COL 100:

Introduction to Computer
Science

2020-21: Semester 2

1
What is computer science?
MISCONCEPTION 1:
Computer science is the study of computers.

MISCONCEPTION 2:
Computer science is the study of how to write computer programs.

MISCONCEPTION 3:
Computer science is the study of the uses and applications of
computers and software.

2
What is computer science?
 Computer science is the study of
algorithms including

 1. Their formal and mathematical properties

 2. Their linguistic realizations
 3. Their hardware realizations
 4. Their applications

3
 An example of a very simple
algorithm
 1. Wet your hair. Observe:
 2. Lather your hair.
Operations need not be
 3. Rinse your hair.
executed by a computer
 4. Stop.
only, but by any entity
capable of carrying out the
operations listed.

The algorithm begins executing at the top of the list of

operations.

4
 A more complex example
 Searching for a word in a dictionary
 1. Start with page 1
 2. Start with the first word on the page
 3. If this word is the same as the target word, then
 read its meaning
 go to step 7
 4. If more words on this page
 move to the next word on this page
 go to step 3
 5. If reached the end of this page and more pages remain
 move to next page
 go to step 2
 6. Declare target word as not found
 7. Stop.
5
A more efficient algorithm
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUP-
F5Oeng8

6
Formal and mathematical
properties of algorithms
 Properties of an algorithm:
 How efficient is it?
 What kinds of resources must be used to
execute it?
 How does it compare to other algorithms
that solve the same problem?

7
Linguistic realizations to
express algorithms
 How do we represent algorithms?
 Pseudocode, high level programming
languages, low level programming
languages

 Our key focus in this course! Programming

in C

8
Course Materials

Please use the lecture slides as your main resource. For C

programming, an easy text you can also follow is:

Programming in C, by Stephen G. Kochan. Available here.

Additional books:
1. Programming with C, by Byron Gottfried
2. The C Programming Language, by Brian W Kernighan, Dennis
M Ritchie

10
Linguistic realizations to
express algorithms
 Algorithms operate on data. Closely
intertwined is the representation of data

 Another example: Matching of ads

 Check your Google ad profile! Go to My
Account -> Data and personalization -> Ad
settings -> Advanced
 How would this be represented in a computer?
11
Simple data structure example
 Express ads in terms
of an Interest vector
 Show ads which
match the user profile

 But sparse matrix with

lots of unknown data
about users

12
Simple data structure example
 Find correlations
between interests,
use this to “pre fill” the
UxI matrix or to
reduce the interest
dimensions

 At heart: Matrix
operations on very
large matrices.
 More challenges:
Efficient search given
many ads to choose
from? 13
Hardware realizations to
execute algorithms
 Algorithms need not execute on machines. All
we really need are computing entities.
 Anything that can compute – e.g., a human.
 But, ultimately, most of our interest will lie with
algorithms that execute on computing entities
called "computers".
 How are these entities constructed?

14
Applications of algorithms
 What are some of the many important
and popular applications of computers
in current use including:
 modeling and simulation
 information retrieval
 numerical problem solving
 data analysis
 artificial intelligence
 networking
 graphics
15
What is computer science?
 Computer science is the study of
algorithms including

 1. Their formal and mathematical properties

 2. Their linguistic realizations
 3. Their hardware realizations
 4. Their applications

16
A brief history of computing
Abacus

 2nd century BC
 Not really a computing device, but a
counting device to count large numbers

18
Napier’s Bones
46732 x 5
Add:
10
150
3500
30000
200000

 1616 AD
 Closer to computing
19
Pascaline: 1642 AD

20
Joseph Jacquard
 In the late 1700s in France, Joseph Jacquard
invented a way to control the pattern on a weaving
loom used to make fabric.
 Jacquard punched pattern holes into paper cards.
 The cards told the loom what to do.
 Instead of a person making every change in a
pattern, the machine made the changes all by
itself.
 Jacquard's machine didn't count anything. So it
wasn't a computer or even a computing device. His
ideas, however, led to many other computing
inventions later.

22
Jacquard’s Loom
Intricate textile
patterns were
prized in France in
early 1800s.
Jacquard’s loom
(1805-6) used
punched cards to
allow only some
rods to bring the
thread into the
loom on each
shuttle pass.

23
Jacquard’s Loom

http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/videos/j/video-jacquard-weaving/
24
 Charles Babbage
 Babbage is known as the father
of modern computing because
he was the first person to design
a general purpose computing
device.
 In 1822, Babbage began to
design and build a small working
model of an automatic
mechanical calculating machine,
which he called a "difference
engine".

25
 Charles Babbage
 Babbage continued work to produce a full scale working Difference
Engine for 10 years, but in 1833 he lost interest because he had a
"better idea"--the construction of what today would be described
as a general-purpose, fully program-controlled, automatic
mechanical digital computer.

 Babbage called his machine an "analytical engine".

 He designed, but was unable to build, this Analytical Engine

(1856) which had many of the characteristics of today’s
computers:
an input device – punched card reader
an output device – a typewriter
memory – rods which rotated into position “stored” a number
control unit – punched cards that encoded instructions
26
The machine was to operate automatically, by steam
power, and would require only one attendant.
 Herman Hollerith
 In 1886, Herman Hollerith invented a machine known as the
Automatic Tabulating Machine, to count how many people
lived in the United States.
 This machine was needed because the census was taking far
too long.
 His idea was based on Jacquard's loom. Hollerith used holes
punched in cards. The holes stood for facts about a person;
such as age, address, or his type of work. The cards could
hold up to 240 pieces of information.
 Hollerith also invented a machine, a tabulator, to select special
cards from the millions.
 To find out how many people lived in Pennsylvania, the
machine would select only the cards punched with a
Pennsylvania hole. Hollerith's punched cards made it possible
to count and keep records on over 60 million people.

28
Hollerith Tabulator
Hollerith founded the
Tabulating Machine
Company.
In 1924, the name of
the company was
changed to
International
Business Machines
Corporation (IBM).
This is the 1890
version used in
tabulating the 1890
federal census.

29
Punched cards
The punched card used
by the Hollerith
Tabulator for the 1890
US census.

The punched card was

standardized in 1928:
It was the primary input
media of data processing and
computing from 1928 until
the mid-1970s and was still in
use in voting machines in the
2000 USA presidential
election.

30
 The digital revolution: Mark 1
An electro-mechanical computer:
1939-1944

Contains more than 750,000

components, is 50 feet long, 8 feet
tall, and weighs approximately 5
tons

Instructions were pre-punched on

paper tape
Input was by punched cards
Output was displayed on an electric typewriter.
Could carry out addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and reference to previous results.
31
One of the four paper tape readers on the
Harvard Mark I
The first computer bug
Computer vs. Computing device
 Most, but not all, people claim a
computer must be
 Digital
 Programmable
 Electronic
 General purpose
 If any characteristic is missing, at
best, you have a computing device.

34
ENIAC – (Electrical Numerical Integrator And
Calculator), built by Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly at Moore School of Engineering,
University of Pennsylvania, 1941-46

Often called the

first computer (that
was electronic,
programmable,
general purpose
and digital).
ENIAC
 19,000 vacuum tubes and weighed 30 tons
 Duration of an average run without some failure
was only a few hours
 When it ran, the lights in Philadelphia dimmed!
 ENIAC Stored a maximum of twenty 10-digit
decimal numbers.
 Input: IBM card reader
 Output: Punched cards, lights

36
ENIAC’s vacuum tubes

37
Vacuum tubes

38
Transistors! 1947 – Shockley,
Bardeem, and Brattain @ Bell Labs

AND gate OR gate NOT gate

39
From gates to logic circuits

1 bit adder

40
Left: Typical wiring in an early
mainframe computer
Right: An integrated circuit
 Von Neumann architecture
There are 3 major units in a computer tied together by buses:
1) Memory: The unit that stores and retrieves instructions and data.

2) Processor: The unit that houses two separate components:

The control unit: Repeats the following 3 tasks repeatedly

Fetches an instruction from memory
Decodes the instruction
Executes the instruction
The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU): Performs
mathematical and logical operations.

3) Input/Output (I/O) Units: Handles communication with the

44
outside world.
Flow of information
 The parts are connected to one
another by a collection of wires
called a bus

Processor

46
Executing instructions

47
 Memory
 Memory is a
collection of cells,
each with a unique
physical address
 The size of a cell is
normally a power of
2, typically a byte (8
bites) today.
 RAM: Random
Access Memory
 32-bit vs. 64-bit
architecture 48
 Control unit

Once the The PC holds the

instruction is address of the next
fetched, the PC instruction to be
(Program executed.
Counter) is
incremented. Whatever is stored at
that address is
assumed to be an
instruction.

49
 Examples of OpCodes
Arithmetic OpCodes
 0000 load
 0001 store
 0010 clear
 0011 add
 0100 increment
 0101 subtract
 0110 decrement
I/0 OpCodes
 1101 in
 1110 out

Logic/Control OpCodes
 0111 compare
 1000 jump
 1001 jumpgt
 1010 jumpeq
 1011 jumplt
 1100 jumpneq 50
All a computer does is:

 Repeat forever (or until you pull the

plug or the system crashes)
 1) FETCH
 2) DECODE
 3) EXECUTE

 Notion of clockspeed
51
How to Instruct a Computer ?
compile execute
Program Executable Output

 Write a program in a high level language – C, C++,

Java
 Compile it into a format that the computer
understands
 Execute the program
52
What Can a Computer Understand ?
 Computer can clearly NOT understand
instructions of the form
 Multiply two matrices
 Compute the determinant of a matrix
 Find the shortest path between Mumbai and Delhi
 They understand :
 Add a + b to get c
 Multiply a + b to get c

53
The Language of Instructions
 Humans can understand
 Complicated sentences
 English, French, Spanish

 Computers can understand

 Very simple instructions

The semantics of all the instructions supported by a processor is known

as its instruction set architecture (ISA). This includes the semantics of
the instructions themselves, along with their operands, and interfaces
with peripheral devices. Number of instructions in an x86 architecture?

54
Features of an ISA
 Example of instructions in an ISA
 Arithmetic instructions : add, sub, mul, div
 Logical instructions : and, or, not
 Data transfer/movement instructions

 Also called low level instructions …

 Most programmers avoid writing programs in low level
instructions. Very complicated, and difficult.

55
Problems with programming using
instruction sets directly
 Instruction sets of different types of CPUs are
different
 Need to write different programs for computers with
different types of CPUs even to do the same thing
 Solution: High level languages (C, C++,
Java,…)
 CPU neutral, one program for many
 Compiler to convert from high-level program to low
level program that CPU understands
 Easy to write programs

56
Fundamentals: Binary
Numbers

57
Representing Positive Integers
 Ancient Roman System

Symbol I V X L C D M

Value 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000

 Issues :
 There was no notion of 0
 Very difficult to represent large numbers
 Addition, and subtraction (very difficult)
58
Indian System

Bakshali numerals, 7th century AD

 Uses the place value system

5301 = 5 * 103 + 3 * 102 + 0 * 101 + 1*100

Example in base 10

59
Number Systems in Other Bases
 Why do we use base 10 ?
 because ...

60
What if we had a world in which
...
 People had only two fingers.

61
Representing Numbers

102310 = 1 * 103 + 0 * 102 + 2 * 101 + 3 * 100 Decimal

base
Binary
1710 = 1 * 24 + 0 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20 = 100012

Base = 2

62
 Binary Number System
 They would use a number system with
base 2.
Number in decimal Number in binary
5 101
100 1100100
500 111110100
1024 10000000000

63
MSB and LSB
 MSB (Most Significant Bit)  The leftmost bit
of a binary number. E.g., MSB of 1110 is 1
 LSB (Least Significant Bit)  The rightmost
bit of a binary number. E.g.,
LSB of 1110 is 0

64
Hexadecimal and Octal
Numbers
 Hexadecimal numbers
 Base 16 numbers – 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
 Start with 0x

 Octal Numbers
 Base 8 numbers – 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 Start with 0

65
Examples
Decimal Numbers:
 10 Symbols {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}, Base or Radix is 10
 136 = 1  102 + 3  101 + 6  100
Binary Numbers:
 2 Symbols {0,1}, Base or Radix is 2
 101 = 1  22 + 0  21 + 1  20
Octal Numbers:
 8 Symbols {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}, Base or Radix is 8
 621 = 6  82 + 2  81 + 1  80
Hexadecimal Numbers:
 16 Symbols {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F}, Base is 16
6AF = 6  162 + 10  161 + 15  160
66
 Examples
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
9 1001 0 11 0x 9
12 1100 0 14 0x C
17 10001 0 21 0x 11
28 11100 0 34 0x 1C

Convert 110010111 to the octal format : 110 010 111 = 0612

Convert 111000101111 to the hex format : 1110 0010 1111 = 0xC2F
Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
 Each digit position of a binary number has
a weight
 Some power of 2
 A binary number:
B = bn-1 bn-2 …..b1 b0
Corresponding value in decimal:

n-1

D= b i 2i
i = -m
68
Examples
101011  1x25 + 0x24 + 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20
= 43
(101011)2 = (43)10

101  1x22 + 0x21 + 1x20

=5

(101)2 = (5)10

69
Decimal to Binary: Integer Part
Consider the integer and fractional parts separately.
For the integer part:
Repeatedly divide the given number by 2, and go on
accumulating the remainders, until the number becomes zero.
Arrange the remainders in reverse order.

Base NumbRem

2 89
2 44 1
2 22 0
2 11 0
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1

(89)10 = (1011001)2
70
Decimal to Binary: Integer Part
Consider the integer and fractional parts separately.
For the integer part:
Repeatedly divide the given number by 2, and go on
accumulating the remainders, until the number becomes zero.
Arrange the remainders in reverse order.

Base NumbRem
2 66
2 89 2 33 0
2 44 1 2 16 1
2 22 0 2 8 0
2 11 0 2 4 0
2 5 1 2 2 0
2 2 1 2 1 0
2 1 0 0 1
0 1
(66)10 = (1000010)2
(89)10 = (1011001)2
71
Decimal to Binary: Integer Part
Consider the integer and fractional parts separately.
For the integer part:
Repeatedly divide the given number by 2, and go on
accumulating the remainders, until the number becomes zero.
Arrange the remainders in reverse order.

Base NumbRem 2 239

2 66 2 119 1
2 89 2 33 0 2 59 1
2 44 1 2 16 1 2 29 1
2 22 0 2 8 0 2 14 1
2 11 0 2 4 0 2 7 0
2 5 1 2 2 0 2 3 1
2 2 1 2 1 0 2 1 1
2 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1
(66)10 = (1000010)2
(89)10 = (1011001)2 (239)10 = (11101111)2
72
Hexadecimal Number System
 A compact way of representing binary numbers
 16 different symbols (radix = 16)

0  0000 8  1000
1  0001 9  1001
2  0010 A  1010
3  0011 B  1011
4  0100 C  1100
5  0101 D  1101
6  0110 E  1110
7  0111 F  1111

73
Binary-to-Hexadecimal
Conversion
 For the integer part,
 Scan the binary number from right to left
 Translate each group of four bits into the
corresponding hexadecimal digit
Add leading zeros if necessary

74
Example
1. (1011 0100 0011)2 = (B43)16
2. (10 1010 0001)2 = (2A1)16

75
Hexadecimal-to-Binary
Conversion
 Translate every hexadecimal digit into its
4-bit binary equivalent

 Examples:
(3A5)16 = (0011 1010 0101)2
(12)16 = (0001 0010)2
(1)16 = (0001)2

76
Bits and Bytes
 Computers do not understand natural human languages, nor
programming languages
 They only understand the language of bits

Bit 0 or 1

Byte 08 or
bits1

Word 40bytes
or 1

kiloByte 1024
0 or 1bytes

megaByte 1006 or
bytes
1

77
77
Fundamentals of C

78
First C program – print on screen
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
printf ("Hello, World! \n") ;
}

79
More printing … (code and see)
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
printf ("Hello, World! ") ;
printf ("Hello \n World! \n") ;
}

80
Some more printing
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
printf ("Hello, World! \n") ;
printf ("Hello \n World! \n") ;
printf ("Hell\no \t World! \n") ;
}

81
Reading values from keyboard
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int num ;
scanf ("%d", &num) ;
printf (“No. of students is %d\n”, num) ;
}

82
Centigrade to Fahrenheit
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
float cent, fahr;
scanf(“%f”,&cent);
fahr = cent*(9.0/5.0) + 32;
printf( “%f C equals %f F\n”, cent, fahr);
}
83
Largest of two numbers
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int x, y;
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y);
if (x>y) printf(“Largest is %d\n”,x);
else printf(“Largest is %d\n”,y);
}
largest-1.c 84
What does this do?
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int x, y;
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y);
if (x>y) printf(“Largest is %d\n”,x);
printf(“Largest is %d\n”,y);
}
largest-2.c 85
The C Character Set
 The C language alphabet
 Uppercase letters ‘A’ to ‘Z’
 Lowercase letters ‘a’ to ‘z’
 Digits ‘0’ to ‘9’
 Certain special characters:

! # % ^ & * ( )
- _ + = ~ [ ] \
| ; : ‘ “ { } ,
. < > / ? blank

A C program should not contain anything else

86
Structure of a C program
 A collection of functions (we will see what they
are later)
 Exactly one special function named main must
be present. Program always starts from there
 Each function has statements (instructions) for
declaration, assignment, condition check,
looping etc.
 Statements are executed one by one

87
Variables
 Very important concept for programming
 An entity that has a value and is known to the
program by a name
 Can store any temporary result while executing a
program
 Can have only one value assigned to it at any given
time during the execution of the program
 The value of a variable can be changed during the
execution of the program

88
Contd.
 Variables stored in memory
 Remember that memory is a list of storage
locations, each having a unique address
 A variable is like a bin
 The contents of the bin is the value of the variable
 The variable name is used to refer to the value of
the variable
 A variable is mapped to a location of the memory,
called its address

89
Example
#include <stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int x;
int y;
x=1;
y=3;
printf("x = %d, y= %d\n", x, y);
}
90
Variables in Memory
Instruction executed Memory location allocated
to a variable X
X = 10
T
i X = 20 10
m
e
X = X +1

X = X*5

91
Variables in Memory
Instruction executed Memory location allocated
to a variable X
X = 10
T
i X = 20 20
m
e
X = X +1

X = X*5

92
Variables in Memory
Instruction executed Memory location allocated
to a variable X
X = 10
T
i X = 20 21
m
e
X = X +1

X = X*5

93
Variables in Memory
Instruction executed
Memory location allocated
to a variable X
X = 10
T
i X = 20 105
m
e
X = X +1

X = X*5

94
Variables (contd.)

X = 20
X
Y=15 20

X = Y+3 ? Y

Y=X/6

95
Variables (contd.)

X = 20
X
Y=15 20

X = Y+3 15 Y

Y=X/6

96
Variables (contd.)

X = 20
X
Y=15 18

X = Y+3 15 Y

Y=X/6

97
Variables (contd.)

X = 20
X
Y=15 18

X = Y+3 3 Y

Y=X/6

98
Data Types
 Each variable has a type, indicates what
type of values the variable can hold
 Four common data types in C
 int - can store integers (usually 4 bytes)
 float - can store single-precision floating
point numbers (usually 4 bytes)
 double - can store double-precision floating
point numbers (usually 8 bytes)
 char - can store a character (1 byte)
99
Contd.
 Must declare a variable (specify its type and
name) before using it anywhere in your program
 All variable declarations should be at the
beginning of the main() or other functions
 A value can also be assigned to a variable at the
time the variable is declared.
int speed = 30;
char flag = ‘y’;

100
More Data Types in C
 Some of the basic data types can be augmented
by using certain data type qualifiers:
 short
size qualifier
 long
 signed
 unsigned sign qualifier

 Typical examples:
 short int (usually 2 bytes)
 long int (usually 4 bytes)
 unsigned int (usually 4 bytes, but no way to store + or
-)
101
 Some typical sizes (some of these can vary
depending on type of machine)
Integer data Bit
Minimum value Maximum value
type size
char 8 -27=-128 27-1=127
short int 16 -215=-32768 215-1=32767
int 32 -231=-2147483648 231-1=2147483647
long int 32 -231=-2147483648 231-1=2147483647
-263=- 263-
long long int 64
9223372036854775808 1=9223372036854775807
unsigned char 8 0 28-1=255
unsigned short int 16 0 216-1=65535
unsigned int 32 0 232-1=4294967295
unsigned long int 32 0 232-1=4294967295
unsigned long lon 264-
g int
64 0
1=18446744073709551615
102
Variable Names
 Sequence of letters and digits
 First character must be a letter or ‘_’
 No special characters other than ‘_’
 No blank in between
 Names are case-sensitive (max and Max are two
different names)
 Examples of valid names:
i rank1 MAX max Min class_rank
 Examples of invalid names:
 a’s fact rec 2sqroot class,rank
103
More Valid and Invalid Identifiers

 Valid identifiers  Invalid identifiers

X 10abc
abc my-name
simple_interest “hello”
a123 simple interest
LIST (area)
stud_name %rate
Empl_1
Empl_2
avg_empl_salary
C Keywords
 Used by the C language, cannot be used
as variable names
 Examples:
 int,float, char, double, main, if else, for, while.
do, struct, union, typedef, enum, void, return,
signed, unsigned, case, break, sizeof,….
 There are others, see textbook…
Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{ Three int type variables declared

int x, y, sum;
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y); Values assigned
sum = x + y;
printf( “%d plus %d is %d\n”, x, y, sum );
}
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Example - 2
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{ Assigns an initial value to d2,
can be changed later
float x, y;
int d1, d2 = 10;
scanf(“%f%f%d”,&x, &y, &d1);
printf( “%f plus %f is %f\n”, x, y, x+y);
printf( “%d minus %d is %d\n”, d1, d2, d1-d2);
}
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Read-only variables
 Variables whose values can be initialized during
declaration, but cannot be changed after that
 Declared by putting the const keyword in front of
the declaration
 Storage allocated just like any variable
 Used for variables whose values need not be
changed

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 Correct
void main() {
const int LIMIT = 10;
int n;
scanf(“%d”, &n); Incorrect: Limit changed
if (n > LIMIT)
printf(“Out of limit”); void main() {
const int Limit = 10;
}
int n;
scanf(“%d”, &n);
Limit = Limit + n;
printf(“New limit is %d”, Limit);
}
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Constants
 Integer constants
 Consists of a sequence of digits, with possibly a plus
or a minus sign before it
 Embedded spaces, commas and non-digit characters
are not permitted between digits
 Floating point constants
 Two different notations:
 Decimal notation: 25.0, 0.0034, .84, -2.234
 Exponential (scientific) notation
3.45e23, 0.123e-12, 123e2
e means “10 to the power of”
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Contd.
 Character constants
 Contains a single character enclosed within a pair of
single quote marks.
 Examples :: ‘2’, ‘+’, ‘Z’
 Some special backslash characters
‘\n’ new line
‘\t’ horizontal tab
‘\’’ single quote
‘\”’ double quote
‘\\’ backslash
‘\0’ null 111
Input: scanf function
 Performs input from keyboard
 It requires a format string and a list of variables into
which the value received from the keyboard will be
stored
 format string = individual groups of characters
(usually ‘%’ sign, followed by a conversion
character), with one character group for each
variable in the list

int a, b; Variable list (note the &

before a variable name)
float c;
scanf(“%d %d %f”, &a, &b, &c);
Format string
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 Commonly used conversion characters
c for char type variable
d for int type variable
f for float type variable
lf for double type variable

 Examples
scanf ("%d", &size) ;
scanf ("%c", &nextchar) ;
scanf ("%f", &length) ;
scanf (“%d%d”, &a, &b);
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Reading a single character
 A single character can be read using scanf with
%c
 It can also be read using the getchar() function

char c;
c = getchar();

 Program waits at the getchar() line until a

character is typed, and then reads it and stores it
in c
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Output: printf function
 Performs output to the standard output device
(typically defined to be the screen)
 It requires a format string in which we can
specify:
 The text to be printed out
 Specifications on how to print the values
printf ("The number is %d\n", num);
 The format specification %d causes the value
listed after the format string to be embedded in
the output as a decimal number in place of %d
 Output will appear as: The number is 125 115
Contd.
 General syntax:
printf (format string, arg1, arg2, …, argn);
 format string refers to a string containing
formatting information and data types of the
arguments to be output
 the arguments arg1, arg2, … represent list of
variables/expressions whose values are to be
printed
 The conversion characters are the same
as in scanf 116
 Examples:
printf (“Average of %d and %d is %f”, a, b, avg);
printf (“Hello \nGood \nMorning \n”);
printf (“%3d %3d %5d”, a, b, a*b+2);
printf (“%7.2f %5.1f”, x, y);
 Many more options are available for both
printf and scanf
 Read from the book
 Practice them in the lab

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Acknowledgements
 Slides adapted from several sources:
 http://www.cs.tulane.edu/~carola/teaching/cmps1500/fall13/slides/
 http://www.cs.kent.edu/~jbaker/CS10051-Sp09/
 http://www.computersciencelab.com/ComputerHistory/History.htm
 https://cse.iitkgp.ac.in/~ppd/

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