CHAPTER

7
Consumers, Producers,
and the Efficiency of Markets
PRINCIPLES OF

Economics
N. Gregory Mankiw

© 2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved

In this chapter,
look for the answers to these questions:

▪ What is consumer surplus? How is it related to the

demand curve?
▪ What is producer surplus? How is it related to the
supply curve?
▪ Do markets produce a desirable allocation of
resources? Or could the market outcome be
improved upon?

1
 Welfare Economics
▪ Recall, the allocation of resources refers to:
▪ how much of each good is produced
▪ which producers produce it
▪ which consumers consume it
▪ Welfare economics studies how the allocation
of resources affects economic well-being.
▪ First, we look at the well-being of consumers.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 2

 Willingness to Pay (WTP)
A buyer’s willingness to pay for a good is the
maximum amount the buyer will pay for that good.
WTP measures how much the buyer values the good.

name WTP Example:

4 buyers’ WTP
Anthony $250
for an iPod
Chad 175
Flea 300
John 125

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 3

 WTP and the Demand Curve
Q: If price of iPod is $200, who will buy an iPod, and
what is quantity demanded?

A: Anthony & Flea will buy an iPod,

Chad & John will not.
name WTP
Hence, Qd = 2
Anthony $250 when P = $200.
Chad 175
Flea 300
John 125

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 4

 WTP and the Demand Curve
Derive the
P (price
demand who buys Qd
of iPod)
schedule:
$301 & up nobody 0

name WTP 251 – 300 Flea 1

Anthony $250 176 – 250 Anthony, Flea 2

Chad 175 Chad, Anthony,
126 – 175 3
Flea 300 Flea
John, Chad,
John 125 0 – 125 4
Anthony, Flea

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 5

 WTP and the Demand Curve
P
P Qd

$301 & up 0

251 – 300 1

176 – 250 2

126 – 175 3

0 – 125 4
Q

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 6

 About the Staircase Shape…
P This D curve looks like a staircase
with 4 steps – one per buyer.
If there were a huge # of buyers,
as in a competitive market,
there would be a huge #
of very tiny steps,
and it would look
more like a smooth
curve.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 7

 WTP and the Demand Curve
P At any Q,
Flea’s WTP
the height of
Anthony’s WTP the D curve is
the WTP of the
Chad’s WTP marginal buyer,
John’s the buyer who
WTP would leave the
market if P were
any higher.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 8

 Consumer Surplus (CS)
Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer is willing
to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays:
CS = WTP – P

Suppose P = $260.
name WTP
Flea’s CS = $300 – 260 = $40.
Anthony $250
The others get no CS because
Chad 175 they do not buy an iPod at this
Flea 300 price.
John 125 Total CS = $40.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 9

 CS and the Demand Curve
P
Flea’s WTP P = $260
Flea’s CS =
$300 – 260 = $40
Total CS = $40

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 10

 CS and the Demand Curve
P
Flea’s WTP Instead, suppose
P = $220
Anthony’s WTP
Flea’s CS =
$300 – 220 = $80
Anthony’s CS =
$250 – 220 = $30
Total CS = $110

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 11

 CS and the Demand Curve
P
The lesson:
Total CS equals
the area under
the demand curve
above the price,
from 0 to Q.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 12

 CS with Lots of Buyers & a Smooth D Curve
Price
At Q = 5(thousand), per The demand for shoes
P
the marginal buyer pair
$
is willing to pay $50
for pair of shoes.
Suppose P = $30.
Then his consumer 1000s of
pairs of
surplus = $20.
shoes

D
Q

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 13

 CS with Lots of Buyers & a Smooth D Curve
CS is the area b/w The demand for shoes
P
P and the D curve,
from 0 to Q. $

Recall: area of
h
a triangle equals
½ x base x height
Height =
$60 – 30 = $30.
So,
D
CS = ½ x 15 x $30 Q
= $225.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 14

 How a Higher Price Reduces CS
If P rises to $40,
P
CS = ½ x 10 x $20 1. Fall in CS
= $100. due to buyers
leaving market
Two reasons for the
fall in CS.

2. Fall in CS due to
remaining buyers
paying higher P D
Q

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 15

 ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Consumer surplus demand curve
P
A. Find marginal $
buyer’s WTP at
Q = 10.
B. Find CS for
P = $30.
Suppose P falls to $20.
How much will CS
increase due to…
C. buyers entering
the market
D. existing buyers
paying lower price Q
16
 ACTIVE LEARNING 1
Answers P
demand curve

A. At Q = 10, marginal $
buyer’s WTP is $30.
B. CS = ½ x 10 x $10
= $50
P falls to $20.
C. CS for the
additional buyers
= ½ x 10 x $10 = $50
D. Increase in CS
on initial 10 units
= 10 x $10 = $100 Q
17
 Cost and the Supply Curve
▪ Cost is the value of everything a seller must give
up to produce a good (i.e., opportunity cost).
▪ Includes cost of all resources used to produce
good, including value of the seller’s time.
▪ Example: Costs of 3 sellers in the lawn-cutting
business.
A seller will produce and sell
name cost
the good/service only if the
Jack $10 price exceeds his or her cost.
Janet 20 Hence, cost is a measure of
Chrissy 35 willingness to sell.
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 18
 Cost and the Supply Curve

P Qs
Derive the supply schedule
from the cost data: $0 – 9 0

10 – 19 1

20 – 34 2
name cost
35 & up 3
Jack $10
Janet 20
Chrissy 35
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 19
 Cost and the Supply Curve
P
P Qs

$0 – 9 0

10 – 19 1

20 – 34 2

35 & up 3

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 20

 Cost and the Supply Curve
P
At each Q,
Chrissy’s the height of
cost the S curve
is the cost of the
Janet’s marginal seller,
cost the seller who
would leave
Jack’s cost the market if
the price were
Q any lower.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 21

 Producer Surplus
P PS = P – cost
Producer surplus (PS):
the amount a seller
is paid for a good
minus the seller’s cost

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 22

 Producer Surplus and the S Curve
P PS = P – cost

Chrissy’s Suppose P = $25.

cost Jack’s PS = $15
Janet’s PS = $5
Janet’s
cost Chrissy’s PS = $0
Total PS = $20
Jack’s cost
Total PS equals the
Q area above the supply
curve under the price,
from 0 to Q.
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 23
 PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
Price
per pair
Suppose P = $40. The supply of shoes
P
At Q = 15(thousand),
the marginal seller’s
S
cost is $30,
and her producer
surplus is $10.
1000s of pairs
of shoes

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 24

 PS with Lots of Sellers & a Smooth S Curve
PS is the area b/w The supply of shoes
P
P and the S curve,
from 0 to Q.
The height of this
S
triangle is
$40 – 15 = $25.
So, h
PS = ½ x b x h
= ½ x 25 x $25
= $312.50
Q

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 25

 How a Lower Price Reduces PS
If P falls to $30, P 1. Fall in PS
PS = ½ x 15 x $15 due to sellers
= $112.50 leaving market S
Two reasons for
the fall in PS.

2. Fall in PS due to
remaining sellers
getting lower P
Q

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 26

ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Producer surplus P
supply curve
A. Find marginal
seller’s cost
at Q = 10.
B. Find total PS for
P = $20.
Suppose P rises to $30.
Find the increase
in PS due to…
C. selling 5
additional units
D. getting a higher price
on the initial 10 units Q
27
ACTIVE LEARNING 2
Answers P
supply curve
A. At Q = 10,
marginal cost = $20
B. PS = ½ x 10 x $20
= $100
P rises to $30.
C. PS on
additional units
= ½ x 5 x $10 = $25
D. Increase in PS
on initial 10 units
= 10 x $10 = $100 Q
28
 CS, PS, and Total Surplus
CS = (value to buyers) – (amount paid by buyers)
= buyers’ gains from participating in the market
PS = (amount received by sellers) – (cost to sellers)
= sellers’ gains from participating in the market
Total surplus = CS + PS
= total gains from trade in a market
= (value to buyers) – (cost to sellers)

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 29

 The Market’s Allocation of Resources
▪ In a market economy, the allocation of resources
is decentralized, determined by the interactions
of many self-interested buyers and sellers.
▪ Is the market’s allocation of resources desirable?
Or would a different allocation of resources make
society better off?
▪ To answer this, we use total surplus as a measure
of society’s well-being, and we consider whether
the market’s allocation is efficient.
(Policymakers also care about equality, though are
focus here is on efficiency.)
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 30
 Efficiency
Total = (value to buyers) – (cost to sellers)
surplus

An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes

total surplus. Efficiency means:
▪ The goods are consumed by the buyers who value
them most highly.
▪ The goods are produced by the producers with the
lowest costs.
▪ Raising or lowering the quantity of a good
would not increase total surplus.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 31

 Evaluating the Market Equilibrium
Market eq’m: P
P = $30
Q = 15,000
S
Total surplus
= CS + PS CS
Is the market eq’m
efficient? PS

D
Q

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 32

 Which Buyers Consume the Good?
Every buyer
P
whose WTP is
≥ $30 will buy.
S
Every buyer
whose WTP is
< $30 will not.
So, the buyers
who value the
good most highly
D
are the ones who Q
consume it.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 33

 Which Sellers Produce the Good?
Every seller whose
P
cost is ≤ $30 will
produce the good.
S
Every seller whose
cost is > $30 will
not.
So, the sellers with
the lowest cost
produce the good.
D
Q

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 34

 Does Eq’m Q Maximize Total Surplus?
At Q = 20,
P
cost of producing
the marginal unit
is $35 S
value to consumers
of the marginal unit
is only $20
Hence, can increase
total surplus
by reducing Q. D
This is true at any Q Q
greater than 15.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 35

 Does Eq’m Q Maximize Total Surplus?
At Q = 10,
P
cost of producing
the marginal unit
is $25 S
value to consumers
of the marginal unit
is $40
Hence, can increase
total surplus
by increasing Q. D
This is true at any Q Q
less than 15.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 36

 Does Eq’m Q Maximize Total Surplus?
The market P
eq’m quantity
maximizes S
total surplus:
At any other
quantity,
can increase
total surplus by
moving toward
D
the market eq’m Q
quantity.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 37

 Adam Smith and the Invisible Hand
Passages from The Wealth of Nations, 1776
“Man has almost constant occasion for
the help of his brethren, and it is vain
for him to expect it from their
benevolence only. He will be more
likely to prevail if he can interest their
self-love in his favor, and show them
that it is for their own advantage to do
for him what he requires of them…
It is not from the benevolence of the
butcher, the brewer, or the baker that
Adam Smith,
we expect our dinner, but from their
1723-1790
regard to their own interest….
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 38
 Adam Smith and the Invisible Hand
Passages from The Wealth of Nations, 1776
“Every individual…neither intends to
promote the public interest, nor knows
how much he is promoting it….
He intends only his own gain, and he is
in this, as in many other cases, led by
an invisible hand to promote an end
which was no part of his intention.
Nor is it always the worse for the society
that it was no part of it. By pursuing his
own interest he frequently promotes
Adam Smith,
that of the society more effectually than
1723-1790
when he really intends to promote it.”
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 39
 The Free Market vs. Govt Intervention
▪ The market equilibrium is efficient. No other
outcome achieves higher total surplus.
▪ Govt cannot raise total surplus by changing the
market’s allocation of resources.
▪ Laissez faire (French for “allow them to do”):
the notion that govt should not interfere with the
market.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 40

 The free market vs. central planning
▪ Suppose resources were allocated not by the
market, but by a central planner who cares about
society’s well-being.
▪ To allocate resources efficiently and maximize total
surplus, the planner would need to know every
seller’s cost and every buyer’s WTP for every good
in the entire economy.
▪ This is impossible, and why centrally-planned
economies are never very efficient.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 41

 CONCLUSION
▪ This chapter used welfare economics to
demonstrate one of the Ten Principles:
Markets are usually a good way to
organize economic activity.
▪ Important note:
We derived these lessons assuming
perfectly competitive markets.
▪ In other conditions we will study in later chapters,
the market may fail to allocate resources
efficiently…
CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 42
 CONCLUSION
▪ Such market failures occur when:
▪ a buyer or seller has market power – the ability to
affect the market price.
▪ transactions have side effects, called externalities,
that affect bystanders. (example: pollution)
▪ We’ll use welfare economics to see how public policy
may improve on the market outcome in such cases.
▪ Despite the possibility of market failure, the analysis
in this chapter applies in many markets, and the
invisible hand remains extremely important.

CONSUMERS, PRODUCERS, AND THE EFFICIENCY OF MARKETS 43

CHAPTER SUMMARY

▪ The height of the D curve reflects the value of the

good to buyers—their willingness to pay for it.
▪ Consumer surplus is the difference between what
buyers are willing to pay for a good and what they
actually pay.
▪ On the graph, consumer surplus is the area
between P and the D curve.

44
CHAPTER SUMMARY

▪ The height of the S curve is sellers’ cost of

producing the good. Sellers are willing to sell if the
price they get is at least as high as their cost.
▪ Producer surplus is the difference between what
sellers receive for a good and their cost of
producing it.
▪ On the graph, producer surplus is the area
between P and the S curve.

45
CHAPTER SUMMARY

▪ To measure of society’s well-being, we use

total surplus, the sum of consumer and producer
surplus.
▪ Efficiency means that total surplus is maximized,
that the goods are produced by sellers with lowest
cost, and that they are consumed by buyers who
most value them.
▪ Under perfect competition, the market outcome is
efficient. Altering it would reduce total surplus.
46