Contemporary Popular and Emergent Literature

Name:
Course:
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction..........................................................................................................iii–iv

Chapter I: Contemporary Literature..........................................................1 – 66

Lesson 1: Interpreting and Evaluating Fiction......................................2 – 15
Lesson 2: Types and Elements of Fiction..................................................16 – 29
Lesson 3: Introduction to Contemporary Literature...........................30 – 66
3.1 Stories..........................................................31 – 43
3.2 Poetry..........................................................43 – 57
3.3 Drama..........................................................57 – 61
Lesson 4: Issues and Challenges in Contemporary Literature… 62 – 64
Chapter Test.........................................................................................................65 –
66
Chapter II: Popular Literature.....................................................................67 – 102
Lesson 5: Introduction to Popular
Literature...............................................................................................................68 –
80
5.1 Nature............................................................68 – 70
5.2 Appeal...........................................................70
5.3 Social Function...........................................70 – 80
Lesson 6: Popular Literature Genres.........................................................81 – 94
6.1 Romance......................................................81 – 84
6.2 Science Fiction..........................................84 – 86
6.3 Detective Story.........................................86 – 88
6.4 Comic Books..............................................89 – 90
6.5 Comic Strip................................................91 – 94
Lesson 7: Issues and Challenges in Popular
Literature...............................................................................................................95 –
100
Chapter Test.........................................................................................................101 – 102
i
Chapter III: Emerging Literature................................................................103 – 163
Lesson 8: Introduction to Emerging
Literature...............................................................................................................104 – 142
8.1 Creative Non-Fiction………………. 104 – 115
8.2 Hyper Poetry…………………………. 115 – 119
8.3 Chick lit/ Chick Literature………. 119 – 120
8.4 Illustrated Novel……………………. 120 – 121
8.5 Graphic Novel……………………….. 121 – 123
8.6 Text-Talk Novels……………………. 123
8.7 Manga………………………………….. 124 – 125
8.8 Digi-Fiction…………………………... 125 – 126
8.9 Doodle Fiction………………………. 126 – 127
8.10 Flash Fiction……………………….. 127 – 129
8.11 Six-Word Flash Fiction………….. 129 – 131
8.12 Science Fiction…………………….. 131 – 135
8.13 Blog……………………………………. 135 – 142
Lesson 9: Issues and Challenges in Emerging
Literature…………………………………………………………………… 143 – 153

Lesson 10: The interrelationship of Contemporary, Popular and Emergent

Literature……………….…………………………………………………. 154 – 161
Chapter Test……………………………………………………………… 162 – 163
References………………………………………………………………….. 164 - 166

ii
Module Description
The K to 12 Transition Program has brought about significant changes in the
English Education courses of the Higher Education Institutions (HEI). This
learning module entitled “Contemporary, Popular and Emergent Literature” is in
accordance with the provision of Commission on Higher Education Memorandum
Order (CMO) No. 75, series of 2017.
This course provides pre-service English teachers with opportunities to
acquire extensive reading backgrounds in literature and allied fields needed in the
understanding and evaluation of critical issues in contemporary and popular
literature and genres. This course allows them to demonstrate their research-
based content knowledge and its relevance in the teaching learning process using
various methods of literary analysis.

Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the pre-service teachers should be able to:
A. discuss research-based content knowledge and critical issues on contemporary,
popular, and emergent literature and its
relevance in the teaching-learning process;
B. explain the development of a given genre of popular literature from its beginning
to its contemporary practice through a
historical timeline; and
C. use various methods of literary analysis, such as formal, psychological, and /or
feminist analysis in writing a response paper.

TEACHING, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES

The teaching – learning strategies enumerated below (but not limited to)
shall be used to achieve the learning outcomes of the course:
 Lecture – Discussion on Fiction
 Collaborative works
 Inductive and Deductive
 Literary Analysis
Method
 Interpreting and evaluating a
 Paper and Pencil Test/Google
story
docs
 Performance-based Assessment

iii
Assessment Strategies
Students will be assessed using a combination of rubrics and guide
questions, written examination, recitation, group activities, assignments and
exercises.

Disclaimer:
This learning module is a compilation of works written by other writers. The
researchers of this module do not claim originality of all the works presented.

iv
Introduction
Contemporary literature reflects existing developments in
society and culture. This chapter will tackle about fiction and how it
can be interpreted and evaluated. It will also discuss the different
types and elements of fiction. The students will develop a sense of
comprehension about the issues and challenges in contemporary
literature.

1
 LESSON 1: Interpreting and Evaluating Fiction
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Explain the characteristics, types and elements of fiction; and
b. Interpret and evaluate fiction.

Fiction: The Story and the Moral

Fiction is subjective and evocative. It is "made up," and indirect in its
communication. A work of fiction may evoke:
• the thrill of imagining impossible or unavailable experiences
• intrigue with playing out "what if" or" if only" scenarios
• feelings and perceptions of another historical period, or simply observations
on the human condition
We thus read fiction not to gain new information so much as to experience the ideas
and feelings a story inspires within us.
Readers have different expectations from fiction and nonfiction. Proof is a major
issue with nonfiction; emotional involvement is a major issue with fiction. We
expect a story (fiction) to grab us, an essay (nonfiction) to convince us. We will
suspend belief when reading a romance novel or science fiction, but demand reason
and evidence from nonfiction.
For passing time or sheer enjoyment, of course, simply reading the story can be
satisfaction and reward enough. We do not have to analyze everything we read.
The point is to be able to interpret when we want to—or have to.
Both fiction and nonfiction can be subjected to analysis and interpretation. These
two forms of expression are, however, examined somewhat differently. One
analyzes a nonfiction text
• to discover underlying themes and perspectives, as well as
• to realize how choices of content and language shape the reader's perception
and encourage the reader's acceptance.
Analyzing Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, for instance, we can recognize not only
remarks on the dedication of a cemetery, but comparisons between images of the
living and dead, between what has been done and what must be done.

2
We analyze fictional works for recurring themes that reflect on the broader human
experience. People do not really tell nursery rhymes so that children will know
about a girl named Cinderella or about pigs who built houses. The stories have
deeper, unstated meanings: virtue rewarded (Cinderella) or the folly of a lack of
industry (The Three Little Pigs). We respond to both the story and an underlying
message.
On the surface, Melville's Moby Dick, for instance, might be seen as an adventure
story about a man hunting a whale. On closer analysis and interpretation, the novel
might be seen as a depiction of man's battle to subdue nature or of a battle
between good and evil. Since fiction is indirect, fiction can require a significant
degree of analysis and interpretation if one is to get beyond simply following the
story.

Fiction is Subjective
Fiction is, by definition, subjective. A novel, story, drama, or poem is the expression
of an author's imagination. The characters and situations are "made up." Readers
expect fiction to reflect the real world; they do not expect it to portray the real
world. And yet fiction can seem very real without being factual. Poems can capture
feelings or images to perfection. Events depicted in movies such as Schindler's List ,
Amistad , or Titanic can appear just as they might have in real life.
Fiction can be true, however, only in the sense that the actions or behaviors "ring
true" with what we know of the world. The sentiment may be real, but the
characters and incidents are the fruits of the author's imagination. And author and
directors—as in the movies referred to above—often use "dramatic license" to
distort history for dramatic effect.

Fiction is Evocative: Images and Symbols

Fiction conveys meaning indirectly (other than, of course, through morals at the
ends of fables). The specifics are not significant. We draw meaning from the types
of actions. This principle lies behind the fact that television crime series follow
essentially the same plot line, week after week. It does not matter whether a crime
victim is a socialite, a prostitute, a drug dealer, or politician, whether the crime is
murder, extortion, or robbery. The message that the police always catch the
criminal remains the same.
Fiction evokes ideas and feelings indirectly by triggering emotional responses and
mental pictures. Fiction commonly communicates through images and symbols.
Color is often symbolic, as with the red passion of the Scarlet Letter in the novel of
that title. Sunlight often conveys truth or reason. In Willa Cather's short story
3
"Death Comes to the Archbishop" the development of the Bishop's garden is a
metaphor for the expansion of Catholicism in the New World. And then there is the
politically incorrect use of white and black for good and bad, as in old Western
movies.
Readers must be open to associations and reflection, creative in their
understanding and interpretation. They must recognize a richness of figurative
language and concomitant element of ambiguity. The more evocative a text, the
more the reader must do the work of finding meaning within the text.

Interpretation: A Personal Understanding

The meaning of fictional works is more personal than that of nonfiction texts. With
nonfiction texts, we assume any two readers will come away with pretty much the
same understanding of what the text states. While we may not agree with someone
else's interpretation, we should be able to follow their analysis.
With fiction, the meaning is dependent on the perceptions, imagination, and
feelings of the reader. In both cases, however, we demand that an interpretation be
based on evidence on the page. And in both cases, part of understanding is
understanding one's own interests, values, and desires and how they affect what
one looks for and how one thinks about what one finds.

Analyzing and Interpreting Fiction: Perspectives

The discussion of nonfiction texts focused on the analysis of choices of content,
language, and structure. The same focus is useful for the analysis of fiction--with
some adjustments. The discussion examines:
• the general perspective on each of the three major genres: novels (stories),
drama, and poetry
• the application of the notions of content, language, and structure for each
genre
Fiction, we saw above, is mostly about telling stories and expressing feelings. The
content of fiction may take the form of the events of a story, especially in novels
and short stories, spoken remarks, especially in drama, or images and symbols,
especially in poetry. All three elements appear to varying degrees in all forms of
fiction.

Commercial Fiction
 Intended solely to entertain
Legal thrillers, romance novels
Escapist

Formulaic 4
Literary Fiction
Written with serious artistic intentions by someone who hopes to enable
readers to broaden understanding of life and to empathize with others
Literary writers are more like explorers who take us out into the midst of life,
show us the props and mirrors and seek to dispel the illusions.
Provides keener awareness of our humanity in a friendly and hostile world.
Usually need to read twice.
Plot: the sequence of events through which an author constructs a story.
Structure: usually chronological or cause/effect, however, a complex structure is
often required to convey complex meanings, so it may be more experimental and
unpredictable.

….
EXERCISES!
5

Direction: Read the story below and answer the following questions in
order to critically analyze the story.

“The Necklace”
Guy de Maupassant
She was one of those pretty and charming
girls born, as if by an error of fate, into a
family of clerks. She had no dowry, no
expectations, no means of becoming known,
understood, loved or wedded by a man of
wealth and distinction; and so she let
herself be married to a minor official at the
Ministry of Education.

She dressed plainly because she had

never been able to afford anything better,
but she was as unhappy as if she had once
been wealthy. Women don't belong to a
caste or class; their beauty, grace, and
natural charm take the place of birth and
family. Natural delicacy, instinctive
elegance and a quick wit determine their
place in society, and make the daughters of commoners the equals of the very
finest ladies.
She suffered endlessly, feeling she was entitled to all the delicacies and luxuries
of life. She suffered because of the poorness of her house as she looked at the dirty
walls, the worn-out chairs and the ugly curtains. All these things that another
woman of her class would not even have noticed, tormented her and made her
resentful. The sight of the little Brenton girl who did her housework filled her with
terrible regrets and hopeless fantasies. She dreamed of silent antechambers hung
with Oriental tapestries, lit from above by torches in bronze holders, while two tall
footmen in knee-length breeches napped in huge armchairs, sleepy from the stove's
oppressive warmth. She dreamed of vast living rooms furnished in rare old silks,
elegant furniture loaded with priceless ornaments, and inviting smaller rooms,
perfumed, made for afternoon chats with close friends - famous, sought after men,
who all women envy and desire.
When she sat down to dinner at a round table covered with a three-day-old
cloth opposite her husband who, lifting the lid off the soup, shouted excitedly, "Ah!
Beef stew! What could be better," she dreamed of fine dinners, of shining
silverware, of tapestries which peopled the walls with figures from another time
and strange birds in fairy forests; she dreamed of delicious dishes served on
wonderful plates, of whispered gallantries listened to with an inscrutable smile as
one ate the pink flesh of a trout or the wings of a quail.
She had no dresses, no jewels, nothing; and these were the only things she loved.
She felt she was made for them alone. She wanted so much to charm, to be envied,
to be desired and sought after.
She had a rich friend, a former schoolmate at the convent, whom she no longer
wanted to visit because she suffered so much when she came home. For whole days
afterwards she would weep with sorrow, regret, despair and misery.
One evening her husband came home with an air of triumph, holding a large
envelope in his hand.
"Look," he said, "here's something for you."
She tore open the paper and drew out a card, on which was printed the words:
"The Minister of Education and Mme. Georges Rampouneau request the pleasure
of M. and Mme. Loisel's company at the Ministry, on the evening of Monday
January 18th."
Instead of being delighted, as her husband had hoped, she threw the invitation
on the table resentfully, and muttered:
"What do you want me to do with that?"
"But, my dear, I thought you would be pleased. You never go out, and it will be
such a lovely occasion! I had awful trouble getting it. Every one wants to go; it is
very exclusive, and they're not giving many invitations to clerks. The whole
ministry will be there."
She stared at him angrily, and said, impatiently:
"And what do you expect me to wear if I go?"
He hadn't thought of that. He stammered:
"Why, the dress you go to the theatre in. It seems very nice to me ..."
 He stopped, stunned, distressed to see his wife crying. Two large tears ran slowly
from the corners of her eyes towards the corners of her mouth. He stuttered:
"What's the matter? What's the matter?"
With great effort she overcame her grief and replied in a calm voice, as she wiped
her wet cheeks: 7

"Nothing. Only I have no dress and so I can't go to this party. Give your
invitation to a friend whose wife has better clothes than I do."
He was distraught, but tried again:
"Let's see, Mathilde. How much would a suitable dress cost, one which you could
use again on other occasions, something very simple?"
She thought for a moment, computing the cost, and also wondering what
amount she could ask for without an immediate refusal and an alarmed
exclamation from the thrifty clerk.
At last she answered hesitantly:
"I don't know exactly, but I think I could do it with four hundred francs."
He turned a little pale, because he had been saving that exact amount to buy a
gun and treat himself to a hunting trip the following summer, in the country near
Nanterre, with a few friends who went lark-shooting there on Sundays.
However, he said:
"Very well, I can give you four hundred francs. But try and get a really beautiful
dress."
The day of the party drew near, and Madame Loisel seemed sad, restless, anxious.
Her dress was ready, however. One evening her husband said to her:
"What's the matter? You've been acting strange these last three days."
She replied: "I'm upset that I have no jewels, not a single stone to wear. I will
look cheap. I would almost rather not go to the party."
"You could wear flowers, " he said, "They are very fashionable at this time of
year. For ten francs you could get two or three magnificent roses."
She was not convinced.
"No; there is nothing more humiliating than looking poor in the middle of a lot
of rich women."
 "How stupid you are!" her husband cried. "Go and see your friend Madame
Forestier and ask her to lend you some jewels. You know her well enough for that."
She uttered a cry of joy.
"Of course. I had not thought of that."
8
The next day she went to her friend's house and told her of her distress.
Madame Forestier went to her mirrored wardrobe, took out a large box,
brought it back, opened it, and said to Madame Loisel:
"Choose, my dear."
First, she saw some bracelets, then a pearl necklace, then a gold Venetian cross set
with precious stones, of exquisite craftsmanship. She tried on the jewelry in the
mirror, hesitated, could not bear to part with them, to give them back. She kept
asking:
"You have nothing else?"
"Why, yes. But I don't know what you like."
Suddenly she discovered, in a black satin box, a superb diamond necklace, and
her heart began to beat with uncontrolled desire. Her hands trembled as she took it.
She fastened it around her neck, over her high-necked dress, and stood lost in
ecstasy as she looked at herself.
Then she asked anxiously, hesitating:
"Would you lend me this, just this?"
"Why, yes, of course."
She threw her arms around her friend's neck, embraced her rapturously, then
fled with her treasure.
The day of the party arrived. Madame Loisel was a success. She was prettier than
all the other women, elegant, gracious, smiling, and full of joy. All the men stared at
her, asked her name, tried to be introduced. All the cabinet officials wanted to
waltz with her. The minister noticed her.
She danced wildly, with passion, drunk on pleasure, forgetting everything in the
triumph of her beauty, in the glory of her success, in a sort of cloud of happiness,
made up of all this respect, all this admiration, all these awakened desires, of that
sense of triumph that is so sweet to a woman's heart.
 She left at about four o'clock in the morning. Her husband had been dozing since
midnight in a little deserted anteroom with three other gentlemen whose wives
were having a good time.
He threw over her shoulders the clothes he had brought for her to go outside in,
the modest clothes of an ordinary life, whose poverty contrasted sharply with the
elegance of the ball dress. She felt this and wanted to run away, so she wouldn't be
noticed by the other women who were wrapping themselves in expensive furs.

Loisel held her back. 9

"Wait a moment, you'll catch a cold outside. I'll go and find a cab."
But she would not listen to him, and ran down the stairs. When they were finally
in the street, they could not find a cab, and began to look for one, shouting at the
cabmen they saw passing in the distance.
They walked down toward the Seine in despair, shivering with cold. At last they
found on the quay one of those old night cabs that one sees in Paris only after dark,
as if they were ashamed to show their shabbiness during the day.
They were dropped off at their door in the Rue des Martyrs, and sadly walked up
the steps to their apartment. It was all over, for her. And he was remembering that
he had to be back at his office at ten o'clock.
In front of the mirror, she took off the clothes around her shoulders, taking a
final look at herself in all her glory. But suddenly she uttered a cry. She no longer
had the necklace round her neck!
"What is the matter?" asked her husband, already half
undressed. She turned towards him, panic-stricken.
"I have ... I have I no longer have Madame Forestier's necklace."
He stood up, distraught.
"What! ... how! That's impossible!"
They looked in the folds of her dress, in the folds of her cloak, in her pockets,
everywhere. But they could not find it.
"Are you sure you still had it on when you left the ball?" he
asked. "Yes. I touched it in the hall at the Ministry."
"But if you had lost it in the street we would have heard it fall. It must be in the
cab."
 "Yes. That's probably it. Did you take his number?"
"No. And you, didn't you notice it?"
"No."
They stared at each other, stunned. At last Loisel put his clothes on again.
"I'm going back," he said, "over the whole route we walked, see if I can find
it."

He left. She remained in her ball dress all evening, without the strength to go to 10
bed, sitting on a chair, with no fire, her mind blank.
Her husband returned at about seven o'clock. He had found nothing.
He went to the police, to the newspapers to offer a reward, to the cab companies,
everywhere the tiniest glimmer of hope led him.
She waited all day, in the same state of blank despair from before this frightful
disaster.
Loisel returned in the evening, a hollow, pale figure; he had found nothing.
"You must write to your friend," he said, "tell her you have broken the clasp of
her necklace and that you are having it mended. It will give us time to look some
more."
She wrote as he dictated.
At the end of one week they had lost all hope.
And Loisel, who had aged five years, declared:
"We must consider how to replace the jewel."
The next day they took the box which had held it, and went to the jeweler whose
name they found inside. He consulted his books.
"It was not I, madame, who sold the necklace; I must simply have supplied the
case."
And so they went from jeweler to jeweler, looking for an necklace like the other
one, consulting their memories, both sick with grief and anguish.
In a shop at the Palais Royal, they found a string of diamonds which seemed to
be exactly what they were looking for. It was worth forty thousand francs. They
could have it for thirty-six thousand.
 So they begged the jeweler not to sell it for three days. And they made an
arrangement that he would take it back for thirty-four thousand francs if the other
necklace was found before the end of February.
Loisel had eighteen thousand francs which his father had left him. He would
borrow the rest.
And he did borrow, asking for a thousand francs from one man, five hundred
from another, five louis here, three louis there. He gave notes, made ruinous
agreements, dealt with usurers, with every type of money-lender. He compromised
the rest of his life, risked signing notes without knowing if he could ever honor
them, and, terrified by the anguish still to come, by the black misery about to fall on
him,
by the prospect of every physical privation and every moral torture he was about to 11
suffer, he went to get the new necklace, and laid down on the jeweler's counter
thirty-six thousand francs.
When Madame Loisel took the necklace back, Madame Forestier said
coldly: "You should have returned it sooner, I might have needed it."
To the relief of her friend, she did not open the case. If she had detected the
substitution, what would she have thought? What would she have said? Would she
have taken her friend for a thief?
From then on, Madame Loisel knew the horrible life of the very poor. But she
played her part heroically. The dreadful debt must be paid. She would pay it. They
dismissed their maid; they changed their lodgings; they rented a garret under the
roof.
She came to know the drudgery of housework, the odious labors of the kitchen.
She washed the dishes, staining her rosy nails on greasy pots and the bottoms of
pans. She washed the dirty linen, the shirts and the dishcloths, which she hung to
dry on a line; she carried the garbage down to the street every morning, and
carried up the water, stopping at each landing to catch her breath. And, dressed
like a commoner, she went to the fruiterer's, the grocer's, the butcher's, her basket
on her arm, bargaining, insulted, fighting over every miserable sou.
Each month they had to pay some notes, renew others, get more time.
Her husband worked every evening, doing accounts for a tradesman, and often,
late into the night, he sat copying a manuscript at five sous a page.
And this life lasted ten years.
At the end of ten years they had paid off everything, everything, at usurer's rates
and with the accumulations of compound interest.
 Madame Loisel looked old now. She had become strong, hard and rough like all
women of impoverished households. With hair half combed, with skirts awry, and
reddened hands, she talked loudly as she washed the floor with great swishes of
water. But sometimes, when her husband was at the office, she sat down near the
window and thought of that evening at the ball so long ago, when she had been so
beautiful and so admired.
What would have happened if she had not lost that necklace? Who knows, who
knows? How strange life is, how fickle! How little is needed for one to be ruined or
saved!
One Sunday, as she was walking in the Champs É lysé es to refresh herself after the
week's work, suddenly she saw a woman walking with a child. It was Madame
Forestier, still young, still beautiful, still charming. 12

Madame Loisel felt emotional. Should she speak to her? Yes, of course. And now
that she had paid, she would tell her all. Why not?
She went up to her.
"Good morning, Jeanne."
The other, astonished to be addressed so familiarly by this common woman, did
not recognize her. She stammered:
"But - madame - I don't know. You must have made a mistake."
"No, I am Mathilde Loisel."
Her friend uttered a cry.
"Oh! ... my poor Mathilde, how you've changed!..."
"Yes, I have had some hard times since I last saw you, and many miseries......and
all because of you!...."
"Me? How can that be?"
"You remember that diamond necklace that you lent me to wear to the Ministry
party?"
"Yes. Well?"
"Well, I lost it."
"What do you mean? You brought it back."
 "I brought you back another exactly like it. And it has taken us ten years to pay
for it. It wasn't easy for us, we had very little. But at last it is over, and I am very
glad."
Madame Forestier was stunned.
"You say that you bought a diamond necklace to replace mine?"
"Yes; you didn't notice then? They were very similar."
And she smiled with proud and innocent pleasure.
Madame Forestier, deeply moved, took both her
hands.
"Oh, my poor Mathilde! Mine was an imitation! It was worth five hundred francs
at most! ..."
Reference:
13
http://www.eastoftheweb.com/short-stories/UBooks/Neck.shtml
ACTIVITY 1.1: ESSAY
14
Direction: Answer the given questions.
1. Is the story fiction or non-fiction? Why do you say so?

2. What type and elements of fiction are used in the story?

ACTIVITY 1.2
Direction: Make a summary and write interpretation and analysis of the
story “The Necklace” by Guy de Maupassant. A minimum of 300 words is
required for the summary. For the review/analysis, 400-500 words

Summary

Interpretation
 LESSON 2: Types and Elements of Fiction
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Explain the characteristics, types and elements of fiction; and
b. Interpret and evaluate fiction.

ELEMENTS OF FICTION
Conflict: a clash of actions, ideas, desires, or will.
 Man vs. Himself
 Man vs. Man
 Man vs. External Force (physical nature, society, or “fate”)
 Man vs. Nature (environment)
 Protagonist: central character in a conflict, sympathetic or unsympathetic
 Antagonist: any force against protagonist\
Suspense
 Mystery: an unusual set of circumstances for which the reader craves an
explanation
 Dilemma: a position in which he or she must choose between two courses of
action, both undesirable
Ending
Is it logical within the story’s own terms and does it afford a full, believable
revelation?
 Surprise Ending: a sudden, unexpected turn or twist, and furnishes
meaningful illumination, not just a reversal of expectation
 Happy Ending: more common in commercial fiction.
 Unhappy Ending: more common in literary fiction because it more closely
mirrors real life and forces readers to contemplate the complexities of life.
 Indeterminate Ending: no definitive conclusion is reached, but need not be
in terms of a resolved conflict.

Artistic Unity
 There must be nothing in the story that is irrelevant. 16
 Nothing that does not advance the central intention of the story.
Plot Manipulation: unjustified turn in the plot by the situation or the characters.
Deus ex machina: Latin for “god from a machine”—the protagonist is rescued at the
last moment from some impossible situation by a god descending from heaven.
Chance: the occurrence of an event that has no apparent cause in previous events
or in predisposition of character.
Coincidence: the chance occurrence of two events that may have a peculiar
correspondence. Consider the function of plot in trying to understand the
relationship of each incident to the larger meaning of the story.
Example: focus on its central conflict or examine the way incidents and scenes are
connected as a way of testing the story’s plausibility and unity.
Characterization
Direct Presentation: readers are told straight out what the characters are like, or
they have another character in the story describe them. Little emotional impact
Indirect Presentation: the author shows us the characters through their actions; we
determine what they are like by what they say or do. In good fiction, characters are
dramatized.

Principles of Characterization

1. Characters are consistent in their behavior unless there is a clear reason for the 17
change
2. Character’s words and actions spring from motivations the reader can
understand and believe
3. Characters must be plausible or lifelike, not perfectly virtuous or monsters of evil;
nor can they have some impossible combination of contradictory traits. The
character could have existed, so we have the illusion the person is real.
 Flat Characters: usually have only one or two predominant traits; they can
be summed up in a sentence or two.
 Round Characters: complex and many sided; they have the three-
dimensional quality of real people.
 Stock Characters: type of flat character; stereotyped figures who have
recurred so often in fiction that we recognize them at once: silent sheriff, mad
scientist, brilliant detective.
 Static Character: does not change during the story.
 Dynamic Character: (developing) undergoes distinct change of character,
personality, or outlook. Usually experiences an epiphany which is a moment
of spiritual insight into life or into the character’s own circumstance. This
epiphany usually defines the moment of the dynamic character’s change.
Theme
  The controlling idea or central insight
 The unifying generalization about life stated or implied by the story
 Gives the story its unity
 What view of life does the author want readers to support?
 The theme should be expressible in the form of a statement with a subject
and a predicate.
 NOT JUST “motherhood” or “loyalty”
 Theme must be a statement about the subject.
 The theme should be stated as a generalization about life.
 It is the central and unifying concept of a story.
 There is not one way of stating the theme of a story.
Avoid reducing the theme to some familiar saying that we have heard all our lives:
18
“You can’t judge a book by its cover.”

Example:
Motherhood sometimes has more frustrations than rewards.
Loyalty to country often inspires heroic self-sacrifice.
This is a great thesis written by one of my students:
Frankenstein is a prime example of English Romanticism because of the way that
Shelley portrays the importance of good parenting through traits of romantic
literature. Shelley emphasizes the individual, portrays man’s love of nature, and
values emotion over reason to contribute to the theme’s idea that the role of parents
is vital to raising responsible offspring.
This is a “not so great” thesis . . .
Frankenstein is an example of English Romanticist fiction because Mary Shelley
uses Nature, Individualism, and Freedom to contribute to the Romantics view of
Nature.
Point of View
 Who tells the story and how much do they know about the thoughts of the
characters?
 Omniscient: the story is told in first person by a narrator whose knowledge
and prerogatives are unlimited.
  Third Person Limited: from the viewpoint of one character in the story. No
knowledge of what other characters are thinking or feeling.
 First Person: the author disappears into one of the characters, who tells the
story in the first person. This may be either a minor or major character,
protagonist, or observer, and it will make a considerable difference whether
the protagonist tells the story or someone else tells it. Shares the limitations
of the third-person limited point of view.
 Objective Point of View: (dramatic POV) the narrator disappears into a
kind of roving sound camera. This camera can go anywhere but can record
only what is seen and heard. It cannot comment, interpret, or enter a
character’s mind.
Symbol: something that means more than what it suggests on the surface. It may
be an object, person, situation, action or other elements.
Name Symbolism: Adam, Phoenix
Object Symbolism: flag, wedding ring, red, quilts
19
Action Symbolism: journey
Setting Symbolism: landscape, railway station
Clues for identifying symbols:
 The story itself must furnish a clue that a detail is to be taken symbolically
usually by emphasis, repetition, or position.
 The meaning of the literary symbol must be established and supported by the
entire context of the story.
 A symbol may have more than one meaning—a cluster of meanings.
1. Allegory: a story that has a second meaning beneath the surface adding
significance.
2. Fantasy: nonrealistic story and transcends the bounds of known reality.
3. Humor: appears in the many serious works, usually conveyed through irony
4. Irony: a technique used to convey a truth about human experience by exposing
some incongruity of a character’s behavior or a society’s traditions. Irony helps to
critique the world in which we live by laughing at the many varieties of human
eccentricity and folly.
Both evoke responses that are intellectual and emotional at once.
 Verbal Irony: simplest kind, sarcasm, word play
Dramatic Irony: the contrast between what a character says or thinks and
what the reader knows to be true.
Situational Irony: the discrepancy is between appearance and reality,
expectation and fulfillment, or what is and what would seem appropriate
“Miss Caroline told me to tell my father not to teach me anymore, it would interfere
with my reading.” –To Kill a Mockingbird
Sentimentality: contrived or excessive emotion

Uncle Tom’s Cabin vs. Beloved

Editorialize: Sentimental writers often try to make words do what the
situation faithfully presented by itself will not do. They comment on the story and,
in a manner, instruct us how to feel. Or they overwrite and poeticize–use an
immoderately heightened and distended language to accomplish their effects. Also,
they excessively use detail which all point one way, toward producing emotion
rather than conveying truth. Dying child always happy, never moody or crying. 20

5. Style – The author’s type of diction (choice of words), syntax (arrangement of

words), and other linguistic features of a work.
6. Theme(s) – The central and dominating idea (or ideas) in a literary work. The
term also indicates a message or moral implicit in any work of art.
Exploring the Different Types of Fiction
By Sarah Parsons Zackheim, Adrian Zackheim
Fiction is a general term used to describe an imaginative work of prose,
either a novel, short story, or novella. Recently, this definition has been modified to
include both nonfiction works that contain imaginative elements, like Midnight in
the Garden Of Good and Evil by John Berendt (Random House, 1994) and Dutch by
Edmund Morris (Random House, 1999), and novels consisting largely of factual
reporting with a patina of fictionalization, such as Memoirs of a Geisha by Arthur
Golden (Knopf, 1997). However, in the truest sense, a work of fiction is a creation
of the writer’s imagination.
The two main types of fiction are literary and commercial.
 Commercial fiction attracts a broad audience and may also fall into any
subgenre, like mystery, romance, legal thriller, western, science fiction, and so on.
For example, The Bridges of Madison County by Robert James Waller (Warner,
1992) was a hugely successful commercial novel because the book described the
fulfillment of a romantic fantasy that is dear to the heart of millions of readers.
Written in a short, easy-to-read style, the book was as mesmerizing to 15-year-olds
as it was to 100-year-olds. Other blockbuster commercial fiction authors include
John Grisham, Sidney Sheldon, Danielle Steele, and Jackie Collins.
Literary fiction tends to appeal to a smaller, more intellectually adventurous
audience. A work of literary fiction can fall into any of the subgenres described in
the following sections. What sets literary fiction apart, however, is the notable
qualities it contains — excellent writing, originality of thought, and style — that
raise it above the level of ordinary written works. A recent work of literary fiction
that enjoyed wide popularity was Cold Mountain by Charles Frazier (Atlantic
Monthly Press, 1997). Other popular authors of literary fiction include Toni
Morrision, Barbara Kingsolver, John LeCarre, and Saul Bellow.
Mainstream fiction is a general term publishers and booksellers use to
describe both commercial and literary works that depict a daily reality familiar to
most people. These books, usually set in the 20th or present-day 21st century, have at
their core a universal theme that attracts a broad audience. Mainstream books deal 21
with such myriad topics as family issues, coming of age initiations, courtroom
dramas, career matters, physical and mental disabilities, social pressures, political
intrigue, and more. Regardless of original genre or category, most of the novels
that appear on the bestseller list are considered mainstream, whether the author is
Sue Grafton, Arundhati Roy, Michael Crichton, or David Guterson.
Mystery
Mystery is a popular genre, boasting a huge established audience. All
mysteries focus on a crime, usually murder. The action tends to center on the
attempts of a wily detective-type to solve the crime. And the climax usually occurs
near the end, in a leisurely setting where all the elements of the mystery are neatly
assembled for the reader’s convenience. The solution, complete with surprises, is
then delivered to the characters and the reader alike.
Mystery subgenres include spy, detective, and crime stories. You can find a
vast network of mystery writers associations, conventions, and conferences, as
well as publications to help mystery writers pursue their craft. For information,
contact Mystery Writers of America.
Great practitioners in this genre include Arthur Conan Doyle, Raymond
Chandler, Dashiell Hammett, and Earle Stanley Gardner, creator of Perry Mason.
Present day giants include Carl Hiaason, James Ellroy, Robert Parker, James Lee
Burke, and Elmore Leonard.

Romance
Romance is a huge category aimed at diverting and entertaining women. In
romance novels, you have elements of fantasy, love, naïveté , extravagance,
adventure, and always the heroic lover overcoming impossible odds to be with his
true love. Many romances, especially the gothic romance, have an easy-to-follow
formula — a young, inexperienced girl living a somewhat remote existence is
courted or threatened by an evil man and then rescued by a valiant one.
Other subgenres include historical, contemporary, fantasy romance, and
romantic suspense. If historical detail and settings interest you, try writing a
regency or historical romance. If you enjoy a dash of mystery or intrigue, then
romantic suspense novels are for you. However, if you’re interested in more modern
stories with sexual candor, then consider writing a contemporary romance.
Certainly, you have lots of opportunity in the field of romance writing, which
is the largest, most diverse, and most popular of the commercial genres. And 22
romance writers’ organizations can provide exact writing guidelines. To receive a
set of guidelines, contact Romance Writers of America.
First-class romance writers include Jude Deveraux, Victoria Holt, Judith
McNaught, Daphne Du Maurier, Jennifer Greene, and Nora Roberts.

Women’s fiction
It’s common knowledge in the publishing industry that women constitute
the biggest book-buying segment. So, it’s certainly no accident that most
mainstream as well as genre fiction is popular among women. For that reason,
publishers and booksellers have identified a category within the mainstream that
they classify as Women’s Fiction. And its no surprise that virtually all the selections
of Oprah’s Book Club are in this genre.
From a writer’s perspective, some key characteristics of these books include
a focus on relationships, one or more strong female protagonists, women
triumphing over unbearable circumstances, and the experiences of women unified
in some way. The field includes such diverse writers as Barbara Taylor Bradford,
Anne Rivers Siddons, Alice McDermott, Judith Krantz, Anne Tyler, Rebecca Wells,
and Alice Hoffman.
Science fiction/fantasy
Science fiction/fantasy novels depict distant worlds and futuristic
technologies that whirl readers far away from the here and now and yet provoke
contemplation of contemporary issues. Imaginative, thoughtful, and other-worldly,
this robust category is made even more popular by the Star Wars and Star Trek
series. Leading science fiction and fantasy writers include Ray Bradbury, Arthur
Clarke, Isaac Asimov, C.S. Lewis, and J.R.R. Tolkien, as well as the current, multi-
best-selling, young adult author J.K. Rowling.
To obtain professional assistance in this genre, contact the Science Fiction
and Fantasy Writers of America.

Suspense/thriller
Suspense novels and thrillers are tense, exciting, often sensational works
with ingenious plotting, swift action, and continuous suspense. In this genre, a
writer’s objective is to deliver a story with sustained tension, surprise, and a
constant sense of impending doom that propels the reader forward. Unlike
mysteries, thrillers are dominated by action in which physical threat is a constant 23
companion, and a hero (James Bond, for example) is pitted against a nefarious
villain.
This genre includes the great espionage writers, including John Le Carre,
Len Deighton, Ian Fleming, Clive Cussler, and Frederick Forsythe. It also includes
the police procedurals of Patricia Cornwell, Tony Hillerman, and Lawrence Sanders,
as well as the courtroom bestsellers of Scott Turow, Richard North Patterson, Steve
Martini, and John Grisham, and the military thrillers of Tom Clancy and Stephen
Koontz.
Western
Known simply as westerns, these novels about life on America’s post-Civil
War western frontier usually involve conflicts between cowboys and outlaws,
cowboys and Native Americans, or Easterners and Westerners. While this category
still has a mass-market audience and a thriving regional market, it’s not the
popular genre it was 25 years ago.
If you’re interested in writing a western, contact the Western Writers of
America
Zane Grey and Louis Lamour, both deceased, are still among the popular
western writers.
Horror
 Filled with gut-wrenching fear, this popular genre keeps readers turning the
blood-filled pages. From a writer’s perspective, the defining characteristic is the
intention to frighten readers by exploiting their fears, both conscious and
subconscious: fears of supernatural forces, alien visitations, madness, death,
dismemberment, and other terrifying notions.
Tracing its roots back to the classic tales of Edgar Allan Poe, the horror genre
today is dominated by Stephen King, whose vast output of bestsellers under his
name as well as his alter-ego Richard Bachman has dominated the bestseller lists
for nearly 25 years. Other major horror writers include Mary Shelley, Roald Dahl,
Clive Barker, Peter Straub, Dean Koontz, and Anne Rice. While horror isn’t science
fiction, the SFWA provides a great deal of information and community services
aimed at horror writers. To obtain its professional assistance, contact the Science
Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America.

Young adult

This genre includes any type of novel with a protagonist in the 12 to 16 age 24
range that speaks to the concerns of teenagers. Currently, J.K. Rowling and her
amazing Harry Potter (Scholastic Press) books are dominating the field. Rowling’s
accomplishment — a truly universal story, brimming with magic and fantasy as
well as likable characters that readers identify with — is an amazing feat.
Watch out for all the Harry Potter wannabes in the coming year. Success
stories in this genre share many of the qualities evident in the Harry Potter books:
a memorable voice (J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye, Little Brown, 1951),
believable characters (Golding’s Lord of the Flies, Perigee, 1959), and a willingness
to write about the disturbing subjects that preoccupy teens and preteens (Are You
There God, It’s Me, Margaret by Judy Blume, Dell Yearling, 1972, or Holes by Louis
Sachar, FSG, 1998).
 EXERCISES!
ACTIVITY 2.1
Direction: Divide the class into five (5) groups and discuss within the
group the story of “Silence - A Fable” by Edgar Allan Poe (published 1838).
Interpret and evaluate the story and present it.
Ours is a world of words: Quiet we call
Silence -- which is the merest word of all"
-Al Aaraaf.
"Listen to me," said the Demon, as he placed
his hand upon my head. "There is a spot upon
this accursed earth which thou hast never yet
beheld And if by any chance thou hast beheld it,
it must have been in one of those vigorous
dreams which come like the Simoon upon the
brain of the sleeper who hath lain down to
sleep among the forbidden sunbeams --among
the sunbeams, I say, which slide from off the
solemn columns of the melancholy temples in
the wilderness. The region of which I speak is a
dreary region in Libya, by the borders of the
river Zaire. And there is no quiet there, nor
silence.
"The waters of the river have a saffron and sickly hue --and they flow not
onwards to the sea, but palpitate forever and forever beneath the red eye of the
sun with a tumultuous and convulsive motion. For many miles on either side of the
river's oozy bed is a pale desert of gigantic water-lilies. They sigh one unto the
other in that solitude, and stretch towards the heaven their long ghastly necks, and
nod to and fro their everlasting heads. And there is an indistinct murmur which
cometh out from among them like the rushing of subterrene water. And they sigh
one unto the other.

"But there is a boundary to their realm --the boundary of the dark, horrible, lofty
forest. There, like the waves about the Hebrides, the low underwood is agitated
continually. But there is no wind throughout the heaven. And the tall primeval
trees rock eternally hither and thither with a crashing
and mighty sound. And from their high summits, one by one, drop everlasting dews.
And at the roots strange poisonous flowers lie writhing in perturbed slumber. And
overhead, with a rustling and loud noise, the grey clouds rush westwardly forever, 26
until they roll, a cataract, over the fiery wall of the horizon. But there is no wind
throughout the heaven. And by the shores of the river Zaire there is neither quiet
nor silence.

"It was night, and the rain fell; and, falling, it was rain, but, having fallen, it was
blood. And I stood in the morass among the tall lilies, and the rain fell upon my
head --and the lilies sighed one unto the other in the solemnity of their desolation.
"And, all at once, the moon arose through the thin ghastly mist, and was crimson
in color. And mine eyes fell upon a huge grey rock which stood by the shore of the
river, and was litten by the light of the moon. And the rock was grey, and ghastly,
and tall, --and the rock was grey. Upon its front were characters engraven in the
stone; and I walked through the morass of water-lilies, until I came close unto the
shore, that I might read the characters upon the stone. But I could not decypher the
characters. And I was going back into the morass, when the moon shone with a
fuller red, and I turned and looked again upon the rock, and upon the characters --
and the characters were DESOLATION.

"And I looked upwards, and there stood a man upon the summit of the rock, and I
hid myself among the water-lilies that I might discover the actions of the man. And
the man was tall and stately in form, and was wrapped up from his shoulders to his
feet in the toga of old Rome. And the outlines of his figure were indistinct --but his
features were the features of a Deity; for the mantle of the night, and of the mist,
and of the moon, and of the dew, had left uncovered the features of his face. And his
brow was lofty with thought, and his eye wild with care; and, in the few furrows
upon his cheek I read the fables of sorrow, and weariness, and disgust with
mankind, and a longing after solitude. And the moon shone upon his face, and upon
the features of his face, and oh! they were more beautiful than the airy dreams
which hovered about the souls of the daughters of Delos!
"And the man sat down upon the rock, and leaned his head upon his hand, and
looked out upon the desolation. He looked down into the low unquiet shrubbery,
and up into the tall primeval trees, and up higher at the rustling heaven, and into
the crimson moon. And I lay close within shelter of the lilies, and observed the
actions of the man. And the man trembled in the solitude --but the night waned and
he sat upon the rock.
"And the man turned his attention from the heaven, and looked out upon the
dreary river Zaire, and upon the yellow ghastly waters, and upon the pale legions
of
the water-lilies. And the man listened to the sighs of the water-lilies, and of the 27
murmur that came up from among them. And I lay close within my covert and
observed the actions of the man. And the man trembled in the solitude --but the
night waned and he sat upon the rock.

"Then I went down into the recesses of the morass, and waded afar in among the
wilderness of the lilies, and called unto the hippopotami which dwelt among the
fens in the recesses of the morass. And the hippopotami heard my call, and came,
with the behemoth, unto the foot of the rock, and roared loudly and fearfully
beneath the moon. And I lay close within my covert and observed the actions of the
man. And the man trembled in the solitude --but the night waned and he sat upon
the rock.

"Then I cursed the elements with the curse of tumult; and a frightful tempest
gathered in the heaven where before there had been no wind. And the heaven
became livid with the violence of the tempest --and the rain beat upon the head of
the man --and the floods of the river came down --and the river was tormented
into foam --and the water-lilies shrieked within their beds --and the forest
crumbled before the wind --and the thunder rolled, --and the lightning fell --and
the rock rocked to its foundation. And I lay close within my covert and observed
the actions of the man. And the man trembled in the solitude -- but the night waned
and he sat upon the rock.
 "Then I grew angry and cursed, with the curse of silence, the river, and the lilies,
and the wind, and the forest, and the heaven, and the thunder, and the sighs of the
water-lilies. And they became accursed and were still. And the moon ceased to
totter in its pathway up the heaven --and the thunder died away --and the lightning
did not flash --and the clouds hung motionless --and the waters sunk to their level
and remained --and the trees ceased to rock --and the water-lilies sighed no more --
and the murmur was heard no longer from among them, nor any shadow of sound
throughout the vast illimitable desert. And I looked upon the characters of the rock,
and they were changed --and the characters were SILENCE.
"And mine eyes fell upon the countenance of the man, and his countenance was
wan with terror. And, hurriedly, he raised his head from his hand, and stood forth
upon the rock, and listened. But there was no voice throughout the vast illimitable
desert, and the characters upon the rock were SILENCE. And the man shuddered,
and turned his face away, and fled afar off, and I beheld him no more."
Now there are fine tales in the volumes of the Magi --in the iron-bound,
melancholy volumes of the Magi. Therein, I say, are glorious histories of the Heaven, 28
and of the Earth, and of the mighty Sea --and of the Genii that over-ruled the sea,
and the earth, and the lofty heaven. There was much lore too in the sayings which
were said by the sybils; and holy, holy things were heard of old by the dim leaves
that trembled around Dodona --but, as Allah liveth, that fable which the Demon
told me as he sat by my side in the shadow of the tomb, I hold to be the most
wonderful of all! And as the Demon made an end of his story, he fell back within
the cavity of the tomb and laughed. And I could not laugh with the Demon, and he
cursed me because I could not laugh. And the lynx which dwelleth forever in the
tomb, came out therefrom, and lay down at the feet of the Demon, and looked at
him steadily in the face.

NOTES:
This story was originally published in 1838 as
"Siope - A Fable".
Reference: https://poestories.com/read/silence
 LESSON 3: Introduction to Contemporary Literature
29

1950- PRESENT
“This literary era defines a time period but it also describes particular style and
quality of writing.”
What is Contemporary Literature?
The literature of the contemporary period not only refers to a quality/style of
writing but also to poetry and prose, which includes works of fiction such as: novels,
novellas, essays, and dramatic works.
Characteristics of the Contemporary Style
Reality-based stories
Believable story-line, sometimes portraying a harsher reality or degradation
of society
Current, modern setting
“Well-defined, realistic, highly developed” and strong character (s).
Well-structured
Writing is “more character driven than plot driven”
Historical Events during this period
January 1, 1953- The national Library is established in Ottawa.
September 3, 1962- The Trans-Canada Highway opens.
February 15, 1965- Canada gets a new red-and-white maple leaf flag.
April 2, 1975- The CN Tower in Toronto becomes the world’s tallest free-standing
structure.
July 17, 1976- The Olympic Games are held in Montreal.
June 27, 1980- O Canada is officially adopted as Canada’s national anthem.
April 12, 1980- Terry Fox begins his “Marathon of Hope”, cross country run.
1989- One dollar bills stop being produced and are fully replaced by the
loonie.
June 25, 1993- Kim Campbell becomes the first female prime minister of Canada.
January 4-9, 1998- The most destructive and disruptive ice storm in Canadian
history occurs.
Genres of the period, and topics that were written about in literature were largely
influenced by the historical events which were taking place at the current time. A
notable genre of the contemporary period, which is still popular today is Young
Adult or YA.
GENRES OF CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE
Genres of this time included novels and poetry. Flash fiction, short stories,
slam poetry, plays, memoirs, and autobiographies were also popular.
Authors found inspiration in the events of the time period. They often wrote about
the realities and experiences that had occurred, no matter how brutal they may
have been.
“The literary innovations of this period were largely influenced by the surroundings
and the changes that were occurring in it…”

I. STORY
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Acquaint themselves with styles and concerns of contemporary stories.
WHAT IS A STORY?
A story or narrative is a connected series of events told through words
(written or spoken), imagery (still and moving), body language, performance,
music, or any other form of communication. You can tell a story about anything,
and the events described can be real or imaginary; covering both fiction and
nonfiction; and leaving no topic, genre, or style untouched. There are stories about
all things and all times; past, present and future. Whenever you’re telling
somebody about a series of events, you are telling a story, no matter what the
subject nor when they occurred. As such, stories are of great value to human
culture, and are some of the oldest, most important parts of life.
Aside from being a part of every single type of literature, stories are at the
foundation of creativity and part of just about everything we do, particularly when
it comes to entertainment, recording, and reporting of any form. So, they are
shared in all different ways—from oral and written storytelling or journalism; to
TV, film, and radio; to fine arts, stage performance and music; and so on.
In one form or another, stories have been a part of human culture and society for
thousands of years—likely since man has existed! They’re found in the past and
present of people from every culture, religion, and ethnicity; in every region and
language. So, all of that considered, the concept of a story is actually a bit difficult
to fully cover or describe. Some would say that life is made up of a series of never-
ending stories. From a simple commute to school or work, to all the events of our
lives, everything has a story.

 EXAMPLES OF STORY
Here are a few examples of the same story told different ways.
You can sometimes tell a story in just one line:
The girl met the love of her life and lived happily until the day she
died. Or, it could be more detailed:
When the girl was 22, she met the love of her life. It was her last day of
college, and when she saw him, she knew he was the one she was going to be with
forever—and the boy knew the same. After graduation, the boy and the girl ran
away together to elope. They lived together happily for the rest of their days.
Now really, even the second example is just a tiny story. We can tell it in all
kinds of ways and of all different lengths, from one line to a series of novels. After
all, if the couple lived an entire lifetime together, there would be countless events
that together make up the story of their life.
  TYPES OF STORIES
The range of types of stories is pretty much endless. For that reason, this article
will divide stories into two very broad categories—fiction and nonfiction. Within
each there are a huge number of possibilities in terms of subject matter, genre, type
of delivery (oral, written, performance), narrative style, and so on.

Fiction stories
Fiction stories are based on made-up or imaginary events. There are dozens
upon dozens of types of fiction stories and genres, including but not at all limited
to:
Fairy tales
Historical fiction
Folklore
Fantasy
Mythology
Science-fiction
Legends
Love stories
Epics
Horror stories
Dramas Ghost stories
Adventure stories Bedtime stories
Non-fiction stories
Non-fiction stories can cover any kind of real-life event or experience. But,
they often fall into these kinds of categories:
Historical events
Science
News and current events
Love
Biographies and
Family
autobiographies
Travel stories
Memories and experiences
Survivor stories
Cultural history
War stories
Crime and justice

 IMPORTANCE OF STORY
Stories are, have been, and always will be an absolutely essential part of human
culture. Stories are how we learn about each other, our past, and our cultures.
Whether they are created for entertainment or to recount a real-life event—new
stories are literally being lived, told, and created every second of every day. So,
even if there was only one story for every person who ever lived, that would still
be billions of stories in the world; it would be impossible to measure how many
have existed.

 EXAMPLES OF STORY IN LITERATURE

As literature is, first and foremost, written storytelling, there are limitless
examples of stories in literature; across every style and genre of writing. We’ve
been writing down stories for thousands of years—truth be told, written stories
have taught us most of what we know about mankind’s history and culture! That
said, here are a few examples:

Example 1
Author Shel Silverstein is known for the quirky and memorable stories he 33
tells through poetry. Here is “Masks” from his collection of poems Everything On It:
She had blue skin.
And so did he.
He kept it hid
And so did she.
They searched for blue
Their whole life through,
Then passed right by—
And never knew.
As you’ve just read, Silverstein tells a whole story in just eight short lines of
poetry. Tons of poems do the same in even fewer lines. Either way, you can see that
a story definitely doesn’t have to be lengthy.
Example 2
A fairy tale is a classic type of story about imaginary events. When we want
to tell a fairy tale, we often start with the famous words “Once upon a time,” which
adds a more whimsical feel to what we are about to share. Here’s an example from
Rapunzel of Grimm’s Fairy Tales:
 Once upon a time there was a man and a woman who had long, but to no
avail, wished for a child. Finally, the woman came to believe that the good Lord
would fulfill her wish. Through the small rear window of these people’s house they
could see into a splendid garden that was filled with the most beautiful flowers and
herbs. The garden was surrounded by a high wall, and no one dared enter, because
it belonged to a sorceress who possessed great power and was feared by everyone.
The fairy tale’s intro is just a small part of the story, telling us about the
beginning and a bit about the characters who will be the focus.
Example 3
Of course, newspapers and magazines are filled with stories. As you know, a
news story reports on real events that have happened. Here’s a passage from a
CNN Tech article:
There’s no other shopping bonanza quite like Alibaba’s Singles Day, which
has once again smashed records. The tech giant reported $17.8 billion in sales
during this year’s frenzy, breaking the record of $14.3 billion set in 2015. That’s
more than Black Friday and Cyber Monday combined. 34
Reading a news story gives you an update on events that are happening
throughout the world. Here, Tech Crunch writes about China’s 11.11 Singles’ Day,
the world’s biggest shopping event. The story specifically reports on the money
that Alibaba made in their latest Singles’ Day event.

 EXAMPLES OF STORY IN POPULAR CULTURE

Stories are a part of every type of today’s media, from TV, film, and radio; to
what gets shared on social media platforms; music; stage performance; art
exhibitions, celebrity magazines—you name it, and you’ll find stories. But here are
a few examples of stories in popular film and TV culture, told through performance,
music, and animation.
Example 1
Cult-classic fantasy film The Never-ending Story is about a story that goes on
as long as time exists. It unfolds in real time as the reader is reading it, who in this
case is a boy named Bastian. But it’s soon revealed that he has more of a stake in
the story than he ever imagined…
The Never-ending Story (9/10) Movie CLIP – Call My Name (1984) HD
Bastian finally realizes that he’s a part of the story he’s been reading, so in a way,
it’s actually about him. So long as he keeps reading, the story will continue.
Example 2
Everybody knows Will Smith’s retro anthem “Prince of Bel Air,” the theme
song to the hit ’90s sitcom Fresh Prince of Bel Air. In the show’s intro, Smith uses
this rap to fill the audience in on his backstory:
The fresh prince of Bel Air theme song [short version]
The song quickly reviews the story of his past, which serves as an intro to
what the show is about. He recounts the events that led to his life being turned
“upside down”; the story of how he became the Prince of Bel Air.
Example 3
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Hermione reads the story of the
Three Brothers, which is part of the wizarding world.
The Story of the Three Brothers is actually a story within a story—Harry
Potter’s story. Rowling tries to make the wizarding world seem as real as possible, 35
and adding background is a big part of that. By sharing stories that her characters
read, she is giving evidence of the wizarding world’s storytelling and literary
culture…and perhaps even some history.

 CONCLUSION
Stories are a major part of every aspect of our lives, from what we read to
what we do to what we talk and think about. They’re also crucial to our
understanding of history and culture, and have been recorded and passed on since
man’s earliest days. Stories have always been and will always be at the core of not
only literature, but life!

…..
 ACTIVITY 3.1
36
Direction: Read and analyze the story of “All Summer in a Day” by Ray
Bradbury. Write your interpretation and analysis about the story, use the
rubric to be guided for making the given task.

RUBRICS

4 3
Criteria 2 1
Exceeding Meeting
Somewhat
Poorly organized.
Organized. organized.
Cohesive and Ideas are
Can easily The flow of the
Organization well-organized scattered and
understand the content
order structured confusion take
flow of content. sometimes cut
in or place.
interrupted.

Portrays Present poor

appropriate Indicates Present the understanding of
Content information to information information that the content
the relation and accurately. is easy to follow. relating to the
related concepts. other concepts.
 Used peculiar Used materials Show some Shows minimal
materials for for materials for materials for
Creativity
enhancement of enhancement of enhancement of enhancement of
ideas. ideas. ideas. ideas.

Create multiple Create some Create minimal

Ideas are not
connections of connections of connection of
Ideas connected from
ideas and well ideas from the ideas about the
the other concept.
establish. topic. topic.

All Summer in a Day by Ray Bradbury

"Ready?"
"Ready."
"Now?"
"Soon."
"Do the scientists really know? Will it happen today, will it?"
"Look, look; see for yourself!"
The children pressed to each other like so many roses, so many weeds, intermixed,
peering out for a look at the hidden sun.
It rained.
It had been raining for seven years; thousands upon thousands of days compounded
and filled from one end to the other with rain, with the drum and gush of water,
with the sweet crystal fall of showers and the concussion of storms so heavy they
were tidal waves come over the islands. A thousand forests had been crushed under
the rain and grown up a thousand times to be crushed again. And this was the way
life was forever on the planet Venus, and this was the schoolroom of the children of
the rocket men and women who had come to a raining world to set up civilization
and live out their lives.
"It's stopping, it's stopping!"
"Yes, yes!"
Margot stood apart from them, from these children who could never remember a
time when there wasn't rain and rain and rain. They were all nine years old, and if
there had been a day, seven years ago, when the sun came out for an hour and
showed its face to the stunned world, they could not recall. Sometimes, at night, she
heard them stir, in remembrance, and she knew they were dreaming and
remembering gold or a yellow crayon or a coin large enough to buy the world with.
She knew they thought they remembered a warmness, like a blushing in the face, in
the body, in the arms and legs and trembling hands. But then they always awoke to
the tatting drum, the endless shaking down of clear bead necklaces upon the roof,
the walk, the gardens, the forests, and their dreams were gone.
All day yesterday they had read in class about the sun. About how like a lemon it
was, and how hot. And they had written small stories or essays or poems about it:
I think the sun is a flower that blooms for just one hour.

That was Margot's poem, read in a quiet voice in the still classroom while the rain
was falling outside. 38

"Aw, you didn't write that!" protested one of the boys.

"I did," said Margot. "I did."
"William!" said the teacher.
But that was yesterday. Now the rain was slackening, and the children were
crushed in the great thick
windows.
Where's teacher?"
"She'll be back."
"She'd better hurry, we'll
miss it!"
They turned on themselves,
like a feverish wheel, all
tumbling spokes. Margot
stood alone. She was a very
frail girl who looked as if she
had been lost in the rain for years and the rain had washed out the blue from her
eyes and the red from her mouth and the yellow from her hair. She was an old
photograph dusted from an album, whitened away, and if she spoke at all her voice
would be a ghost. Now she stood, separate, staring at the rain and the loud wet
world beyond the huge glass.
"What're you looking at?" said
William. Margot said nothing.
"Speak when you're spoken to."
He gave her a shove. But she did not move; rather she let herself be moved only by
him and nothing else. They edged away from her, they would not look at her. She
felt them go away. And this was because she would play no games with them in the
echoing tunnels of the underground city. If they tagged her and ran, she stood
blinking after them and did not follow. When the class sang songs about happiness
and life and games her lips barely moved. Only when they sang about the sun and
the summer did her lips move as she watched the drenched windows. And then, of
course, the biggest crime of all was that she had come here only five years ago from
Earth, and she remembered the sun and the way the sun was and the sky was when
she was four in Ohio. And they, they had been on Venus all their lives, and they had 39
been only two years old when last the sun came out and had long since forgotten the
color and heat of it and the way it really was.
But Margot remembered.
"It's like a penny," she said once, eyes closed.
"No it's not!" the children cried.
"It's like a fire," she said, "in the stove."
"You're lying, you don't remember!" cried the children.
But she remembered and stood quietly apart from all of them and watched the
patterning windows. And once, a month ago, she had refused to shower in the school
shower rooms, had clutched her hands to her ears and over her head, screaming the
water mustn't touch her head. So after that, dimly, dimly, she sensed it, she was
different and they knew her difference and kept away. There was talk that her
father and mother were taking her back to Earth next year; it seemed vital to her
that they do so, though it would mean the loss of thousands of dollars to her family.
And so, the children hated her for all these reasons of big and little consequence.
They hated her pale snow face, her waiting silence, her thinness, and her possible
future.
"Get away!" The boy gave her another push. "What're you waiting for?"
Then, for the first time, she turned and looked at him. And what she was waiting
for was in her eyes.
"Well, don't wait around here!" cried the boy savagely. "You won't see nothing!"
Her lips moved.
"Nothing!" he cried. "It was all a joke, wasn't it?" He turned to the other children.
"Nothing's happening today. Is it?"
They all blinked at him and then, understanding, laughed and shook their heads.
"Nothing, nothing!"
"Oh, but," Margot whispered, her eyes helpless. "But this is the day, the scientists
predict, they say, they know, the sun..."
"All a joke!" said the boy, and seized her roughly. "Hey, everyone, let's put her in a
closet before the teacher comes!"
"No," said Margot, falling back.
They surged about her, caught her up and bore her, protesting, and then pleading,
and then crying, back into a tunnel, a room, a closet, where they slammed and
locked the door. They stood looking at the door and saw it tremble from her beating 40
and throwing herself against it. They heard her muffled cries. Then, smiling, the
turned and went out and back down the tunnel, just as the teacher arrived.
"Ready, children?" She glanced at her watch.
"Yes!" said everyone.
"Are we all here?"
"Yes!"
The rain slacked still more. They crowded to the huge door. The rain stopped.
It was as if, in the midst of a film concerning an avalanche, a tornado, a hurricane,
a volcanic eruption, something had, first, gone wrong with the sound apparatus,
thus muffling and finally cutting off all noise, all of the blasts and repercussions
and thunders, and then, second, ripped the film from the projector and inserted in
its place a beautiful tropical slide which did not move or tremor. The world ground
to a standstill. The silence was so immense and unbelievable that you felt your ears
had been stuffed or you had lost your hearing altogether. The children put their
hands to their ears. They stood apart. The door slid back and the smell of the silent,
waiting world came in to them.
The sun came out.
It was the color of flaming bronze and it was very large. And the sky around it was
a blazing blue tile color. And the jungle burned with sunlight as the children,
released from their spell, rushed out, yelling into the springtime.
"Now, don't go too far," called the teacher after them. "You've only two hours, you
know. You wouldn't want to get caught out!"
But they were running and turning their faces up to the sky and feeling the sun on
their cheeks like a warm iron; they were taking off their jackets and letting the sun
burn their arms.
"Oh, it's better than the sun lamps, isn't it?"
"Much, much better!"
They stopped running and stood in the great jungle that covered Venus that grew
and never stopped growing, tumultuously, even as you watched it. It was a nest of
octopi, clustering up great arms of flesh like weed, wavering, flowering in this brief
spring. It was the color of rubber and ash, this jungle, from the many years without
sun. It was the color of stones and white cheeses and ink, and it was the color of the
moon.
41
The children lay out, laughing, on the jungle mattress, and heard it sigh and squeak
under them resilient and alive. They ran among the trees, they slipped and fell,
they pushed each other, they played hide-and-seek and tag, but most of all they
squinted at the sun until the tears ran down their faces; they put their hands up to
that yellowness and that amazing blueness and they breathed of the fresh, fresh air
and listened to the silence which suspended them in a blessed sea of no sound and
no motion. They looked at everything and savored everything. Then, wildly, like
animals escaped from their caves, they ran and ran in shouting circles. They ran for an
hour and did not stop running.
And then -in the midst of their running one of the girls wailed. Everyone
stopped. The girl, standing in the open, held out her hand.
"Oh, look, look," she said, trembling.
They came slowly to look at her opened palm.
In the center of it, cupped and huge, was a single raindrop. She began to cry,
looking at it. They glanced quietly at the sun.
"Oh. Oh."
A few cold drops fell on their noses and their cheeks and their mouths. The sun
faded behind a stir of mist. A wind blew cold around them. They turned and started
to walk back toward the underground house, their hands at their sides, their smiles
vanishing away.
A boom of thunder startled them and like leaves before a new hurricane, they
tumbled upon each other and ran. Lightning struck ten miles away, five miles away,
a mile, a half mile. The sky darkened into midnight in a flash.
They stood in the doorway of the underground for a moment until it was raining
hard. Then they closed the door and heard the gigantic sound of the rain falling in
tons and avalanches, everywhere and forever.
"Will it be seven more years?"
"Yes. Seven."
Then one of them gave a little cry.
"Margot."
"What?"
"She's still in the closet where we locked her."
"Margot."
They stood as if someone had driven them, like so many stakes, into the floor. They
looked at each other and then looked away. They glanced out at the world that was 42
raining now and raining and raining steadily. They could not meet each other's
glances. Their faces were solemn and pale. They looked at their hands and feet,
their faces down.
"Margot."
One of the girls said, "Well...?"
No one moved.
"Go on," whispered the girl.
They walked slowly down the hall in the sound of cold rain. They turned through
the doorway to the room in the sound of the storm and thunder, lightning on their
faces, blue and terrible. They walked over to the closet door slowly and stood by it.
Behind the closet door was only silence.
They unlocked the door, even more slowly, and let Margot out.
II. POETRY
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Analyze elements of contemporary poetry; and
b. Trace the history, characteristics, and famous personality in
contemporary poetry.

WHAT IS A POETRY?

Poetry is a type of literature based on the interplay of words and rhythm. It

often employs rhyme and meter (a set of rules governing the number and
arrangement of syllables in each line). In poetry, words are strung together to form
sounds, images, and ideas that might be too complex or abstract to describe
directly.
Poetry was once written according to fairly strict rules of meter and rhyme,
and each culture had its own rules. For example, Anglo-Saxon poets had their own
rhyme schemes and meters, while Greek poets and Arabic poets had others.
Although these classical forms are still widely used today, modern poets frequently
do away with rules altogether – their poems generally do not rhyme, and do not fit
any particular meter. These poems, however, still have a rhythmic quality and seek
to create beauty through their words. 43

The opposite of poetry is “prose” – that is, normal text that runs without line
breaks or rhythm. This article, for example, is written in prose.

ELEMENTS OF POETRY
(Structure, Sound, Imagery, Figurative Language, Elements of Fiction, Poetic
Forms)

STRUCTURE
1-. Poetic Line – the words that form a single line of poetry.
Example: “‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house” is the
wellknown first poetic line of “A Visit from Saint Nicholas” by Clement Clarke
Moore.
2. Stanza – a section of a poem named for the number of lines it contains.
Example: A couplet is a stanza of two lines. The first stanza from “Barbara
Frietchie” by John Greenleaf Wittier is a couplet:
Up from the meadows rich with corn, Clear in the cool September morn,

3. Enjambment – when there is no written or natural pause at the end of a poetic

line, so that the word-flow carries over to the next line.
Example: the following lines from “Knoxville, Tennessee” by Nikki Giovanni
contain enjambment: and listen to gospel music outside at the church

4. Placement – the way words and poetic lines are placed on the page of a poem.
Example: The following are creatively-placed lines from a poem by E.E. Cummings:
in Justspring when the world is mudluscious the little lame ballonman whistles far
and wee.

5. Verse – a line in traditional poetry that is written in meter.

Example: In “When I do count the clock that tells the time” from Shakespeare’s
“Sonnet Number Twelve,” the underlined syllables are accented, giving the line a 44
metric pattern known as an iambic pentameter (see Meter).

6. Capitalization and Punctuation – In poetry, rules of capitalization and

punctuation are not always followed; instead, they are at the service of the poet’s
artistic vision.
Example: in our backyard we plant Tomatoes is the first stanza from “Laughing
Tomatoes” by Francisco X. Alarcó n. Notice the lack of capitalization and
punctuation.

SOUNDS
1. Rhythm – the basic beat in a line of a poem.
Example: “Whose woods these are, I think I know” is the first line from “Stopping
by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost. Notice that the accented words
(underlined) give the line a distinctive beat.

2. Meter – a pattern of stressed and unstressed (accented and unaccented)

syllables (known as a foot) in a line of poetry.
Example: In an iambic pentameter, the pattern is five iambic (unaccented +
accented) feet in each line (see Verse).

3. End Rhyme – same or similar sounds at the end of words that finish different
lines.
Example: The following are the first two rhyming lines from “The King of Cats
Sends a Postcard to His Wife” by Nancy Willard: Keep your whiskers crisp and
clean, Do not let the mice grow lean,

4. Internal Rhyme – same or similar sounds at the end of words within a line.
Example: A line showing internal rhyme (underlined) from “The Rabbit” by
Elizabeth Maddox Roberts: When they said the time to hide was mine,

5. Rhyme Scheme – a pattern of rhyme in a poem. 45

Example: A quatrain – a stanza of four lines in which the second and fourth-lines
rhyme – has the following rhyme scheme: abcb (see Quatrain).

6. Assonance – the repetition of vowel sounds within words in a line. Example: A

line showing assonance (underlined) from “A Visit from Saint Nicholas” by Clement
Clarke Moore: The children were nestled all snug in their beds

7. Consonance – the repetition of consonant sounds within words in a line.

Example: A line showing consonance (underlined) from “A Visit from Saint
Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore: Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse
8. Alliteration – the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.
Example: Notice the alliteration (underlined) in “Sarah Cynthia Sylvia Stout
Would Not Take the Garbage Out” by Shel Silverstein.

9. Onomatopoeia – words that sound like their meaning.

Example: buzz, swish, hiss, gulp.

10. Repetition – sounds, words, or phrases that are repeated to add emphasis or
create rhythm. Parallelism is a form of repetition.
Examples: Two lines from “Jabberwocky” by Lewis Carroll showing
parallelism: Beware the Jabberwock, my son!
The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Read the poem “The Bells” by Edgar Allan Poe and listen to the way the repetition
of the word “bells” adds rhythm and creates an increasingly ominous and morbid
mood.

11. Refrain – a line or stanza repeated over and over in a poem or song.
Example: In “Jingle Bells,” the following refrain is repeated after every stanza:
Jingle Bells, jingle bells,
46
Jingle all the way!

Oh, what fun it is to ride

In a one-horse open sleigh!

12. Word Play – to play with the sounds and meanings of real or invented words.
Example: Two lines from the poem “Synonyms” by Susan Moger:
Claptrap, bombast, rodomontade,
Hogwash, jargon, and rant
Two lines from the poem “Antonio” by Laura E. Richards:
Antonio, Antonio,
Was tired of living alonio.

IMAGERY (see also Imagist Poetry)

1. Precise Language – the use of specific words to describe a person, place, thing,
or action.
Example: Notice how Paul B. Janeczko uses proper nouns in his poem “Reverend
Mona”:
When the elders said she was too old,
Reverend Mona
surrendered her tabernacle
next to Fast Frankie’s Pawn Shop

2. Sensory Details – the use of descriptive details that appeal to one or more of the
five senses.
Example: Notice the sensory details in the following lines from “The Sea” by James
Reeves:
The giant sea dog moans, Licking his greasy paws.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
47
1. Simile – a comparison of two unlike things, using the words like or as.
Example: “I read the shoreline like an open volume.”

2. Metaphor – a comparison of two unlike things, not using the words like or as.
Example: “Ribbons of sea foam / wrap the emerald island.”

3. Personification – to ascribe human traits to non-human or non-living things.

Example: “The unfurled sailboat glides on / urged by wind and will and brilliant
bliss.”
4. Symbolism – a person, place, thing, or action that stands for something else.
Example: In “From Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes, a set of stairs symbolizes
life.

5. Hyperbole – the use of exaggeration to express strong emotion or create

a comical effect.
Example: “I’m so hungry I could eat a hippo.”

6. Verbal Irony or Sarcasm – when you mean the opposite of what you say.
Example: “My darling brother is the sweetest boy on Earth,” she muttered
sarcastically.

7. Situational Irony – when the outcome of a situation is the opposite of what is

expected.
Example: After many years of trying, Mr. Smith won the lottery -- and
immediately died of a heart attack.
8. Pun – a humorous phrase that plays with the double meaning or the similar
sounds of words.
Examples: “Tomorrow you shall find me a grave man,” said the duke on his
deathbed. The cookbook Lunch on the Run by Sam Witch is awesome.
48

9. Allusion- a reference to a familiar person, place, or event.

Example: The following two lines from the poem “My Muse” contain an allusion to
Pandora’s Box: hunched over from carrying that old familiar Box

10. Idiom - a cultural expression that cannot be taken literally.

Examples: She is the apple of his eye. He drives me up the wall.

ELEMENTS OF FICTION (Poems may contain some or all elements of fiction.

For example, a narrative poem (a poem that tells a story) may contain all elements.)
1. Setting – the time and place where a story or poem takes place.

2. Point of View / Narrative Voice – the person narrating a story or poem (the
story/poem could be narrated in first person (I, we), second person (you), or third
person limited or omniscient (he/she, they).

3. Characterization – the development of the characters in a story or poem (what

they look like, what they say and do, what their personalities are like, what they
think and feel, and how they’re referred to or treated by others).

4. Dialog or Dialogue – the conversation between the characters in a story or

poem.

5. Dialect or Colloquial Language – the particular style of speaking of the

narrator and the characters in a story or poem (according to their region, time
period, and social expectations).

6. Conflict – the problem or situation a character or characters face in a story or

poem.

7. Plot – the series of events in a story or poem.

49

8. Tone and Voice – the distinctive, idiosyncratic way a narrator has of telling a
story or poem (tone and voice depend on the intended audience, the purpose for
writing, and the way the writer or poem feels about his/her subject).

9. Style – the way a writer uses words to craft a story or poem.

10. Mood – the feelings and emotions the writer wants the reader to experience.
11. Theme and Message – the main topic of a story or poem, and the message the
author or poet wants to convey about that topic.
TWENTY POETIC FORMS
1- Acrostic – a poem in which the first letter of each word forms a word – usually a
name – if read downward.
Example: “A Rock Acrostic” by Avis Harley.
2- Couplet – two lines of poetry that rhyme and usually form one complete idea.
Example: The poem “Catch a Little Rhyme” by Eve Merriam is written in couplets.
3- Haiku - a Japanese three-line poetic form – usually about nature – with
lines of three, seven, and five syllables, respectively.
Example: I call to my love on mornings ripe with sunlight. The songbirds
answer. 4- Quatrain – a stanza made up of four lines, often containing a rhyme
scheme.
Example: “The Toaster” by William Jay Smith.

5- Cinquain – a five-line untitled poem, where the syllable pattern increases by

two for each line, except for the last line, which ends in two syllables (2,4,6,8.2).
Example: The cinquain that begins with “Oh, cat” by Paul B. Janeczko.

6- Limerick – a humorous rhyming poem written in five lines and having a

particular meter. It often begins with “There once was a…”
50
Example: Limericks by Edward Lear.

7- Sonnet – a poem that is 14 lines long, generally written in iambic pentameter.

Example: “Sonnet 116” by William Shakespeare.

8- Free Verse – a poem that does not follow a predictable form or rhyme scheme or
metric pattern.
Example: “Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes.
9- List or Catalog Poem – a poem in the form of a list, that uses sensory details
and precise language to persuade the reader to take notice of what is being listed.
Example: “Things To Do If You Are a Subway” by Robbi Katz.
10- Villanelle – a challenging poetic form that includes five tercets (aba rhyme)
followed by a quatrain (abaa rhyme) and a pattern of repetition of lines 1 and 3 of
the first stanza.
Example: “Is There a Villain in Your Villanelle?” by Joan Bransfield Graham.

11- Ode – a poem that celebrates or praises something.

Example: “Ode to Pablo’s Tennis Shoes” by Gary Soto.

12- Lyric Poetry – poetry that expresses a poet’s personal experience, feelings, and
emotions.
Example: “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by William Wordsworth.

13- Blank Verse – a poem written in iambic pentameter, but with no rhyme.
Example: Verses in Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare.

14- Blues Poem – poems that – like blues songs – deal with personal or world
issues.
51
Example: “Evening Air Blues” by Langston Hughes.

15- Nonsense Poem – a fun, usually rhyming poem that makes no sense, focusing
instead on the sounds and the rhythm of the poem.
Example: “The Jumblies” by Edward Lear.

16- Concrete Poem – a poem that uses words to form the shape of the subject of
the poem (also known as a “shape poem”).
Example: “Concrete Cat” by Dorth Charles.
17- Narrative Poem – a poem that tells a story.
Example: “The Sneetches” by Dr. Seuss (Theodor Geisel).

18- Ballad – a poem that tells a story, usually written in four-line stanzas.
Example: “The Wreck of the Hesperus” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

19- Epic Poem – a long and heroic narrative poem.

Example: “The Odyssey” by Homer.

20- Imagist Poetry – poems that contain precise visual images.

Example: “The Red Wheelbarrow” by William Carlos Williams.

Prepared by Elsa Pla, www.writecook.com, 2011

 EXAMPLES AND EXPLANATION

Example 1
Of all creatures that breathe and move upon the earth, nothing is bred that is
weaker than man.
(Homer, The Odyssey) 52
The Greek poet Homer wrote some of the ancient world’s most famous literature.
He wrote in a style called epic poetry, which deals with gods, heroes, monsters, and
other large-scale “epic” themes. Homer’s long poems tell stories of Greek heroes
like Achilles and Odysseus, and have inspired countless generations of poets,
novelists, and philosophers alike.
Example 2
Poetry gives powerful insight into the cultures that create it. Because of this,
fantasy and science fiction authors often create poetry for their invented cultures.
J.R.R. Tolkien famously wrote different kinds of poetry for elves, dwarves, hobbits,
and humans, and the rhythms and subject matter of their poetry was supposed
to show how these races differed from one another. In a more humorous vein,
many Star Trek fans have taken to writing love poetry in the invented Klingon
language.
  IMPORTANCE OF POETRY
Poetry is probably the oldest form of literature, and probably predates the origin of
writing itself. The oldest written manuscripts we have are poems, mostly epic
poems telling the stories of ancient mythology. Examples include the Epic of
Gilgamesh and the Vedas (sacred texts of Hinduism). This style of writing may have
developed to help people memorize long chains of information in the days before
writing. Rhythm and rhyme can make the text more memorable, and thus easier to
preserve for cultures that do not have a written language.
Poetry can be written with all the same purposes as any other kind of literature –
beauty, humor, storytelling, political messages, etc.

 EXAMPLES IN POETRY LITERATURE

Example 1
I think that I shall never see --> A
a poem lovely as a tree…--> A
poems are made by fools like me,--> B
but only God can make a tree.--> B
(Joyce Kilmer, Trees)

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This is an excerpt from Joyce Kilmer’s famous short poem. The poem employs a
fairly standard rhyme scheme (AABB, lines 1 and 2 rhymes together and lines 3
and 4 rhymes together), and a meter called “iambic tetrameter,” which is
commonly employed in children’s rhymes.
Example 2
I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness,
starving hysterical naked,
dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn
looking for an angry fix,
angelheaded hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly
connection to the starry dynamo in the machinery of night,
who poverty and tatters and hollow-eyed and high sat up smoking…
(Alan Ginsberg, Howl)

These are the first few lines of Howl, one of the most famous examples of modern
“free verse” poetry. It has no rhyme, and no particular meter. But its words still
have a distinct, rhythmic quality, and the line breaks encapsulate the meaning of
the poem. Notice how the last word of each line contributes to the imagery of a
corrupt, ravaged city (“madness, naked, smoking”), with one exception: “heavenly.”
This powerful juxtaposition goes to the heart of Ginsburg’s intent in writing the
poem – though what that intent is, you’ll have to decide for yourself.

Example 3
In the twilight rain,
these brilliant-hued hibiscus –
A lovely sunset

This poem by the Japanese poet Basho is a haiku. This highly influential Japanese
style has no rhymes, but it does have a very specific meter – five syllables in the
first line, seven in the second line, and five in the third line.

54
 EXAMPLES OF POETRY IN POPULAR CULTURE
Example 1
Rapping originated as a kind of performance poetry. In the 1960s and 70s, spoken
word artists like Gil Scott-Heron began performing their poems over live or
synthesized drumbeats, a practice that sparked all of modern hip hop. Even earlier,
the beat poets of the 1950s sometimes employed drums in their readings.
Example 2
Some of the most famous historical poems have been turned into movies or inspired
episodes of television shows. Beowulf, for example, is an Anglo-Saxon epic poem
that has spawned at least 8 film adaptations, most recently a 2007 animated film
starring Angelina Jolie and Anthony Hopkins. Edgar Allen Poe’s The Raven has
also inspired many pop culture spinoffs with its famous line, “Nevermore.”
ACTIVITY 3.2: READ ALOUD!
Direction: Choose a student who will read aloud the short contemporary
55
poem entitled “The Promise” by Jane Hirshfield. After reading the poem
answer the essential questions.

Stay, I said
to the cut flowers.
They bowed
their heads lower.

Stay, I said to the spider,

who fled.

Stay, leaf.
 It reddened,
embarrassed for me and itself.
Stay, I said to my body.
It sat as a dog does,
obedient for a moment,
soon starting to
tremble.

Stay, to the earth

of riverine valley meadows,
of fossiled escarpments,
of limestone and sandstone.
It looked back
with a changing expression, in silence.

Stay, I said to my loves.

Each answered, 56

Always.

Essential Questions:
1. What are the elements of poetry present in the poem read?
2. How was the poem different from the traditional poem you know?
3. What are its characteristics?
4. Name some famous contemporary poets

III. DRAMA
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Examine theatrical structures of contemporary drama; and
b. Trace the changes and development of contemporary drama.

DRAMA
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is
one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a type
of a play written for theater, television, radio, and film.
In simple words, a drama is a composition in verse or prose presenting a story in
pantomime or dialogue. It contains conflict of characters, particularly the ones who
perform in front of audience on the stage. The person who writes drama for stage
directions is known as a “dramatist” or “playwright.”

TYPES OF DRAMA
Let us consider a few popular types of drama:
• Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a
happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their
audience laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters, and
witty remarks.
• Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and 57
death. Protagonists often have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads them to
their downfall.
• Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often
overacts or engages slapstick humor.
• Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and
appeals directly to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the characters are
of a single dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped.
• Musical Drama – In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories
through acting and dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the story
may be comedic, though it may also involve serious subjects.

DRAMATIC STRUCTURE
The structure is how the plot or story of a play is laid out, including a beginning, a
middle and an end. Plays may also include subplots, which are smaller stories that
allow the audience to follow the journey of different characters and events within
the plot. Plays also feature an element of conflict, which does not necessarily mean
a fight or argument but instead an obstacle that needs to be overcome.

A typical dramatic structure is linear, with events occurring chronologically. This

might include:
exposition - introduces background events and characters
rising action - a series of events that create suspense in the narrative
climax - the part of the story where the suspense reaches its highest
part falling action - the main conflict starts to resolve
resolution - the conclusion of the story where questions are answered and loose ends
are tied up
A graph showing how dramatic tension changes during a theatre performance,
from the exposition through rising action, dramatic climax and falling action,
ending in a resolution.
Structures can also be non-linear, with the action of the play moving forwards and
back in time. This is done through the use of flashbacks and flashforwards, to help
make the play more exciting or to highlight points through contrast and
juxtaposition.

Alternatively, plays may follow a cyclical structure, with the play ending at the
same time as it began. This can be exciting for the audience as they try to work out 58
how the character ended up in the position they see at the start of the play.
Traditionally, plays use acts and scenes to help define particular moments in time,
and a new scene will show the audience that the action is taking place in a different
location.

EXAMPLES OF DRAMA IN LITERATURE

Example #1: Much Ado About Nothing (By William Shakespeare)
Much Ado About Nothing is the most frequently performed Shakespearian comedy
in modern times. The play is romantically funny, in that love between Hero and
Claudio is laughable, as they never even get a single chance to communicate on-
stage until they get married.
Their relationship lacks development and depth. They end up merely as caricatures,
exemplifying what people face in life when their relationships are internally weak.
Love between Benedick and Beatrice is amusing, as initially their communications
are very sparky, and they hate each other. However, they all of sudden make up,
and start loving each other.
Example #2: Oedipus Rex (By Sophocles)
Tragedy:
Sophocles’ mythical and immortal drama Oedipus Rex is thought to be his best
classical tragedy. Aristotle has adjudged this play as one of the greatest examples
of tragic drama in his book, Poetics, by giving the following reasons:
• The play arouses emotions of pity and fear, and achieves the tragic Catharsis.
• It shows the downfall of an extraordinary man of high rank, Oedipus.
• The central character suffers due to his tragic error called Hamartia; as he
murders his real father, Laius, and then marries his real mother, Jocasta.
• Hubris is the cause of Oedipus’ downfall.

Example #3: The Importance of Being Earnest (By Oscar Wilde)

Farce:
59
Oscar Wilde’s play, The Importance of Being Earnest, is a very popular
example of Victorian farce. In this play, a man uses two identities: one as a serious
person, Jack (his actual name), which he uses for Cesily, his ward, and as a rogue
named Ernest for his beloved woman, Gwendolyn.
Unluckily, Gwendolyn loves him partially because she loves the name Ernest. It is
when Jack and Earnest must come on-stage together for Cesily, then Algernon
comes in to play Earnest’ role, and his ward immediately falls in love with the other
“Ernest.” Thus, two young women think that they love the same man – an
occurrence that amuses the audience.

Example #4: The Heiress (By Henry James)

Melodrama:
 The Heiress is based on Henry James’ novel the Washington Square.
Directed for stage performance by William Wyler, this play shows an ungraceful
and homely daughter of a domineering and rich doctor. She falls in love with a
young man, Morris Townsend, and wishes to elope with him, but he leaves her in
the lurch. The author creates melodrama towards the end, when Catherine teaches
a lesson to Morris, and leaves him instead.

FUNCTION OF DRAMA
Drama is one of the best literary forms through which dramatists can
directly speak to their readers, or the audience, and they can receive instant
feedback of audiences. A few dramatists use their characters as a vehicle to convey
their thoughts and values, such as poets do with personas, and novelists do with
narrators. Since drama uses spoken words and dialogues, thus language of
characters plays a vital role, as it may give clues to their feelings, personalities,
backgrounds, and change in feelings. In dramas the characters live out a story
without any comments of the author, providing the audience a direct presentation
of characters’ life experiences.

…..
ACTIVITY 3.3
60

Direction: Watch the contemporary drama/play entitled “Stop Kiss” by

Diana Son and examine the theatrical structure used in the play.
https://youtu.be/MH6kpLym1Jo

After watching the video, answer the following questions.

1. What can you say about contemporary drama/play you just watch?

2. Is there some changes or development in contemporary drama/play in the present?

ACTIVITY 3.4
Direction: After watching the contemporary drama/play, map the story out
using the story mountain planner below.

LESSON 4: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN CONTEMPORARY

LITERATURE 61

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Identify issues and challenges in
contemporary literature; and
b. Explain the development in genres in contemporary literature.

Eighteen Challenges in Contemporary Literature

1. Literature is language-based and national; contemporary society is globalizing
and polyglot.
2. Vernacular means of everyday communication "” cellphones, social networks,
streaming video "” are moving into areas where printed text cannot follow.
3. Intellectual property systems failing.
4. Means of book promotion, distribution and retail destabilized.
5. Ink-on-paper manufacturing is an outmoded, toxic industry with steeply rising
costs.
6. Core demographic for printed media is aging faster than the general population.
Failure of print and newspapers is disenfranchising young apprentice writers.
7. Media conglomerates have poor business model; economically rationalized
"culture industry" is actively hostile to vital aspects of humane culture.
8. Long tail Balkanizes audiences, disrupts means of canon-building and fragments
literary reputation.
9. Digital public-domain transforms traditional literary heritage into a huge, cost-
free, portable, searchable database, radically transforming the reader's
relationship to belle-lettres.
10. Contemporary literature not confronting issues of general urgency; dominant
best-sellers are in former niche genres such as fantasies, romances and teen books.
11. Barriers to publication entry have crashed, enabling huge torrent of sub
literary and/or nonliterary textual expression.
12. Algorithms and social media replacing work of editors and publishing houses;
network socially-generated texts replacing individually-authored texts.
13. "Convergence culture" obliterating former distinctions between media; books 62
becoming one minor aspect of huge tweet/ blog/ comics/ games / soundtrack/
television / cinema / ancillary-merchandise pro-fan franchises.
14. Unstable computer and cellphone interfaces becoming world's primary means of
cultural access. Compositor systems remake media in their own hybrid creole image.
15. Scholars steeped within the disciplines becoming cross-linked jack-of-all-trades
virtual intelligentsia.
16. Academic education system suffering severe bubble-inflation.
17. Polarizing civil cold war is harmful to intellectual honesty.
18. The Gothic fate of poor slain Poetry is the specter at this dwindling feast.
ACTIVITY 4.1: REFLECT!
Direction: Write a reaction paper about the issues and challenges in
contemporary literature and explain the development or changes in the
genres in contemporary literature. Use the rubric to be guided for making
the given task.

RUBRICS 63
TRAIT EXCEEDS MEET BELOW

Introduction Introduces theme Introduces theme Fails to present the

of paper, and of paper and theme, or fails to
articles using rich articles effectively. provide
and descriptive introduction to
language. articles.
Conclusion Conclusion Effective Missing or
presents conclusion is inconsistent
particularly strong presented that conclusion.
or corresponds with
compelling closing introduction.
statement that ties
closely to
introduction.
 Organization Information is Information is Missing or
organized in a fully organized ineffective
effective manner; competently, elements.
presents strong with thesis,
introduction, supporting
expressive information and
body, and conclusion.
purposeful
conclusion
Sentence Structure Sentences Sentences Repeated errors in
effectively effectively sentence structure
constructed with constructed with or
no 1‐2 grammar.
grammatical minor grammatical
errors. errors.

64
 CHAPTER TEST!

I. MATCHING TYPE. Directions: Match the statement in Column A with

the corresponding answers in Column B. Write your answers on the
space provided.

Column A Column B
1. It is a poem that tells a story.
2. It is the repetition of A. Plot Manipulation
consonant sounds within words in a
line.
3. It is a stanza made up of four B. Fiction Stories
lines, often containing a rhyme
scheme.
C. Consonance
4. It is written with serious
artistic intentions by someone who
hopes to enable readers to broaden
D. Plot
understanding of life and to
empathize with others.
5. It is an unjustified turn in E. Narrative Poem
the plot by the situation or the
characters.
F. Fantasy
6. It is a nonrealistic story and
transcends the bounds of known
reality.
G. Quatrain
7. It is a poem that is 14 lines
long, generally written in iambic
pentameter. H. Suspense/Thriller
8. the sequence of events
through which an author constructs a
I. Literary Fiction
story.
9. In this genre, a writer’s
objective is to deliver a story with J. Sonnet
sustained tension, surprise, and a
constant sense of impending doom
that propels the reader forward.

65
 10. It is a type of a story that
are based on made-up or
imaginary events

II. ESSAY. Direction: Discuss your answer in the given statement below.
Please take note that the perfect score will be given to those who will be
able to:
A. Demonstrate a deep understanding of the content;
B. Make the content well-organized and easy to read;
C. Present his/her answers without major grammatical errors or
spelling errors;
D. Maintain the cleanliness and neatness of his/her paper.

Choose one on the eighteen challenges of contemporary literature and

give your own insights and ideas about it.

66
Introduction
Popular literature contains writings that are intended for the
masses and those that find favour with large audiences. In this chapter,
the students must acquaint themselves with the nature, appeal and
social functions of popular literature. It will also talk about the
characteristics and the different issues and challenges of popular
literature.

67
 LESSON 5: Introduction to Popular Literature
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Acquaint themselves with the nature, appeal, and social functions of
popular literature.

UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE, FUNCTION, AND VALUE OF

LITERATURE

HOW DR. ELLIS DESCRIBES ‘LITERATURE’

Dr. Rod Ellis- known as the “Father of Second
Language Acquisition” (ASL)
(1989:30) defines literature as:
1. The verbal expression of human imagination and
2. One of the primary means by which a culture
transmits itself.

I. NATURE
WHAT IS THE NATURE OF LITERATURE?
Literature can be defined as an expression of human feelings, thoughts, and
ideas whose medium is language, oral and written.
It is not only about human ideas, thoughts, and feelings but also about
experiences of the authors.
It can be medium for human to communicate what they feel, think,
experience to the readers.
‘LITERATURE’ BASED ON DIFFERENT POINT OF VIEWS
Literature is art,
Literature is language,
Literature is aesthetic,
Literature is fictional,

68
 Literature is expressive, and
Literature is affective.
Literature is everything in print.
It means any writing can be categorized as literature.

LITERATURE AS ART FORM

1. IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE
Is highly ‘connotative’ which means words that used in literary works have
feeling and shades of meaning that words tend to evoke.
Imaginative literature or “literature of power” includes poems, short stories,
novels, and plays. It interprets human experience by presenting actual truths about
particular events.
2. NON-IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE
Means that the words refer to meaning in dictionary.
Non-Fictional Literature or “literature of knowledge” includes biographies,
and essays which presents actual facts, events, experiences and ideas.
TWO CATEGORIES OF LITERATURE ACCORDING TO KLEDEN
Kleden (2004:7-8) states that literature can be differentiate based on the
kind of meanings that exist in a text.
A. LITERARY TEXT consists of textual meaning and referential meaning and;
B. NON-LITERARY TEXT only consists of referral meaning.
The TEXTUAL MEANING is the meaning that is produced by the relationship of
text itself.
REFERENTIAL MEANING it is produced by the relationship between internal text
and external text (world beyond the text).

LITERATURE DIFFER FROM ORDIANRY SPOKEN OR WRITTEN

LANGUAGE
Literature uses special words, structures, and characteristics. Primarily the
language of literature differs from ordinary language in three ways:

69
1.) Language is concentrated and meaningful.
2.) Its purpose is not simply to explain, argue, or make a point but rather to give
a sense of pleasure in the discovery of new experience, and
3.) It demands intense concentration from the readers. It indicates that the
language of literature has originality, quality, creativity, and pleasure.

LITERARY FROM THE USE OF LANGUAGE AND THE EXISTENCE

From the use of language and the existence of meaning in literary works, it
can be concluded that poetry, prose and drama are put in literary works article,
journalism, news, bibliography, memoir, and so on can be categorized as non-
literary works.

II. APPEAL
 Something that makes the viewers or readers attracted and interested in the
literary piece.

III. SOCIAL FUNCTION

FUNCTION OF LITERATURE
ENTERTAINMENT FUNCTION
Known as, “pleasure reading”. In this function, literature is used to
entertain its readers. It is consumed for the sake of one’s enjoyment.

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL FUNCTION

Literature shows how society works around them. It helps the reader
“see” the social and political constructs around him and shows the state of the
people and the world around him.
IDEOLOGICAL FUNCTION
Ideological function shapes our way of thinking based on the ideas of
other people. Literature also displays a person’s ideology placed in the text
consciously and unconsciously.

70
MORAL FUNCTION
Literature may impart moral values to its readers. The morals
contained in a literary text, whether good or bad are absorbed by whoever reads it,
thus helps in shaping their personality.
LINGUISTIC FUNCTION
Literature preserves the language of every civilization from where it
originated. They are also evidences that a certain civilization has existed by
recording the language and preserving it through wide spans of time.
CULTURAL FUNCTION
Literature orients us to the traditions, folklore and the arts of our
ethnic group’s heritage. It preserves entire cultures and creates an imprint of the
people’s way of living for others to read, hear and learn.
EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION
Literature teaches us of many things about the human experience. It is
used to portray the facets of life that we see, and those that we would never dream
of seeing. Literature therefore, is a conduct for the chance to experience and feel
things where we can learn things about life.
HISTORICAL FUNCTION
Ancient texts, illuminated scripts, stone tablets etc. keeps a record of
events that happened in the place where they originated. Thus, they serve as time
capsules of letters that are studies by scholars and researchers of today.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE
It entertains you and provides useful occupation in your free time.
It makes you a wiser and more experienced person by forcing you to judge,
sympathize with, or criticize the characters you read about.
Literature improves your command of language.
It teaches you about the life, cultures and experiences of people in other parts
of the world.
It gives you information about other parts of the world which you may never
be able to visit in your lifetime.

71
 It helps you compare your own experiences with the experiences of other
people.
It gives information which may be useful in other subjects, for example, in
Geography, Science, History, Social Studies and so on.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERARY CRITICISM

As a tool in literary studies, critic plays an important role in doing studies or
analysis about literary work.
Applying criticism make our focus on certain aspect or element of literary
work sharper than reading as usual.
The reader can focus on an aspect as his interest toward the literary work.

UNIVERSAL CHARACTERISTIC OF LITERATURE

1. Timelessness
2. Eternity
3. Universality
4. Permanence

LITERATURE is a permanent expression in words of some thought or feelings or

idea about life and the world.

LITERARY CRITICISM AND ITS PURPOSE

Literary criticism refers to analysis and judgment of works of literature.
It tries to interpret specific works of literature, and also helps to identify and
understand different ways of examining and interpreting them.
Study of literary criticism contributes to maintenance of high standards of
literature.
It is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.
Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the
philosophical discussion of literature’s goals and methods.

72
FUNCTIONS OF LITERARY CRITICISM
The modern understanding of criticism is regarded as having two different
functions which helps to achieve the main purposes of criticism.
Criticism is the process of analysis and description and interpretation of
literary works for the purpose of increasing understanding and raising appreciation.

HOW DO YOU DO LITERARY CRITICISM?

Method to Applying Advanced Critical Techniques
Read the work of literature critically.
Evaluate as you read.
Brainstorm which aspect to write
about. Formulate a thesis statement.
Create an outline.
Select quotes and patterns that support your thesis.
Find other criticism to support your thesis.

TYPES OF LITERARY CRITICISM

Such analysis may be based from a variety of critical approaches or
movements, such as:
1. Archetypal Criticism
2. Cultural Criticism
3. Feminist Criticism
4. Psychoanalytic Criticism
5. Marxist Criticism
6. New Criticism (Formalist/Structuralism)
7. New Historicism
8. Post-Structuralism, and
9. Reader-response Criticism

73
ARCHETYPAL CRITICISM is a critical theory that interprets a text by focusing
on symbols, images, and character types in literary works that is used to discuss in
plot, character or situation. It recognizes conscious and unconscious symbols that
relates to emotions, values, feelings to specific images. It encourages the readers to
examine basic beliefs, fear, and anxieties.

CULTURAL CRITICISM focuses on the elements of culture and how they affect
one’s perceptions and understanding of texts.
FOUR ASSUMPTIONS:
Ethnicity, religious beliefs, social class, etc. are crucial components in
formulating plausible interpretation of text.
While the emphasis is on diversity of approach and subject matter, Cultural
Criticism is not the only means of understanding ourselves and our art.
An examination or exploration of the relationship between dominant
cultures and the dominated is essential.
When looking at a text through the perspective of marginalized peoples, new
understandings emerge.
FEMINIST CRITICISM is a product of the feminist movement of the 1960’s and
1970’s. It is the representation of women in literature as an expression of the social
norms about women and their social roles and as a means of socialization. It focused
on the images of the women in books by male writers to expose the patriarchal
ideology and how women characters are portrayed.
PSYCHOANALYTIC CRITICISM based on Sigmund Freud ID, ego and superego,
the author’s own childhood effects the book and character. It is a type of criticism
that uses theories of psychology to analyze literature. It focuses on the author’s
state of mind or the state of the mind of fictional character. Psychoanalytic criticism
uses two different approaches; psychoanalysis of the author and psychoanalysis of
the character.
MARXIST CRITICISM applies political science and economics to the study of
literature. Grew out of writings of Karl Marx, who was highly critical of the
capitalist system of economics and politics. It concerned with the issues of class
conflict and materialism, wealth, work, and the various ideologies that surrounds
these things. It connotes higher class do control arts, literatures, and ideologies.
Marxism As Compared To Feminist and New Historicism

74
 Like feminist critics, it investigates how literature can work as a force for
social change or as a reaffirmation of existing conditions.
Like New Historicism, it examines how history influences literature; the
difference is that Marxism focuses on the lower class.

How to do Marxist Reading

1. Look for examples of oppression, bad working conditions, class struggles and
other related issues.
2. Search for the “covert” meaning underneath the “overt” which is about class
struggles, historical stages, and economic conditions.
3. Relate the context of a work to the social-class status of the author.
4. Relate the literary work to the social conditions of its time period.
5. Explain an entire genre in terms of its social period.
6. Show how literature is shaped by political, economic, labor, and class
conditions.

NEW CRITICISM (FORMALISM/STRUCTURALISM) New criticism was a

formalist movement in literary theory that dominated in American literary criticism
in the middle decades of the 20th century which emphasized close reading
particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-
contained, self-referential aesthetic object.
FORMALISM refers to critical approaches that analyze, interpret, or evaluate the
inherent features of a text. These features include not only the grammar and syntax
but also literary devices such as a meter and figures of speech. It reduces the
importance of a text’s historical biographical and cultural context.
NEW HISTORICISM was first developed in 1980 by the American critic Stephen
Greenbelts. It is based on the idea that literature should be studied and interpreted
within a wide context examining both how the author’s time, in turn recognizing
that current cultural contexts color that critic’s conclusion.
POST-STRUCTURALISM offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced
and critiques structuralism premise. It rejects the idea of a literary text having a
single purpose, a single meaning, or one singular existence. It argues to understand
an object (e.g. a text), it is necessary to study both the object itself and the systems
of knowledge that produced the object.

75
 POST-STRUCTURALISTIC CRITIC must be able to utilize a variety of
perspectives to create a multifaceted interpretation of a text, even if these
interpretations conflict with one another.
It is particularly important to analyze how the meanings of a text shift in
relation to certain variables, usually the identity of the reader.

READER-RESPONSE CRITICISM (RR) critic believes that a reader’s

interaction with the text give its meaning. The text cannot exist without the reader.
It focuses on the reader or audience and the experience of a literary work rather
than the author or the context and form of work. If a tree falls in the forest and no
one is around to hear, does it make a noise? If a text sits on the shelf in a bookstore
and no one is around to read it, does the text have meaning?
ROLE OF THE READER RESPONSE CRITICISM
The role of the reader is pivotal in the understanding of literature – they can
use a psychoanalytical, structural, feminist, etc. approach to formulate their
criticism (anything goes).
Readers are active in the reading process. They cannot read literature
passively but must react and therefore bring meaning to the text.

…..

76
EXERCISES!

ACTIVITY 5.1: READ! READ! READ!

The summary of…
“FRANKENSTEIN”
By: Mary Shelley

Robert Walton, the captain of a ship

bound for the North Pole, writes a
letter to his sister, Margaret Saville,
in which he says that his crew
members recently discovered a man
adrift at sea. The man, Victor
Frankenstein, offered to tell Walton
his story.

Frankenstein has a perfect

childhood in Switzerland, with a
loving family that even adopted
orphans in need, including the
beautiful Elizabeth, who soon
becomes Victor's closest friend,
confidante, and love. Victor also has a caring and wonderful best friend, Henry
Clerval. Just before Victor turns seventeen and goes to study at the University at
Ingoldstadt, his mother dies of scarlet fever. At Ingolstadt, Victor dives into
"natural philosophy" with a passion, studying the secrets of life with such zeal that
he even loses touch with his family. He soon rises to the top of his field, and
suddenly, one night, discovers the secret of life. With visions of creating a new and

77
noble race, Victor puts his knowledge to work. But when he animates his first
creature, its appearance is so horrifying he abandons it. Victor hopes the
monster has disappeared forever, but some months later he receives word that his
youngest brother, William, has been murdered. Though Victor sees the monster
lingering at the site of the murder and is sure it did the deed, he fears no one will
believe him and keeps silent. Justine Moritz, another adoptee in his family, has
been falsely accused based of the crime. She is convicted and executed. Victor is
consumed by guilt.

To escape its tragedy, the Frankenstein’s

go on vacation. Victor often hikes in the
mountains, hoping to alleviate his suffering
with the beauty of nature. One day the monster
appears, and despite Victor's curses begs him
incredibly eloquently to listen to its story. The
monster describes his wretched life, full of
suffering and rejection solely because of his
horrifying appearance. (The monster also
explains how he learned to read and speak so
well.) The monster blames his rage on
humanity's inability to perceive his inner
goodness and his resulting total isolation. It
demands that Victor, its creator who brought it into this wretched life, create a
female monster to give it the love that no human ever will. Victor refuses at first,
but then agrees.

Back in Geneva, Victor's father expresses his wish that Victor marry
Elizabeth. Victor says he first must travel to England. On the way to England,
Victor meets up with Clerval. Soon, though, Victor leaves Clerval at the house of a
friend in Scotland and moves to a remote island to make his second, female,
monster. But one-night Victor begins to worry that the female monster might turn
out more destructive than the first. At the same moment, Victor sees the first
monster watching him work through a window. The horrifying sight pushes Victor
to destroy the female monster. The monster vows revenge, warning Victor that it
will "be with him on [his] wedding night." Victor takes the remains of the female
monster and dumps them in the ocean. But when he returns to shore, he is accused
of a murder that was committed that same night. When Victor discovers that the
victim is Clerval, he collapses and remains delusional for two months. When he
wakes his father has arrived, and he is
cleared of the criminal charges against
him.

Victor returns with his father to

Geneva, and marries Elizabeth. But on
his wedding night, the monster instead
kills Elizabeth. Victor's father dies of
grief soon thereafter. Now, all alone in
the world, Victor dedicates himself
solely to seeking revenge against the
monster. He tracks the monster to the
Arctic, but becomes trapped on breaking
ice and is rescued by Walton's crew.

Walton writes another series of

letters to his sister. He tells her about his failure to reach the North Pole and to
restore Victor, who died soon after his rescue. Walton's final letter describes his
discovery of the monster grieving over Victor's corpse. He accuses the monster of
having no remorse, but the monster says it has suffered more than anyone. With
Victor dead, the monster has its revenge and plans to end its own life.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Direction: Read the summary of the novel entitled “FRANKENSTEIN” and
determine its nature, appeal and the social function.

“Frankenstein”

NATURE

APPEAL

SOCIAL
FUNCTION
 LESSON 6: Popular Literature Genres
Objectives: 80

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

a. Describe the characteristics of popular literature; and
b. Differentiate popular from contemporary literature genres.

POPULAR LITERATURE GENRES:

1. Romance
2. Science Fiction
3. Detective Story
4. Comic Books
5. Comic Strip

I. ROMANCE

 WHAT IS A ROMANCE?
In the strictest academic terms, a romance is a narrative genre in literature
that involves a mysterious, adventurous, or spiritual story line where the focus is
on a quest that involves bravery and strong values, not always a love interest.
However, modern definitions of romance also include stories that have a
relationship issue as the main focus.

 EXAMPLES OF ROMANCE
In the academic sense, an example of a romance is a story in which the main
character is a hero who must conquer various challenges as part of a quest. Each
challenge could be its own story and can be taken out of the overall story without
harming the plot.

Example 1
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A knight who wishes to prove himself by recovering a stolen heirloom from an
enemy may find himself attempting to make his way through a dangerous wood
filled with thieves.
Once he has accomplished this challenge, he may find himself climbing a tall
mountain on which a group of people are in trouble. He would save the group
somehow, and then move on.
Then the final stage: the enemy’s kingdom. There may be a fair maiden
whom he meets and somehow helps or rescues, or perhaps she helps him.
But the fair maiden is not the focus of the story – his quest is the focus. Each story
can be taken out, yet each builds the hero’s strength to face his final quest. These
stories tend to be serious rather than humorous and touch on strong values.
Example 2
A modern romance would include:
The story of a character who keeps meeting the wrong type of people in his
or her relationships or has run into a problem with a current love relationship.
The story would focus on the struggles the character faces while finding Mr.
or Mrs. Right. The whole focus would be the relationship, although the character
may also be dealing with other struggles, such as losing a job, handling difficult
parents, etc.
These stories may be funny, sad, tragic, serious, or a mix. The obvious resolution to
the conflict would be finding the right person or saving the present relationship.

 TYPES OF ROMANCE

a. GOTHIC
 In Gothic romance, the settings are usually in distant regions and the stories
feature dark and compelling characters. They became popular in the late 19th
century and usually had a sense of transcendence, supernatural, and irrationality.
Popular Gothic novels still read by many high school students today are classics
such as:
Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte
Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
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The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne.

b. HISTORICAL
Historical romance takes place in times long past and appears romantic due
to the adventure and wildness of the time. This also provides value and meaning to
the lifestyle of the characters. The following novels fit in this sub-genre:
The Last of the Mohicans by James Fenimore Cooper
Rob Roy by Sir Walter Scott.

c. CONTEMPORARY/MODERN
Contemporary romance focuses on a love relationship and has a happy
ending. There are two ways these romance novels are written: as a series or
category romance (the author writes a succession of books that fit a theme or follow
a storyline) or as a single-title romance.
Even more so, within the sub-genre romance, and as seen in many movies, there
can be:
comedy-romance
tragic-romance
satire-romance
serious romance
Playwrights and poets also treat romance with various tones.

 THE IMPORTANCE OF ROMANCE

 Romance is a natural human emotion. Sad love songs and poems when one is
recovering from a broken heart can help express unspoken feelings. Happy
romantic movies and plays help people feel optimistic that someday they will also
find true love. However, there is some criticism that many modern romantic
stories make people develop unrealistic views about real relationships, as they
expect love to be like it is in the movies.
Barbara Cartland was a British writer who wrote 723 romance novels before
her death in 2000. While her novels were mainly historical in context, Cartland’s
simple format for love stories and success opened a whole new publishing field,
specifically with companies such as Harlequin Romance and Bantam. The plot lines 83
she used focused on a simple model: handsome stranger, innocent and pure female,
and a conflict that required trust and dependence. The couple usually didn’t get
along at first, or they had a misunderstanding. Yet, the stories always ended in
marriage and complete happiness. As a result, more modern writers began filling
the niche and the romance novel evolved on different levels.

II. SCIENCE FICTION

 WHAT IS A SCIENCE FICTION?

Science fiction, often called “sci-fi,” is a genre of fiction literature whose content
is imaginative, but based in science. It relies heavily on scientific facts, theories,
and principles as support for its settings, characters, themes, and plot-lines, which
is what makes it different from fantasy.
So, while the storylines and elements of science fiction stories are imaginary, they
are usually possible according to science—or at least plausible.
Although examples of science fiction can be found as far back as the Middle Ages,
its presence in literature was not particularly significant until the late 1800s. Its
true popularity for both writers and audiences came with the rise of technology over
the past 150 years, with developments such as electricity, space exploration,
medical advances, industrial growth, and so on. As science and technology progress,
so does the genre of science fiction.
 EXAMPLES OF SCIENCE FICTION
Read the following short passage:
 As the young girl opened her window, she could see the moons Europa and
Callipso rising in the distance. A comet flashed by, followed by a trail of stardust,
illuminating the dark, endless space that surrounded the spacecraft; the only place
she had ever known as home. As she gazed at Jupiter, she dreamed of a life where
she wasn’t stuck orbiting a planet, but living on one. She envisioned stepping onto
land, real land, like in the stories of Earth her father had told her about. She tried
to imagine the taste of fresh air, the feel of a cool, salty ocean, and the sound of
wind rustling through a tree’s green leaves. But these were only fantasies, not
memories. She had been born on the ship, and if they didn’t find a new inhabitable
planet soon, she would surely die there too. 84

The example above has several prime characteristics that are common in
science fiction. First, it is set in the future, when humans no longer live on Earth.
Second, it takes place on a spacecraft that is orbiting Jupiter. Third, it features real
scientific information—Europa and Callipso are two of Jupiter’s moons, and as
Jupiter is a planet made of gas, it would not be possible for humans to live there,
explaining why the ship is currently orbiting the planet rather than landing on it.

 TYPES OF SCIENCE FICTION

Science fiction is usually distinguished as either “hard” or “soft.”
1. Hard science fiction
Hard science fiction strictly follows scientific facts and principles. It is
strongly focused on natural sciences like physics, astronomy, chemistry,
astrophysics, etc. Interestingly, hard science fiction is often written by real
scientists, and has been known for making both accurate and inaccurate
predictions of future events. For example, the recent film Gravity, the story of an
astronaut whose spacecraft is damaged while she repairs a satellite, was renowned
for its scientific accuracy in terms of what would actually happen in space.
2. Soft science fiction
Soft science fiction is characterized by a focus on social sciences, like
anthropology, sociology, psychology, and politics— in other words, sciences
involving human behavior. So, soft sci-fi stories mainly address the possible
scientific consequences of human behavior. For example, the Disney animated film
Wall-E is an apocalyptic science fiction story about the end of life on Earth as a
result of man’s disregard for nature.
 In truth, most works use a combination of both hard and soft science fiction. Soft
sci-fi allows audiences to connect on an emotional level, and hard sci-fi adds real
scientific evidence so that they can imagine the action actually happening. So,
combining the two is a better storytelling technique, because it lets audiences
connect with the story on two levels. Science fiction also has a seemingly endless
number of subgenres, including but not limited to time travel, apocalyptic,
utopian/dystopian, alternate history, space opera, and military science fiction.

 IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE FICTION

Many times, science fiction turns real scientific theories into full stories about 85
what is possible and/or imaginable. Many stories use hard facts and truths of
sciences to:
suggest what could really happen in the future
to explore what could happen if certain events or circumstances came to be or
suggest consequences of technological and scientific advancements and
innovation.
Historically it has been a popular form for not only authors, but scientists as
well. In the past 150 years, science fiction has become a huge genre, with a
particularly large presence in film and television—in fact, the TV network “SciFi” is
completely devoted to science fiction media. It is a particularly fascinating and
mind-bending genre for audiences because of its connection to reality.

III. DETECTIVE STORY

Detective story, type of popular literature in which a crime is introduced and
investigated and the culprit is revealed.
The traditional elements of the detective story are:
(1) the seemingly perfect crime;
(2) the wrongly accused suspect at whom circumstantial evidence points;
(3) the bungling of dim-witted police;
(4) the greater powers of observation and superior mind of the detective; and (5)
the startling and unexpected denouement, in which the detective reveals how the
identity of the culprit was ascertained.
 Detective stories frequently operate on the principle that superficially
convincing evidence is ultimately irrelevant. Usually it is also axiomatic that the
clues from which a logical solution to the problem can be reached be fairly
presented to the reader at exactly the same time that the sleuth receives them and
that the sleuth deduce the solution to the puzzle from a logical interpretation of
these clues.
The first detective story was “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” by Edgar
Allan Poe, published in April 1841. The profession of detective had come into being
only a few decades earlier, and Poe is generally thought to have been influenced by
the Mé moires (1828–29) of François-Eugè ne Vidocq, who in 1817 founded the
world’s first detective bureau, in Paris. Poe’s fictional French detective, C. Auguste
Dupin, appeared in two other stories, “The Mystery of Marie Roget” (1845) and
“The
Purloined Letter” (1845). The detective story soon expanded to novel length. 86
The French author É mile Gaboriau’s L’Affaire Lerouge (1866) was an
enormously successful novel that had several sequels. Wilkie Collins’ The
Moonstone (1868) remains one of the finest English detective novels. Anna
Katharine Green became one of the first American detective novelists with The
Leavenworth Case (1878). The Mystery of a Hansom Cab (1886) by the Australian
Fergus Hume was a phenomenal commercial success.
The greatest of all fictional detectives, Sherlock Holmes, along with his loyal,
somewhat obtuse companion Dr. Watson, made his first appearance in Arthur (later
Sir Arthur) Conan Doyle’s novel A Study in Scarlet (1887) and continued into the
20th century in such collections of stories as The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1894)
and the longer Hound of the Baskervilles (1902). So great was the appeal of
Sherlock Holmes’s detecting style that the death of Conan Doyle did little to end
Holmes’s career; several writers, often expanding upon circumstances mentioned in
the original works, have attempted to
carry on the Holmesian tradition.

Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson

Sherlock Holmes (right) explaining to
Dr. Watson what he has deduced from
a pipe left behind by a visitor;
illustration by Sidney Paget for Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle's “The Adventure
of the Yellow Face,” The Strand
Magazine, 1893.
Photos.com/Jupiterimages
The early years of the 20th century produced a number of distinguished detective
novels, among them Mary Roberts Rinehart’s The Circular Staircase (1908) and
G.K. Chesterton’s The Innocence of Father Brown (1911) and other novels with the
clerical detective. From 1920 on, the names of many fictional detectives became
household words: Inspector French, introduced in Freeman Wills Crofts’s The Cask
(1920); Hercule Poirot, in Agatha Christie’s The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1920),
and Miss Marple, in Murder at the Vicarage (1930); Lord Peter Wimsey, in Dorothy
L. Sayers’ Whose Body? (1923); Philo Vance, in S.S. Van Dine’s The Benson Murder
Case (1926); Albert Campion, in Margery Allingham’s The Crime at Black Dudley
(1929; also published as The Black Dudley Murder); and Ellery Queen, conceived
by Frederic Dannay and Manfred B. Lee, in The Roman Hat Mystery (1929).
In a sense, the 1930s was the golden age of the detective story, with the detectives
named above continuing in new novels. The decade was also marked by the books of
87
Dashiell Hammett, who drew upon his own experience as a private detective to
produce both stories and novels, notably The Maltese Falcon (1930) featuring Sam
Spade. In Hammett’s work, the character of the detective became as important as
the “whodunit” aspect of ratiocination was earlier. The Thin Man (1934), with Nick
and Nora Charles, was more in the conventional vein, with the added fillip of
detection by a witty married couple. Successors to Hammett included Raymond
Chandler and Ross Macdonald, who also emphasized the characters of their tough
but humane detectives Philip Marlowe and Lew Archer, respectively. At the end of
the 1940s, Mickey Spillane preserved the hard-boiled crime fiction approach of
Hammett and others, but his emphasis on sex and sadism became a formula that
brought him amazing commercial success beginning with I, the Jury (1947).

The Maltese Falcon

(From left) Humphrey Bogart, Peter Lorre,
Mary Astor, and Sydney Greenstreet in The
Maltese Falcon (1941), directed by John
Huston.
© 1941 Warner Brothers, Inc.
The introduction of the mass-produced
paperback book in the late 1930s made
detective-story writers wealthy, among them
the Americans Erle Stanley Gardner, whose
criminal lawyer Perry Mason unraveled
crimes in court; Rex Stout, with his fat,
orchid-raising detective Nero Wolfe and his urbane assistant Archie Goodwin; and
Frances and Richard Lockridge, with another bright married couple, Mr. and Mrs.
North. In France, Georges Simenon produced novel after novel at a rapid-fire pace,
making his hero, Inspector Maigret, one of the best-known detectives since
Sherlock Holmes. Other writers who carried out the tradition of Holmes or broke
new ground included Nicholas Blake (pseudonym of the poet C. Day-Lewis),
Michael Innes, Ngaio Marsh, Josephine Tey, Carter Dickson (John Dickson Carr),
and P.D. James. After 1945, writers such as John le Carré adapted the detective-
story format to the spy novel, in which he addressed the mysteries and character of
the Cold War.
The Mystery Writers of America, a professional organization founded in 1945 to
elevate the standards of mystery writing, including the detective story, has exerted
an important influence through its annual Edgar Allan Poe Awards for excellence.
IV. COMIC BOOK

A magazine that presents a serialized story in the form of a comic strip, 88

typically featuring the adventures of a superhero.
A comic is bound collection of comic strips, usually in chronological sequence,
typically telling a single story or a series of different stories.

Benefits of a Comic Book:

Reading
Comics provide narrative experiences for students just beginning to read
and for students acquiring a new language. Students follow story beginnings and
endings, plot, characters, time and setting, sequencing without needing
sophisticated word decoding skills. Images support the text and give students
significant contextual clues to word meaning. Comics act as a scaffold to student
understanding.
As Stephen Cary, a second language learner specialist and author of Going
Graphic: Comics at Work in the Multilingual Classroom, says: “Comics provide
authentic language learning opportunities for all students…. The dramatically
reduced text of many comics make them manageable and language profitable for
even beginning level readers.”
Also, according to Cary, comics motivate reluctant readers. They engage
students in a literary format which is their own. Comics speak to students in a way
they understand and identify with. Even after students learn to be strong readers
comics give students the opportunity to read material which combines images with
text to express satire, symbolism, point of view, drama, puns and humor in ways
not possible with text alone.
Writing
Many students read fluently, but find it difficult to write. They complain that
they don’t know what to write. They have ideas, but they lack the written language
skills to create a beginning, follow a sequence of ideas and then draw their writing
to a logical conclusion.
Students frequently ask if they may draw a picture when they’re writing.
They are reaching for images to support their language ideas. Allowed to use
words and images they will resolve problems of storytelling which they would not
otherwise experience using words alone. Like reading, comics provide a scaffolding
so that students experience success in their writing. Students transfer specific
elements directly into text-only writing. For example, students learn that whatever
text found in a word balloon is put inside quotes in their text-only writing.
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Using Comic Life students have a new publishing medium. Comic Life
documents can be printed, emailed to parents or posted as a website very easily.

Key benefits of using comics in education

• A great visual Representation of Knowledge
• Presents what is essential
• Easier to remember a visual graphic containing key information
• Engaging through thinking, creating and writing.
• Perfect avenue for writing dialogue
• Incites students with low interest in writing
• Helps organization through storytelling and storyboarding
• Using visual images convey meaning to a story or topic
• Develops creative and higher level thought processes
• Develops composition techniques through visual-verbal connections
• Enriches reading, writing, and thinking
• Serves as and assessment and evaluation tool
• Sequencing promotes understanding
Example of comic strips:

VI. COMIC STRIPS / STORY BOARD

A sequence of drawings, either in color or black and white, relating a comic 90
incident, an adventure or mystery story, etc., often serialized, typically having
dialogue printed in balloons, and usually printed as a horizontal strip in daily
newspapers and in an uninterrupted block or longer sequence of such strips in
Sunday newspapers and in comic books.
Series of adjacent drawn images, usually arranged horizontally, that are designed
to be read as a narrative or a chronological sequence.
From extraordinary superh eroes
saving the day to everyday adven tures
with a big orange cat, comic strip s can
capture the imagination like no other
medium. It’s a popular art form that
not only entertains but also edu cates
because of how it can show or
explain complex stories and
concepts using images and
dialogue.
Comic strips and cartoons are two effective instructional tools to use in class
with students from different grades. They are effective because they engage
students in meaningful learning experiences where they get to practice key skills
such as writing, reading, speaking and communicating. By definition, a comic strip
is "an open-ended dramatic narrative about a recurring set of characters told in a
series of drawings, often including dialogue in balloons and a narrative text,
published serially in newspapers"
Story board is a visual representation of a film sequence and breaks down
action into individual panels. It is a series of ordered drawings, with camera
direction, dialogue or other pertinent details. It sketches out how a video will
unfold, shot by shot.
Why use comic strips /story board in your teaching:
Here are some of the reasons why you might want to include comic strips/story
board in your classroom instruction (see the list of sources at the bottom of this post
to learn more)
• Comics are fun, interesting and motivating.
• Comics promote a wide variety of skills: cognitive, intellectual, social, and
cultural.
• Can be used with students in different school grades.
• Can be used to teach different school subjects.
91
• Can help students develop higher-order thinking skills (sequencing,
predicting, inferring, synthesizing, analyzing, evaluating...etc).
• Enhance students engagement with multimodal texts.
• Make students aware of the multimodal means through which meanings are
constructed and communicated.
• Ideal teaching tools for teaching a target language
• Visually illustrated content is much easier to process, understand and
remember.
• Can be used to teach reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills.
Uses of comic strips in class
There are different ways you can integrate comic strips in your classroom. Here is
an abbreviated list of ideas we put together based on various sources (see list at the
bottom of this post).
• Digital storytelling: students (in small groups or individually) create a
narrative storyline and illustrate it with relevant graphics.
• Students use comic strips to visually retell a story they have read.
• You can use comic strips to introduce a topic and have students brainstorm
ideas
• Provide students with pre-designed comic strip with missing panels and ask
them to fill in the blanks to complete the story. (writing activity)
• Provide students with blanked out comic strip and ask them to write a story
based on the illustrated characters. (writing activity, promote predicting skills)
• Use comic strips to raise students awareness to topics such as racism,
bullying, digital citizenship…etc.
• Use comic strips in language learning to teach vocabulary, grammar,
communication (use of language in contextual situations), writing, and reading.
• Use comics to improve students speaking skills by asking them to act out
comics they created. Alternatively, you can engage students in oral discussions
about the content of the comics.

…..

EXERCISES!
92

ACTIVITY 6.1:
Direction: Write the characteristics of popular literature, use the graphic
organizer below.

Downloaded by Maricar Ramirez ([email protected])

ACTIVITY 6.2
93
Direction: Use the Venn Diagram to differentiate popular from
contemporary literature genres.
 POPULAR CONTEMPORARY
LITERATURE LITERATURE

LESSON 7: Issues and Challenges in Popular Literature

94
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. React on issues and challenges in popular literature; and
b. Conduct a critical analysis between contemporary and
popular literature.

CHALLENGES FACING POPULAR LITERATURE

Literature is in crisis. Perhaps not many of my Profs would agree with me on
this premise, but they are immersed in a literary world where Virginia Woolf
conferences are a big deal and debates over the existence of spondees are heated.
People don’t read anymore. There are a few hangers-on, but even we read less than
others used to.
I freely and gladly acknowledge that change in inevitable; the question is,
what changes are good, and which are to be fought? Literature is worth fighting
for, but the literati are contributing to their own demise in many significant ways.
Here are some factors and causes of the literary crisis I’ve noticed:
1. Post-modernism.
“Whoah, whoah!” the English prof will argue, “if anything, pmism caused a
proliferation of texts. There are thousands and millions of works produced in the pm
era, many of which have literary merit.” Indeed, but that isn’t the problem. I assert
that pm literature and theory have assisted in its decline mainly because
postmoderns argue that text and meaning are inherently separate—can’t get there
from here. It’s all subjective. It doesn’t mean. “All writing is lying.” Upon hearing
these statements made by the very people who study and produce literature, the
common reader will say, “All right, I believe you. Think I’ll watch some TV.”
Segue…
2. Mass media.
There is a lot more to do in our free time than read, most of which is easier
than reading. Reading is a task that requires time and effort (usually); you can’t
pitch convenience or speed to someone when discussing literature. Movies are
more action-packed (though usually watered-down); TV entertains; video games
excite; the internet always has a myriad of things to do. Why read? Sure, people in
the 1800s and early 20th Century read far more than we do, but they had fewer
diversions.

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3. Lots of books are bad.
They just are. Sadly, it’s usually the brain candy that sells because it’s so
sweet (and that’s fine), but it won’t satisfy. Bad works of literature negatively affect
the works that have lasting merit; people who have had a bad experience reading
rarely try again to enjoy it.
4. Rise of other academic subjects.
English is a major in decline in most places (I don’t have the stats to back
this up, but I think I’m right), partly for reason #1, and partly because there are a
lot more options for a scholar these days. International Relations, Biology, Art, Poli-
Sci, Philosophy, Languages, Women’s Studies, et al. I’m quite pleased that there are
so many other courses for people to pursue, but it is taking its toll on lit.
5. No automatic connection to a job after college.
This one really troubles me. College, at its core, is NOT JOB-TRAINING!! Go
to college to learn, young student, and become a better person. Money is only
money. If you graduate and don’t have a job right away, that’s fine. You will find one
if you apply yourself during school. The disciplines that have an automatic field
ready- made for the graduate are few. Sadly, I would posit that parents play a
major role in this category with the obligatory “What are you going to do with that
major?” question. If college is not the time in one’s life when one can feel free to
explore, learn and grow by trying out a variety of things and find our who one is
without worrying about benefits or salary, when is?
6. Inaccessibility.
This debate is one I’ve touched on before: if a work of literature is dazzlingly
brilliant but no one can understand it, is it good? This is the question raised by
books like Ulysses (not to mention Finnigans Wake), The Sound and the Fury,
Gravity’s Rainbow and lesser works like The Black Envelope. I don’t have a good
answer–a balance is too much to ask perhaps. However, when the artist writes
above the common reader’s ability to comprehend, readers will be alienated.
7. Overly-academic language.
This is the sister of problem #6. Academics have invented complicated
terminology for everything. This is not necessarily something bad–terminology often
aids specificity and education; however, when academic vocabulary gets out of hand
(and it can), then a piece loses its utility. I find this all the time in literary criticism.
Yes, one must write intelligently and engage the concepts, but what I too frequently
find is pedanticism run wild. Critics like to condescend to their readers. The
arrogance of this is outrageous and wrong-headed. Critics, your very job is to
educate those few who bother to read the meager words you put down;
96
make it worth their while. Make your points, enlighten where you can,
and shut up.
8. Death of aesthetics.
This problem became glaringly obvious thanks to Kyle’s post on the
Washington Post story about Joshua Bell playing in a Metro station. People–or
should I say Americans?–do not appreciate art. We are business people. Straight-
forward, earn a buck, get it done, work on the weekends, open 24 hours, overtime,
few holidays, work till you die people. Why does art of any kind matter? Well, what
else aside from art slows us down? What else shows us beauty, beauty so amazing
and alarming that we have to appreciate it? From where do we gain insight into
existence? Art does all these things, and its decline will mean the decline of America
in one way or many.
Is there a solution to all these problems? Yes, and it’s quite simple, as most
good answers are: literature itself. The very best thing a literary scholar or
professor can do is get out of the way of the works. So many books I’ve read have
changed my life. There are multitudes of brilliant novels, short stories, and poems
out there to be read, and not all of them are long or complex. The purpose of the
literati is to make literature clearer, more profound, and more able to be grasped.
And for heaven’s sake, we ought to make literature fun because…(gasp!)…
the reason we like to read is IT’S FUN! It’s enjoyable! If it’s not these things, one can
just as easily find something else that is fun. Perhaps this too is what is happening
to literature, but the cure is only one book, story, poem (or even painting,
sculpture, musical piece, or song) away.

…..

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EXERCISES!

ACTIVITY 7.1
Direction: Write a reaction paper about the issues and challenges in
popular literature. Use the rubric to be guided for making the given task.

RUBRICS
FAILS TO MEET NEEDS MEETS EXCEEDS
CRITERIA EXPECTATIONS IMPROVEMENT EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS
0 5 8 10
Clearly Fails to meet this Disorganized, Paper has intro, Easy to read, topic
organized criterion by leaves reader body, and introduced,
introduction, obvious disregard wondering conclusion but organization
body, for the what is being may take a re- clearly evident with
conclusion expectations said; abrupt reading to proper introduction,
stated in ending. understand. body, conclusion.
the criteria;
Disorganized and
the reader can not
follow
the paper at any
length.
Does this The topic of the Student does not The entire paper’s The student’s
paper paper is not clearly identify content relates to reflection about the
address the addressed at all; his/her reflections the topic is explained in

98
 prompt Fails to stick to about the topic; prompt or topic; clear
or the topic? the topic therefore may veer from the student language;
fails to meet these topic. explains his/her immediately
criteria. reflections interesting and
about the topic but supported
may take a with detail.
rereading to
understand.
Paragraph Fails to meet this Paragraphs are Each paragraph Each paragraph has
Organization criterion by disorganized; has a central idea a central idea; ideas
and Writing obvious disregard ideas are included that is are
Style: Ideas for the which supported with connected and
are clearly expectations do not relate to details; ideas are paragraphs are
connected and stated in the the main idea; connected and developed with
make sense criteria ideas are not important points details; paper is easy
connected and make sense to read and “flows”
have little or no naturally in an
supporting organized pattern
details;
one sentence
paragraphs
Does this Fails to meet this Paper is shallow The paper shows Paper provides
paper show criterion by and does not that the student evidence
evidence of obvious present detailed has thought that the student has
deep thought disregard for the evaluation about the topic examined his/her
about the expectations of reflection about although the own
topic? stated in the the topic; little use written belief systems and
criteria. of literature to presentation related this to their
support thought may appear weak current views about
or the
lack clarity; use of topic; use of
literature to literature to support
support thought thought

ACTIVTY 7.2
Direction: Create a digital story telling using story board. Use the rubric
to be guided for making the given task.

RUBRICS

CRITERIA 5 4 3 2
Creativity Complete 1 Element is 2 Elements 3 or more
originality in not original are not elements are
composition and in original in not original in
delivery. Strong composition composition composition
evidence of critical and delivery, and delivery, and delivery,

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 thinking skills. some little no evidence of
evidence of evidence of critical
critical critical thinking
thinking thinking skills.
skills. skills.
Story Board Complete and Evidence if Evidence of Little no
detailed evidence planning planning evidence of
of planning through 2/3 through up planning
throughout entire of storyboard to 1/3 of including
storyboard including storyboard minimally
including sketches, including completed
sketches, sequencing, sketches., sketches,
sequencing, pacing and sequencing, sequencing,
pacing, and storytelling. pacing and pacing, and
consistent story storytelling. storytelling.
telling.
Content and Content is clearly Content has Content has Content has
Theme relevant to story some little no relevance
and theme, relevance to relevance to to story and
message is the story and story and theme, there
distinctly clear. theme, theme, is no message.
message is message is
clear with not clear.
some
confusing
points.
Illustrations Story board Story is Story board Story board is
contains one missing is missing 2 missing 3 or
1
illustration for required required more required
each required illustration. illustration. illustration.
elements.
Attractiveness Story board is Story board Story Story board
exceptionally is attractive board is is
attractive in in terms of acceptably distractingly
terms of design, design, attractive messy or
layout and layout and though it very poorly
neatness. neatness. may be a designed. It
little is not
messy. attractive.

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 CHAPTER TEST!

I. MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE. Direction: Write TRUE if the statement is

correct and if false, change the underlined words to make the statement
correct.

1. A comic book is a magazine that presents a serialized story in the

form of a comic strip, typically featuring the adventures of a superhero.
2. New criticism focuses on the elements of culture and how they
affect one’s perceptions and understanding of texts.
3. Make-believe stories frequently operate on the principle that
superficially convincing evidence is ultimately irrelevant.
4. Textual Meaning is the meaning that is produced by the
relationship of text itself.
5. Ideological function shapes our way of thinking based on the ideas
of other people.
6. Creative Nonfiction is a genre of fiction literature whose content is
imaginative, but based in science.
7. Appeal is something that makes the viewers or readers attracted
and interested in the literary piece.
8. Entertainment Function of literature shows how society
works around them.
9. Hard science fiction strictly follows scientific facts and principles.
10. Books are permanent expression in words of some thought or
feelings or idea about life and the world.

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II. ESSAY. Direction: Discuss your answer in the given statement below.
Please take note that the perfect score will be given to those who will be
able to:
A. Demonstrate a deep understanding of the content;
B. Make the content well-organized and easy to read;
C. Present his/her answers without major grammatical errors or
spelling errors;
D. Maintain the cleanliness and neatness of his/her paper.

Choose one of challenges facing popular literature and give your own
insights and ideas about it.

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Introduction
Emerging literature is an integration of a traditional and
technological driven form of literature. This chapter will tackle about
the different emerging genres of literature in the 21st century, the
issues and challenges in emerging literature and the interrelationship
of contemporary, popular and emergent literature.

103
 Lesson 8: Introduction to Emerging Literature
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Determine new emerging genres of literature; and
b. Discuss the elements and characteristics of these genres.

I. CREATIVE NON-FICTION
The New Emerging Genres of Literature
I. Creative Nonfiction
Also known as literary non-fiction or narrative non-fiction.
It is a genre of writing that uses literary styles and
techniques to create factually accurate narratives.
Contrasts with other non-fiction, such as technical writing
or journalism, which is also rooted in accurate fact, but is
not primarily written in service to its craft. As a genre,
creative non-fiction is still relatively young, and is only
beginning to be scrutinized with the same critical analysis
given to fiction and poetry. It is a rich mix of flavors, ideas
and techniques, some of which are
newly invented and others as old as writing itself. Creative
nonfiction can be an essay, a journal article, a research paper,
a memoir, or a poem; it can be personal or not.
The creative nonfiction writer produces a personal essay,
memoir, travel piece, and so forth, with a variety of
techniques, writing tools, and methods. He/she is required to
use the elements of nonfiction, literary devices of fiction, and
what Lee Gutkind called “the 5 Rs of Creative nonfiction.” The
following is a brief explanation of each:

Characteristics of Creative Nonfiction

The creative nonfiction writer often incorporates several elements of nonfiction
when writing a memoir, personal essay, travel writing, and so on. The following is a
brief explanation of the most common elements of nonfiction:

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 1. Fact. The writing must be based on fact, rather than fiction. It cannot be
made up.
2. Extensive research. The piece of writing is based on primary research, such
as an interview or personal experience, and often secondary research, such as
gathering information from books, magazines, and newspapers.
3. Reportage/reporting. The writer must be able to document events or
personal experiences.
4. Personal experience and personal opinion. Often, the writer includes
personal experience, feelings, thoughts, and opinions. For instance, when
writing a personal essay or memoir.
5. Explanation/Exposition. The writer is required to explain the personal
experience or topic to the reader.
6. Essay format. Creative nonfiction is often written in essay format. Example:
Personal Essay, Literary Journalistic essay, brief essay.

Elements of Creative Non-fiction

The main elements of creative nonfiction are setting, descriptive imagery,
figurative language, plot, and character. The overarching element or requirement
that distinguishes creative nonfiction from any other genre of writing is that while
other literary genres can spring from the imagination, creative nonfiction is, by
definition, true. As you complete the assigned readings in this chapter, keep track
of the following elements as they arise in your readings: see if you can identify each
of them. Learning these elements now will form a solid foundation for the rest of
the class.

1. Setting
Each story has a setting. The setting is the place where the story takes place.
Usually, an effective story establishes its setting early in the story: otherwise
readers will have a difficult time visualizing the action of the story. Below is an
example of how a writer might establish setting in a way which immerses the
reader: by showing rather than telling.
Example:
I went to the lake. It was cool. My breath escaped in ragged bursts, my quadriceps
burning as I crested the summit. The lake stretched before me, aquamarine,
glistening in the hot August afternoon sun. Ponderosa pines lined its shores,

105
dropping their spicy-scented needles into the clear water. Despite the heat, the
Montana mountain air tasted crisp.
Which of the above lakes would you want to visit? Which one paints a more
immersive picture, making you feel like you are there? When writing a story, our
initial instinct is usually to make a list of chronological moments: first I did this,
then I did this, then I did that, it was neat-o. That might be factual, but it does not
engage the reader or invite them into your world. It bores the reader. Ever been
stuck listening to someone tell a story that seems like it will never end? It probably
was someone telling you a story rather than using the five senses to immerse you.
In the example above, the writer uses visual (sight), auditory (sound), olfactory
(smell), tactile (touch), or gustatory (taste) imagery to help the reader picture the
setting in their mind. By the final draft, the entire story should be compelling and
richly detailed. While it's fine to have an outline or first draft that recounts the
events of the story, the final draft should include dialogue, immersive description,
plot twists, and metaphors to capture your reader's attention as you write.

2. Descriptive Imagery
You have probably encountered descriptive imagery before. Basically, it is the
way the writer paints the scene, or image, in the mind of the reader. It usually
involves descriptions of one or more of the five senses: sight, sound, smell, touch, or
taste. For example, how would you describe a lemon to a person who has never seen
one before?

Example:
Imagine you are describing a lemon to someone who has never seen one before. How
would you describe it using all five senses?
Sight
Touch
Sound
Taste
Smell
One might describe a lemon as yellow, sour-smelling and tasting, and with a
smooth, bumpy skin. They might describe the sound of the lemon as a thump on the
table if it is dropped, or squelching if it is squished underfoot. By painting a picture
in the reader's mind, it immerses them in the story so that they feel they are
actually there.
Figurative. Figurative language can also take the form of simile: "aunt
Becky's attitude was as sour as a lemon." By comparing an abstract concept

106
(attitude) to an object (lemon), it imparts a feeling/meaning in a more interesting
way.

3. Plot
Plot is one of the basic elements of every story: put simply, plot refers to the
actual events that take place within the bounds of your narrative. Using our
rhetorical situation vocabulary, we can identify “plot” as the primary subject of a
descriptive personal narrative. Three related elements to consider are scope,
sequence, and pacing.

4. Scope
The term scope refers to the boundaries of plot. Where and when does the
story begins and ends? What is its focus? What background information and details
does the story requires? I often think about narrative scope as the edges of a
photograph: a photo, whether of a vast landscape or a microscopic organism, has
boundaries. Those boundaries inform the viewer’s perception.
The way we determine scope varies based on rhetorical situation, but I can
say generally that many developing writers struggle with a scope that is too broad:
writers often find it challenging to zero in on the events that drive a story and
prune out extraneous information.
Consider, as an example, how you might respond if your friend asked what you did
last weekend. If you began with, “I woke up on Saturday morning, rolled over,
checked my phone, fell back asleep, woke up, pulled my feet out from under the
covers, put my feet on the floor, stood up, stretched…” then your friend might have
stopped listening by the time you get to the really good stuff. Your scope is too
broad, so you’re including details that distract or bore your reader. Instead, focus
on the most exciting or meaningful moment(s) of your day: "I woke up face-down
to the crunch of shattered glass underneath me. When I wobbled to my feet, I
realized I was in a large, marble room with large windows overlooking the flashing
neon lights of the Las Vegas strip. I had no idea how I got there!" Readers can
expect this story will focus on how the storyteller arrived in Las Vegas, and it is
much more interesting than including every single detail of the day.
5. Sequence
The sequence of your plot—the order of the events—will determine your
reader’s experience. There are an infinite number of ways you might structure your
story, and the shape of your story is worth deep consideration. Although the

107
traditional forms for a narrative sequence are not your only options, let’s take a
look at a few tried-and-true shapes your plot might take.
Freytag's Pyramid: Chronological
A. Exposition: Here, you’re setting the scene, introducing characters, and
preparing the reader for the journey.

B. Rising action: In this part, things start to happen. You (or your characters)
encounter conflict, set out on a journey, meet people, etc.

C. Climax: This is the peak of the action, the main showdown, the central event
toward which your story has been building.

D. Falling action: Now things start to wind down. You (or your characters) come
away from the climactic experience changed—at the very least, you are wiser for
having had that experience.

E. Resolution: Also known as dé nouement, this is where all the loose ends get tied
up. The central conflict has been resolved, and everything is back to normal, but
perhaps a bit different.

6. Nonlinear Narrative
A nonlinear narrative may be told in a series of flashbacks or vignettes. It
might jump back and forth in time. Stories about trauma are often told in this
fashion. If using this plot form, be sure to make clear to readers how/why the
jumps in time are occurring. A writer might clarify jumps in time by adding time-
stamps or dates or by using symbolic images to connect different vignettes.

7. Pacing
While scope determines the boundaries of plot, and sequencing determines
where the plot goes, pacing determines how quickly readers move through the story.
In short, it is the amount of time you dedicate to describing each event in the story.

108
 I include pacing with sequence because a change to one often influences the
other. Put simply, pacing refers to the speed and fluidity with which a reader
moves through your story. You can play with pacing by moving more quickly
through events, or even by experimenting with sentence and paragraph length.
Consider how the “flow” of the following examples differ:
The train screeched to a halt. A flock of pigeons took flight as the conductor
announced, “We’ll be stuck here for a few minutes.”
Lost in my thoughts, I shuddered as the train ground to a full stop in the middle of
an intersection. I was surprised, jarred by the unannounced and abrupt jerking of
the car. I sought clues for our stop outside the window. All I saw were pigeons as
startled and clueless as I.
8. Characters
A major requirement of any story is the use of characters. Characters bring
life to the story. Keep in mind that while human characters are most frequently
featured in stories, sometimes there are non-human characters in a story such as
animals or even the environment itself. Consider, for example, the ways in which
the desert itself might be considered a character in "Bajadas" by Francisco Cantú .

Characterization
Whether a story is fiction or nonfiction, writers should spend some time
thinking about characterization: the development of characters through actions,
descriptions, and dialogue. Your audience will be more engaged with and
sympathetic toward your narrative if they can vividly imagine the characters as
real people.
Types of Characters:
Round characters – are very detailed, requiring attentive description of their traits
and behaviors.
Your most important characters should be round: the added detail will help your
reader better visualize, understand, and care about them.

Flat characters – are minimally detailed, only briefly sketched or named.

Less important characters should take up less space and will therefore have less
detailed characterization.

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Static characters – remain the same throughout the narrative.
Even though all of us are always changing, some people will behave and appear the
same throughout the course of your story. Static characters can serve as a reference
point for dynamic characters to show the latter’s growth.

Dynamic characters – noticeably change within the narrative, typically as a

result of the events.
Most likely, you will be a dynamic character in your personal narrative because
such stories are centered around an impactful experience, relationship, or place.
Dynamic characters learn and grow over time, either gradually or with an
epiphany.

9. Point of View
The position from which your story is told will help shape your reader’s
experience, the language your narrator and characters use, and even the plot itself.
You might recognize this from Dear White People Volume 1 or Arrested
Development Season 4, both Netflix TV series. Typically, each episode in these
seasons explores similar plot events, but from a different character’s perspective.
Because of their unique vantage points, characters can tell different stories about
the same realities.
This is, of course, true for our lives more generally. In addition to our
differences in knowledge and experiences, we also interpret and understand
events differently. In our writing, narrative position is informed by point-of-view
and the emotional valences I refer to here as tone and mood.

A Non-Comprehensive Breakdown of POV

FIRST PERSON POINT OF VIEW – Narrator uses 1st person pronouns
(I/me/mine or us/we/ours)
Can include internal monologue (motives, thoughts, feelings) of the narrator.
Limited certainty of motives, thoughts, or feelings of other characters.
Example:
 I tripped on the last stair, preoccupied by what my sister had said, and felt
my stomach drop.
SECOND PERSON POINT OF VIEW – Narrator uses 2nd person pronouns
(you/you/your).
Speaks to the reader, as if the reader is the protagonist OR uses apostrophe to
speak to an absent or unidentified person
110
Example:
 Your breath catches as you feel the phantom step.
 O, staircase, how you keep me awake at night.
THIRD PERSON LIMITED – Narrator uses 3rd person pronouns (he/him/his,
she/her/hers, they/they/theirs).
Sometimes called “close” third person. Observes and narrates but sticks near one
or two characters, in contrast with 3rd person omniscient.
Example:
 He was visibly frustrated by his sister’s nonchalance and wasn’t watching
his step.
THIRD PERSON OMNISCIENT – Narrator uses 3rd person pronouns
(he/him/his, she/her/hers, they/they/theirs).
Observes and narrates from an all-knowing perspective. Can include internal
monologue (motives, thoughts, feelings) of all characters.
Example:
 Beneath the surface, his sister felt regretful. Why did I tell him that? she
wondered.
STREAM-OF-CONSCIOUSNESS – Narrator uses inconsistent pronouns, or no
pronouns at all.
Approximates the digressive, wandering, and ungrammatical thought processes of
the narrator.
Example:
 But now, a thousand empty⎯where? ⎯and she, with head shake, will be
fine⎯AHH!

Typically, you will tell your story from the first-person point-of-view, but
personal narratives can also be told from a different perspective; I recommend
“Comatose Dreams” to illustrate this at work. As you’re developing and revising
your writing, try to inhabit different authorial positions: What would change if you
used the third person POV instead of first person? What different meanings would
your reader find if you told this story with a different tone—bitter instead of
nostalgic, proud rather than embarrassed, sarcastic rather than genuine?
Furthermore, there are many rhetorical situations that call for different
POVs. (For instance, you may have noticed that this book uses the second-person
very frequently.) So, as you evaluate which POV will be most effective for your
current rhetorical situation, bear in mind that the same choice might inform your
future writing.

10.Dialogue
The communication between two or more characters.
For example:
"Hate to break it to you, but your story is boring."
"What? Why do you say that?" he stuttered as his face reddened.
"Because you did not include any dialogue," she laughed.

Think of the different conversations you’ve had today, with family, friends,
or even classmates. Within each of those conversations, there were likely pre-
established relationships that determined how you talked to each other: each is its
own rhetorical situation. A dialogue with your friends, for example, may be far
different from one with your family. These relationships can influence tone of
voice, word choice (such as using slang, jargon, or lingo), what details we share,
and even what language we speak.
Good dialogue often demonstrates the traits of a character or the relationship
of characters. From reading or listening to how people talk to one another, we often
infer the relationships they have. We can tell if they’re having an argument or
conflict, if one is experiencing some internal conflict or trauma, if they’re friendly
acquaintances or cold strangers, even how their emotional or professional attributes
align or create opposition.
Often, dialogue does more than just one thing, which makes it a challenging
tool to master. When dialogue isn’t doing more than one thing, it can feel flat or
expositional, like a bad movie or TV show where everyone is saying their feelings
or explaining what just happened. For example, there is a difference between “No
thanks, I’m not hungry” and “I’ve told you, I’m not hungry.” The latter shows
frustration, and hints at a previous conversation. Exposition can have a place in
dialogue, but we should use it deliberately, with an awareness of how natural or
unnatural it may sound. We should be aware how dialogue impacts the pacing of
the narrative. Dialogue can be musical and create tempo, with either quick back
and forth, or long drawn out pauses between two characters. Rhythm of a dialogue
can also tell us about the characters’ relationship and emotions.

The 5’Rs of Creative Nonfiction

Lee Gutkind, who is a writer, professor, and expert on creative nonfiction, wrote an
essay called “The Five R’s of Creative Nonfiction.” In this essay, he identified five
essential elements of creative nonfiction. These include:
1. Creative nonfiction has a “real life” aspect. The writer constructs a personal
essay, memoir, and so forth, that is based on personal experience. He also
writes about real people and true events.
2. Creative nonfiction is based on the writer engaging in personal “reflection”
about what he/she is writing about. After gathering information, the writer
needs to analyze and assess what he/she has collected. He then must
evaluate it and expression his thoughts, views, opinions. Personal opinion is
permissible and encouraged.
3. Creative nonfiction requires that the writer complete research. The writer
needs to conduct research to learn about the topic. The writer also needs to
complete research to discover what has been written about the topic. Even if
a writer is crafting a personal essay, he will need to complete secondary
research, such as reviewing a personal journal, or primary research, such as
interviewing a friend or family member, to ensure that the information is
truthful and factual.
4. The fourth aspect of creative nonfiction is reading. Reading while conducting
research is not sufficient. The writer must read the work of the masters of his
profession.
5. The final element of creative nonfiction is writing. Writing creative
nonfiction is both an art and craft. The art of creative nonfiction requires
that the writer uses his talents, instincts, creative abilities, and imagination
to write memorable creative nonfiction. The craft of creative nonfiction
requires that the writer learn and deploy the style and techniques of creative
nonfiction in his/her work.
Types of Creative Nonfiction
 Creative nonfiction is about fact and truth. The truth can be about a
personal experience, event, or issue in the public eye. There are many categories or
genres to choose from, such as the personal essay, memoir, and autobiography.
The following is a list of the most popular types of creative nonfiction:
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1. Personal Essay. The writer crafts and essay that is based on personal
experience or a single event, which results in significant personal meaning
or a lesson learned. The writer uses the first person “I.”
2. Memoir. The writer constructs a true story about a time or period in
his/life, one that had significant personal meaning and a universal truth. The
writer composes the story using the first person “I.”
3. Literary journalism essay. The writer crafts an essay about an issue or
topic using literary devices, such as the elements of fiction and figurative
language.
4. Autobiography. The writer composes his/her life story, from birth to the
present, using the first person “I.”
5. Travel Writing. The writer crafts articles or essays about travel using
literary devices.
6. Food writing. The writer crafts stories about food and cuisine using literary
devices.
7. Profiles. The writer constructs biographies or essays on real people using
literary devices.
Guidelines for Writing Creative Nonfiction
Not only must the aspiring writer of creative nonfiction learn the techniques,
but he/she also requires a good understanding of the guidelines. The following are
12 guidelines for writing any type of creative nonfiction:
 Research the topic. Both primary (interview, personal experience, or
participant observation) and secondary research (books, magazines,
newspaper, Web)
 Never invent or change facts. An invented story is fiction.
 Provide accurate information. Write honestly and truthfully. Information
should be verifiable.
 Provide concrete evidence. Use facts, examples, and quotations.
 Use humor to make an important point.
  Show the reader what happened, don’t tell them what happened. To
do this, dramatize the story.
 Narrate the story. A story has an inciting incident, goal, conflict, challenges,
obstacles, climax, and resolution.
 Write about the interesting and extraordinary. Write about personal 114
experiences, interesting people, extraordinary events, or provide a unique
perspective on everyday life.
 Organize the information. Two common techniques are chronological or
logical order.
 Use literary devices to tell the story. Choose language that stimulates
and entertains the reader, such as simile, metaphor, imagery.
 Introduce the essay or other work with a hook. Its purpose is to grab
the readers’ attention and compel them to reader further. Popular hooks
include a quotation, question, or thought-provoking fact.
 End the creative nonfiction piece with a final, important point.
Otherwise the reader will think, “So what!” “What was the point? It was an
interesting story, but how does it apply to me or my life?”

II. HYPER POETRY

Hyper poetry is a form of digital
poetry that uses links using hypertext mark-
up. It is a very visual form, and is related to
hypertext fiction and visual arts. The links
mean that a hypertext poem has no set order
the poem moving or being generated in
response to the links that the reader/user
chooses. It can either involve set words,
phrases, lines, etc. that are presented in
variable order but sit on the page much as
traditional poetry does, or it can contain
parts of the poem that move and / or mutate.
It is usually found online, though CD-ROM and
diskette versions exist. The earliest examples date to no later than the mid-1980s.
Description:
Hypertext poetry, is a subgenre of digital poetry. Digital poetry is sometimes
referred to as e-poetry, electronic poetry, and cyberpoetry. The genre mostly falls
into two subgenres: interactive poetry and hypertext poetry (Poetry Beyond Text).
Hypertext poetry utilizes the components of hypertexts. Hyperlinks are embedded,
throughout, or in some cases "each word, phrase or line." Each link brings the
reader to another page "that defines or expands on the idea represented by the text 115
of the poem" (Hypertext Poetry And Fiction). The links most often stem from the
"primary text. However, some hypertext poems that do not have a primary text. In
these works, the reader of the poem choose the way he navigates the poem through
the amount and pattern he chooses with the hyperlinks (Montecino).

Example of Hyper Poetry:

Do You Believe?

I was that kid who has read a lot of fairy tale books
Princess with glass slippers, peter pan who fights captain
hook
Fascinated, I remember each story my mom read to me
I believed one day; they will appear for me to see.

We all knew a lady who glows in a white silky

dress The one with pretty wings and a gentle
caress
I eagerly wait for her looking out my window,
But she always exchanges my teeth with coins under the pillow.

A big, chubby, good, old man in red

The one who gives us gifts riding his sled
Along with the help of his elves and reindeers
The time for enjoyment is here, let go of your fears!

Now who could’ve forgotten this man with and hourglass?

 Nope, he doesn’t come when we sleep in
class. He guards us in our sleep to avoid
nightmares
Like the ones with zombies, witches or grizzly bears.

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Lastly, the cute little guy who loves a good hunting game
Colorful eggs, baskets… You know him and his name!
In the time of the year called “Easter”
He’s the first one you will remember.

As the years pass, their story becomes

untold Sweet old myths that’s good as gold
Tooth fairy, Santa Claus, Sandman, and the Easter bunny
Do you believe in them? Do you believe like me?

Elements of Hyper Poetry:

1. Kairos
With the digital revolution, there is a growing number of writers using electronic
media to create and publish their works (Kendall). Many writers in using electronic
format expanded to include the format of the hypertext, which is interactive in
nature. Writers are able to break away from the restrictions of paper (Kendall) and
use content and features to create nonlinear poems that are associated with the
medium. The hypertext also allows writers to experiment with elements like
hyperlinks, images, sounds, and video (Kendall).

2. Audience
The audience plays an interactive role in the navigating and reading a hypertext
poem. Astrid Ensslin argues hypertext poetry, which she terms hyperpoetry, is the
"most creative and trans-artistic genre" out of all the hypertext genres because it
offers the most "multisensory textual experience." She argues this because it
incorporates "nomadism" and brings the reader away from the "verbal narrative”
(Ennslin).
Hypertext Poetry is on the trend to become increasingly more popular in the
upcoming years, as more and more writers use digital media to create and publish
their works. The genre attracts users who want to be involved in the reading
experience (Picot).

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3. Content
Hypertext poems can include the traditional components of a poem which are:
words, lines, and stanzas. Most are in the form of free verse. However, the genre
also includes other multimedia components including: sounds, visual images, and
three-dimensional letters, which makes it hard to identify most of the formal
poetic conventions (Hypertext Poetry And Fiction).

4. Formal Features
Hypertext poems include "hypertextual features" which are mostly composed
of hyperlinks that lead to a nonlinear reading of the text (Ensslin).
Hypertext poetry also includes hypermedia poetry. It moves beyond linking text
to other websites, and adds features such as, "image, sound, video and animation"
(Millan). An example of these features could be a sound "of a lawn mower" with
words like "'mowing', 'stop', 'Sunday' and 'morning'" in succession across the readers
screen (Hypertext Poetry And Fiction). These types of features, or multimedia
elements, make it hard to link hypertext poetry to any formal poetry conventions
(Hypertext Poetry And Fiction).

5. Ancestral Genres
One ancestral genre to hypertext poetry is the hypertext. Hypertexts allow a
nonlinear reading of the text in which an audience is able to have an interactive
experience with the text through the use of hyperlinks, which when clicked on,
bring the reader to another website (Christopher Funkhouser). Hyperlinks, are
often referred to as simply links, and utilize URLs, HTTPs, and HTMLs, (What are
Hyperlinks?). Usually hyperlinks are in the form of highlighted or "underlined"
(Montecino) words within the text, which when clicked bring the viewer to
another website that provides an expansion on the concept (What are
Hyperlinks?). Christopher Funkhouser expands on the audience's interactive role
with the hypertext, and how based on his, "interest, engagement, and curiosity" he
can control his navigation of the text.
 Hypertext also functions as a collaborative text by blurring the roles of author
and reader become (Keep). Hypertexts are seen as electronic texts but Christopher
Keep argues that hypertexts are not restricted to "technology, content, or medium"
(Keep).
Oral poetry shares the nonlinear shape of hypertext poetry. With each reading of 118
an oral poem it changes shape, which relates to how hypertext poetry changes for
each reader that reads the poem because of the nonlinear interactive navigation of
the text (Ennslin).

Notable Examples of Hypertext Poetry:

 Penetration: Is a well-known example of a hypertext poem. The poem is
from the collection The Seasons, which was published in 2000 by Eastgate.
The collection consists of two poems: Dispossession and Penetration. The
poem is set up so that the reader has choice to begin the poem through
different perspectives. For example, by clicking on "daylight" the poem is in
the perspective of the daughter (Di Rosario). Then the path of the poem is
dictated by the what the reader chooses after each passage, by clicking on one
of the series of choices below the passage (Di Rosario).
 Low Probability of Racoons: Is a website set up by Peter Howard, a well-
known digital poet, for some of his works, some of which includes
hyperlinks his own hypertext poetry.

III. CHICK LIT / CHICK LITERATURE

It consists of heroin-centered
narratives that focus on the trials and
tribulations of their individual
protagonists. It often addresses issues
of modern womanhood – from
romantic relationships to female
friendships to matters in the workplace
– in humorous and lighthearted ways.

There are certain elements all chick lit novels have in common.
 They all feature a woman in her twenties or thirties as a protagonist
  The novels are mostly set in urban environments, most notably New York or
London.
 The protagonists are career-women
 The protagonists are often single although they usually all end up with
someone.
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 Fashion often plays a big role in a chick-lit novels. The characters can either
be obsessed with it or the plot itself can be centered around fashion industry.
 The book covers often reflect this trend - they may feature articles of clothing,
martinis, parties and other symbols of a glamorous lifestyle.

IV. ILLUSTRATED NOVEL

Generally, 50% of the narrative is presented without words. The reader must
interpret the images in order to comprehend the complete story. Textual portions
are presented in traditional form. Some illustrated novels may contain no text at all.
Illustrated novels span all genres.

Elements of Illustrated Novel:

1. Panel - A distinct segment of the comic, containing images and text

2. Frame - The lines and borders that contain the panels

3. Gutter - The space between framed panels

4. Bleed - An image that extends to and/or beyond the edge of page

5. Captions - Boxes containing a variety of text elements (setting, description)

6. Speech Balloon - Enclose dialogue that comes from a specific speaker's

mouth and can vary in size, shape and layout
7. External Dialogue - Dialogue between two or more characters

8. Internal dialogue - Thought enclosed by a balloon that has a series of dots

or bubbles leading up to it
9. Special-effect lettering - Lettering that draws attention to text; often
highlights onomatopoeia and impact words (wow, bang)
10. Closure - The reader's completion of meaning between panels

11. Long shot - Images that show objects fully from top to bottom
 12. Extreme long shot - Images that show images or characters in a really
small scale
13. Close-Up - Images shown in a large view

14. Extreme close-up - Image shown in a very large view

15. Splash page - A panel that takes up the whole page of a comic 120

16. Splash panel - A panel that takes up the space of several panels in a comic

17. Palette - The colors used in a comic

18. Emanata - Text or icons that represent what is going on in the character's
head
19. Spread - Two facing pages in a printed book

20. Inset - A panel contained within a larger panel

21. Speed lines - Lines that represent motion

22. Reverse - Images in the opposite position from the previous panel

23. Signs - Text labels written on objects in comics

24. Voice over - A narratory block in which a narrator or character shares

special information with the reader

V. GRAPHIC NOVEL
Graphic novels use a sequence of illustrations to tell a story. They use the
same text bubble and image panel format that we find in comics, but unlike comics
which are serialized, graphic novels are published in book
format, and usually tell a stand-alone, complete story. This
again makes them different from comic books which are
usually just a bound collection of comic strips which
were previously published as a periodical serial.
Graphic novels, are also very diverse because they are
a format – so they can cover any genre and any topic.
In the past, graphic novels in any form were generally
dismissed as inferior literature – “not proper reading”!
As a school librarian you may come across teachers and
parents who still feel this way about them. At best, the y
regard graphic novels as something to be tolerated in the hope tha t
eventually their child will “move on” to more “quality literature.” But at the end of
the day reading is reading and it is a well-known fact that children who read for
fun and find pleasure in reading become lifelong readers.
In fact, graphic novels rightfully have a place alongside novels, picture books
and audiobooks as they offer a huge range of reading experiences. Their rich and
complex texts also require readers to examine, decode and combine multiple
elements to acquire meaning.
Elements such as:

 linguistic (written language)

 visual (mood through colours, shading, composition etc.)
 gestural (body and facial language)
 spatial (panels, layout …)
 symbolic (icons, balloons, visual representations and emanata).
So, it may actually be argued that the reader of a graphic novel has to work
much harder than someone reading a novel! Best of all, studies have shown that
readers benefit from greater information retention because they have to decode so
many different elements using multiple literacies. This is why graphic novels are
increasingly being used in classrooms, and even in tertiary education.
In addition, graphic novels contain precise and rich language. They demand
the authors to be concise. They don’t have long paragraphs and the constraints of
the page demand that the dialogue is kept to a minimum. As with a picture book no
word can be wasted, which forces the writer to be incredibly precise with the
written word. This models excellent writing and offers rich vocabulary because
every word matters. As an English teacher noted, among all the fun and silliness of
Dog Man: Lord of the Fleas, just one page featured the words ‘shun’, ‘redundancy’,
‘eschew’, ‘reiteration’ and ‘recapitulation’!
Advantages of reading graphic novels include:
 They engage those readers, particularly reluctant boys, who can read but
haven’t yet been hooked!
 Provide scaffolding for ESL students.
 Increase reading comprehension and vocabulary.
 Serve as a bridge between low and high levels of reading.
 Provide an approach to reading that embraces the multimedia nature of
today’s culture
  Serve as an intermediary step to more difficult disciplines and concepts.
 Present complex material in a way that makes it easier to understand
 Develop skills such as inference and deduction which play a vital part in the
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reading experience
 Develop analytical and critical thinking skills.
 Offer another avenue through which students can experience art
In summary, graphic novels are an excellent resource for use in schools.
They attract readers with their visuals and actually encourage reading because
they don’t seem as daunting as a whole book filled with words. They are generally
fast paced, and the word-to-picture correlation provides an easy way for children
to expand their vocabularies. The visual elements help early readers to decode text
and derive meaning whilst the relative speed and immediate enjoyment that the
children receive when reading these books also helps build reading confidence.
More importantly, comics extend the reading for advanced readers with the
interaction of the written and visual narratives adding complex layers of meaning.
Another plus: the number of titles is expanding rapidly every year, so there’s
something for every child’s interests. Last, but not least, graphic novels positively
impact on children’s visual literacy skills, which are more essential than ever in a
digital age.
Consequently, it is possible to build a graphic novel collection which
challenges the good reader whilst also supporting those less enthusiastic. This is
the key strength of the graphic novel in a school library setting. They can be
acquired simply to broaden current leisure reading material, or used to support
specific areas within the curriculum. In this way graphic novels and comics have a
definite educational role.

VI. TEXT-TALK NOVELS

The story was told through dialogues in the
social network. The information of the whole work can
be read at the websites, and exchange by chat or using
any. Stories told almost completely in dialogue
simulating social network exchanges.
Characteristics of a Text-talk Novel:

1. Cliff hangers are common.

2. Vowels are not written in SMS slang.
 3. Plots are usually about love and passion.
4. There are times that you need to pay for the next episodes.
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VII. MANGA
In Japan, Manga art is highly respected for its
ability to create distinctive characters and imaginative
stories. It is a pop culture phenomenon that has spun
off from simply art and comic stories to Anime fairs,
merchandise, and movies. The characteristics of Magna
characters have made all this possible. From the faces
and hair to the clothing, accessories, and over
exaggerated emotions, Manga is in a world all to its
own.

Types of Manga
 ShÔ nen- Boy’s Manga (Pronounced Show-Nen)
 ShÔ jo- Girl’s Manga (Pronounced Show-Joe)
 Seinen- Men’s Manga (Pronounced Say-Nen)
 Josei- Women’s Manga (Pronounced Joe-Say)
 Kodomo- Children’s Manga (Kow-Dow-Mow)

Elements of a Manga:

1. Face
The face is the first characteristic you notice on a Manga character. With
oversized eyes, an almond-shaped face, and a very small mouth, the face stands out
over the rest of the body. With the rapid switch from distance to close-up shots, the
face is key to drawing you into the character and keeping you in the emotion of the
story.

2. Hair
A Manga character's hair is a key characteristic, and therefore needs to be
elaborate and eye-catching. It is not uncommon for the character's hair to be long

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with many lines and of an abnormal color. This is the look of traditional Japanese
Magna characters and creates a visual dynamism that separates these characters
from mainstream animation that comes out of the United States.

3. Clothing and Accessories

The way a Manga character dresses and accessorizes represent who and what
they are. For example, if the character is of a spiritual nature, then they might wear
a cloak or a piece of cloth that floats to represent the spiritual plane. This
represents who they are. For Magna warrior characters, accessories are what define
the character. Swords, spears and other weapons represent what they are. These
details are important and should not be ignored.

4. Exaggerated Emotions
Manga characters are known for their over exaggerated emotions. When a
cartoon character cries, visible tears fall from their face, but when a Magna
character cries, it rains down in buckets. Eyes reduce in size, and the mouth either
reduces in pain or expands if the character cries out. The same can be said for
anger. Magna evokes intense color in the face and steam coming off the body.
Magna characters become consumed by emotion.

VIII. DIGI FICTION

Digi-fiction is a literary experience

that combines three media; book,
movie/video, and Internet website. In order
to get the full story, students must engage
in navigation, reading, viewing, in all three
formats.

Why did digi-fiction emerge?

1. People’s attention span was becoming shorter and shorter and that it was
important to give people more options on how they consumed
entertainment and books.

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 2. There has been a technological paradigm shift (from sit back media to lean
forward media).
What do we need to know?
1. It can mean that the entire book can only be found online.
2. Sometimes works include passcodes so that there will access to more
information.

IX. DOODLE FICTION

A literary presentation where the author

incorporates doodle drawings and hand written
graphics in place of traditional font. Drawings
enhance the story, often adding humorous elements
that would be missing if the illustrations were
omitted.

Characteristics of a Doodle fiction:

 Simple drawings that can have concrete representational meaning or may
just be composed of random and abstract lines.
 Doodling engages the brain's “executive resources” - processes that help us
plan, multi-task and concentrate.
 It also acts as a mediator between the spectrum of thinking too much or
thinking too little and helps focus on the current situation.
Mathematicians and scientists use doodles to explain complex theories and
equations. Business people use doodles to map business plans and strategies. Across
the globe, people from all walks of life are doodling to help them communicate – to
give visual representation and meaning to their ideas and to help others.
Elements of a doodle fiction:

1. Plot – in fiction, the structure of interrelated actions, consciously selected

and arranged by the author.

2. Characters – is a person in a narrative work of art (such as a novel, play,

television series, or movie). The character can be completely fictional or based
on a real-life person.

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 3. Setting – the setting is both the time and geographic location within a
narrative or within a work of fiction.

4. Person Point of View – is essentially the eyes through which a story is told.
It is the narrative voice through which readers follow the story's plot, meet
its characters, discover its setting, and enter into its relationships, emotions,
and conflicts.

5. Theme – in works of fiction, a theme is the central idea or ideas explored in

the story.

6. Style – doodles are simple drawings that can have concrete representational
meaning or may just be composed of random and abstract lines, generally
without ever lifting the drawing device from the paper, in which case it is
usually called a "scribble".

X. FLASH FICTION
Flash fiction goes by many names,
including micro-fiction, micro-stories, short-
shorts, short-short stories, very short stories,
sudden fiction, postcard fiction and nano-
fiction. While it can be difficult to pinpoint an
exact definition of flash fiction based on word
count,
consideration of several of its features can help provide clarity, like its
brevity, length, background and purpose.

What Are the Rules of Flash Fiction?

Flash fiction is the modern term given to a very short story, usually one
under 500 words in length. There is no standard definition and some people argue
the term only applies to stories of less than 300 words and others say that any
story under 1,000 words qualifies. Whatever the agreed length of flash fiction, it
should still contain all the elements that you would expect to find in a longer story.

Elements of Flash Fiction Explained:

 Flash fiction must have a beginning, middle and an end.
 For the story to have impact there should be some change in action or
motivation of the protagonist.

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  The reader needs to feel that there is some kind of resolution by the end of
the story.
 Writing to such a tight brief is difficult. It is a different skill to that of writing
a novel. Flash fiction requires brevity.
 An author needs to convey character and plot in a succinct manner and make
every word count.

The Essentials of Flash or Micro Fiction

1. The story is short in length. This could be as brief as 6 words, or as long as
1,000.
2. The tale must engage with a reader's emotions. Your characters must be
fully developed and not cardboard cut-outs.
3. Good fiction includes a surprise or plot twist. The ending should be
unexpected and not predictable.
4. The story should mark a change or epiphany for the main character. This
could be a physical change, or a change of mind that has lifechanging impact.

Characteristics of a flash fiction:

If you’re writing a flash fiction story, it’s important to know how they are similar
—and different—to longer stories. Flash fiction is shorter, but it should not feel
too short. Here are some traits of strong flash fiction stories.

1. Story Structure: A flash fiction story is not the shortened version of a

longer story; it still follows the elements of plot, including a beginning,
middle and end, as well as a conflict and satisfying resolution.

2. Setting: Most flash fiction stories take place in one setting, as moving
between locations uses up too much space. It allows the writer and reader to
focus on the plot.

3. Characters and Backstory: Flash fiction pieces are plot-driven and include
no more than three or four characters. They may include some character
development, but too much backstory can use valuable space.

4. Description: One may think that flash fiction stories are short
on description to save space. However, a strong piece can balance vivid

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 descriptions with a quick-moving plot. Stories that lack description are not
satisfying to read, and a flash fiction piece should feel complete.

XI. SIX WORD FLASH POETRY

Six-Word Stories are especially
challenging to write. They have no beginning,
middle, or end, but tell an entire story in only
six words. The most famous example of a six-
word story is attributed to Ernest Hemingway:
“For sale: Baby shoes, never worn.”
With Hemingway’s example, the story
structure manages to establish character,
conflict, and tone without direct exposition.
Readers are left to their own tragic
interpretation when it comes to the words that are not
present.
There are four elements that every flash fiction piece needs to have if you
want it to be good. And if you mix them just right, your flash fiction might even end
up great.
1. Realistic Characters/Settings
The obvious concern in flash fiction is “how do I make my characters and
setting real in 1,000 words or less?” I have a few suggestions for you.
 Show us things about your characters/settings that make them unique. In
other words, skip the boring stuff—your readers can fill that in on their own.
 Keep your number of characters and settings low. One major or supporting
character per every 300-500 words is a good metric, and most flash fiction
stories only have one setting.
 Stick with one-character point of view if possible, or maybe two.
 Whenever possible, write dialogue that both advances the story and reveals
character.
2. Solid Plot/Structure
“My story can only be 1,000 words long. Do I even need story structure?” Of
course, you do, perhaps now more than ever. A solid percentage of the stories
Splickety rejects are for one reason: nothing is happening. Adding story structure
and having a recognizable plot can help you get published instead of rejected.

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Here are some ideas on how you can do that better:
 Establish a recognizable beginning, middle, and end. Your story can begin in
the middle of something, but the conflict and characters have to develop in
the middle. We also need some kind of resolution at the end, even if it’s
somewhat obscure.
 In your beginning, start with a gripping hook (just like in a novel) to pull us
into the story.
 Your end line should also pack significant punch.
 Remember: above all else, something has to happen.
3. Gripping Conflict/Tension
If you haven’t heard by now, great fiction of any length needs both conflict
and tension in order to drive the characters and the plot. There are two kinds of
conflict under which all other kinds fall: internal and external. Both are useful tools
for motivating your characters and moving the story along by creating tension.
Here’s how:
 In general, conflict means that something opposes your character.
 Internal conflict means that something within your character opposes him.
Ask him questions to figure out what it is. Is it a hidden disease? A hurt from
his past? A dark secret? Self-doubt?
 External conflict comes from outside the character, usually from one of three
sources: other characters (antagonists), the setting, or events.
 Combine the two types of conflict against your character and he’s in for a
rough ride—which means your readers can expect a compelling story.
Not all conflict in your story has to be resolved in the traditional sense. It’s
okay to let the reader wonder how things worked out as long as you plant clues
that give them an indication. If you’ve ever seen the movie Inception, you know
what I mean.
4. An Excellent Editor
Yes, you need to pay your flash fiction the same respect you’d pay your novel
by ensuring that it is well-edited. Some of us are capable editors on our own, but
that doesn’t mean we shouldn’t get help here.

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For example, I run a flash fiction magazine, have written six unpublished novels,
and also hawk my own services as a freelance editor. Of anyone in the world, I
should be the most likely person to not need an editor for my own flash fiction,
right?
Wrong. Though I combed through my most recent flash fiction piece (set to debut
in the holiday issue of Splickety Magazine) with unparalleled obsession, I sent it to
two authors whom I trust for their review as well.
Guess what? They both found errors and places where I could improve the story.
No matter how good of a writer you think you are (or actually may be), you need to
have another set of eyes read and edit your piece before you submit it, especially if
it’s to Splickety. We even included that provision in our submission guidelines.
Here are the practical editing strategies that will help you make sure your piece is
virtually perfect:
 Remember that every word cut is to your benefit. You never know when you
may have to add more content later on.
 Utilize others: critique groups and partners, test readers, or hire a
professional.
 Make sure that you follow all submission guidelines. That’s something that
publishers really want you to do.

XII. SCIENCE FICTION

It is often called “sci-fi,” it is a genre of

fiction literature whose content is imaginative,
but based in science. It relies heavily on scientific
facts, theories, and principles as support for its
settings, characters, themes, and plot-lines,
which is what makes it different from fantasy.

Characteristics of a Science fiction:

1. Non-Human Characters

It's a cliché that sci-fi fiction and film are full of aliens. There's a reason that
cliché exists—it's because it's true. Aliens are among the non-human characters
that we'll find in sci-fi. But sci-fi isn't just about aliens. It's about robots, for

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example, or people who are just a little bit more (or less!) than human,
like Frankenstein's monster.
Sci-fi, in other words, is very much about exploring the limits of being human.
What exists beyond us regular folk living on earth? Suppose there are
"extraterrestrial" creatures. Would they be like us or would they be different from
us? And what about machines? Can't they have feelings, too? By focusing not only
on human, but non-human characters, sci-fi writers force us to consider what we
even mean by the "human."

2. Allegory

Sci-fi works may be set in fantastic locations far away from where we mere
mortals live, but that doesn't mean that they have nothing to do with us. That's
because even when sci-fi writers write about distant worlds, they're really often
writing about our own world.
Sci-fi tends to be allegorical: the best sci-fi works often have a hidden
meaning, because they work as a commentary on our own world and our own
social and political systems. These sci-fi writers are a pretty sneaky bunch. They
transport us to distant worlds only to get us thinking about the way that we live
in this world.

3. Science and Technology

Maybe it's a bit of a no-brainer to say that science is a big part of science
fiction. We'll also add technology to the mix, because science and technology are big
in this genre. Hey, just because it's obvious (we hear you saying "Technology in sci-
fi?! Really, now?!") doesn't mean it's not true.
What makes sci-fi works sci-fi is the fact that their settings, their plots, their
characters, their conflicts, all center around science and technology in some sense.
After all, we wouldn't have all of those great Sci-fi works set in outer space if it
weren't for the fact that science and technology allow characters to travel to outer
space in the first place.

4. Time Travel

Often, the whole plot of a Sci-fi work is set in a distant time, usually in the
future. Sci-fi writers are obsessed with exploring times that are very different from
ours. This, again, is one of the defining characteristics of the genre. If we're reading

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a book where things are taking place in the distant future, odds and good that it's a
sci-fi book. And, because it's a sci-fi book, the goods are also pretty odd.

5. Journey

We'll find lots and lots of journeys in sci-fi. People are traveling all over the
place. They might zip from galaxy to galaxy, or from time to time. If the whole
universe were your oyster, wouldn't you be jumping from one place to the next too?
So, journeys are another recurring theme in sci-fi. If we pay close attention, we'll
find that there's hardly a sci-fi text that doesn't include some kind of voyage. This is
often one of the structuring devices in works of sci-fi.

6. Dystopia

Sci-fi writers like talking about our world by pretending to talk about another
world. They're sneaky and nuanced like that.
And one of sci-fi writers’ favorite ways to do this is to depict dystopia. Some of
us may have heard the word before, but for those of us who haven't, dystopia is the
opposite of utopia. A utopian society is wonderful: people are free and happy and the
sun's shining and everything's just dandy. In a dystopia people are oppressed,
they're miserable, and everything they do is controlled by some authority.
Some of the most famous sci-fi works—like Aldous Huxley's Brave New
World and George Orwell's 1984—are futuristic depictions of dystopia. Sci-fi writers
love warning us: "If we continue down this road our society will look like this in a
hundred, or a thousand years. And it ain't pretty."

7. Age of Reason

The roots of sci-fi really go back—way back—to the Age of Reason. That's
the 18th century we're talking about, when the Enlightenment changed the world
as we know it.
During this time, philosophers and scientists emphasized the use of reason
over superstition. More and more of the world was being explored and mapped,
and it was around this time that authors began writing texts speculating about the
future, and focusing their stories on scientific endeavor.

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8. Advances in Science and Technology

The Scientific Revolution, which got going in the 16th century in Europe, had
a huge (like, phenomenally large) impact on our understanding of the world.
Scientists and mathematicians like Galileo and Isaac Newton made discoveries that
continue to impact us to this day (heard of calculus? Yeah, we have Newton to
thank for that).
Advances in science and technology really revved up in the late 18th/early
19th century, and these advances made sci-fi possible as a genre. During this time,
we learned a lot—and we mean a lot—about nature. And thanks to the industrial
revolution, beginning at the end of the 18th century, technology also developed at
a very speedy pace.

9. Sci-Fi Magazines

The golden age of sci-fi coincided with an explosion of magazines that

published science fiction. In fact, some of the most popular sci-fi works were first
published in magazines that released work in serial format.

The important elements of science fiction:

1. Speculation

The speculative question "what if?" is the starting point for all science
fiction. Many scholars list Mary Shelley's novel "Frankenstein" as one of the first
science fiction books. Shelley's book gave an answer to the question of what would
happen if a scientist, Victor Frankenstein, used electricity to reanimate a corpse.
Other science fiction stories answer questions about what would happen if first
contact with aliens occurred or if humans achieved faster-than-light space travel.

2. Science Impacts

Science fiction frequently includes stories about the impact of scientific or

technological change on people. For example, H.G. Wells' "The Time Machine"
explored the consequences of building a machine that could carry its occupant far
into the future. The "Star Trek" television shows and films portray a future
"Federation of Planets" that couldn't "boldly go" anywhere without the warp drive
that allows the Enterprise to travel between the stars.

134
3. Setting

Science fiction stories often take place in the future or in alternate universes.
The "Star Wars" films, for example, contain many futuristic elements, even though
they feature events that happened "a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away." If
they are set closer to the present day, they include scientific speculation that
differs from ordinary daily life -- as in "The Running Man" book and film, which tell
the story of a cop framed for a crime he didn't commit who must survive a deadly
TV game show.
4. Related Genres

Horror is one of the most closely related genres to science fiction. Most
people consider "Frankenstein" to be both a horror and a science fiction story.
Zombie stories are one of the most popular current types of horror; some have a
supernatural explanation, but others do not. For example, the post-apocalyptic
world of the television series "The Walking Dead" is the result of a zombie virus.
The "Alien" films include gruesome, horrifying alien monsters alongside less-
frightening science fiction elements such as cloning and space travel.

XIII. BLOG
A blog is an online journal or informational
website displaying information in the reverse
chronological order, with the latest posts appearing
first. It is a platform where a writer or even a group
of writers share their views on an individual subject.

Blogging Sites
 WordPress
 Google Blogger
 TypePad Is
 Movable Type
 Drupal

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Ten characteristics of a blog:
1. A Blog Must Always Be Dynamic
A common question about a blog is how it relates to a website – are these
two essentially the same, or are there any differences between them? While
websites are mainly presentational, blogs are always intended to engage. A website
is therefore static, as opposed to a blog that must be dynamic.
The information offered by websites is presented on static pages, in the form of an
evergreen content that doesn’t require any updates. Blog posts, on the other hand,
are like diary entries; they include a publishing date and meta tags. New entries
and regular updates are key to running any kind of blog.

2. Posts Are Displayed in Reverse Order

Unlike with a personal diary written in a notebook, blog entries are displayed in
reverse chronological order – the newest posts being on top. The latest ones push
previously published ones down the list until they completely disappear from the
landing page. Older posts are usually archived on the following pages, but they can
also be organized by the month or year when they were first published.

3. Most Blogs Have the Same Structure

First comes a header with the menu or navigation bar to declutter the page and
make a great first impression. It’s followed up by the main content area on which
blog posts appear either by order of publishing or by relevance. Down below are
contact pages, privacy policies, and relevant links, neatly arranged in a footer. A
sidebar highlights favorite entries and displays social profiles and call-to-actions.

4. The Blog’s Leading Star Is Its Content

Different blogs publish different types of posts, though a majority of them relies
on the power of the written word. Depending on the author’s intention, an article is
typically an opinion piece, an instructional guide, or a news post. Monotonous
chunks of text are separated with images or videos.
A blog post can also be a picture with little or no text. It’s a common trend in
fashion and travel blogs, though it’s also not rare for business-related niches to
publish infographics instead of instructional articles. But regardless of the medium,
a blog is always defined by the quality of its published content.

136
 5. Headlines Should Be Attention Grabbers
Naming a blog post is an art by itself. There’s a whole philosophy behind
writing article headlines – a compelling one can truly silence the noise, instantly
generating clicks, driving traffic, and enticing a reader to read on. Nowhere in the
online universe are titles given the same kind of attention as here.

6. One Rule Applies to All Blogs: Relevancy

Though every engaging content must be relevant, this rule especially applies to
blogs posts. They might differ in types, mediums, formats, and styles; in order to
arouse interest or evoke debate, they have to be original and unique; but to be read
at all, blog posts must always deliver upon their promise.

7. Blogs and Links Go Hand in Hand

As a promotional strategy, link building is not limited to blog posts, but it
definitely is a characteristic that all decent blogs share. Blogs and links go hand in
hand even when marketing isn’t the goal. Internal linking, for instance, ensures
intuitive navigation between mutually relevant posts, thus providing an
exceptional reading experience. It’s about the flow and facilitation of knowledge
transfer.

8. A Blog Is Founded on Personal Touch

The word “blog” derives from an earlier version “weblog”, which initially
referred to personal online journals. Before blogs became political in the early
2000s, they were merely means to make private thoughts and opinions public. The
personal touch, however, remains their vital characteristic to date.
Even with today’s universal topics, the recommended interpretative approach
is the one that implies uniqueness. If the subject matter requires utmost
objectivity, the personal touch is accomplished through an individualistic writing
style. Every blog author has an “About Me” page and a distinct signature mark.

9. Posts Should Always Encourage Debate

The comment section is another mutual characteristic of respectable blogs. It’s
typically located at the end of every post, as a place for readers to engage in a
conversation and leave their honest feedback. The ability to provoke a response
and encourage interaction is held in the highest regard by all readers.

137
 10.All Blogs Are About Communication
With or without open debate, communication is still the end purpose of each and
every blog post. If the blog is promotional, its goal is to attract the audience and
open a dialogue that will hopefully convince them to buy what the owner is selling.
If not about sales, then it’s about spreading the word.
Whether it imparts knowledge, provides solutions, or simply entertains,
blogging is a brilliant way of reaching out and communicating with the world.
Without any question at all, such a transformative power of free expression and
exchange is the single most important characteristic of any terrific blog.

Characteristics of a quality blog post

Every blog post requires time and effort. The time spent on creating quality
posts translates directly into more clicks and higher site traffic, making the
investment worth it.
There are many things that can influence the quality of your blog posts, and it
all mostly depends on your niche, style, and audience. However, no matter how
diverse the blog posts are, there are still a few things that everyone should pay close
attention to if they want to leave an overall good impression on their readers.

1. Thought-out Design
We’ve already touched upon the topic of monotonous chunks of text and how
undesirable they are in blog posts. The reason behind this being how quickly your
readers make a judgment about your post. You have just about 50 milliseconds to
make a good first impression.
Blocks of text are often overwhelming, and if the readers cannot scan through
the text with ease, they’ll move on from your site. So, make sure to use short
paragraphs, break up the text with some interesting visuals such as images, GIFs,
videos, infographics, etc.

2. Perfect Length
One of the most common questions about blog posts is how long they should be.
The simplest answer is long enough.
Most would believe that because of the shorter attention span of readers, the
posts themselves should be shorter.

138
 The fact of the matter is that as long as your post is informative and as long as it
answers your audience’s questions, it doesn’t matter how long it is.
If you have a 500-word limit but have much more to say on the topic, go right
ahead. On the other hand, don’t spread out 500 words worth of content to 3000
words.
The focus should be on the quality of the content. As long as the blog post offers
value to the reader, its length is unimportant.

3. Original Content
Regardless of the niche you choose for your blog, it’s more than likely that
someone has covered the topic before. Everything’s already been said and done,
but this doesn’t mean you should just copy-paste the content.
Primarily, to stand out from the crowd, you need to offer a new approach to the
covered topics. This can be done with your tone of voice, style of writing, or point of
view.
Going back to that “personal touch”, if you’ve chosen a niche that you’re
passionate about, offering your own unique approach to it shouldn’t be difficult.

4. Great Research
Every high-quality blog post requires time and effort invested in the research.
The more you devote yourself to the research, the easier it becomes to write the post.
Primarily, this will give you insight into other’s opinions on the topic, you’ll dive
deeper into it, making it easier to form your own unique approach to it.
Secondly, the easiest way to lose readers is by being unreliable. Every claim should
be backed up by evidence, so links and citations from credible sources are essential.

…..
EXERCISES!

139
ACTIVITY 8.1
Directions: Identify the new emerging genres of literature that is
being shown below and give a short description of each.

1.
Description:

Description:

2.

3. Description:

4.
Description:

Description:
5.

140
 Description:
6.

7. Description:

ACTIVITY 8.2
Directions: Choose three (3) new emerging genres of literature that you
like the most, state the reason why you like those and discuss each 141
elements and characteristics.
142
 Lesson 9: Issues and Challenges in Emerging Literature

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Examine the characteristics of new emerging genres of new
literature; and;
b. Discuss issues and challenges in emerging literature.

Before discussing the emerging trends in English literature, it is a must to

understand the meaning of literature. Literature is the mirror of society. In C.S.
Lewis‟ words “Literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It enriches
the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides; and in this
respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become.” In a simpler
way, literature is what we see, feel, observe, and then penned down through
different genres like poetry, novel, short story, essay or drama. J. Long beautifully
states “Behind every book is a man; behind the man is the race; and behind the
race are the natural and social environments whose influence is consciously
reflected.”
Each age has its own characteristics revealing that particular period and its
literature:
1. The Renaissance Age (1500-1660) is known for the origin of intellectual
liberty, of growing intelligence and comfort among all classes; in Long’s
words.
2. The Eighteenth-century literature, known as Neo-Classic Age (1660-
1798) also, demanded that poetry should follow exact rules; and proposed
to have discovered its rules in the classics of Horace and Virgil and Ovid.
3. The Age of Romanticism (1785-1830) verbalized love for Nature in
different ways like Wordsworth showing divine element in nature; S.T.
Coleridge pen-portraying supernaturalism; Lord Byron ferociousness; Keats
presenting sensuous beauty and Shelley abstract ideas.
4. Victorian Age (1837-1901) is an era of transition. In the later part of the
nineteenth century and in the beginning of the twentieth century, the
growth of industrialization, urbanization and the advent of the First World
War brought the loss of faith in the traditional values and morals, and
caused the colossal wastage of human lives. A time period marked by peace,
progress, sensibility on one hand and massacre of spiritual and religious
feelings on
143
 the other. Materialism and scientific attitude brutally murdered human faith
in God.
It is difficult to define one typical characteristic of 20th and 21st century. This
age is full of experimentation and it is discussed in different genres. The literary
canon of 20th and 21st century foregrounds an aesthetic shift which is more
transitional; experimental, more anxious, more liberal and self-interrogating too.
In pre-world war era, mostly writers remained loyal to the trends of Victorian
age. Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859) led the world towards mourning over the
loss of God. But a change could be noticed with H.G. Well’s Utopian Study of A
Modern Utopia that captured optimistic mood and gave an expression that science
and technology would transform the world.
Meanwhile, Aesthetic Movement gained popularity due to its being in favor of
Catholicism and mysticism. Aesthetes believed in the idea that the art is useless if
it is in commitment with the ideas of morality and standard of conduct. For them
“art for art’s sake” has been the motto of the movement. Oscar Wilde is considered
to be the mentor of the movement and he believed that the motive of art is to
provide sensual pleasure only. His plays The Importance of Being Earnest, A
Woman of No Importance, and An Ideal Husband are some applauded examples of
aestheticism. W.B. Yeats‟ prose “The Secret Rose” (1897), “The Tables of the Law”;
poems “The Rose”, “Crossways” are some of the finest examples.
As a result of all this, Post-world war literature faced constant changes in
literary trends. No particular school of thought or movement ruled 20th and 21st
century. Some literary artisans believed in imitation while others did translation of
classics and regional literature. Ted Hughes translated Ovid’s Aeschylus and
Euripides‟ works. Christopher Fry’s translated works enhanced their already
considerable reputation. Works of Munsi Prem Chand, Rabindra Nath Tagore,
Mahasweta Devi have been translated into English and other languages too.
Another trend in 20th and 21st century is Modernism which has its origin in the
early 20th century. Modernists explored and experimented with literary form and
expression. They adhered to Ezra Pound’s maxim “to make it new.” It was the
outcome of drastic efforts to change traditional representation styles into new ways
of expressing sensibilities of the time. Some prominent writers and poets of this
movement are Ezra Pound, Marcel Proust and Virginia Woolf. Pound’s poems
“Cathay”, “Umbra”, “Lustra” and “Canto”; Woolf’s novels Mrs. Dalloway, To The
Lighthouse and The Waves are examples of modernist experiment.
Modernism has arisen from two movements: “symbolism‟ and “imagism‟ which
highly affected the poetic creation of the time. Symbolism is a reaction against
naturalism and realism. Imagism finds its roots in the aesthetic philosophy of T.E.

144
Hulme. The poets believed in utilizing common speech; in creating new rhythms
and moods; infinite choice of subject matter; excessive use of symbols and images;
yet providing clarity in style. Charles Baudelaire’s poetry volume Les Fleurs Du
Mal marks the beginning of symbolism. Amy Lowell is an American Imagist who
promoted the works of imagists in England. Ezra Pound is renowned name in
Imagism and he published an anthology under the title Des Imagists to promote
the works of the imagists. All of the modernists worked very hard to free
themselves from the shackles of traditional monopoly of writing form and content.
Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx are the two who questioned human rationality
leading to a change in dealing of characters. Instead of dealing with characters as
action figures, modernist writers started handling them as someone with thought
and soul. This gave birth to another trend of Psycho-analysis. It gave a real life to
the characters in novel and drama. James Joyce is the first writer to fully
understand the importance of a character’s insight. In his novels Ulysses and A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, he introduced his characters with
monologues. Virginia Woolf coined “Stream-of-Consciousness” to let the readers
have a look in the psyche of her characters. This term denotes an endless flow of
consciousness and it means that consciousness includes the entire area of mind
from illogical, pre-conscious and pre-speech level to rational and conscious speech
level, including thoughts, memories, associations and reflections. There are many
other terms linked with the stream of consciousness novel like “interior
monologues”, “stream of thoughts”, all denoting that the subject matter of this kind
of novel is the inner psyche of man.
“Stream-of-consciousness‟ technique in a novel is better known as
expressionistic technique in drama; Arthur Miller employs this technique with
perfection in plays like Death of a Salesman (1949). Jean Paul Sartre also focused
on the value of a character as an individual and made existentialism a famous
movement of the time. They fought for the existence of human being as an
individual; as a free person in literary work. The one who is responsible for his own
actions. They believed that an individual is responsible for his life as he acts and
reacts according to his own free will and this determines his nature and directs his
life. Concept of existentialism is fully employed by Fyodor Dostoevsky in his novel
Crime and Punishment and by Franz Kafka in his novel The Trial.
When philosophers talk about the value of individual, then Feminist writers
restate gender in association with other categories such as race and class. These
writers use literature as a strong medium to fight for the rights of women and
especially of women writers. Toril Moi through her book Sexual/Textual Politics
and What is a Woman? fought for equal rights and understanding for women.
Helene Cixous’ text The Laugh of the Medusa warns readers, especially women,
either to read it fully or remain trapped in the language barriers created by
men. Julia
145
Kristeva and Simon de Beauvoir also raised their voices to fight for women and
their rights through the podium of literature.
Post-colonial Literature outshined the International arena of fight for the rights
of “Third-World‟. Emergence of the writers or poets or playwrights from “Black or
Dark continent‟ or “Orients‟ stunned the English literary world. Aboriginals from
different colonies throughout the world came up with themes and plots unveiling
the brutal deeds committed under the mask of “Christian Burden”. Not only local
artists like Chinua Achebe in his novel Things Fall Apart or Wole Soyinka in his
play Lion and the Jewel but also white writers like Joseph Conrad in his novella
Heart of Darkness reflected their strong unhappiness towards Imperial
government’s hypocrisy. Many British writers believed that it is the responsibility
of ruling government to look after the people being ruled.
With emergence of artists from once-colonized countries, a new trend emerged
too, i.e. use of vernacular and colloquial language in English literature. Writers like
Mulk Raj Anand in his novels Untouchable and Gauri; Chinua Achebe in the novel
Things Fall Apart; Bapsi Sidhwa in her novel Ice Candy Man; Kamala Markandya
in her novels Nectar in a Sieve and A Handful of Rice have devised regional
languages like Hindi, Punjabi, Parsi etc. with standardized English. The major
reason has been the dire need of introducing the First Nations with the Idea that
the nations once being ruled, are not at all without literature and culture. Also, to
show them how they mistreat people with different skin color and race in their
countries. V.S. Naipaul’s A House for Mr. Biswas and Saul Bellow’s “The Victim”
are the novels that portrayed the struggle of migrants in foreign lands: how
alienated and isolated they feel, how they long for the feeling of belongingness and
how indifferently they are treated.
This indifference is a part of all the countries. People not only misbehave with
outsiders but with insiders as well. Dalit literature is the outcome of such ill-
treatment. The so called “twice-borns‟ always misbehaved with Dalits or harijans
or untouchables. Unfortunately, India has been a fertile ground for such
discrimination since ages. Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable gives a detailed account
of it. A boy with calibre of becoming an officer remains a sweeper because of his
low birth. Omprakash Valmiki’s Joothan, Narendra Jadhav’s Untouchables and
Baby Kemble’s The Prisons We Broke have emerged as popular texts depicting
issues of racial segregation and injustice.
In Realist Movement, authors attempted to represent familiar things as they
were. They chose to reflect every day and banal activities and experiences instead
of using a romantic story line with exaggeration. Muriel Spark combined satirical
realism with implications of an extra-realist and spiritual dimension in her novels
like Robinson, The Bachelors etc. Samuel Clemens better known as „Mark Twain‟

146
also was equipped with realism in his works as in The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn.
G.B. Shaw, Arthur Miller, Sean O’Casey, E.M. Forster etc. gave accounts of their
time’s social, political and economic issues. G.B. Shaw in his plays Saint Joan, The
Apple Cart underlined the satire on the political reality of Britain from time to time.
Arthur Miller through his dramas All My Sons and Death of a Salesman pointed
out economic and social failures in the times of American economic depression.
Sean O‟ Casey’s play Juno and the Paycock also presents the failure of society in
Ireland to provide social security to a family during war. Marxist movement began
in early 20th century with Karl Marx’s idea of utopian world; a classless society.
Many writers after Industrialization felt the requirement of a society without class-
struggle and clashes. John Galsworthy in his work Strife dealt with the conflict
between proletariat and capitalists. W.H. Auden was also a believer of communism
in his early days and he projected this through plays like The Dog Beneath the Skin
and On the Frontier. Stephen Spender also participated in communist flow but for a
very short span of time.
Science fiction is a trend which is the outcome of totally opposite realms i.e. facts
and imagination. H.G. Wells is one of the renowned fiction writers. He remained
fascinated by the prospects that science offered to man. His fantasies The Time
Machine and The Invisible Man show his interest in technology which attracted him
to write the science fiction. Kitchen Sink Drama is a product of 20th century theatre.
It’s a way of writing where the protagonist is projected as an „angry young man‟.
John Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger is considered to be the first play to present
the angry young man of contemporary drama. Shelagh Delaney’s play A Taste of
Honey is another great example of such theatre. Comedy of Menace is a unique
trend in which playwrights focused on providing fun out of painful and tense
situation. Harold Pinter’s play The Birthday Party is a fine example where humor
has been created out of terror. David Campton, Nigel Dennis and N.F. Simpson are
some authors producing comedy from horror.
Another style of play writing is “Theatre of the Absurd‟ where the action and
reaction in the plot fails to deliver any proper meaning. Samuel Becketts play
Waiting for Godot projects this theatre as no one knows anything about Godot:
who he is, why others have been waiting for him, why he has failed to come, etc.
Moral Degradation, sexuality and homosexuality are openly discussed by
authors in 20th and 21st century. They have boldness in dealing with these topics.
D.H. Lawrence skillfully deals with mother-son relationship or Oedipus complex in
his novel Sons and Lovers. T.S. Eliot’s The Wasteland is a sermon on degrading
system of moral and spiritual values. Tennessee Williams‟ play A street Car Named
Desire focuses on sexual urges. William Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies deals with

147
moral corruption of the society portrayed through kids. Literary artists have
become quite bold and liberal in dealing with hetro as well as homosexuality.
After medievalism, in 21st century magic and mythology are again trending. J.K.
Rowling’s series Harry Potter novels, C.S. Lewis’ The Chronicles of Narnia, Dan
Brown’s Novels The Da Vinci Code, Inferno, Angles and Demons are a few examples
of use of mythology in modern literature.
Pop or popular fiction is plot-driven work written with the intention of fitting
into currently famous literary sub-genre. It is created in order to attract majority of
audiences or readers already familiar with the genre. It is also known as Genre
fiction. Famous novelist Chetan Bhagat is a pop-fiction writer. His works are 2
States: The story of Marriage, Half Girlfriend etc. The focus remains on becoming
best seller and for that the story could be taken to any level.
Digital or Cyber literature is the latest trend in which works of creation are
exclusively on and for digital devices. In this trend of literature, the writer relies on
cyber medium like website, blogs or social media pages. Pry is a novella from
collaboration of Danny Cannizzaro and Samantha Gorman also known as Tender
Claws. Jason Nelson is another digital poet and net-artist. Michael Joyce’s 12 Blue
and Jim Andrew’s Stir Fry Texts are some more examples of digital literature.
Multiple trends have emerged and are emerging in 21st century. Some are like
adaptations of traditional movements and techniques while others are the outcome
of science and technology. Hence, these ages depict modern literature through
social/political/religious milieus with different genres of poetry, novel and drama.

…..

148
ACTIVITY 9.1
Direction: Choose one of the issues, challenges and trends of the emerging
literature below and write an essay about your insights about it. Note that
a perfect score will be given to those who have the following criteria:

4 3 2 1
Excellent Proficient Fair Beginning

The main
Clearly states Clearly states
Main idea of the idea of
Main Idea the overall the main idea
text is present. the text is
main idea of the of the text.
not
text.
present.
Includes Includes some
Includes only important relevant details Contains
Supporting
essential and details but but critical irrelevant
Details
relevant details. some might be information is details.
missing. missing.

Demonstrat
Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrate es little or
clear adequate basic no
Understanding understanding understanding understanding understandi
of information of information of in ng of
in the text. in the text. formation in information
the text. in the text.

149
Issues, challenges and trends of Emerging Literature:

Marxist movement began in early 20th century with Karl Marx’s idea of
utopian world; a classless society. Many writers after Industrialization felt the
requirement of a society without class-struggle and clashes.

Aesthetic Movement gained popularity due to its being in favor of Catholicism

and mysticism. Aesthetes believed in the idea that the art is useless if it is in
commitment with the ideas of morality and standard of conduct. For them “art
for art’s sake” has been the motto of the movement.

Feminist writers restate gender in association with other categories such as

race and class. These writers use literature as a strong medium to fight for the
rights of women and especially of women writers.

Science fiction is a trend which is the outcome of totally opposite realms i.e.
facts and imagination.

Digital or Cyber literature is the latest trend in which works of creation are
exclusively on and for digital devices. In this trend of literature, the writer
relies on cyber medium like website, blogs or social media pages.

Existentialism is a famous movement of the time. They fought for the

existence of human being as an individual; as a free person in literary work.
The one who is responsible for his own actions. They believed that an
individual is responsible for his life as he acts and reacts according to his own
free will and this determines his nature and directs his life.

Realist Movement, authors attempted to represent familiar things as they

were. They chose to reflect every day and banal activities and experiences
instead of using a romantic story line with exaggeration.

Use of vernacular and colloquial language in English literature basically

means the mixing of other languages with standard English.

150
Modernism which has its origin in the early 20th century. Modernists explored
and experimented with literary form and expression. It was the outcome of
drastic efforts to change traditional representation styles into new ways of
expressing sensibilities of the time. Modernism has arisen from two movements:
“symbolism‟ and “imagism‟ which highly affected the poetic creation of the
time. Symbolism is a reaction against naturalism and realism. Imagism is
utilizing common speech; in creating new rhythms and moods; infinite choice of
subject matter; excessive use of symbols and images; yet providing clarity in
style.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Direction: Choose one among the emerging genres in literature and then
create your own piece (e.g. stories, poems), your work will be graded based
on the criteria below.

CRITERIA / 3 2 1 0
Exceeds Meets Needs Inadequate
SCALE
Expectations Expectations Improvement
• Structure • Paper is • Paper has • There is • There is no
• Organization logically a clear some level of apparent
• Flow of thought organized organization organization organization to
• Transitions • Easily al structure though the paper.
• Format followed with some digressions, • Difficult to
• Effective, digressions, ambiguities, follow
smooth, and ambiguities irrelevances • No or poor
logical or are too many transitions
transitions irrelevances • Difficult to • No format
• • Easily follow
Professional followed • Ineffective
format • Basic transitions
transitions • Rambling
• Structured format
format
• Language • • Vocabulary • • Vocabulary is
• Vocabulary; use Vocabulary is varied, Vocabulary unsophisticate
of is specific and is used d, not used
vocabulary sophisticate appropriate properly properly in
• Tone d and • Frequently though very simple
correct uses subject sentences sentences.
as are specific may be • Uses subject
sentences vocabulary simple specific 151
which vary correctly • vocabulary too
in structure • Writer’s Infrequentl sparingly
and tone y uses
length emerges subject
• Uses and and specific
manipulate is generally vocabulary
s subject appropriate correctly
specific to • Writer’s
vocabulary audience. tone
for effect exhibits
• Writer’s some level
tone is of audience
152
 clear, sensitivity
consistent
and
appropriate
for intended
audience
Content/informatio • Central • Central • The central • Central idea
n idea is well idea and idea is and clarity
• Clarity of developed clarity expressed purpose is absent
purpose and clarity purpose is though it or
• Critical and of generally may be incompletely
original thought purpose is evidence vague or too expressed
• Use of examples exhibited essay broad; Some and maintained
throughout • Evidence of sense of • Little or no
the paper critical, purpose is evidence of
• careful main critical, careful
Abundance thought and essay thought
of evidence analysis • Some analysis and/or
of and/or evidence of insight
critical, insight critic • There are too
careful • There are careful few, no
thought good, thought and examples and
and relevant analysis evidence or they
analysis supporting and/or are mostly
and/or insight relevant
insight • There are
• Evidence some exam
and and
examples evidence,
are vivid though
and specific, general
while focus
remains
tight.

Lesson 10: The Interrelationship of Contemporary, Popular and

Emergent Literature 153
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Discuss the relationship among contemporary, popular and
emergent literature; and
b. Analyze the interconnectedness among literatures like
contemporary, popular and emergent literature.

The Contemporary Literature (1940s – 1960s)

Contemporary literature is a vast group of written works produced from a
specific time in history through the current age. This literary era defines a time
period, but it also describes a particular style and quality of writing. Some see this
period as an extension of postmodern literature, but most refer to it as a literary era
of its own.
A few scholars claim this period started at the end of World War II, and this
is where the era's pairing with postmodern literature comes in. The postmodern era
began after WWII, in the 1940s, and lasted through the 1960s. The contemporary
period extends to the current day.
Although there are a few disagreements about the beginning of this literary
period, the biggest dispute surrounds what qualifies a written work as literature.
The word refers to both poetry and prose, where prose includes works of fiction such
as novels and novellas, essays, and dramatic works. This term also refers to the
quality of writing. In order to be considered literature, a written work must uphold
the highest writing standards and contain a particular beauty and style. Many
literary works become socially relevant and have the power to influence the public.
Much of contemporary literature comes from Western authors; however, the
term is not synonymous with English or American literature, and this literary
period can apply to written works from anywhere in the world. In
fact, globalization opened the door to include contemporary works written by
many literary figures in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia.
Genres included in this literary period span a variety of writing forms in
addition to novels and poetry. Flash fiction, short stories, slam poetry, plays,
memoirs, and autobiographies can all be included in this category. Nonfiction is
usually not classified as literature, but this era sometimes includes works
of creative nonfiction, which tell a true story using literary techniques.
Typical characteristics of the contemporary period include reality-based
stories with strong characters and a believable story. Settings usually keep
to the current or modern era, so futuristic and science fiction novels are
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rarely included in this category. Well-defined, realistic, and highly
developed
 characters are important in classifying a written work as contemporary, and
most writing in this category features stories that are more character driven
than plot driven.
Contemporary literature features a somewhat modern narrative, but it also
contains a harsher reality. Contemporary written works tend to be influenced by
the prosperous lifestyle that followed WWII, but this literary class is rooted in the
devastation that war brought to the world. A new reality blossomed in the post-
war mind, and it included a personal cynicism, disillusionment, and frustration that
is common to this literary period.

The Catcher in the Rye is set around the 1950s

and is narrated by a young man named Holden Caulfield.
Holden is not specific about his location while he’s telling
the story, but he makes it clear that he is undergoing
treatment in a mental hospital or sanatorium. The events
he narrates take place in the few days between the end of
the fall school term and Christmas, when Holden is sixteen
years old.

Rabbit, Run is the book that established John

Updike as one of the major American novelists of his—or
any other—generation. Its hero is Harry “Rabbit”
Angstrom, a onetime high-school basketball star who on
an impulse desert his wife and son. He is twenty-six years
old, a man-child caught in a struggle between instinct and
thought, self and society, sexual gratification and family
duty—even, in a sense, human hard-heartedness and
divine Grace. Though his flight from home traces a zigzag
of evasion, he holds to the faith that he is on the right
path, an invisible line toward his own salvation as
straight as a ruler’s edge.
Beloved, novel by Toni Morrison, published in
1987. The work examines the
destructive legacy of slavery as it chronicles the life of a
Black woman named Sethe, from her pre-Civil War days
as a slave in Kentucky to her time in Cincinnati, Ohio, in
1873. Although Sethe lives there as a free woman, she is
held prisoner by memories of the trauma of her life as a 155
slave.

The Popular Literature (19th – 20th Century)

Most of us have spent at least one delightful and lazy day reading at the
beach or at the park, in a hammock at home or at a mountain camp site. Usually,
the books we choose for such a delicious interlude are ones that have a vivid and
exciting plot, lots of sensory imagery, and one or two engaging characters. We refer
to these books casually as Beach Reading or Escape Reading - and sometimes we
even say "junk" reading. But book lovers of all stripes (from those who love the
literary to those who never venture beyond the dime novel) will often have favorites
among the more "popular" books. Sometimes, even, very difficult and sophisticated
literary books are found in Beach Bags and on Lounge Chairs!
Jane Austen was, and continues to be a widely-read author. *Pride and
Prejudice* has been read by many, many people. Despite its universal appeal, this
book is considered "literary" and is not counted as a piece of "Popular Fiction."
Contrast that with Mary Shelley's Monster. One of the most "popular" books
of all time in terms of overall readership, movie adaptation, and general icon
recognition is Mary Shelley's *Frankenstein.* It is considered "Popular Fiction."
And yet, Shelley was a serious writer, and this story is an acknowledged literary
masterpiece in many ways. (We will be reading this great book in our class!)
On the other hand, Marie Belloc Lowndes' *The Lodger* (another text we
will be reading) was a raving success in late Victorian times but is less well known
today - even though the subject matter, Jack the Ripper, continues to inspire
retellings!
I use these three examples to illustrate that "popular" fiction does not
necessarily mean "junk" fiction or badly written prose! On the contrary! Much of
the literature that we have loved over the years is truly fine fiction and contains
excellent writing. Of course, there are thousands of pieces of fiction that were once
popular that don't hold up so well - and may have been rather indifferently
written, as well. The sheer volume of the fiction that has been published in the last
200 years leads us, sometimes, to assume that if a work was enormously popular,
it had to necessarily be inferior, too. In this class, I will argue that key pieces of
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"popular" fiction are still both fun to read and important to literary study!
So how, then, you might ask, DO we distinguish between real "literary"
fiction and "popular" fiction, if some of the popular ones are also important
literature? We can't, really; to a large extent there are overlaps and special cases
and so forth in these classifications.
But in general terms, we can always include in Popular Fiction works
that can be categorized as "Genre" works. [You will note that our study
curriculum is organized by genre.] If a novel fits the criteria of Horror, Crime,
Detective, Romance, Western, Science Fiction, or Fantasy, then we usually can
include it in Popular Fiction (even if it also has all the traits of Literary Fiction).
Beyond the large-scale genres that we easily recognize, publishers also define
genre books by very specific sub-genres. British novels, for instance, in which
we never see the murder are called "Tea Cozy Crime Novels"

WHEN DOES POPULAR FICTION BEGIN?

The formal, publishing category of "Popular Fiction" begins in the 19th
Century - a time when wider literacy and cheaper printing make books available to
middle-and-lower-class readers. But, if we just look at the phenomena of popular
stories, genre literature goes back to the earliest folk tales and continues in
privately-circulated manuscripts throughout history. We think of "Tarzan" as being
a creature of the 20th Century - a "popular" hero. Still and all, the concept of the
"wild man of the forest" shows up in tales from our earliest beginnings. Enkidu, the
friend of Gilgamesh (in the epic tale of Gilgamesh), was a rough and wild outsider,
raised in the forest. The oldest surviving manuscripts that tell this story are from a
couple of eons ago, but we know they came originally from ancient Sumerian times -
3000 BC or thereabouts! (This epic also includes an account of "The Flood" -
another popular tale!)
So we do know that stories which engage the attention of many people over
time have always existed and continue to inspire popular literature. We have
always been fascinated with Romances, with Adventures, with Ghosts and
Monsters and Crimes. However, once the "book" became a part of entertainment
options for the masses, though, we had a flowering of new stories and themes.
Some of these themes (the Science Fiction aspects of *Frankenstein*, for example)
would not have been possible in the world before 1800. The same is true of the
Cowboy/Western genre. It was the rather new and unexplored territory of
American expansion that gave rise to the legends and novels about cowpunchers.
And, after 1900, when American Literature came to be appreciated and
American writers challenged the dominance of British writers in English, the 157
categories, and the differences between "literature" and "dime fiction" became
muddier. Also, after 1900, a wider readership and better distribution of books
encouraged the recognition of even more new movements, genres, and writers.
 Jack the Ripper in the London Fog
Infamous murderer Jack the Ripper
killed at least five London female prostitutes
in 1888. Never captured, his identity is one of
English's most famous unsolved mysteries.

The Great Gatsby is a story about the

impossibility of recapturing the past and also the
difficulty of altering one’s future.

To Kill a Mockingbird, novel by Harper Lee,

published in 1960. Enormously popular, it was translated
into some 40 languages and sold more than 30 million
copies worldwide. In 1961 it won a Pulitzer Prize. The
novel was praised for its sensitive treatment of a child’s
awakening to racism and prejudice in the American South.

The Emergent Literature (21st century – present)

In the modern parlance, the term is associated with its academic context,
referring to the enduring works of fiction, philosophy, history, etc. that have been
studied for generations and shaped the foundations of our thought. Yet literature
by its definition includes any and all written works, a fact that has never been
more relevant than in our current Internet age, when the written word is more
accessible and democratic than ever before.
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The “death of print” has been much heralded over the past decade,
precipitated by the rising accessibility of devices like tablets and smartphones that
have made the electronic medium cheaper and more universal. Book sales, as well
as magazine and newspaper subscriptions, have diminished, but our appetite for
information has grown larger and more impetuous.
 Major journalistic sources, which have always thrived off a mixture of
concision and theatrics, have adapted to this shift. Twitter has created something
of its own literary form, offering the use of hash tags to help convey a message
within 160 characters. Blogs have afforded both individual writers and
organizations, established or not, the opportunity of free publication. The hyper-
textual nature of the Internet, aided by now ubiquitous social media, helps keep
discussion flowing both around the world and around the clock. Online forums,
which once belonged to a niche of dedicated computer enthusiasts, have been
incorporated by most major news sites.
More “traditional” forms of literature, including novels, plays, and poetry,
have been less successful in conforming to new technology. Various forms of
“electronic literature,” including hypertext (interactive fiction), animated poetry,
and even SMS (text-message) fiction have grown yet still exist within a small niche.
The dynamics commanded by the continuous change of technological progress,
the incredible rate of advancement and the rapid shift of values which run pari
passu with it, have kinesis as their key characteristic: a circulation of information
and people where almost everything is dissolvable and dispensable.
But we have lost the optimism of the unifying potential of this kinesis. It has
altered any notions of romanticism. Such a literary exercise is seen most in
how authors have dealt with a post-9/11 world. Terrorism, clash and binding
factors between civilizations or populist and cheap criticism have dominated
these early years of the 21st century.
Science fiction, therefore, has been rising in all its glory. This is because the
dialectic between the world and the materiality of language which “describes” it
centers its attention on the multiple fragmentation of a cultural “I”. The actant and
his metamorphoses, in parallel with technological advancement, become a decanted
discourse. It fights against its obsolescence by swapping our economic and social
fabric with the unfamiliar. This destiny has actually been weaved since the 1950s.
The rise of science fiction is not disconnected from what the Theatre of the
Absurd had already implemented. Entangled between the boundaries of modernism
and post-modernism, Camus’s concept of Absurd, Beckett and Ionesco, among
others, depart from the promises of a better man, his axiomatic language, and run
through existential discourses on his failure and consequent world view. Kerouac’s 159
“Beat Generation”, along with William S. Burroughs, dealt precisely with the roots
of this fragmentation.
The internet has made it possible for students to take these non-traditional
texts as revisit them so that they may analyze them. We are transcending the
limitations of print-based texts into this incredible realm of possibility through
advancing technology.
Therefore, although literature has to change with society, authors are still
trying to address immutable human questions in new ways and reconcile them
with the ever-changing technology that surrounds us.

Tribulation of a Cashier by Anna Sam

Tribulations of a Cashier is a sociological study of
the grocery store world from the viewpoint of the
checkout girl. In a kind of supermarket Cinderella story,
a cashier in France has become a literary sensation.
Anna Sam has turned her ungratifying job into a
humorous memoir. Now, her book has been translated
into 16 languages and turned the 29-year-old into the
author she has always wanted to be.

Indie film Spork, about a female-identified

intersexed person trying to deal with mean girls
in junior high, isn't just a smart comedy with
posthuman overtones. It represents the birth of a
new subgenre: Bitpunk.

Brandon J. Mendelson, author of The

Falcon Can Hear The Falconer

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ACTIVITY 10.1
Direction: As we have tackled the Contemporary, Popular and Emergent
Literature. Group the students into 5 groups and discuss or explain
what is being ask below.

1. How will you describe the relationship of Contemporary, Popular

and Emergent Literature? Explain how they are related with each
other.

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 CHAPTER TEST!

I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Direction: Define the following terms based on your understanding. Write
your answer on the space provided.
1. Literature

2. Contemporary Literature

3. Popular Literature

4. Emergent Literature

5. Interconnectedness of the three literature

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II. REFLECTION
Direction: Based on the discussion, write a reflection on what you have
learned and understand on the lesson.