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Wet chemical reduction is often used in laboratory research to control particle sizes. These challenges
hinder the practical application of high-throughput electrode materials or composite materials for
various applications. 551. Bacterial survival was determined at 24 h by a colony forming unit (CFU)
assay. Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches,
provides an outlook for. First, the reaction-process conditions were optimized. Monoclonal antibody-
mediated NP drug delivery systems involve human epidermal growth factor (HER2) 2, epidermal
growth factor receptor (EGFR), transferring receptor (TfR), and prostate specific membrane antigen
(PSMA). The conversion of metal ion to NP using intracellular signaling pathways involves bacterial
enzymes ( Figure 8 ). In this context, MNPs offer unique physicochemical properties and super
magnetic characteristics, which make them ideal candidates for hyperthermia therapy cancer ( Liu et
al., 2020 ), MRI ( Farzin et al., 2020 ), biosensing ( Kang et al., 2017 ), and targeted drug delivery (
Han et al., 2020 ). Hyperthermia treatment is an irreversible thermal ablation of pathologic targets by
raising the localized temperature of tissue through the induction of heat. Some critical features are
prerequisites when it comes to selecting the right semiconductor material for the
photoelectrochemical splitting of water: 489 an extraordinary capacity to absorb visible light; an
appropriate bandgap; suitable valence and conduction band positions; commercial feasibility; and
chemical stability. Drug delivery systems consist of two mechanisms—passive and active. The
scattered beams reflected by any crystal form many diffraction patterns. Nanostructured Sb in the
form of nanorod arrays with large interval spacing displays the great capacity to accommodate
volume changes during cycling. 473 A comparison of various nanostructured metal-based electrodes
for various charge storage purposes is shown in Table 3. FTIR peaks were observed at 3424 cm ?1,
which shifted to 3439 cm ?1, suggesting that the phenolic group was present in the peel extract,
which is involved in the reduction and stabilization of NPs. Most importantly, the featured high
specific surface areas of 2D-MOFs have gained much attention for use in supercapacitors.
Optimization of photocatalyst dosage and dye concentration are vital factors in developing the
photocatalytic process and achieving better performance. Although chemist target platinum
compound is considerably variation from structure activity relationship (SARs) based established
nonclassical platinum compound such as poly platinum compounds, Pt (IV) prodrugs, complex with
stereochemistry mechanisms, platinum-tethered intercalators, and monofunctional complexes, which
is discerned from bifunctional cross link of classical compounds. SEM is used for surface and
dimensional measurements of nano and micro structure analysis of samples and is a type of imaging
technique. There is an increased production of biomass and chlorophyll in the case of IONP 20 -
EDTA treatment. Further, PtNPs can be exploited proper functionalization different reducing agents.
Many researchers have used the term nanomaterial if the size is a few nanometers or smaller than a
few tens of nanometers, whereas others have even used the term nanomaterial for anything less than
a micrometer. This etching step can be further modified to produce fine-tuned MXenes with versatile
physical properties, utilizing the practical applicability of the material designability. As a result, over
the past few years there have been significant advances in the design and synthesis of 2D-MOF
nanosheets for many applications. NPs are thought to have been present on earth since its origin in
the form of soil, water, volcanic dust, and minerals. Several approaches are used for synthesizing
NPs, such as physical, chemical, and biological methods. Liposomal, polymeric protein, metal based,
and iron oxide NPs have emerged as top-notcher. Find support for a specific problem in the support
section of our website. For example, the use nano-TiO 2 and nano-SiO 2 on soybean seedlings
improved nitrate reductase activity thereby enhancing seed germination. Middle panel ( b ): Platinum
nanoparticle synthesis assisted by phenolic compounds. These novel 2D Co-MOFs displayed
ultrathin nanosheets with many surface-based metal active sites, improving the overall OER
performance. Human development has been hindered by various kinds of problems such as cancer,
pollution, agriculture practices, and so on.
To this end, an example can be noted from Wang et al. 437 reporting that fine porous MOF-5
nanosheets can be utilized to immobilize Pd nanoparticles. Summary on synthesis of metallic
nanoparticles by microorganisms. Schematic representation of various methods adopted for NP
synthesis and its applications. Although chemical treatment plays a major role in cancer therapy,
chemotherapy is associated with some side effects. At present, alternative therapy is required for
recovery from fungal disease. In the present review, first we have briefly discussed main synthetic
methods of MNPs, followed by their characterizations and composition. The antioxidant activity was
deliberated by taking median and typical deviation values, whereas the scavenging potential was
appraised using the previously described procedure. One carbon nanotube is nested in another
nanotube to construct a double-walled carbon nanotube. 147 In multi-walled carbon nanotubes,
multiple sheets of single-layer carbon atom are rolled up. Rotello Chemistry, Medicine Bioconjugate
chemistry 2004 TLDR Concentration-dependent lysis mediated by initial electrostatic binding was
observed in dye release studies using lipid vesicles, providing the probable mechanism for observed
toxicity with the cationic MMPCs. Graphene involves two-dimensional sp 2 -hybridized carbon
atom planar sheets that are tightly packed into honeycomb-like lattices. 182 Graphene is one of the
thinnest known materials and it possesses excellent mechanical strength. 183 Graphene is transparent
in nature, and that aspect of graphene is impressive when it comes to building transparent light
panels and touch-screens. During this meeting, the following concept was presented: “why can’t we
write the entire 24 volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin?” The vision was to
develop smaller machines, down to the molecular level. 6,7 In this talk, Feynman explained that the
laws of nature do not limit our ability to work at the atomic and molecular levels, but rather it is a
lack of appropriate equipment and techniques that limit this. 8 Through this, the concept of modern
technology was seeded. Synthesis of PtNPs using various parts of biological templates and their
sizes and shapes. In this regard, the use of MNPs can play a great role to minimize the risks
associated with water cleaning processes. A red shift in the absorption band appears with an increase
in the aspect ratio ( Fig. 12 ). 21. A metal-based nanostructured electrode is evaluated as both the
anode and cathode to overcome the challenges of conventional electrodes. 463 In a conventional
LIB, LiCoO 2 was used as the cathode material. The size of these nanoreactors can be controlled by
varying the water-to-surfactant ratio, ultimately affecting the size of the nanoparticles synthesized
through this method. Given the diverse scope of nanomaterials, different countries are investing in
nanotechnology with USA and China emerging at the top. The magnetic SERS strip can be
employed directly for real biological samples without any sample pretreatment measures. The
nanomaterial properties can be tuned as desired via precisely controlling the size, shape, synthesis
conditions, and appropriate functionalization. For example, Au solution appears yellow when in the
bulk and it appears purple or red at the nanoscale level. The irradiation of the material in a solution
takes place by a laser beam. Previously, several studies documented size-based toxicity of NPs using
various metallic NPs. Effect of apigenin mediated synthesis of PtNPs on cell survival of P. NPs cause
adverse consequences on human health and animals. The particles have wide size distribution as
compared to synthesized by chemical methods. While on the other hand, thermal decomposition or
pyrolysis method is used to produce monodisperse MNPs. The activity was concentration-dependent,
with better results achieved using the nanoparticles in combination with the antibiotic tetracycline,
rather than on their own. These functional groups, such as carboxylic acid, react further with other
functional groups, such as amines or alcohols, to produce amide or ester linkages on the carbon
nanotubes. 172 One of the main issues preventing the utilization of CNTs for biomedical applications
is their toxicity. Such novel kinds of MNPs have well-established structures and core-shell having
good magnetic properties. The emergence of nanotechnology has led to increasing interest in the
antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles and in exploring environmentally friendly ways in
which they can be used most effectively.
Some of the major challenges observed during the synthesis are summarized below: Detailed
optimization studies on reactants (plant extract, microorganism inoculum, fermentation medium
composition, etc.) and process parameters (temperature, pH, rotational speed, etc.) are required to
control the size and shape of the NPs. Assessment of the resulting PtNP solution demonstrated the
antibacterial activity against E. coli and B. subtilis, providing promising results against several cell
lines. The basic principle of this instrument is electrophoresis, which is mainly based on electric
charges, when electric field is applied into the dispersion, particles, or molecules are having net zeta
potential will migrate towards the oppositely charged electrode with a velocity, known as the
mobility, that is related to their zeta potential. Altogether, these studies confirmed that fungal extracts
can be used as a reducing and stabilizing agent for synthesis of PtNPs. 3.7. Green Synthesis of
Platinum Nanoparticles Using Plants Common biological methods for synthesis of NPs include
several organisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes, algae, and fungi. The size of these nanoreactors
can be controlled by varying the water-to-surfactant ratio, ultimately affecting the size of the
nanoparticles synthesized through this method. Depending on the fungus used, this capping may also
exhibit biological activity, acting in synergy with the effect of the nanoparticle core. This may result
in controlled drug delivery failure due to improper ligand surface binding and the promotion of the
formation of harmful free radicals. This might be due to the adsorption of dye on the catalyst and
slight degradation in the presence of H 2 O 2. There are no reports concerning the better or worse
activities of biogenic nanoparticles synthesized from different sources, such as fungi, bacteria, or
plants. FTIR measurement depends on the vibration of molecular bonds positioned at various
frequencies and the type of bonds. A wide range of plant materials including leave extract, fruit
extract, seed, fruit, bark, etc. A range of methods is available for the synthesis of metal-based
nanostructured materials. Nanoparticles developed through the reverse micelle method are amazingly
fine and monodispersed in nature. 90 Fig. 11 demonstrates the synthesis of magnetic lipase-
immobilized nanoparticles via the reverse micelle method. 91. Acknowledgments Although we are
the authors of this review, we would never have been able to complete it without the great many
people who have contributed to the field of platinum nanoparticles research. Conventional TEM
techniques are used to analyze the sample ubiquitously. For instance, the combination of platinum
drugs and imaging agents allows the distribution of drug-loaded NPs inside the body and the tumor.
The reduction of metal salt precursor to its successive NPs can be initially confirmed by visualizing
the color change of the colloidal solution. NP based food supplements are more effective than their
common counterparts because they are able to react more efficiently with the human cells due to
their nano-size. Numerous studies have focused on the development and use of a composite
membrane, prepared by the introduction of NPs into the polymeric or inorganic membranes for the
treatment of water. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. The working principle is very
simple; the raw materials are enclosed in a small hollow cylindrical jar containing many steel balls as
a grinding medium. While SEM gives us data regarding surface topography and composition of the
samples. In this method, inter atomic collision occurs between gas atoms within a chamber, and the
evaporated metal atoms lose their kinetic energy to condense in the form of a crystal which
accumulates in liquid nitrogen. Extracellularly produced NPs have good commercial feasibility and
are nontoxic. NPs have good potential for the reduction of aromatic nitrocompounds because
secondary metabolites are present in the leaf. The first report on MXenes (Ti 3 C 2 T x ) involved the
exfoliation of MAX-phases as a substitute for graphene in supercapacitors by Naguib, Barsoum, and
Gogotsi from Drexel University, USA, in 2011. 370 Since then, more than 19 forms of MXenes have
subsequently been developed, and various predictions relating to MXenes structures have also been
made. In the top-down approach, the bulk materials are broken into nano-sized particles i.e., through
high energy ball milling. Husseiny et al. (2015) evaluated the antibacterial and antitumor potential of
silver nanoparticles synthesized using Fusarium oxysporum. The images we get through these
instruments give us an idea about their shape and size from which their diameter can be calculated.
European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education (EJIHPE).
Cisplatin and PtNPs are able to induce cytotoxicity differentially in various type of cancer cells (
Figure 17 ). 8. In Vivo Toxicity of PtNPs Asha Rani et al. The results depicted that treatment with
PtNCP beads suppressed tumor growth and identified increasing pathological necrotic areas. NPs are
synthesized from metals such as platinum (Pt), silver (Ag), gold (Au), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co),
iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn). HR-TEM image of platinum nanoparticle produced by plant
extracts of Ipomea carnea. In addition to wild type strains, genetically modified microorganisms
with the ability to produce greater quantity of enzymes, proteins, and biomolecules could further
enhance the biosynthesis as well as the stabilization of NPs. The results showed that arsenene 2D
sheets are highly durable, with significant electronic charge transfer. Particularly, the cubic and
crystalline nature and purity of PtNPs can be measured. The extraordinary properties of tunable
carbon-based nanomaterials have attracted great interest for use in new technologies and addressing
modern challenges. 105,106 The carbon family consists of several unique nanomaterials, including
CNTs, fullerenes, graphene, carbon nanohorns, carbon-based quantum dots, and many others.
Mossbauer spectroscopy obtains data regarding bonding, structural, magnetic characters, and
determination of oxidation state. Peptides are extensively used for targeting ligands based on their
properties such as size, immunogenicity, stability, low cost, and conjugation properties. Conventional
methods of synthesis of nanoparticles. Furthermore, the elemental composition and concentration of
samples can be analyzed using SEM-EDX. 4.8. TEM TEM is a common method and an
indispensable tool for the characterization of NPs. Schematic representation illustrating the various
approaches used for synthesis of platinum nanoparticles. References Tang, Q.; Qian, Y.; Yang, D.;
Qiu, X.; Qin, Y.; Zhou, M. Lignin-Based Nanoparticles: A Review on Their Preparations and
Applications. Several methods have used for the synthesis of NPs from various sources and diverse
methods. The superior mechanical properties and rich surface chemistry of nanodiamonds have made
them a superior material for tuning and reinforcing polymer composites. The material is placed at the
bottom of a cell submerged in a liquid solution and targeted by the focused laser beam. In biomedical
sciences, it is primarily used to characterize cells and organ and tissues surfaces based on 3D images.
The chemical synthesis approach provides a complete understanding of developing the magnetic
moment at the nanoscale ( Skomski and Coey, 1994; Liu et al., 2014a ). An effective method to
create an exchange coupling effect on hard magnetic cores is coating with soft magnetic shells,
which can increase their magnetization ( Liu et al., 2014b ). The seed-mediated synthesis is effective
to produce high-performance exchange-coupled nanomagnets. The type of materials used in
formulating the nanoparticles along with their particle size are the two most significant parameters,
which can have an effect on the effectiveness of antimicrobial activity. Note that from the first issue
of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. Synthesis is confirmed based on
the absorbance of the samples at wavelength from 230 to 800 nm, and NPs ranging from 1 to 100
nm can be used for analysis. Various parts of plants such as leaves, steam, flower, fruit, root, latex,
seed, and seed coat are being exploited for the synthesis of metallic NPs. Synthesis, characterization,
and application of platinum nanoparticles produced by plant Azadirachta indica. Most fungi produce
metal NPs either by intracellular or extracellular processes. It is generally used to produce nanofibers
from a wide variety of materials, typically polymers. 28 One of the important breakthroughs in
electrospinning was coaxial electrospinning. We wish to thank all the investigators who have
contributed to the field of synthesis, characterization and biomedical application of platinum
nanoparticles. In this study, the reaction mixture without photocatalyst was considered a control.
Environmentally benign conditions require various templates, including microorganisms, algae, fungi,
and plants, and small molecules that can act as alternatives for physical and chemical methods. Effect
of apigenin mediated synthesis of PtNPs on cell survival of P.
International Journal of Turbomachinery, Propulsion and Power (IJTPP). The definition of
nanomaterials is not straightforward. These two 2D nanosheets can be used to design mechanical
sensors, moving beyond common electronic and optoelectronic applications. The nanoparticles
possess cappings derived from the fungi, which confer stability. Furthermore, in contrast to other
diffraction techniques, samples in all forms can be analyzed, such as solid, liquid, glass, gas, and
crystalline samples. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of platinum colloid shows comparative to
increase with volume of fraction. Their two main forms are magnetite (Fe 2 O 3 ) and maghemite (?-
Fe 2 O 3 ). Funding This research received no external funding. All articles published by MDPI are
made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special. In order to be
human-readable, please install an RSS reader. This etching step can be further modified to produce
fine-tuned MXenes with versatile physical properties, utilizing the practical applicability of the
material designability. Furthermore, the method is accurate, less time consuming, inexpensive, and
data reproducible and allows analysis of high-molecular-weight samples. In this context, increased
usage of chemical fertilizers acts as one of the key contributors to increased crop productivity.
Antibodies are used in nuclear medicine for diagnostic purposes and therapeutic applications. If the
water concentration is decreased, this results in smaller water droplets, resulting in the formation of
smaller nanoparticles. 89 Thus, the reverse micelle method provides a facile route for synthesizing
uniform nanoparticles with precisely controlled size. For example, Li et al. 427 recently reported two
novel Mn-2D MOFs and Ni-2D MOFs as anode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries. The
nano-sized metal structures act as an electrocatalyst and electronic wires to provide rapid electron
transfer between the transducers and analyte molecules. 500 The electrochemical redox reaction of H
2 O 2 can be improved via the thermally controlled anchoring of Pt NPs on the electrode surface.
501. Nanoparticles (NPs) are small particles that exist in an average size ranges between 1 and 100
nm that distinguish them from their parental bulky materials and make them ideal for diverse
applications ( Laconte et al., 2005; Cardoso et al., 2018 ). Among them, magnetic nanoparticles
(MNPs), a nanoscale material, with unique magnetic properties have been widely used in different
fields such as biomedical, energy, engineering, and environment applications. Polymers can develop
into insulating wrapping that affects the CNT conductivity. Nanodiamonds can be synthesized using
several methods, such as the ion irradiation of graphite, 221 high-energy ball milling, 222 carbide
chlorination, 223 chemical vapor deposition, 224 and laser ablation. 225. Recently, conical fullerene
amphiphiles 126 have emerged as a new class of amphiphiles, in which a nonpolar apex is supplied
by fullerenes and a hydrophilic part is achieved through functionalization. The benefits of this
method are its efficiency, ecofriendly, and clean process. Catalytic nanomaterials like platinum,
palladium, and cerium display inimitable physicochemical properties and high surface area and have
immense potential for application in various fields. In order to be human-readable, please install an
RSS reader. A Comprehensive Review on the Synthesis, Characterization, and Biomedical
Application of Platinum Nanoparticles. So far, only one review has been dedicated to the application
of PtNPs to nanomedicine. For example, a study reported in vitro culturing of Cucurbita pepo and
carbon-coated magnetic iron NPs for plant’s disease treatment. In addition to wild type strains,
genetically modified microorganisms with the ability to produce greater quantity of enzymes,
proteins, and biomolecules could further enhance the biosynthesis as well as the stabilization of NPs.
NSOM is another type of SPM which uses a wavelength light source used as a scanning probe. The
ensuing size of the PtNPs ranged between 1.3 and 6 nm, and the shape of the NPs was homogeneous
small spheres.
Commonly, the put off blood circulation of NPs is prior to archive the successful drug delivery.
Therefore, functionalized iron oxide NPs can overcome this problem as well as overpass barriers and
uptake by plants through a analytical processes. Some examples include Ag-NP-incorporated
enzymes for microbial detection and gas sensing and nanofibrils of perylene-based fluorophores for
detecting gaseous amines from fish and meat spoilage. The underlying mechanism mainly involves
two phenomena. TEM is classified based on applications like immune and energy filtered electron
microscopy. 4.9. AFM AFM is also called scanning force microscopy (SFM). Due to these reasons,
this has become a hot area of research. 486 During water electrolysis, H 2 is produced through the
hydrogen evolution reaction at the cathode and O 2 is produced through the oxygen evolution
reaction at the anode. Now, research is switching from conventional nanomaterials to more advanced
and smartly designed nanomaterials. International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM). Bottom-
up strategies mainly include interfacial synthesis, 421 modulated synthesis, 422 three-layer synthesis,
423 and surfactant-mediated synthesis. 424 A handful of review articles about 2D-MOFs from a
synthetic perspective discuss the challenging issues of the large-scale preparation and direct
applications of pristine 2D-MOF nanosheets. A Comprehensive Review on the Synthesis,
Characterization, and Biomedical Application of Platinum Nanoparticles. Furthermore, to overcome
the obstacles in exclusive multidrug resistance, multifunctional PtNPs need to be designed for
diagnosis and targeting and as nanocarrier and phototherapeutic agents. The presence of nanoscale
hollow interiors and functional shells imparts them with great potential for gas sensing, catalysis,
biomedicine, energy storage, and conversion. 519. In general, PtNPs can be synthesized by two
methods—the top-down and bottom-up processes. Metal Alloys Magnetic Nanostructure Metal alloy
NPs are highly promising with super magnetic featured NPs. They are crystalline aluminosilicate
minerals whose structures comprise uniform, regular arrays of nanopores with molecular dimensions.
Furthermore, NP-Pt decreased the weight and volume and induced pathomorphological changes of
tumor tissue. Nanoparticulate nanofertilizers include NPs, such as CNTs, TiO 2, and SiO 2,
responsible for plant growth. In case of nickel NPs, small particle sizes (less than 200 nm) are
preferable for entering into epithelial cells, whereas larger NPs are phagocytosed by macrophages
present. To enhance the resolution of medical images, novel imaging techniques are being developed.
A non-magnetic element can become magnetic at the nanoscale level. 93. The synthesized PSMA
targeting aptamer functionalized Pt (IV) prodrug PLGA-PEG NP (Pt-NP-Apt) transport to cisplatin
to prostate cancer cells. Scientists must proceed with caution and refrain from premature launch of
nanomedicines without assessing the adverse effects involved. We have already briefly discussed
different routes of synthesis for MNPs in former sections. Right panel ( c ): Platinum nanoparticle
synthesis assisted by S-containing compounds. The activity was concentration-dependent, with better
results achieved using the nanoparticles in combination with the antibiotic tetracycline, rather than on
their own. C 6 H 5 O 7 Na 3, N 2 H 4, and NaBH 4 are frequently used for chemical reduction
processes. This review is designed to report information regarding different classification of MNPs
based on different elemental compositions and metals followed by their characterization and
applications in the fields of energy, biomedicine, biosensing, environmental, agriculture, and
catalysis, cancer. FePd NPs were prepared using adamantine carboxylic acid and tributyl phosphine
as stabilizers at room temperature through the organic phase thermal decomposition method. Every
year, the number of cancer patients is increasing at an alarming level. The controlled synthesis of
nanomaterials is still a challenging job.
Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers.
Additionally, the separation and purification of NPs from the reaction mixture is another important
aspect that need to be explored. When it comes to antibacterial activities, size and concentration are
important factors. Depending on the fungus used, this capping may also exhibit biological activity,
acting in synergy with the effect of the nanoparticle core. So download to create the best
presentation on the entire process of synthesis of nanoparticles. In other reports, Zhang et al. 433
successfully performed the OER process with ultrathin 2D-MOF sheets prepared via electrochemical
and chemical exfoliation strategies. Au is famous for its wide applications in the field of biomedicine
or catalysis. The entry and effect of cisplatin and PtNPs are shown in Figure 16. In vivo studies have
also shown an increase in antitumor activity and improvement in pharmacokinetics and
biodistribution with the conjugation of EGFR. Polymers can develop into insulating wrapping that
affects the CNT conductivity. The synthesis and stability of 2D ultrathin materials are some of the
major challenges associated with them. PtNPs obtained from tea polyphenol showed a flower-
shaped morphology with sizes ranging from 30 to 60 nm. All articles published by MDPI are made
immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special. MOF- and COF-based
materials are promising precursors for nanoporous carbon-based materials. These different
components integrated to become a multicomponent magnetic structure provide newfangled
properties. Hence, the recent advancements using NPs in food preservation and packaging may be
used to overcome the disadvantages of the biopolymer-based packaging technologies. In this review,
we will discuss three physical methods i.e., ball milling, laser evaporation, and wire explosion
method. Interestingly, the samples exhibited various structural stabilities and electronic properties
with a wide range of direct and indirect band gaps. It is also important to define the desired
physicochemical characteristics of the nanoparticles, in order to establish the parameters used in the
synthesis, such as temperature, pH, and time, among others. The properties of reduced graphene
oxide depend upon the effective removal of oxygen moieties from graphene oxide. But this can be
done under very controlled conditions during synthesis. Recent development of smart packaging,
viz., oxygen scavengers, moisture absorbers, and barrier-packaging products, account for 80% of the
market share. STM is used in the industrial sector and for basic research to obtain atomic scale
images of surfaces and to analyze the surface defects, molecule size, and aggregation to the surface.
In CVD, a thin film is formed on the substrate surface via the chemical reaction of vapor-phase
precursors. 58 A precursor is considered suitable for CVD if it has adequate volatility, high chemical
purity, good stability during evaporation, low cost, a non-hazardous nature, and a long shelf-life.
Table 1 summarizes the green synthesis of various metal NPs using plants. Combination therapy has
exhibited reduced systemic toxicity in comparison to either photothermal treatment or chemotherapy
alone. As the pH was increased, the intensity of the dispersion increased, with the nanoparticles
presenting greater monodispersion and stability at pH 7 ( Balakumaran et al., 2015 ). A number of
researchers have developed various techniques of encapsulating these bioactives using nano-sized
particles or nano-emulsions resulting in enhancement of their bioavailability due to the increased
surface to volume ratio. It is extremely important to investigate the toxicity mechanism to ensure the
biosafety and stability of nanomaterials ( Ali et al., 2020 ). These research gaps need to be well
addressed to overcome challenges of water and soil quality. Higher cytotoxicity was observed
against the tumor cells, which showed signs of apoptosis, with condensed nuclei, membrane damage,
and the presence of apoptotic bodies.