1. VIBRATION AND WAVES Learning Outcomes: Upon completing this section, you should be able to ¥ explain fundamental principles governing vibrations and waves, including harmonic motion, frequency, wavelength, and amplitude; Y apply mathematical models to analyse and predict the behaviour of vibrational systems; Y explain the properties of waves, including wave interference, diffraction, and standing waves: ¥ analyse resonance phenomena, identifying conditions for resonance in various systems and predicting their effects on vibrational behaviour. Y explore practical applications of vibrations and waves in different fields, such as acoustics, optics, and communication systems, demonstrating the relevance of theoretical concepts in real-world contexts. We study the physics of waves because it provides a rich glimpse into the physical world that we seek to understand and describe. An understanding of vibrations and waves is essential to understanding our physical world, Much of what we see and hear is only possible because of vibrations and waves. We see the world around us because of light waves. And we hear the world around us because of sound waves. If we can understand waves, then we will be able to understand the world of sight and sound, 1.1 Vibrational Motion Objects vibrate objects by oscillating back and forth about a fixed position (like a simple pendulum and a mass on a spring). Objects that undergo vibrational motion have a resting position. The resting position is the position assumed by the object when it is not vibrating. ‘The resting position is sometimes referred to as the equilibrium position. When an object is positioned at its equilibrium position, it is in a state of equilibrium. ‘An object which is in a state of equilibrium is experiencing a balance of forces. Vibrations of these objects have a sinusoidal nature, There is a subtle wave-like behavior associated with the manner in which the position and the velocity vary with respect to time. Hence vibrations in physics refer to the periodic oscillations or back-and-forth motions of an object or a system about a stable equilibrium position. Key aspects of vibrations include: 1, Harmonic Motion: Vibrations often exhibit harmonic motion, where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium. 2. Period and Frequency: Period (7) is the time taken for one complete cycle of vibration, while frequency (P) is the number of cycles per unit time. They are inversely related (Eqn. 1.1). The unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz) ye an 3. Amplitude: The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position is known as the amplitude. It determines the maximum potential energy and maximum speed of the vibrating object.4, Damping: Damping refers to the gradual reduction of amplitude over time due to dissipative forces like air resistance or friction. Underdamped systems oscillate with decreasing amplitude, critically damped systems approach equilibrium smoothly, and overdamped systems return very slowly to equilibrium. LL. Forced Vibration Forced vibration refers to the phenomenon in which a mechanical or structural system is subjected to an external force or excitation that causes it to oscillate or vibrate. This external force is typically applied periodically and can be either a constant or varying force over time. In forced vibration, the system's response is influenced by both its inherent properties (such as mass, stiffness, and damping) and the characteristics of the applied force. When the frequency of the external force matches or is close to the natural frequency of the system, resonance can occur, resulting in a significant amplification of the system's response, 1.1.2 Resonance Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs when a system or object vibrates at its natural frequency in response to an external force or excitation that matches its own frequency. When the frequency of the external force is significantly different from the natural frequency of the system, the system's response is typically small However, when the frequency of the external force aligns with the natural frequency of the system, it results in a significant increase in amplitude and energy absorption, Resonance can be desirable or undesirable depending on the context. In some cases, such as musical instruments or vibrating machinery, resonance is intentionally utilized to enhance performance. However, in other situations, resonance can be detrimental, causing excessive vibrations and potential structural damage. Therefore, engineers and designers must carefully consider the natural frequencies of systems and apply appropriate measures to mitigate the risks associated with forced vibrations, such as altering the system's properties or implementing damping techniques. 1.1.3 Properties of Periodic Motion A vibrating object is moving over the same path over the course of time. Its motion repeats itself over and over again, The mass on the spring not only repeats the same motion, it does so in a regular fashion, The time it takes to complete one back and forth cycle is always the same amount of time, In Physics, a motion that is regular and repeating is referred to as a periodic motion. This means that periodic motions are characterised by the repetition of a particular pattern or behavior over time Examples of periodic motions: ‘A mass on a spring (see animation on the online virtual classroom) is a classic example of an object considered to be in periodic motion, The mass on a string hang at a resting position. If the mass is pulled down, the spring is stretched. Once the mass is released, it begins to vibrate. It does the back and forth, vibrating about a fixed position, The period of vibration of the mass is given below.1 = 2n(m/k)°S 2) where T'is the period, m is the mass of the object attached to the spring, and k is the spring constant. A pendulum is another classic example of an object considered to be in periodic motion (see animation on the online Virtual Classroom). A simple pendulum consists of a relatively massive object hung by a string from a fixed support, It typically hangs vertically in its equilibrium position. When the mass is displaced from equilibrium, it begins its back-and-forth vibration about its fixed equilibrium position. The period of vibration of the pendulum is given below. T = 2n(L/g)* 3) where Tis the period, L is the length of the pendulum, and g is a constant known as the gravitational field strength or the acceleration of gravity (9.8 N/kg). 1.14 The Sinusoidal Nature of a Vibration ‘A mass on a string that vibrates back-and-forth about this fixed resting position exhibits a sinusoidal behaviour. This is also the case with a pendulum vibrating about a fixed position or of a guitar string or of the air inside of a wind instrument. The position of the mass is a function of the sine of the time and the motion repeats itself in a regular fashion, The speed of the mass at any given moment in time is a function of the sine of the time. As such, the mass will both speed up and slow down over the course of a single cycle. 1.15 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion that occurs when a restoring force proportional (o the displacement from an equilibrium position acts on an object, and the object undergoes an oscillatory motion, The motion is called “simple” because it follows a smooth, sinusoidal pattern. The main characteristics of simple harmonic motion include: i. Restoring Force: The force that brings the object back toward the equilibrium position is directly proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium. This force acts in the opposite direction to the displacement. ii, _ Equilibrium Position: The position where the net force acting on the object is zero is called the equilibrium position. In the absence of external forces, the object would remain at rest in this position. iii, Oscillatory Motion: The object moves back and forth around the equilibrium position in a repetitive, oscillatory manner. iv. Periodic Motion: The motion repeats itself after a fixed time interval known as the period (I). The period is the time required for one complete cycle of oscillation, vy. Frequency: The number of cycles per unit time is called the frequency (f). It is the reciprocal of the period and is measured in Hertz (Hz)vi. Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the object from the equilibrium position is called the amplitude (A). It represents the maximum distance the object moves from its equilibrium. vii, Mathematical Description: The displacement (x) of an object undergoing simple harmonic motion can be described mathematically by the eqn. (1.4). x(t) = Acos(2nft + $) aa where A is the amplitude, f is the frequency, t is time, and g is the phase constant. 116 Exercises 1) How is vibrational motion related to the concept of waves? 2) Which type of vibration occurs when the external force is removed from a vibrating system? 3) Forced vibrations occur when an object is subjected to 4) What is damping in the context of vibrational systems? 5) What factor does not affect the period of a simple pendulum? 6) What is the equilibrium position in a mass-spring system? 7) A mass-spring system with a spring constant of 300 N/m oscillates with a frequency of 4 Hz, Calculate the mass attached to the spring 8) A mass-spring system has a spring constant (k) of 400 N/m. If the mass (m) attached to the spring is 0.5 kg, calculate the frequency of oscillation, 9) Calculate the gravitational acceleration (g) if the period (I) of a simple pendulum is 2 seconds. 10) If the length of a simple pendulum is increased from 1 m to 2 m, what will be the new period of the pendulum? (Assume g=9.8 m/s#g=9.8m/s*)