Chapter 3.

3.4.1 Vectors

Much of the work of engineers and scientists involves forces. Ensuring the structural integrity
of a building or a bridge involves knowing the forces acting on the system and designing the
structural members to withstand them.

Forces are three-dimensional quantities and provide one of the commonest examples of
vectors.

Associated with these forces are accelerations and velocities, which can also be represented
by vectors.

The length of OP is

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Scalars and vectors

Quantities like distance or temperature called scalars – they obey the usual rules of real
numbers and they have no direction associated with them. However, vectors have both a
magnitude and a direction associated with them; these include force, velocity and magnetic
field.

Some basic properties of vectors are:

(a) Equality

Two vectors a and b are equal if and only if they have the same modulus and the same
direction. We write this in the usual way
a=b
In component form, two vectors a = (a1, a2, a3) and b = (b1, b2, b3) are equal if and only if
the components are equal, that is
a1 = b1, a2 = b2, a3 = b3.

(b) Multiplication by a scalar

If λ is a scalar and the vectors are related by a = λb then

• if λ >0, a is a vector in the same direction as b with magnitude λ times the magnitude of b;
• if λ < 0, a is a vector in the opposite direction to b with magnitude |λ | times the magnitude
of b.

(c) Parallel Vectors

The vectors a and b in (b) are said to be parallel or antiparallel according as λ > 0 or λ <0
respectively. (Note that we do not insert any multiplication symbol between λ and b since the
common symbols · and × are reserved for special uses that we shall discuss later.)

(d) Modulus

The modulus or length or magnitude of a vector a is written as | a | or | ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | or a if there is

no ambiguity. A vector with modulus one is called a unit vector and is written â, with the hat
(ˆ) indicating a unit vector. Clearly

(e) Zero Vector

The zero or null vector has zero modulus; it is written as 0 or often just as 0 when there is no
ambiguity whether it is a vector or not.

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VECTOR ALGEBRA

3.4.2 Addition of vectors

3.4.3 Subtraction of vectors

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Cartesian components and basic properties

The analysis applies to any point, so we can write any vector r in terms of its components

x, y, z with respect to the unit vectors i, j, k as

| | √( )

Example 1

Given the vectors [ ] [ ] [ ], find

(a) a+b (b) 2a-b (c) a+b-c (d) the unit vector in the direction of c.

Ans:[(0,3,4), (3,0,-1), 0, (0,3/5,4/5)]

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Example 2

Given the vectors [ ] [ ] [ ], find

(a) the vector d=a-2b+3c

(b) the magnitude of d and write down a unit vector in the direction of d.

[(9,-25,14), ( )]
√ √ √

Example 3

Three forces, with the units of newtons,

F1=(1,1,1)

F2 has magnitude 6 and acts in the direction (1,2,-2)

F3 has magnitude 10 and acts in the direction (3,-4,0) act on a particle.

(a) Find the resultant force that acts on the particle.

(b) What additional force must be imposed on the particle to reduce the resultant force to
zero?
[(9,-3,-3), (-9,3,3)]

Example 4

A particle P is acted upon by forces (measured in newton) F1 = 3i − 2j + 5k,

F2 = −i + 7j − 3k, F3 = 5i − j + 4k and F4 = −2j + 3k. Determine the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force acting on P.
Answer
√ ( ) √

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3.4.4 The scalar product

Definition

The scalar ( or dot or inner) product of two vectors a = (a1, a2, a3 ) and b = ( b1, b2, b3 ) is
defined as follows:

In components

Geometrically

| || |

where θ ( ) is the angle between two vectors.

For perpendicular vectors,

Scalar (dot) product

| || |

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Example 5

Given the vectors a = (1,-1,2), b = (-2,0,2) and c = (3,2,1), evaluate

(a)
(b)
(c) ( )
(d) ( )
(e) ( )

Answer

(a) 3
(b) -4
(c) -1
(d) 13
(e) (6,4,2)

Example 6

Find the angle between the vectors

[ ] and [ ].

Answer 33.21o

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3.4.5 The vector product

Definition

Given two vectors a and b, the vector product is defined geometrically as

| || | ̂

where θ ( ) is the angle between two vectors and ̂ is the unit vector
perpendicular to both a and b such that a, b, ̂ form a right handed set.

Vector (cross) product

| || | ̂

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Example 7

Given the vectors a = (2,1,0), b = (2,-1,1) and c = (0,1,1), evaluate

(a)
(b) ( )
(c) ( ) ( )
(d)
(e) ( )
(f) ( ) ( )

Answers

(a) (1,-2,-4)
(b) (2,-1,1)
(c) (2,-1,1)
(d) (-2,-2,2)
(e) (2,-4,-2)
(f) (2,-4,-2)

Example 8

Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the vectors

[ ] and [ ].

Answer ( )
√ √ √

Example 9

Given two forces:

[ ] and [ ].

(a) Find the angle between the vectors.

(b) By using the answer from (a), calculate | |

Answer

9.165

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Example 10

Two forces, with the units of Newton act on an object.

[ ] and F2 has magnitude 15 and acts in the direction( ).

(a) Obtain the force in the form [ ].

(b) Evaluate the resultant force that acts on the particle.

(c) Find the angle between two forces.

(d) Find the magnitude of the vector product of two forces.

Example 11

(a) Find the angle between the forces:

[ ] and [ ]

(b) Based on the calculation above, find the magnitude of the vector product

| |

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3.4.6 Polar coordinates

Example 12

Find the polar coordinates of the points whose Cartesian coordinates are (1,2), (-1,3),(-1,-1),
(1,-2), (1,0), (0,2), (0,-2).

Example 13

Find the Cartesian coordinates of the points whose polar coordinates are (3, /4), (2, - /6),
(2, - /2), (5, 3 /4).

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