• Undemocratic decision making; with poorer countries having decisions but in reality not
having access to important decisions.
• So far ineffective in making rich nations reduce tariffs and subsidies when they are
determined not to.
• Giving free trade priority over everything else including sustainable development
Case study: Tanzania
More NGO's than any other country in East Africa (over 2000), this is because Tanzania is one
of the poorest in the world, is stable (no civil wars, little corruption, friendly and welcoming) and
has recent government programmes that encourage external or overseas input to help change
themselves; promoting woman's rights.

NGO's that exist in Tanzia include; Comte International Geneve. Or World Vision.
The red cross in Tanzania have;
• Vaccinated over 14 million children, saving an estimated 15,000 lives
• Trained 1000's of health care workers to run programmes in villages
• Created malaria education and prevention programmes- distributed mosquito nets

Healthy children will be the future labour force of the communities, immunising children in
the developing world is vital. It is only when you have a healthy population that you can have a
healthy work force. This could also effect education because more people living will mean more
people being educated, and an educated workforce is very important. Developed countries
tend to have a lot of children in order to have more surviving children, if more children survive
the countries will have less children. As a consequence of having less children it means that
parents can invest more into the children they have (financial, food and emotional). It also
means that having less children can effect the rates of death during child birth, less children,
less risk of death for the mother through child birth.

Enterprise Works (NGO), is a global NGO implemented a 5 year programme to improve

irrigation systems in rural communities.
• Instead of time collecting water, farmers can spend time tending to their crops
• $500,000 has been spent to date
 • Small low cost pumps are being provided and people taught how to use them
• Output has increased in the area by 22% and in the dry season farmers are earning
twice the price

Woman used to be the ones who went out to collect the water, now they are not doing so there
can be more people on the workforce and a more productive and equal place for woman.

IGO's in Tanzania

The EU donates for projects every year. In 2006 donated US$40million to upgrade road from
Mwanza- Dar Es Salaam. Funding would increase ability to transfer and transport crops.

The UNDP, United Nations Development Programme:

since 1961 they focused on Poverty reduction, democratic governance and HIV/AIDS. They
gave $20 million to development schemes, and their goal was to lift 7.5 million out of poverty by
2015. HOWEVER, they screwed up and say that actually it has reversed and more children are
dying especially in rural areas. http://www.tz.undp.org/content/tanzania/en/home/countryinfo/

The UNDP in Shinyanga:

Re-introduced traditional fencing system to keep cattle in confined areas- Ngitili system
Restored land areas for cattle to feed on
350,000 trees have been planted in the region and wildlife has returned to many areas.
(USEFUL FOR ENVIRONMENT TOPIC)

UNICEF (United nations children fund)

helps communities improve school facilities, for instance Bubango Primary school which got 3
new classrooms, and helped educate refugees in the area.

The World Bank:

The world bank loans countries at relatively low interest rates. However countries like Tanzania
are still struggling to pay back debt, 25% of Tanzania's GNP goes to debt repayment. They pay
out more than they receive in debt.

In 2002 the WB loaned Tanzania $136 million to improve secondary schools attendance rate
with an interest rate of 1.25%. The 2004 $122million was loaned for major roads. Roads are
good because most employment will be in the cities or capital and workers from rural areas will
need to get there.

Issues associated with AID in Tanzania

The aid given sometimes have ties and economic conditions
projects are not sustainable, when the funding runs out the project fails
some communities rely on aid and cant help themselves
often men are consulted not woman
projects are approached from a western perspective not how the community feels.
 Industrialisation
This is an economic process where tools become mechanised, leads to mass
consumptions and development

MODERNISATION: Rostows 5 steps, industrialisation is essential to development. Step 2 of the

stages, industrialisation – machinery means more production of goods. Surplus is sold, leads to
consumer society.
DEPENDENCY: industrialisation leads to more exploitation of people from the owners of the
factories

UK, USA and European (18th -19th century)

Loads of coincidences (non-planned) happened and this was a slow evolutionary process. It
emerged through technology innovation (coal) entrepreneurial artisans and colonial riches
(money)

Russia and Japan (19th-20th century)

Intentional industrialisation, wanted to follow the western model, they wanted to be the best.
They forced industries into mass production

Asian tigers (60's)

Became specialised into micro-chips to create economies of scale (Neo-liberalism- make what
you are good at ) there was a high demand of products from larger economies (Export
orientated industrialisation). There was a high growth rate of economy and GDP, they suffered a
'wobble' as the economy shrunk, this lead to connecting economies messing up too.

Import substitution industrialisation (ISI)

An economic process where production is focused on replacing imports with domestic produce
and protectionist policies. NEO-LIBERALS don't like because it is stopping the free trade and
exports of other countries to these, but they do like industrialisation without aid. It was a policy
adopted by middle to low-income countries before 1980's, it aimed to encourage domestic
industries by limiting competing imports. This view is backed by the idea that if these countries
were in the international market they would be exported by the rich countries.

Example;
Latin America practices ISI focused on, Auto mobiles, Aircraft, Rail-roads, Oil and Gas and
tried to make the biggest gains possible for the largest amount of people. The reason it failed is
because it did not have a domestic market big enough to pursue ISI policy for an extended
period of time. There was an Increasingly globalised international economy of the 1970's
and 1980's disadvantaged countries which pursued ISI policies because free trade among non-
ISI countries allowed them to take advantaged of the benefits of lower trade tariffs. So they
couldn't take advantage of free trade because they were restricting imports themselves.

Export orientated industrialisation (EOI)

Focus on producing for other countries, goods are in high demand in MEDC's that have moved
away from labour-intensive manufacturing. LEDC's have cheap labour costs and therefore lower
prices of products. China produces the clothes, sells them to GAP and GAP sells them to
America. EOI is if the developing country sets up their industry themselves, but this is not the
same as TNC's such as GAP, Primark etc that set up in developing countries to maximise profit.
So they are not the same thing.

Example;
Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia,
Philippine, and China are countries that have experience rapid growth in various export
sectors and rapid economic growth in general.

Evaluation of ISI and EOI:

ISI:
• +Helps LEDC's become less dependent
• -No foreign competition means that companies lose the sense of competition
• -Protectionist policies can aggravate potential customers
• -No incentive to expand businesses leading to wage and employee cuts
EOI:
• +Worked for some countries
• +Improves standard for living and health through profits
• -Manufacturer goods become too expensive
• -Can create fierce competition and lead to wage cuts and bankruptcy

Agriculture as industry
Some countries are better suited to focus on agriculture, many developing countries especially
in tropical zones are best placed to concentrate on agriculture not industry. Increased
production to meet Western consumers/supermarkets. But much of production and export
controlled by TNC's resulting in green revolution. Green revolution scientific and technological
developments that improved agricultural yields, enabling more food to be produced in
developing countries but creating some environmental problems because of heavy use of
pesticides and insecticides.

New opportunities for industries

There is a phenomenon called 'technological leapfrogging' this is where instead of going
hrough the evolution of technology, e.g landlines to mobile phones, PC's to Laptops, developing
countries skip ahead straight to the latest technology. The technologies that are 'leapfrogged'
can only be such that do not require infrastructure to support it.

Advantages / Disadvantages of Tourism in Gambia

Advantages Disadvantages
More people to use local goods and services Environmental damage especially to the coast
through hotel building and providing beaches
Formal sector employment for Gambians e.g Presence of wealthy tourists encourages
hotels begging, prostitution and theft
Informal sector employment for Gambians e.g Tourists sometimes acts in culturally
selling local fruit on tourist beaches insensitive ways
Local farmers benefit from sop to selling crop Growing inequality between coastal areas
to hotels benefiting from tourist income and inland areas
which do not
Tourism is seasonal, there is unemployment
and underemployment for the parts of the year
Relying on industry is risky, a recession hitting,
rising costs and attractiveness of alternative
destinations could destroy main peoples
livelihoods
Hotels often import much of the food they
serve and the materials they use

Barrington Moore:- the social historian, pointed out that there is no evidence to suggest
anyone anywhere ever wanted industrialisation and plenty of evidence to show they did not
want it. Industrialisation only benefits the middle class (entrepreneurs) who seek to take power
and acquire wealth form ruling classes. For the majority of people there are few benefits of
industrialisation.

New International Division of Labour (NIDL)

This is where the manufactured goods are made in developing countries and sold to and
consumed by the western developed nations. There are problems with this;
• Many poor countries still rely heavily on the export of food and raw materials, whilst the
west still have some manufacturing industry of their own. The new and old division of
labour work alongside each other. Although the West still wins. If they buy raw materials
to manufacturing in their own country they add the value in the process and can sell it for
a lot more than they made it for. Whereas if they buy already manufactured goods from
abroad it is still cheaper as the cost to create it is cheaper. So poorer countries loose out
both ways.
• Most investment of capital by TNC's is into the 'Triad' of Europe, Japan and America,
with less investment going into Africa and South America than 50 years ago.
• Rich countries still have to compete for the TNC's investment however, because it is
cheaper to invest in cheaper industries in order to maximise profits. There are laws and
regulations in rich countries like minimum wage etc that restrict the profits made by
TNC's, the richer countries need to be worth investing in.

Examples of this:
Apple- manufactured in China and consumed in America
Nestle- manufactured in east Asia consumed in the West

Industrialisation and Developmental

Efficient and profitable technologies
• McDonaldisation, Drive to economic growth, trickle down effect
Mass production of affordable commodities
• Better standard of living
Democratic culture and political changes
• free speech and achieved status promoted, education leads to shared culture, learning
new skills and cultural beliefs
 Urbanisation
Process of increasing size of urban city population in comparison to rural populations. People
migrate from rural areas to urban areas because of industrialisation.

The push and pull effect

Push from rural areas Pull to cities

Poverty Jobs in factories/services
Displacement by agricultural technologies Perception that the better waged jobs are
available in cities
Loss of land Access to services such as education/health
Natural disasters e.g Perception that cities have great standards of
famine/drought/flood/earthquake living, and greater opportunities
Changes in aspirations among young people Escape from traditional constraints of
as they access modern media family/religion
Disasters caused by poor governance, e.g Perception that urbanisation is western and
war, displaced refugees western is sophisticated

Modernisation theorists see city growth as an essential part of economic growth. Cities
provide concentrated labour force for factories. Its important to promote cultural change
because they remove people from traditional values in the country side to the cities with more
western values. Modernisation sees industrialisation as an essential part of the process of
cultural/economic change.

As a result of this, traditional values of ascription, fatalism an collectivism die and are replaced
with individualism, achievement, activism, and meritocracy. People in the city are more up to
having idealistic ideas and social mobility. Progress and development occurs when
entrepreneurial people take more risks and investment in order to accumulate profit.
•
 • They argue that the wealth trickles down to the cities population and wealth can be
sent back to families in the country, alleviating poverty.
• Cross argues that the city is the nucleus for cultural penetration of the modernising
society.
• Hoselitz argues that cities encourage people to work and contribute to the
economy/cities are catalysts of modernisation. Young people will gain disposable
income, which makes them more consumer orientated which means they can initially buy
goods and services to become more like western.

• Urbanisation in the developed world was much slower over 100 years and was more of
an evolution. This is not the case in the developing world where the shifts are fast and
radical. As as result there are more social problems in these areas. In 2005 an estimated
1billion people were living in slums world wide, this is expected to double by 2030. For
example Asia as 60% of the worlds slum dwellers, Africa has 20% and Latin America has
14%.

• There is a Dual sector economy (formal and informal; - legitimate jobs vs prostitution).
People in slums turn to crime to add to a poor income. Peace (2005) notes minority
people can get legitimate regulated and unionised employment. Many others are forced
to seek out a meagre living in a bloated informal sector.

• The cities within the developing nation do not have the infrastructure to deal with this.
The consequence of loads of people moving to cities because of the promise of jobs and
independence, is that there is over population, which results in limited housing and
people having to make their own, e.g shanty towns. Which means that sanitation may not
be available, education wont be available, and health services will be strained. Typical
problems with underdevelopment occur here; high mortality rates, malnutrition and low
life expectancy. People coming to the cities because of jobs does not apply to
developing world. For example, in Nairobi there is 1 toilet per 500 people.

• Environmental problems may occur. For example, Mexico city is two times the size of
Greater Manchester and more dense and its 3million residence emit 12 000 tons of
pollutants into the air every day.
•
• Ethnocentric ideology as it is based on western ideologies, assumption that this is good.
May also lead to decline in traditional /cultural norms – this may lead to conflict in
family/decline in family role but also social isolation, alienation, crime and drug abuse.

Urbanisation and Dependency theory

D.theorists argue that really all urbanisation does is sustain underdevelopment: Modernisation
theorists base their knowledge on Europe's experience, but this was a result of industrialisation.
In the developing world people have moved to the cities to get job, leaving behind land for
subsistence but miss out and become unemployed. disproportionate political and economic
power – because the powers focus too much on the cities and forget the rest of the country. An
Underclass is formed in the slums because they have no where else to go and no means to get
anywhere.
Urban areas were only invented because of colonial powers needing places to live that were
inhabitable. For instance in Mumbai they were the colonial administrators living quarters. Where
the cities were still set up by the colonies they were still seen as the best places to go. Everyone
moved there.
Cohen and Kennedy say that wealth is concentrated in the cities and there is poverty in rural
areas ' cities are island surrounded by a sea of poverty'. Colonialism started urbanisation
through exploitation and TNC's do this today.
If all opportunities are concentrated in the city then the country is not developing. Cities play a
key role in ensuring that poor countries stay undeveloped, by monopolising the surplus capital
that might be gained by exports, or aid. The spare money is spent in the urban areas, not on the
rest of the country. It is spent on the urban poor not the rural poor.
Overall they argue that urbanisation is not a solution to development.

The Global City

(Cohen and Kennedy) Cities can be seen as global cities if they are based in rich countries,
have corporate HQ's, global transport and centres for communication, information and news.
Cities like Hong Kong, New York, are global and have more in common with each other. For
instance London has more in common with Hong Kong than Manchester.

Dual sector economy

Rural vs Urban economies;
• Rural economy is localised with subsistence focus
• Urban economies are national and international with a focus on economic growth
Formal vs Informal economies;
• Formal economies are legitimate means of making money e.g jobs, selling objects in
legitimate shops
• Informal economy is through illegal means of making money e.g the black market, micro
trade
• Weald and Chataway; the real economy is made up of formal and informal sectors.
• Peace (2005) notes in these shanty town situations a minority of people are lucky
enough to find legitimate jobs with reasonable pay in the formal sector, the rest are
forced to eke out a meagre living in a bloated informal sector.

Urbanisation in China:
In China for the first time in history urban population outweigh rural ones. Migrates come to
work in the factories, boost consumption by using services, buying apartments and shopping in
local markets. 1978 18% lived in cities, 1995 30% lived in cities, 39% in 2002, in 2011 it is 48%.
Compared to the west, Europe/North America has 75-80% in 2011. In the next few years there
will be a huge movement into cities in China more than the population of America. There are a
lot of cultural consequences.

Young migrants left the rural areas and families and move to the cities. When they get older the
find it worse to get jobs so they move back to the land they still own.

Hukoa (a regulation of where people are allowed to live), people are restricted to either live in
rural or urban areas and therefore there are differences to access to services like education and
health restricted to the area you live in. You might have migrants moving into the city and they
might get a job but they will not have access to urban education or urban health. It only slows
migration, but does not stop it. For example, if you are part of the rural side you are entitled to
rural land but are not allowed to mortgage or sell it. It acts as a deterrent for permanent
migration.

350million expect new resident by 2020 urban populations will pass the 1billion mark. GDP will
multiply by 4 is the urbanisation continues as anticipated by 2025.

There are lots of local policies to lead urbanisation to a higher quality and standard of life.

Urbanisation and Environment

There is the problem of environmental degradation, most countries want to have the
economic growth of the west, but at current rates if they did then there would be an intolerable
strain on the worlds resources and ecological stability. Back in the 1900 the only urban country
was Great Britain. Cohen and Kennedy (2000) note that there was approx. 185mil people
living in towns and cities of the poorer world in 1940. 1975, this figure had increased to 770mil.
Until the 1950's most of urban areas were in the west.
The most populated cities in the world are, Mexico city, Sao Paulo, Tokoyo, Shangi, New
York, Kolkata, Mumbai, Beijing, LA and Jakata. Only three are in the developed world. There
were 7 cities in the world which had a population of more than 5mil people in 1950s. By 2025
this will rise to 93mil. In other words, urban growth will bring another 2bil in to the urban
areas in the developing world. These cities are growing 70mil a year, or 180,000 people a
day, in Mumbai alone.

Environment
Local and global ecological systems. Environmental issues include, ozone depletion and
greenhouse effect, degradation of the global commons, water pollution, deforestation,
desertification, global warming, industrial agribusiness (business that rely on agriculture),
and biodiversity.

There are concerns with how long development can go on before local and global ecological
systems collapse. Kingsbury et al note that environmental degradation is not kept to state
boundaries. Some areas of the world have limited capacity which leads to more degradation
because of overuse. These are in the poor parts of the world like in sub-Saharan Africa.

Population
Neo-Malthusians such as Ehrlich argues that if we continue to grow in population, the earth
cannot sustain itself. They suggest that population be controlled by state policies, like Chinas
one child policy. Its not the number of people themselves that are causing the damage, but it is
the standard of living. The fact is those who are more damaging to the environment are those in
the developed world not the developing world. Essentially, development is not good for the
environment, so the poor should stay in their situation to save the environment. Critics of
Malthusians argue that to make this better we need to drop the rates of consumption especially
the over consumption of the west. Cohen and Kennedy note that 1.1 billion people in the world
should constitute a 'consuming class' and most of these are in the developed world.

The developed world eat meat and processed foods, live in climate controlled buildings and
travel in jet planes. Most of this is thrown away when fashions change. The 1.1 billion poorest
mostly travel on foot, eat root crops and rely on local sources for supplies. The 'Throw away
economy' by the west creates more waste.

Ozone depletion and Greenhouse effect

Ozone Depletion Greenhouse effect

Breakdown of the ozone through chemicals The heat that warms the Earth is reflected
such as CFC's back to space
This leads to increase UV exposure (more An increase of greenhouse gasses in the
vitamin D but risk of Skin Cancer) atmosphere has stopped the heat from
escaping
More toxic gases The result is the gradual heating of the Earth
4% per decade of the Ozone has been
destroyed

Industrial and agribusinesses development

Carbon dioxide levels are rising because of burning fossil fuels like coal and oil in factories, car,
tankers and jet planes. It is predicted that if China continues on the present path of economic
growth, it will contribute to 40% of the global carbon dioxide emissions by 2050.

Degradation of the global commons

the global commons are geographic points outside of one nation state; the High Seas, the
Atmosphere, Antarctica, Outer-space. There are no monitoring of these places and therefore we
don't know who is to blame.

Water Pollution
Drinking water, oceans and seas are affected by pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers
The number of dead zones (no life at all) in the oceans increased by 30% between 1995 and
2007. Worldwide industry continues to poison rivers and lakes through the massive use of
fertilizers and pesticides. Kingsbury notes that the pollution of the worlds water for industrial
and food purposes has reduced the amount of clean drinking water. He argues that access to
clean water is the most important environmental issue because it has been threatened by waste
products of industrialisation. For example in Pakistan 2002, a large majority of the country's 135
million population did not have access to drinkable water.

Deforestation
Kingsbury notes that this may be the most significant environmental problem. Mass process of
clearing trees (30% of the worlds land). Logging, mining, agriculture, oil and gas extraction,
cattle ranching, furniture (MEDC), Multinational corporations and more land needed are all
reasons for deforestation. Some countries cut trees to pay loans and debts. 30% of the
Amazon has been destroyed,12.5% of this 30% is in an attempt to meet loan payments. At
the current rate (although we do have protection policies now) all forests could disappear in
100 years. At current rates Chilie which has 1/3 of the worlds temperate rainforest will be
completely deforested by 2022. In contrast,Greenbelt is a grass roots project, it empowers
woman's, they plant seeds for trees. It is a way of promoting development.

Environmental realism / Critical realism

Environmental issues are real. The solution to the environmental issues we face in modern day
is to look at them scientifically, using social and natural sciences to understand them, how they
occur, and the 'causal mechanisms' involved. They use real life examples and causes to asses
environmental damage. For examples, the environmental meetings in Paris December 2014
and famously Kyoto some years ago. They argue overall that development should be
sustainable.

Social constructionist
They believe that what is big now in terms of what we worry about environmentally wont be big
in 20 years. For instance back in the 50's we were worrying about the Ozone layer and now
climate change. Social constructionists looks at social and environmental issues, and looks at
how some problems become problems to the people of the time. Overall they believe that
environmental problems are socially created by groups of people.
– There is a whole wealth of people who believe that 'Global warming' is socially
constructed and not a real thing that is happening. The quote below backs up what
one website has to say about global warming being a myth at the hands of humans.
– “While atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased by 28 percent over the past 150
years, human-generated carbon dioxide could have played only a small part in
any warming, since most of the warming occurred prior to 1940 — before most
human-caused carbon dioxide emissions.”
Desertification
Process by which fertile land becomes desert as a result of drought, deforestation and overuse.
Soil becomes less usable leading to famine and food loss. Half of the size of England is
estimated to be lost in the world annually due to this. This could be due to droughts, wild fires or
even over grazing with cattle. Yearly basis the size of India and Pakistan is lost every year to
wild fire.
Effects on human development and population:
– Loss of land to grow food
– Loss of income as a result of wild fire
– Impacts development – crops were used to trade (exports)
– Forest fires ruins habitat, wildlife and people.

Portugal 5,000 wild fires take place and in these areas the trees do not recover. Desire is an
example of an organisation which tries to tackle wild fires and help the populations living in
these areas cope with them and the increasing desertification.

Industrial and Agribusiness development

Generic term from businesses involved in food production through mass production. Chemicals
that industry use gets into the environment and effect us. E.g the chemicals used in farming get
into the soil and into our water supply.

Impacts on environment:
– Use of fossil fuels – local population like water population, to oil spills and climate
change. 2001 tanker ran aground on San Christopher island and the marine animals
died after the spill. Over 80% of iguanas died. Exxon-Valdez oil spill 10.8billion gallons of
oil was spilled. 1,000 animals died instantly. 250,00 sea birds died. Food sources
affected.
– Mining – destroys habitat and leads to road building removed surface. When they
removed underground materials to the surface the run off from this is toxic to aquatic
species like Iron ore.
– Use of chemicals – damages reproductive systems of animals. 26x in he last 50 years
the use of chemicals in farming has increased.
– Illegal dumping of toxic waste – green crime

Biodiversity
In the past 500 years mankind has forces 816 species into extinction. The eco-system needs to
be balanced.

Real life example, Chernobyl.

Reasons for environmental problems

Some people think that degradation, depletion and destruction are an inevitable consequence of
development. TNC's produce toxic negative externalities. The Western lifestyle puts high strains
on resources. LEDC's trying to develop and sell resources. Lifestyle: 'need' the latest gadgets
and clothing which have human and environmental impacts when making them. The developed
world want the developing world to have environmental strains and regulations put in, but refuse
to do so themselves.

Point of no return – at some point there is a limit we pass where there can be nothing done to
save the planet

Long term gains – if we have sustainable development we will see long term gains, but we will
not see it for some time and people might be put off by this.

Views on environmentalism
Anthropocentric View:
• See humans are the centre of the universe
• Feel that humans have the right to dominate the world and use it as needed

Ethnocentric View:
• Humans are seen as part of nature
• Believe animals will degrade and enter the cycle

Solutions to environmental problems:

• Macro solutions (top down)
• Micro solutions (bottom up)

Macro solutions - top down

Montreal Protocol:
• International treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of
numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion
Kyoto Protocol:
• International treat that sets obligations on industrialised to reduce emissions of green
house gasses. America and China did not sign as the most emission came from there.
China declared themselves as developing and so didn't have to.

Micro solutions – bottom up

Komodo National Park:
• Local people have a special area to help Komodo dragons
Fair Trade:
• Give local farmers more control and money and the farmers sign a biodiversity deal to
show hey are conserving the environment.
Eco-tourism:
• Nature is made part of a holiday through the local people in order to raise awareness

Sustainability
Millennium development goals
Smokeless stoves
Kellogs and Palm Oil
 Employment
The process of development can be experienced through shifts in the nature of work and
employment. Global trade and the spread of TNC’s to the developing world bring about new
employment opportunities for the people living in these areas. The developing ‘poor’
countries of the world have the largest population and therefore have the potential to provide a
massive workforce.

What type of employment exists in the developing world?

There is more ‘underemployment’ (people not working full time because they cannot find
enough work) in the developing world than in the developed world.

There is more work done in the ‘informal sector’ e.g. self-employment, micro-enterprises, petty
trading, casual and irregular work and personal services. This occurs as a result of people trying
to find ways to bring in income.

Examples of these informal jobs in developing countries:

Crafts (including: woodwork, pottery, weaving, sewing and furniture-making)
Small scale manufacturing (including bread-making, tailoring, food catering, candle-making and
confectionery). Small-scale mining, scrap collection, recycling. Informal services (including
transport, repairs of cars, shoes, electric appliances, and shoe polishing). Informal trade

The informal sector contributes about 55% of Sub-Saharan Africa’s GDP and 80% of the
labour force (2013). The prominence of the informal sector in most African economies stems
from the opportunities it offers to the most vulnerable populations such as the poorest, women
and youth. Even though the informal sector is an opportunity for generating reasonable incomes
for many people, most informal workers are without secure income, employments benefits and
social protection. Informality often overlaps with poverty. For instance, in countries where
informality is decreasing, the number of working poor is also decreasing.

Hard to compare unemployment from the South with the North of the world, as most Southern
households have jobs however these are informal and very low paid, whereas the North it is
more common to find a household without work.
Formal sector work is in short supply. McGiffen (2002) notes that TNC's only account for 5-
6% of employment in the world.

Because there is likely to be a huge informal economy in the poorer countries, it's likely this
sector is unrecorded. If we take both the formal and informal economies into account we get a
picture of the 'real economy' of a country (Weild and Chataway 2000)

There are 4 groups that are extremely vulnerable as workers in the informal sector.

Even in situations where school is free, the time spent at school could
Children be spent earning money and so many children give up school to work,
and block their chances
 Elderly The elderly cannot retire in the informal sector as they are unlikely to
be any form of pensions.

Disabilities Disabled people in developing countries might rely on family or the

state for support and could turn to begging when this isn't enough. For
example in Sierra Leone's civil war the rebels cut the hands and feet
of of victims, the government now train victims in skills to help them.

Women In most developing counties women are not allowed/supposed to work

outside of the home and are reliant on husbands or male family
members. For widows making money is exceptionally hard.

What is the problem of informal sector work for people in the developing world?
Unregulated, low skilled dependent work doesn't help to improve skills, is potentially dangerous
and is support by no labour laws (equal pay, working hours, safety, and child labour etc) that
can help maintain the rights and livelihood of those workers. No taxes and so less money to
develop. Job security.

How might the informal sector prevent development in poorer nations?

Because this sector don't pay taxes, the state don't collect funds to invest in public services like
education and health, this means low skills. . Little job security, means there is too much
fluctuation in terms of how much funding the government can rely upon to invest.
Denny et al (2007) found that informal work involving biological chemicals resulted in the
highest health complaints surrounding respiratory problems and muscluosk disorders.

The ‘formal sector’

Sector which encompasses all jobs with normal hours and regular wages, and are recognized
as income sources on which income taxes must be paid. This sector is preferred against many
other sectors because it offers job security, labour law protection and rights as an employee. It
also offers the constant opportunity for progression and an inability for arbitrary redundancy by
an employer. This type of employment is offered by companies, MNC's and TNC's across the
globe. However like before mentioned, TNC's only may 5-6% of employment opportunities
across the globe.

THE REAL ECONOMY

Case Study: Mali

Over 70% make a living from farming or fishing (which has fierce competition and the rivers
often dry up).
Formal sector jobs include being trained by NGO's to give advice and help locals, teachers,
doctors and nurses (but many have to travel miles and often bring children to work!). Shop
workers etc. Building new schools and hospitals funded by NGO's also brings limited temporary
employment.
Informal sector includes selling surplus from family harvests, fishing and farming (although only
2-4% of Mali is adequate to be farmed!).Fishing, digging for metals and water collecting. 50%
employed in the informal sector.

Micro credit
Micro credit is the idea that loan groups can give people small loans for enterproses which they
could pay back in small low interest sections or all at once and are given training in how to deal
with money and invest as well as managing an account. The money goes straight into other
projects. Grameen Bank launched by Mohammed Yunus is a very famous example. Pearson
(2000) notes they do have some problems though, for instance when micro loans are given to
women they are met with resistance from gender relations in the community and wider society,
and potential conflicts with men and potential difficulties of repaying the debt. It is a way that
agencies of development can support the informal sector.
Case study: Micro credit
The Akassa development foundation has put $100,000 into small enterprises and received 99%
back. It focused on small areas which when rebuilt helped businesses thrive; docks/markets.

Modernisation theory
Modernisation theorists believe development is a predictable process based on economic
principles and as such employment will also develop in predictable ways. They would suggest
that the nature of work would move through some distinct stages as a society progresses.
Early social organisations- home and work are interchangeable. In traditional societies it was
very collective, and you were expected to stay and work within your 'primary group' and fulfil
your role forever, work for the group. In industrial societies where egoism took over (think
Emile Durkheim) the reward for work was less local pride but more money and monetary
benefits, work for the self.
Taylorism
Decide what jobs you do, based on your skills in that area. Taylorism was the idea that we had
to decide the optimal way to do a job, and how the tasks should be divided. Work related
technology made jobs possible or easier for the worker, and control related technology allowed
for monitoring and controlling of the worker. This essentially de-skilled workers (proletariat).
Taylor studied the work place like a science and found the best times to work and speed of work
and when to rest, productivity soared.

Fordism
Is an evolution from Taylorism, Ford was influence by Taylor in trying to get his workers to be
more efficient, instead of a few men working on one entire car and taking ages to build on, they
made all the simple parts of a car broken down to a few men on each little part. The assembly
line was born here, one belt with 100 men assembling parts for it. Low cost, high wages

Globalisation, employment and post-Fordism

Flexible working hours (longer working hours – less wages and so you work more), increased
automation (robots and machinery now take over the roles of people), increased global labour
market – TNC's can produce in one country for consumption in another, increased alienation
and isolation, decline of manufacturing industries and increase in service sector work (lower
skills and lower security), and division of labour (different people doing different tasks).
Modernisation theory see industrialisation and its impact on employment as the end point of
development (development has occurred).
- But critics argue hat changes over the past 40 years show that this is not the case;
• there has been a shift in unskilled manual work from the developed world to the
developing world. Because of the abundance of cheap labour this allows TNC's to cut
costs and increase profits. E.g Bangladesh employment has shifted from rural traditional
jobs to manufacturing jobs which were previously done in developed countries.
• In rich countries the decline in manufacturing sector and rise in service sector.
• Another change in the last 40 years no longer have a job for life. Employers need
broader skills, and flexible workforce.
 • New working class jobs in telecoms e.g call centres, has also now been outsourced to
the developing world, and these attract aspiring middle classes of those countries. For
example in India and Pakistan, these jobs are not seen as working class jobs, but
aspired to by the middle classes as they need to have Maths and English skills which can
only be achieved through education.
Neo-liberals see the shift as a success of free market policies because they see a globalised
labour market being the best way to get most skilled people in appropriate jobs.
- The impact of this is a loss of traditional working class jobs in the developed world, leading to
other social problems e.g low achievement for working class boys at school in developed world,
and poor working conditions and poor pay in the developing world.

Dependency theory

Since dependency theory is based on a Marxist view of the world it views globalisation in terms
of the spread of market capitalism, and the exploitation of cheap labour and resources for the
benefit of the West. In addition, transnational corporations bargain from a position of strength,
distort the local economy, create vast income gaps, impose their own priorities, and damage the
environment.

Case study:
Apple Inc – have been criticised for their factories in China. Workers are expected to work very
long repetitive hours, and are under heavy supervision, they are not allowed to rest and are
even threatened with death around being tired, “If you fall asleep and lean on the machine and
there is a live wire, then you will be gone!” Many times Apple have claimed that they have set
up investigations and raised standards there, however there is proof from an undercover
investigator that the regulation inspections are being taught in the form of chants to the workers
so they can essentially never fail them because they are so ingrained.

Primark- For example with big clothing chains like Primark, if there is any dispute that they use
child labour in factories they can deny all knowledge of this is they do not 'own' directly the
factory in which there clothing is made. If the child labour is proved financially and in terms of
their public image Primark is protected.
Panorama - think Primark (they belong to Ethical trading initiative) and the use of child labour
in India and how the huge turn over of sales in the west leads to an increased pressure on the
factories using children to produce more, leading to subcontractors of child labour in homes and
slums for practically no money. Boycotting Primark doesn't deal with the problem it just makes
those who have little money anyway have none at all.

Neo Liberal theories

Neo-liberal theorists believe that to develop, countries must liberate their markets, encourage
entrepreneurship (risk taking), privatise state owned industries, and reform labour markets, such
as by reducing the powers of trade unions. There is a broad consensus that free trade can help
stimulate growth and development by encouraging inward investment and the application of
economies of scale and economies of scope, increasing competition and breaking down
domestic monopolies and creating a low inflation environment.

It is a global economy being imposed on the south; the agents of this global economy include
the G8 (8 biggest counties in the world, including the USA, Canada, UK etc) and TNC's like
Coca-cola. But also include international monetary organisations like the World Trade
organisation, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. These big companies
impose Neo-liberal policies on the south. But the final agent of neo-liberal policies are the
people that the other 3 put on the ground, workers from the TNC's, or political aids to trade
organisations that can influence the country.

It is often that the people in these countries are not informed of decisions made or in the making
that will effect them.
For instance the trade deal between the USA, Mexico and Canada is not very
transparent and the people of any three countries were not involved in it.

Child Labour
What is it? What type of work and hours does it involve? Why is it so bad?

A lot of families in developing countries rely on their children (and thus have many) to provide
financially for the family in terms of work and money. In the West/North there are heavy
restrictions on how young a child can be (14) before they can start work and even then what
and how much can be restricted so it doesn't effect their education.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) recognises that some working children are
necessary and takes into account circumstance when deciding what child labour is. Child labour
can refer to anyone under 15, who works for more than 14 hours a week, and who usually
don't attend school. In 2004 around 14% of the worlds children (5-17) were labourers, often in
hazardous work. Hagemann et al (2006) notes that the rates of child labour (that is recorded)
has fallen in recent years, and that abolishment is possible because the cost of eliminating it is
much lower than the benefits of education and health.

www.youtube.com/watch?v=sV6ktTsLbB8 – short film (11 minutes) on Child labour

How many children does the film suggest are exploited worldwide?
• 215 million are estimated to be child labourers, it removes their fundamental right to
education and leads them to be exploited.

∙ What do international agreements suggest the minimum age for children should
be equal to?
∙ It is not allowed to be lower than the compulsory leaving school age for that country
which is normally 14.

Which UN agreement is referred to in the film?

• The UN convention of the rights of a child, which is a treaty accepted by almost every
country. It explains that children must get quality education, are not exploited and are not
involved in dangerous work.

What does the film suggest sustains child exploitation?

• Entrenched beliefs, social injustice and lack of political will sustain child labour not just
poverty. Child labour itself sustains poverty because they are hired in the place of adults
and exploited as cheap labour, meaning the adults don't get money to get out of poverty,
the children do not get enough money to help parents and do not have skills (because
they did not go to school) to help as adults. Child labour leads to lower adult wages and
higher unemployment.

What strategies are employed to stop child labour?

• 'Child labour free-zones', this is an area where no child goes to work. The whole
community believe that no child should work, they should go to school. This strategy
involves social mobilisation, advocacy and awareness-raising. These strategies are
claimed to work because of the approach that 'all forms of child labour are unacceptable.'
BBC News Report: India vs China---Race to the Top of the World

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MDAJBwACTU&index=1&list=PL3F20244E28891A60

How is development changing the nature of employment in India and China?

• The development of China has been down to its rigid political structure
• Shanghai's biggest port was built in 1990, every year it grows by 25%, business stays out
of politics and vice versa.
• China does not buy much but produces vast quantities for sale.
• A lot of employment in China revolves around imitation for export rather than innovation
for sale in the international market.
• For India the focus is innovation not imitation and it encourages young entrepreneurs.
• India cannot compete with China's manufacture of bulk products, instead it focuses on
exact detail of specialist items.
• India's population is about double China's and so they might be in better shape to
overtake China on the scale

How is social life changing in these counties as a result of changes

• Because a lot of people in India are trying to compete with others to innovate a lot of
people are poor. Farmers who compete and don't succeed sometimes kill themselves.
Poverty is rife in certain areas because people leave to compete in the industry.
• China's growth in the international market needs factories to sustain it and so factories
are pushing into the rural areas. People are being kicked out of their homes, or
voluntarily removed with compensation. People are having to downsize because their
houses are needed to be demolished to make room for industry.
• People protest in China, however it is against the law to publicly protest.
• Schools in China make sure that all of the students are learning English, currently the
global language.
• India has lifted the biggest number of people out of poverty in the shortest amount of
time.

What impact might these have on the countries?

• “The giants of Asia are on the move, and on the rise.”
 Education
Western cultures see education as a transformative institution which can help a person realise
their potential. Education provides a well-qualified workforce and through this can ensure a
strong and healthy economy. Education is seen as integral to development policy as it offers
opportunities to escape the cycle of poverty faced by those trapped in an informal labour
force. Without basic skills of literacy and numeracy people are at risk of exploitation. It is also
evident that educated people are less likely to have large numbers of children, thus slowing
down population growth which contributes to poverty.

Education as a development strategy

The following development theorists agree that education plays a crucial role in international
development, however, they disagree on the design and purposes of the education system.

Modernisation theory
Education is crucial to overcoming barriers to promoting economic growth. They argue that an
education system should be universal and based on the model of Western meritocratic
systems. Modernisation theorists see the structure and curriculum of the Western education
system aiding development in two-ways:

∙ As economies develop, jobs become more specialized and thus education ensures that
workers are skilled and sorts them by ability into appropriate jobs. This idea that
education plays a vocational role has been influenced by functionalist ideas of the role
of education proposed by Durkheim and Parsons. These ideas were developed further
by Schultz (1971) and Becker (1975) in the form of human capital theory. They argue
that investment in industrial technologies and infrastructure must be accompanied by
investment in human expertise because while equipment loses value over time the
latter gains value as educated parents pass benefits onto children.

∙ Cultural barriers: Hoselitz also adds that an education system based on meritocracy
transmits values of individualism, competition and achievement. Thus education is crucial
in breaking down traditional values of collectivism and ascription which hinders
entrepreneurship.

People-centred approaches
Education should serve the needs of the people rather than the economy. People-centred
approaches highlight that without basic literacy and numeracy, individuals are left at risk of
being exploited. They also disagree with the view that education in developing countries
should follow the Western model as these may not be appropriate and will destroy
indigenous cultures and knowledge systems. People-centred approaches seek to build upon
existing education systems rather than replacing them.

Critical perspectives
These theorists criticize the assumption that education is positive as a development strategy but
they differ in their reasons for this critique.

Neo-liberalism
Although Neo-liberals recognise the benefits offered by education, they are critical of placing the
responsibility for this provision being down to the state. They argue that state provision of any
public services raises taxation and undermines development because:
∙ It discourages entrepreneurship by reducing the rewards earned through investment
in private enterprise.
∙ It creates conditions which are less attractive to TNCs.

Instead of focusing on state education, neoliberals support opening public services to the
private sector which can provide services more efficiently and without creating a tax burden.
This will lead to more entrepreneurship and higher investment from corporations, raising the
general level of wealth. People will then be able to pay from private education and choose their
education supplier.

Dependency theory
Colonialism stunted and left inappropriate education systems in the developing world. They
suggest that imperial powers undermined local knowledge systems, creating a sense of
intellectual inferiority which left the majority world dependent on the minority as a source of
truth. Where education systems were allowed to exist, they manipulated local populations by
buying off elites with free education and creating the illusion that social mobility was possible.
Neo-Colonial processes have ensured education systems remain stunted e.g. paying of debt
has prevented developing countries investing in education whereas structural adjustment
plans have forced governments to cut back on public services.

Kamuzu Academy in Malawi: This is a selective school in Malawi based on the Western
model of education following largely but not only to the UK national curriculum. Carroll (2002)
describes it as a well funded selective school based on Eton, it was founded by the President of
Malawi for the brightest students children to train them to be the leaders of Southern Africa and
Malawi specifically. Some poorer students are allowed in with bursaries if they pass an exam.
The school went into ruin in 1994 when the president was ousted as she had spent the entire
education budget on this one school. British teachers came back to it and revived it, it is now a
fee-paying, profit-making private school.

http://kamuzuacademy.com/
http://www.theguardian.com/education/2002/nov/25/schools.uk
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1537859/The-man-who-saved-the-Eton-of-
Africa.html

What advantages and disadvantages can you think of related to this type of institution in
Africa?
– Helps the brightest in the country who would grow up to be the leaders of the country and
lead them to be more western which some theorists would argue are the best.
– Could give children with high levels of education which they may not have been able to
get had this type of institution not been there
– This has shown to reduce the budget of normal schools in the rest of the country, and so
the rest of the children are not getting a decent education, and so not getting great skills
and thus the skills of the majority are lacking, thus preventing development
 – The children who were educated in this school would most likely go to other western
countries instead of staying in their poor countries with less money – brain drain
– Only educating the wealthy limits the skilled people who can work
– Like Cohen referred to Urban cities as islands with a sea of poverty, this is the same
thing

What is the problem of imposing a Western system of education onto indigenous

cultures?
– It ignores and disregards the indigenous traditions and cultures which the people have
lived under all of their lives. There could become a conflict between the children going to
western schools and their parents with the traditional values, effectively pulling families
apart.

Statistics
• The global proportion of people who had received some form of education rose from 57%
in 1960 to 85% in 2010
• Developed countries spend a much larger percentage of GDP on education than low
income countries (World Bank 2001). In 2010 the average spending on education was
forty times higher in developed countries than Sub-Saharan Africa.
• UNDP 2010 report that the levels of youth literacy rose to more than 95% in developing
countries as a result of increases in the average length of school years.
• In Guinea around 35% of older rural girls are enrolled compared with 84% of urban boys
UNDP 2010
• Of 156 countries surveyed for HDI report in 2010, only 87 had comparable primary
school enrolments for girls and boys

According to DFID over 57 million children around the world do not go to primary school.
Without a good education, they will be less likely to get a job and look after their families in
the future. This will impact their country’s development and ultimately the global economy.
High quality education can help to transform countries to benefit us all. Quality education helps
people work together to create strong, open institutions and societies. An extra year of good
schooling lifts a country’s yearly economic growth by 1%, making poor countries richer and, in
the long run, less in need of foreign aid – and more able to trade.
DFID aims by 2015:
∙ raise the standards of education, training 190,000 teachers (99,000 trained so far)
∙ get up to 1 million more girls into school, through the Girls’ Education Challenge - girls
are disproportionately absent from the classroom and yet they are more likely to pass on
the benefits of their education to their family and boost economic growth
∙ support higher education by improving the quality of more than 200 Higher Education
Institutions across Africa and Asia - we will also support 750 to 800 Commonwealth
students per year with scholarships to pursue their careers with UK universities
∙ spend half of direct education aid on unstable or war-torn countries where more than
two-fifths of the world’s out-of-school children are found, and where a lack of education
can directly contribute to conflict
∙ support more research into the best ways to get children into school, keep them in
school, and improve the quality of their education

Problems faced by schools and pupils in developing countries

• Many countries cannot afford universal primary education let alone universal secondary
education
• Teachers are not paid well and so it is not attractive, often teachers have other jobs to
pay bills, and teachers themselves are not well trained
• Schools are under resourced with no funding or textbooks/equipment
• Schools aren't houses properly, with too small rooms which are inadequate
• School charge money, parents cannot afford it and keep kids out of school
• Even when there are no fees parents still have to afford resources
 • The education system is still influenced by colonialism with English lit taught rather than
their own countries literature
• Many schools have half school days so that more children can attend, one session in the
morning for some children and one in the afternoon to fit the mass of children in.
Teachers are overworked and children don't get full days
• War disrupts education
• Pupils lack of health care may be off a lot due to illness (Malaria)
• Pupils that do well at primary education may not have secondary places to go to and may
have to walk long distances
• To meet the Millennium Development Goals countries get more students enrolled but
they are not the best quality

Universal primary education

Target 2 of the MDGs aims for every child to attend primary school by 2015. While great
progress has been made - the number of primary school children out of school has almost
halved since 1999 - MDG target 2 is unlikely to be met, with large proportions of children in sub-
Saharan Africa and South Asia still not making it into the classroom.

Arguments for universal education as a priority

• Universal education in the North was associated with economic growth, rising living
standards and improvements in health
• Education ensures there are people with skills and qualifications needed for the countries
development
• Education is a human right, it gives people control over their own lives and makes it more
difficult to be exploited
• Universal education for women is good to improve heal an nutrition for families, chances
of employment and limiting the number of children they have

Arguments against universal education as a priority

• Where a country has limited resources it makes more sense to educate the minority for
leadership and management positions if the majority do not need an education for the
work they do
• Countries may want to achieve economic growth and see education as not a priority
• Education can make people frustrated that there are not opportunities in the country to
go into afterwards, it could make someone rebellious. For example, (Richards 1996) the
leaders of the Sierra Leone civil war were well educated men who came into contact with
radical ideas in their education and saw no future in the way Sierra Leone was.

Case studies/statistics for examples:

More than 57 million children around the world do not go to primary school.
At least 250 million children cannot read or count, even if they have spent four years in school.

Nepal: School was devastated by an elephant attack, children had no school until this
programme started.
• The Community Support Programme has improved school facilities for 2,800
communities – benefiting 600,000 families.
• More than 1,000 other community projects are being supported to benefit 116,000
households.
• CSP has already allowed 91,000 households access clean drinking water.
• More than 100,000 people are being trained to help their communities deal with the
threat of disasters, including earthquakes.
• CSP makes funds available direct to communities and helps them decide what to spend
them on.
•
The Gambia: Working on gender disparity in education- Millennium development goal 3
 • Primary school net enrolment increased from 52% in 2000 to 61% in 2006, with
government figures estimating 90% enrolment in 2011.
• The increased enrolment by girls is the single most important factor for the change in
primary enrolment ratios, with the largest gains made in the poorest and most rural
regions.
• In 2010, all girls received fee exemptions to encourage attendance. This effort to
increase enrollment by girls in schools has been enhanced by the Girls’ Scholarship
Trust Fund, the Girl/Child Friendly School Initiative, and the President’s Empowerment
for Girls’ Education Project.

Government of Zambia: MDG 2 universal primary education

• The Government of Zambia has established access and quality of education, especially
for girls, as a national priority, even in hard economic times. Efforts have ranged from far-
reaching policy reform to expanded access to education.
• From 2006 to 2010, funding to the education sector steadily increased from 2.9% to 3.5%
of GDP
• Student enrolment has increased from 2.5 million students in 2005 to 3.3 million in 2009.
Furthermore, the participation of girls increased from 1.4 million in 2005 to 1.65 million in
2009. The Gender Parity Index (GPI) improved from 0.95% to 0.99%.
• Over one third of the girls who became pregnant returned to school between 2002 and
2009. Over 200,000 students in basic schools were reached with improved water and
sanitation.

Gender
No matter where you go in the world women are thought to not be equal to men. Whilst in
the West women have access to education health care, jobs and are under the same legal
rights as males, they are still not being paid the same and are certainly not treated the same.
For the developing nations, women had dramatically less rights and opportunities than men.

Amartya Sen (1992) argues that ignores different peoples experiences in different nations has
created 100 million women 'lost' to the effect of development.
Leoard (1992) argues that no matter what country we focus on women are worse off than men,
in terms of power, autonomy, they do more work, earn less money and have more
responsibility.
Sen (1992) argues that gender inequalities surface in 7 ways;
• Nationality: the patriarchal culture of a nation can lead to sex-selective abortion,
abandonment and infanticide.
• Mortality: women generally outlive men, but not in North Africa, China or South Asia
• Basic Facilities: women lack access to institutions like education which could enable
them to gain money
• Special opportunities: women have barriers to higher education and training
• Professional- horizontal/vertical segregation: women are restricted in the work place,
face a glass ceiling and are under-represented in professions
• Ownership: Property and assets are not shared equally and it can restrict social
influence and their ability to do business
• Household: Men have more power and make decisions, women are expected to do
housework

Leonard (1992) argues that the conditions of underdevelopment; dependency, powerlessness,

vulnerability, and inequality of income; are worse for women.

Statistics/ research on women in the developing world

• WORK: In Africa women in rural areas account for 70% of food production (Commission
for Africa 2005)
• EQUALITY:Acid attacks on women in Afghanistan is common, 200 in 2007 alone.
Women are attacked for wanting rights to education and standing up to oppression
• WORK:Report by UN in 1995 concluded women work longer hours than men by 1/3.
• Hay and Stichter (1984) found that women do 60-80% of all agricultural work.
• EDUCATION: 90 million girls receive no education in the developing world
• EDUCATION: Two thirds of all illiterate people in the world are women
• EDUCATION: 1 in every 5 girls enrolled in primary education in developing countries do
not finish primary level
• HEALTH: 500,000 women die each year in pregnancy and childbirth, 99% in developing
nations
• HEALTH: Over 300 million women suffer from illness directly caused by pregnancy and
childbirth

Theories of gender inequality

-Modernisation theory

See the place of women as down to the patriarchal control subordinate values in traditional
cultures. For instance, in China boy babies are celebrated but having a girl baby is
commiserated. For example in Asia at least 60 million women are missing due to selective
abortion and being abandoned.
M.theorists see the liberation of women being crucial to development because they make up
50% of the population and so have great economic potential, and because they are women
become mothers and create over-population. By liberating women into more than baby makers
we can limit the population and improve the work force.
Boserup (1970) sees greater educational opportunities as a way to break the cycle of early
child baring. They believe MNC's would encourage female economic independence. The
way to enforce female liberation would be to create equal health, education and family planning
opportunities and promote western equal values through sympathetic media.
- This has been claimed ethonocentric, as if the western value imposing themselves onto the
other cultures promoted Western feminism and ignores the feminism that may exist already. For
instance, ignoring how some Muslim women feel empowered by the Burkha because they
can control how men perceive them.

-Dependency theory
Where modernisation sees female inequality as inherent in the traditional cultures, dependency
theory sees the patriarchy having been imposed by colonial powers. - There is a debate about
whether this was an active or passive process however.

Tiano's Marginalisation thesis: They believe female inequality was a passive process of
systemic failures to include women through the involvement of capitalism in developing
nations. For instance, men being allowed into the public sphere of work where women were
forced into the private sphere of domestic work when their husbands left to find paid work.
Leonard (1992) argues that the introduction of cash crops attracted males who then left their
wives to subsist without them. The idea that wealth will trickle from the men to the women rarely
works in practice. There is also a patriarchal bias in Aid given to developing countries, with
most of the trained government workers providing agricultural help to rural areas were men, and
only 3.4% women, despite women being more likely to be in agriculture.

Tiano's Exploitation thesis: capitalism needs a patriarchal system to exist, because women
play a part as the unpaid workforce, doing housework and raising the next generation of
workers. They also form a large cheap labour force for big corporations, for instance Daisy
Francis (1995) found that over 85% of workers on low wages in poor conditions were female.
It is also found that 90% of workers in EPZ's (export processing zones) for TNC's are female
and suffer low pay (10% less than males and do 50% more work). They are taken advantage of
what Elson and Pearson (1981) call 'women's material subordination as a gender' because
they will accept low pay and harsh conditions because there is no alternative or the work is only
temporary until they get married and bare children.

Solutions to gender inequality

Modernisation theory-
Ronald Inglehart (1997) sees getting rid of gender inequalities as an inevitable feature of
industrialisation. But he notes there can be a generational lag on economic change on
traditional views. To promote cultural change they see a combination of education and mass
media funded by aid. TNC's also allow female economic independence through job
opportunities.

People-centred approach-
They focus on communities and individuals through ground work and women. They want social
sustainability, implying development that incorporate every member of society. They have
education, healthcare and trade projects to ensure inclusion of women. Micro credit has
always had women in its core aims allowing access to resources to improve lives through
investment and entrepreneurship.

Marxist-Feminist approaches-
They argue socialism is committed to getting rid of patriarchal regimes in the developing world.
Molyneux's (1981) study of Marxist-Lennist and Islam societies found they were willing to
challenge traditions of child marriage and improving women's education and job opportunities,
but it changed nothing in the way of the private sphere. Elwood's (1986) study of the Soviet
Union found 'women can fly to the moon but they still have to do the ironing when they
get home.'

Radical Feminist approaches-

Modern feminists ignore what the developing world's women see as the problem; men aren't
their concern, it is the unequal development and neo-colonial exploitation. Feminists in the
West and feminists in the developing nations had different priorities, whilst the west wanted to
end media sexualisation of women, the developing worlds feminists wanted to unit with men to
end oppression and gain their own reproductive rights. They felt that nationality, ethnicity,
religious identity and social class were more a source of inequality than gender.

Post-Modern Feminist approaches-

Hunt (2004b) notes how post modernists understand the category of 'women' has been
constructed and women in developing nations are perceived differently by Western feminists.
Mohanty (1997) argues that Western feminists see developing world feminists as
'uneducated, victimised and tradition-bound' and see themselves as 'educated, modern and
have control over their own bodies'. Cohen and Kennedy (2000) see a new group of post-
modernist feminists from developed and developing countries who share that globalisation has
caused problems for women.
• Sex tourism and prostitution; UN estimates 4 million women a year are trafficked. Even if
women escape this, Van Der Gaag (2004) notes that when they return they are not
accepted and 'dishonoured'.
• Environmental degradation; Eco-feminists like Shiva (1989) see how women are more
likely to become victims of environmental pollutants like pesticides because they make
up 60-70% of the worlds agriculture business .
• International debt crisis; women face the brunt of the crisis in terms of less spending
on education and health.

Gender development in policy-

Pearson (2001) notes that since the 1990's women's issues have been incorporated into policy
following critique. Policies from the UK's DFID, the World Bank include women, and the United
Nations for example has Millennium Development Goals including the promotion of gender
equality. The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) measures whether women play an
active economic and political role across developed and developing nations. Micro-credit
schemes are also used by NGO's to help women. Kilby (2001) looked in 80 micro-credit
schemes and found that they made women more mobile, respected, assertive and supported.

Demographic Change / Population

Demographers study population, they have some key phrases-
Mortality rate: number of deaths per 1,000 each year
Infant mortality rate: number of deaths of infants under 1 per 1,000 in the infant population per
year
Child mortality: number of deaths of children under 5 per 1,000 of the child population in a
year
Birth rate: number of live births per 1,000 members of the population per year
Total fertility rate: total of live births per women over her lifetime

World population growth

There has been a slow rise in world population over time, in the last 100 years it has hit a boom,
in 1925 the population was 2 billion and now it is surpassing 7 billion. In 2050 the UN predict the
world population to be over 9.3 billion. Most of the large population increases will happen in
developing countries.
Developing countries have gone through a demographic transition (move from high birth and
death rates to low birth and death rates) during industrialisation and urbanisation. It has gone
through stages:
 • High birth and death rate: it made sense to have lots of children, they could work and
they would have more chance of surviving tohelp their parents out when they were very
old.High birth rate, death rate falling: Improvements in sewage and piped clean water
meant that people were surviving and living longer but lots of children were still being
created
• Low birth and death rate: In industrialised nation children are more of a burden, they
need education and don't work, people are living longer and have pensions to fall back
on, they don't need their kids and so have less.

Factors in populations
Education, urbanisation, fall in production value of children, changing roles of women,
availability of contraception, improving healthcare and social services, effects of structural
adjustment programmes on access to and cost of health and education.

Developing countries now are said to be going through this same process of the developed
nations and hopefully it will level out like them. Modernisation theorists expect developing
nations to go through this transition like the west. Dependency theorists would argue that the
situation today is fundamentally different because of colonialism and neo-colonialism. Hewitt
and Smyth (2000) argue that Demographic transition is a theory not an inevitability, some
countries may get stuck in the transition phase, 'demographic trap'.

Population growth and consumption

Malthusians believe that population growth surpasses food supply because food supply goes
up arithmetically (1,2,3,4...) whereas population doubles and grows geometrically (1,2,4,8...).
Malthusians argue we need to curb population growth otherwise it will lead to famines and
wars over food. This view is now referred to as how the world cannot support continual
population growth.

Neo-Malthusians believe this and see population growth as the main cause of poverty. It leads
to economic issues, uncontrollable urbanisation and wars/environmental damage. They see
control of population as the best way to develop, and as the main focus of aid.

Robert Kaplan (1994) notes that from his travels he can see parts of the poor world collapsing
into anarchy because of population growth. This undermined already weak states and could
threaten the developed world. This argument is called 'New Barbarism' (that overpopulation
and exhaustion of resources will lead to civil wars), Richards (1996) describes it as 'Mathus
with guns', it isn't chaotic and anarchic but rational and can only be understood in terms of
global modernity.

DOOM HAS NOT HAPPENED. Malthus said we would all die in a great famine, but advances
in agriculture has stopped big food crises, deaths from war and disease have controlled
population and the population now is so unprecedented, but we are surviving.

Controls on population
• Contraception: birth control needs to be taken regularly which cant often happen in the
developing world, some religions shun the idea of contraception and there is a misguided
assumption that if contraception is available people will use it. But people in the
developing world need kids to work for money.
• Abortion: this is very controversial in the USA and so American NGO's do not support it,
in fact during the Bush administration he cut all funding to family planning clinics were
abortion was accepted.
• Sterilisation: to force sterilisation is against human rights. But in India 1970's poor
people were bribed with money and goods to accept it.
• Financial incentives to limit family size: for instance, China's one child policy, which
has inadvertently caused in imbalance between males and females through sex-selective
abortion.
The Social view of population
Rather than seeing poverty and lack of development as being down to population growth, they
see them as the cause. People have many children because they are poor and need money not
that they have many children and so they are poor. Focusing on alleviating poverty will
decrease population. Hewitt and Smyth (2000) found that parts of the developing world where
fertility has declined; Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cuba and the Indian state of Kerala; women also
have good access to health and education.

Famine an undernourishment
Famines are seen sometimes as the 'freak' result of too many people needing food, but nature
(droughts) and war are hardly ever to blame. For instance Keen (2000) argues that in Sudan,
famines can be seen as a deepening exploitation of the poor that already exists in 'normal'
times. Food is usually available but most cant afford to buy it.
Undernourishment is an everyday phenomenon, about 850 million people were chronically
undernourished in 2001-3 according to the UN. The same board notes that 32% of Africa is
undernourished.

Health
Difference in causes of death
Many of the deaths causes in developing nations now are from infectious diseases. For
example, in Sub-Saharan Africa 65% of deaths are the result of infectious diseases, its only
5% in the developed world. Sutcliffe (2001) found that most of the developed worlds deaths
were caused by non-infectious diseases like cancer and heart disease. These diseases in
developed nations are mostly the result of lifestyle choices, these 'diseases of affluence' are
present in developing nations but the biggest killers are communicable (transmitted from
person to person) like Diarrhoea and bacterial and viral diseases (polio, cholera) and airborne
diseases like influenza.

Who is effected?
In the developing world children are mostly effected by illness because they are malnourished
and also women who have little access to healthcare, clean water and sanitation.

History of disease
Many of the diseases seen in the developing world currently were faced by the developed
world. There are some diseases that threaten to return to Europe. There are 3 things which
controlled the diseases;
• Improvements in nutrition and diet
• Improvements in hygiene- clean water/sewage disposal
• Changes in reproductive behaviour- falling birth rate
These factors were also helped by education.

The western model of medicine has been forced onto developing nations during the colonial
period, western hospitals are often costly, with unreliable modern technology and in cities not
rural areas. Doctors who are trained in this system have no incentive to work and often only
work for the 'urban elites', or leave the country (brain drain).

Two options for developing nations

• Selective biomedical intervention; mass vaccination programmes, vitamin
supplements or insecticide nets. This can lead to reduction in child mortality but is not
sustainable, preventing one disease now might not rule out another later one
• Comprehensive primary healthcare; community based with an emphasis on healthcare
education and prevention of disease – draining ponds so mosquito cannot breed etc

Theories of health in global development

Modernisation theory-
The developing nations are where the developed world were hundreds of years ago, and M.
theorists expect them to follow the western path. We are now in Epidemiologic transition
which is a change from infectious diseases, resulting in high child mortality and low life
expectancy to 'diseases of affluence' where the highest killers are heart disease and cancers.
Developing nations should drop traditional medicines, opt for a centralised healthcare system
based on doctors and mass immunisation. They should look at aid and expertise from the
developed word

Dependency theory-
Developing countries can't be expected to follow the west, colonialism changed health and neo-
colonialism continues this trend. There are factors affecting health in these countries;
• adopting lifestyles of the rich world (sugary/fatty)can lead to cancers and heart conditions
• power of TNC's to advertise sugary/fatty foods irresponsibly and avoid attempts to restrict
them
• pollution and environmental damage caused by TNC's affect health
• TNC's are reluctant to sell medicine at affordable prices/let them manufacture their own
• poor funding for medicine and treatments that would help those in the south, now they
are targeted at weight loss and cosmetics
• structural readjustment programmes give little scope for states to improve health care,
charges have to be made and poor can't afford it.

Health related Millennium Development Goals

MDG4- To reduce child mortality
• Child survival rates have improved
• The worst rates in Sub-Saharan Africa, in 2005 10.1 million children died before their 5th
birthday
• Child death from measles fell by 60% between 2000 and 2005

MDG5- to improve maternal health

• 500,000 women die in childbirth each year
• women in sub-saharan Africa have a 1 in 6 chance of dying in childbirth/pregnancy, in
the developed world it is 1 in 3,800

MDG6- to combat HIV/AID's

• prevalence of HIV is steady now, however more people are dying from it. There are 15.2
million children who have lot one or both parents because of AIDs, 80% in Africa
 War and Conflict
Civil wars in developing countries are very complex, but sometimes we can relate them to
poverty, difference and the great inequality in countries. What happens in the developed world
affects here; Sudan, Iraq, Somalia all have repercussions here (9/11 or 7/7)

Development and conflict

Duffield (2001) argues that there was a shift in the 1990's from humanitarian aid to war torn
developing countries, to a more central concern. For instance, they suggest that international
organisations should gear themselves up to restore stability and resolve conflict not just help the
civilians. There needs to be development, development cannot occur without stability, and
security needs development.

Only 11% of countries ranked in the top half of the HDI in 2003 had civil wars in the last 10
years.

Terrorism
Terrorism normally comes where war does, and it comes in a variety of forms, state directed
terrorism, state sponsored terrorism and non-state terrorism. Cohen and Kennedy (2007) say
that the US state department defines terror as 'politically motivated violence against non-
combatants by clandestine agents for intended influence of public audience'.

Old and new wars

Kaldor (2006); she distinguishes between 'old' and 'new' wars.

Old wars
1. Total wars; vast mobilisation of men and armies
 2. Public; armies fought opposite each other on battlefields. Kaldor realises that the
second world war was privatised- civilians and non-combatants were bombed
indiscriminatingly. She notes that the 'seeds for genocide' for the developing world were
sown at this time
3. Socially organised and legitimised violence; 'If soldiers are to be treated as hero's
and not criminals, heroic justification is needed to persuade them to kill.'
4. Sophisticated technology; mass produced military hardware- tanks, guns etc
5. Alliances between nations; alliances becomes all encompassed, Kaldor notes that
democracies don't go to war together they are more likely to militarily cooperate with
each other.

New wars
Keen (1995) refers to new wars are 'privatised' or 'informal' wars because they are not focused
on attacking other countries but include groups fighting for territory and resources. Duffield
(1998) calls them 'post modern' because they take advantage of new media such as satellite
phones. Shaw (2000) calls them 'degenerate wars' because they have genocidal tendencies.
Characteristics;
1. Identity politics; many new wars are based on group differences (ethnic groups, tribes,
religions etc). Collier (2008) notes that the Rwandan genocide of 1994 was because of
tribal differences (Tutis / Hutu). Identity politics undermines civils wars in developing
countries; wars are funded on both sides by members of their community around the
world who have left – the diaspora community, (Tamil tigers in Sri Lanka – funded by
Canadian Tamils)
2. Different modes of warfare; different ways to fight, actual fighting is avoided; Guerilla
warfare and counter-insurgency. Its less about earning the hearts of the people, more
capturing territory through fear. Kaldor notes; to control the population, they kill those
who oppose them (ethnic cleansing).
3. Globalization financing; new wars have different financing, rebels finance themselves
through the black market, hostage taking and their diaspora. Duffield suggests that the
shadow informal economy (black market, blood diamonds) now funds war.
4. Effect of globalised culture; Kaldor notes that 'warlords' (strongmen who have military
sources to control an area and exploit its resources regardless of state authority) are
influenced by global culture. She argues that illiterate people who use TV and radio are
influenced by these warlords through them.

Poverty and conflict

Duffield argues that there isn't a direct cause between poverty and civil wars, but a study in
1998 of 34 of the worlds poorest countries, 2/3's of these were either in a civil war or just had
one. Poverty is a high risk for conflict. Collier (2008) argues that civil wars in Africa occur where
economies are failing, and low income produces poverty and hopelessness. Rebels recruit
young men with riches.

Modernisation theory argues that the higher up a country goes on Rostow's ladder, the less
likely they are to become involved in war. (The more you have to loose, the less likley you are to
risk it)

If economy is weak, the state is weak. Real life example; Lauren Kabile who was involved in
civil war over diamond trade in Zaire. She told journalists it was easy to rebel; all you needed
was $10,000 (to buy a cheap poor army) and a satellite phone (to strike deals with western
multinational resources companies). He made over $500 million worth of deals with oil and
diamond rights.

Why are there so many civil wars in poorest countries

Neo-Malthusians see uncontrolled population growth and environmental scarcity. New
Barbarianism thesis plays out here (overpopulation and exhausted resources leads to civil
wars).
Ayoob (2001) argues that civil wars are part of the process of development, in the middle ages
and early Modern Europe civil wars were common, they become less common as a country
develops democracy and free trade.
Dependency theory:- there are factors that lead to civil wars;
• some groups don't develop and aren't benefiting from globalisation, or are affected by
SAP's
• the state can no longer provide services like education or health and is less able to resist
challenges (Hanlon 2006)
• the presence of hopeless unemployed men who see no future (no wife)
• trade deals that negatively effect people; for instance taking away the International
Coffee Agreement in 1989 which dramatically reduces Rwandan coffee farmers incomes
resulting in poverty and genocide.
• weapons trade gives readily available and cheap arms
• if aid only goes to some groups in a country it can create conditions for war
• presence of oil and diamonds which can be goals in themselves or used to buy arms
• ethnic or other divisions which can be exploited by politicians
• interference from other countries

The criminalisation of conflict

There is a link between conflict and criminality. Duffield (2007) notes when conflict is triggered
by violent leaders, looting often comes into play. Collier (2008) also notes that civil wars in
Africa are more likely to occur where criminality and inefficiency are strife. There is no political
legitimacy. Killing those of opposite views in the territory leaders have taken over, spreading
fear through rape to subdue opposition is criminal.

The cost of conflict

Civil wars last 10 times longer than international wars. Duffield notes civil wars deepen poverty.
Collier calls civil wars 'development in reverse' because it damages the country and
neighbours. Civil war reduces an economy on average by 2.3% a 7 year war would mean a
15% drop in economy. The Democratic republic of Congo needs 50 years of peace in order
to be at the same economic level they were in 1960.

Civil war ruins assets in agriculture, businesses and peoples homes, which all need to be
remade. Short (1999) notes that the 15 year civil war in Mozambique destroyed 70% of the
country's schools. C. war ruins tax collection and normal trade. Culture is destroyed and
families torn apart.

Civil war causes refugees and mass population movement causing death through diseases.
But also the process of moving can kill. Real life example right now are Syrian migrants fleeing
to Italy dying on ships which sank off of the coast. Collier notes that mass rape and mass
population movement are groups for mass sexually transmitted diseases.

The effects of armed conflict on children

Rebel groups recruit/kidnap child soldiers. In 1999 Amnesty International claimed at least
300,000 children under the age of 18 are actively involved in conflict in Sierra Leone, Liberia,
Congo etc. Some child soldiers are now known only for brutal and merciless killing, but this is
because for some of them only know war. War kills more women and children and are
disproportionately displaced. Children are more likely to be effected health wise in terms of
malnourishment, and disease.

The effect of conflict on women

Sexual violence towards women in civil war is normal (Van Zeijl 2007). Feminists like
Brownmiller (2000) and Morgan (2006) argue that rape is found in wars because it is about
power not sex. Amnesty international argues rape is a weapon of war. In 1998 the UN declared
use of rape to suppress women as a war crime. Van Zeij argues use of rape has increased in
Sierra Leone and Liberia etc They argue that rape is increasing on a mass scale in Sudan, it is
an extension of Patriarchal control because of inequalities of women in peacetime, rape in
marriage is legal and brutally beating a women for 'misbehaving' is fine.