HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY

2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,

CHAPTER 4: Tissues columnar, or a special transitional shape, that
varies with the degree of stretch.
Tissue • Simple epithelium consists of a single layer
• is a group of cells with similar structure and of cells, with each cell extending from the
function, plus the extracellular substance basement membrane to the free surface.
surrounding them. • Stratified epithelium consists of more than
• Histology is the study of tissues. one layer of cells, but only the basal layer
attaches the deepest layer to the basement
Types of Tissues membrane.
There are four tissue types in the human body: • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue special type of simple epithelium, that
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type appears to be falsely stratified.
that makes up part of every organ in the body • It consists of one layer of cells, with all the
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens, cells attached to the basement membrane.
making movement possible • Due to variations in the shape of the cells,
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and the epithelia appears stratified.
controlling many body activities
Classification of Epithelia 4
Epithelial Tissues There are three types of epithelium based on
• Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:
protects surfaces, both outside and inside the 1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.
body. 2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about as
• Included under the classification of epithelial wide as they are tall.
tissue are the exocrine and endocrine 3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they
glands. are wide.

Epithelial Tissue Characteristics Simple Squamous Epithelium

1. Mostly composed of cells • is a single layer of thin, flat cells.
2. Covers body surfaces • Some substances easily pass through this
3. Has an exposed surface thin layer of cells, but other substances do
4. Attaches at the basal surface not.
5. Specialized cell connections and matrix • In the lungs, simple squamous epithelium,
attachments allows for gas exchange.
6. Avascular • In the kidneys, simple squamous epithelium,
7. Capable of regeneration helps filter wastes from the blood while
keeping blood cells inside the blood vessels.

Functions of Epithelial Tissues

1. Protects underlying structures
2. Acts as a barrier
3. Permits passage of substances
4. Secreting substances Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
5. Absorption of substances • is a single layer of cube-like cells that carry
out active transport, facilitated diffusion, or
Classification of Epithelia secretion.
• Epithelial tissues are classified primarily • They have a greater secretory capacity than
according to the number of cell layers and simple squamous epithelial cells.
the shape of the superficial cells.
• The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or
pseudostratified.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

and nonkeratinized stratified squamous

epithelia.

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a
keratinized squamous epithelium.
• The keratin reduces the loss of water from
the body.

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth
Simple Columnar Epithelium is a moist nonkeratinized stratified squamous
• is a single layer of tall, thin cells. epithelium.
• The large size of these cells enables them to • This nonkeratinized stratified squamous
perform complex functions, such as epithelium provides protection against
secretion. abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier.
• The simple columnar epithelium of the small • Water, however, can move across it more
intestine produces and secretes mucus and readily than across the skin (keratinized
digestive enzymes. stratified squamous).

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium Transitional Epithelium

• secretes mucus, which covers its free • is a special type of stratified epithelium that
surface. can be greatly stretched.
• Cilia in the airways move the mucus and • The shape of the cells change as the
accumulated debris toward the throat, where epithelium is stretched.
it is swallowed. • Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can
expand greatly, such as the urinary bladder.
• It also protects underlying structures, like the
urinary bladder, from the caustic effects of
urine.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• forms a thick epithelium because it consists
of several layers of cells.
• Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or
columnar and are capable of dividing and Free Surface Modifications
producing new cells, the naming is based on • Most epithelia have a free surface that is not
the shape of the surface cells. in contact with other cells and faces away
• There are two types of stratified squamous from underlying tissues.
epithelia: keratinized stratified squamous • The characteristics of the free surface reflect
its functions.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• The free surface can be smooth or lined with Glands

microvilli or cilia. • are secretory organs that secrete substances
• Cilia move materials over the top of the cell. onto a surface, into a cavity, or into the
• Microvilli increase surface area. bloodstream.
• are composed primarily of epithelium, with a
Cell Connections supporting network of connective tissue.
• Cells have several structures that hold one • Glands with ducts are called exocrine
cell to one another or to the basement glands.
membrane. • Both the gland and its ducts are lined with
• These structures do three things: epithelium.
mechanically bind the cells together, help • Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they
form a permeability barrier, and provide a secrete their products (termed hormones)
mechanism for intercellular communication. into the bloodstream.
• Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind Structure of Exocrine Glands
cells together. • The duct is the tube that
• Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes transports the secreted
that anchor cells to the basement membrane. material to the free surface of
• Tight junctions are cell connection the epithelium.
structures that form barriers and anchor cells • The secretory portion of the
to each other. gland lies deeper in the
• Structures called adhesion belts are found epithelium and is composed of
just below the tight junctions, and help tight cells that produce the
junctions anchor epithelial cells to each other. secreted material.
• They prevent the passage of materials • Multicellular exocrine glands
between epithelial cells because they can be classified according to
completely surround each cell. the structure of their ducts and
• Materials that pass through an epithelial layer secretory regions, and mode
with tight junctions must pass through the of secretion.
cells, so those cells regulate what materials There are 3 categories of exocrine glands:
can cross. • Unicellular glands are composed of only a
• Tight junctions are found in the lining of the single cell.
intestines. • Simple glands are multicellular and have a
• Gap junctions are small channels that allow single, nonbranched duct.
small molecules and ions to pass from one • Compound glands are multicellular and
epithelial cell to an adjacent one. have several branched ducts.
• Most epithelial cells are connected to one
another by gap junctions, and researchers • Glands with secretory regions shaped as
believe that molecules or ions moving tubules (small tubes) are called tubular,
through the gap junctions act as whereas those shaped in saclike structures
communication signals to coordinate the are called acinar or alveolar.
activities of the cells.
Simple Glands
There are several types of simple glands:
• Simple tubular—glands forming a straight
tube with no branching of the secretory
portion
• Simple branched tubular—gland with several
tubular secretory portions branching from the
single duct
• Simple acinar—glands with a single sac-like
secretory portion
• Simple branched acinar—glands with several
acinar secretory portions branching from the
single duct
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Compound Glands • is comprised of cells, protein fibers, and an

There are several types of compound glands: extracellular matrix.
• Compound tubular—glands with multiple
ducts, each with a narrow tubular secretory Functions of Connective Tissue
portion 1. Enclose and separate other tissues
• Compound acinar—glands with multiple 2. Connecting tissues to one another
ducts, each with a several sac- like secretory 3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
portions 4. Storing compounds
• Compound tubuloacinar—glands with 5. Cushioning and insulating
multiple ducts, each with several tubular and 6. Transporting
acinar secretory portions 7. Protecting
Structure of Exocrine Glands
Connective Tissue Cells
• The specialized cells of the various
connective tissues produce the extracellular
matrix.
• The name of the cell identifies the cell
functions.
• Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain
it, and osteoclasts break it down.
• Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it.
• Chondroblasts form cartilage and
chondrocytes maintain it.
• Cells associated with the immune system,
such as white blood cells, are also found in
connective tissue.
• Macrophages are large cells that are
capable of moving about and ingesting
foreign substances, including
microorganisms in the connective tissue.
• Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release
chemicals, such as histamine, that promote
inflammation.

Extracellular Matrix
• The extracellular matrix of connective tissue
has three major components: protein fibers,
ground substance, and fluid.
Glands • Ground substance consists of non-fibrous
• Exocrine glands can also be classified protein and other molecules.
according to their modes of secretion. • The structure of the matrix is responsible for
• Merocrine secretion involves the release of the functional characteristics of connective
secretory products by exocytosis. tissues—for example, they enable bones and
• Apocrine secretion involves the release of cartilage to bear weight.
secretory products as pinched-off fragments
of the gland cells. Matrix Protein Fibers
• Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of • Three types of protein fibers—collagen,
entire cells. reticular, and elastic—help form most
connective tissues.
Connective Tissue • Collagen fibers, which resemble
• is a diverse primary tissue type that makes microscopic ropes, are very flexible but resist
up part of every organ in the body. stretching.
• differs from the other three tissue types in • Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen
that it consists of cells separated from each fibers that branch to form a supporting
other by abundant extracellular matrix. network.
• is diverse in both structure and function.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

• Elastic fibers have the ability to return to

their original shape after being stretched or
compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality.

Matrix Ground Substance

• The ground substance consists of non-
fibrous molecules and is shapeless.
• It consists of proteoglycans, which are large
molecules that consist of a protein core
attached to many long polysaccharides.
• Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water
between the polysaccharides, which allows
them to return to their original shape when
compressed or deformed.

Types of Connective Tissues

• The two main types of connective tissue are
embryonic and adult connective tissue.
• By eight weeks of development, most of the
embryonic connective tissue has become
specialized to form the types of connective
tissue seen in adults.
• Dense connective tissue has a relatively
Loose connective tissue consists of relatively few
protein fibers that form a lacy network, with large number of protein fibers that form thick
numerous spaces filled with ground substance and bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular
fluid. space.
• There are two major subcategories of dense
• Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue
are areolar, adipose, and reticular. connective tissue: collagenous and elastic.
• Dense collagenous connective tissue has
Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of
collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers. an extracellular matrix consisting mostly of
• The most common cells in loose connective
collagen fibers.
• Dense collagenous connective tissue having
tissue are the fibroblasts.
the collagen fibers oriented in the same
direction is termed dense regular.
• Examples of dense regular are tendons and
ligaments.
• Dense collagenous connective tissue having
the collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions is termed dense irregular.
• Examples of dense irregular are in the
dermis of the skin and in organ capsules.

• Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat

cells, which contain large amounts of lipid for
energy storage.
• Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the
body and acts as a thermal insulator.
• Reticular tissue forms the framework of
lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and
the liver.
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• Dense elastic connective tissue has • Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between
abundant elastic fibers among its collagen the vertebrae (bones of the back) and in
fibers. some joints, such as the knee and
• The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch temporomandibular (jaw) joints.
and recoil.
• Examples include the dense elastic
connective tissue in the vocal cords.
• A genetic condition called Marfan syndrome
results from, in part the inability to properly
maintain and form elastic fibers.

• Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in

addition to collagen and proteoglycans.
• The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers
among bundles of collagen fibers.
• Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original
shape when bent.
Cartilage • The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube
• is composed of chondrocytes, located in contain elastic cartilage.
spaces called lacunae within an extensive
matrix.
• Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage
flexibility and strength.
• Cartilage is resilient because the
proteoglycans of the matrix trap water.
• Cartilage provides support, but if bent or
slightly compressed, it resumes its original
shape.
• There are three types of cartilage: hyaline,
fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage. Bone
• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type • is a hard connective tissue that consists of
of cartilage and has many functions, such as living cells and a mineralized matrix.
covering the ends of bones, where they form Osteocytes are located within lacunae.
joints. • The strength and rigidity of the mineralized
• Also forms the cartilage rings of the matrix enables bones to support and protect
respiratory tract, the nasal cartilages, and the other tissues and organs.
costal cartilages, which attach the ribs to the Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone and
sternum (breastbone). compact bone.
• Spongy bone has spaces between
trabeculae or plates, of bone and therefore
resembles a sponge.
• Compact bone is more solid, with almost no
space between many thin layers of
mineralized matrix.

• Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does

hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM

Blood • Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow

• is a liquid connective tissue organs; it is also found in the skin and the
• It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma, eyes.
along with formed elements. • Smooth muscle is responsible for a number
• The formed elements are erythrocytes, of functions, such as moving food through
leukocytes, and platelets. the digestive tract and emptying the urinary
• It functions in transport of food, oxygen, bladder.
waste, hormones, and other substances. • Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each
end, have a single nucleus, and are not
striated.

Muscle
• The main function of muscle tissue is to
contract, or shorten, making movement
possible.
• Muscle contraction results from contractile
proteins located within the muscle cells. Nervous Tissue
The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, • forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
cardiac, and smooth. • It is responsible for coordinating and
• Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton controlling many body activities.
and enables the body to move. • Nervous tissue consists of neurons and
• Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded, support cells, termed glial cells.
because of the arrangement of contractile • The neuron is responsible for conducting
proteins within the cells. electrical signals.
• It is composed of three parts: a cell body,
dendrites, and an axon.

• Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it Tissue Membranes

is responsible for pumping blood. • is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a
• Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical but much structure or lines a cavity.
shorter than skeletal muscle cells. • Most membranes consist of epithelium and
• Cardiac muscle cells are striated and usually the connective tissue on which the epithelium
have one nucleus per cell. rests.
• They are often branched and connected to • There are four tissue membranes in the
one another by intercalated disks. body: cutaneous, mucous, serous, and
synovial.
• The skin, termed the cutaneous membrane,
is an external body surface membrane.

• The mucous membranes line cavities that

open to the outside of the body, such as the
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive
tracts.
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• Mucous membranes consist of epithelial Tissue Damage and Inflammation

cells, their basement membrane, and a thick • Inflammation occurs when tissues are
layer of loose connective tissue. damaged.
• Many, but not all, mucous membranes • Inflammation produces five major symptoms:
secrete mucus. redness, heat, swelling, pain, and
• The functions of mucous membranes include disturbance of function.
protection, absorption, and secretion. Inflammation

• Serous membranes line cavities that do not

open to the exterior of the body, such as the
pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
• Serous membranes consist of three
components: a layer of simple squamous
epithelium, its basement membrane, and a
delicate layer of loose connective tissue.
• Serous membranes do not contain glands,
but they secrete a small amount of fluid
called serous fluid, which lubricates the
surface of the membranes.

• Synovial membranes line the cavities of

freely movable joints.
• They are made up of only connective tissue
and consist of modified connective tissue
cells.
• Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid,
which makes the joint very slippery, thereby
reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint. Tissue Repair
Internal Membranes • Tissue repair involves substitution of dead
cells for viable cells.
• Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or
replacement.
• In regeneration, the new cells are the same
type as those that were destroyed, and
normal function is usually restored.
• In replacement, a new type of tissue
develops, which eventually produces a scar
and causes loss of some tissue function.
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOLOGY
2ND SEMESTER: PRELIM