Unit 1:

Points to be covered:
● Uses of Computer Networks
● Types of Computer Networks
● Network Technology local to global
● Examples of networks
● Network Protocols
● Reference Models
● Standardization
● Policy
● Legal and Social Issues

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Introduction:
Computer networking refers to the practice of connecting computers and other digital
devices together to share resources and exchange information. It involves the use of
hardware and software technologies that enable communication between computers
and other devices, whether they are located in the same physical location or are
geographically dispersed.
A computer network allows for the sharing of resources such as printers, files, and data
storage, as well as the ability to communicate with other computers and access the
internet. Networking also enables collaboration between individuals and groups and
supports the transfer of data and information across a variety of platforms and devices.
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There are several types of computer networks, including local area networks (LANs),
wide area networks (WANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wireless
networks. Each type of network has its own characteristics and benefits and can be
used in different settings depending on the needs of the users.
Computer networking has become an essential component of modern society,, and
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plays a critical role in the functioning of businesses, governments, and individuals alike.
As technology continues to advance, computer networking will continue to evolve and
play an increasingly important role in our daily lives.
Computer networking has become an essential component of modern society and plays
a critical role in the functioning of businesses, governments, and individuals alike. As
technology continues to advance, computer networking will continue to evolve and play
an increasingly important role in our daily lives.
In today’s world computer has become an integral part of the business sector for
professional activities not only for professional activities but for personal activities also.
As technologies have evolved networking came into the picture and slowly from initial
wired network technology we moved to this wireless network technology. Now if we will
think then we can know that networking impacts everything. A Computer Network is an
interconnection between computers or we can say a computer network is a group of
computers linked to each other which enables one computer to communicate with
another computer. It acts as a basis of communication in Information Technology (IT). It
is a system of connected computing devices that share information and resources
between them. The devices in the network are connected by communication links
(wired/wireless) and share data by Data Communication System. There are several
types of computer networks are there, typical differences in between different types of
computer networks lie in the geographical areas they serve and their core purpose. An
example of computer network includes let us think about classroom and in class, two
friends are there with their own laptops, but communication between two processes is
established even if the two laptops are physically separated means they are in
computer network. Another example may be to let us think about our college office
suppose there are four computers and each computer generates some print jobs daily.
Without networking four computers needs four separate printers, one printer for each
computer to meet the print requirement. But actually, it is not if we will see all four
computers are connected to only one printer with the help of networking. Let us keep

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the word computer network away for some time and think about Internet then only we
can know what is the need of internet nowadays and how much important it is for our
life. Starting from day to the end of the day everyone uses Internet for their work and
this Internet is nothing but vast network that connects computers all over the world. So
now I think we have understood importance of computer networks in our daily life.
Computer networking has its various functionalities, goals, and advantages and
disadvantages with it but importance of it is truly unique. Let us go into little bit of detail
and learn about the importance of computer networks to great extent.
Importance of Computer Networking:
In the world of Information Technology (IT) information is a building block for effective
communication. Communication is a medium that helps us to drive our day-to-day
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professional and personal operations. Computer networking acts as a base of
everything as the best and most important IT solutions. Below is the list of points that
we make with the help of computer networks, or things that we get benefited with the
help of computer networks or it has become possible or effective due to computer
network. Let us know all points and after that, we can understand importance of
computer networking.
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● Provides best way of business communication.

● Streamline communication.
● Cost-effective resource sharing.
● Improving storage efficiency and volume.
● Cut costs on software.
● Cut costs on hardware.
● Utilizes Centralized Database.
● Increase in efficiency.
● Optimize convenience and flexibility.
● Allows File sharing.
● sharing of peripherals and internet access.
● Network gaming.
● Voice over IP (VoIP).
 ● Media Center Server.
● Centralize network administration, meaning less IT support.
● Flexibility.
● Allowing information sharing.
● Supporting distributed processing.
● User communication.
● Overcoming geographic separation.

Computer networking has also played a crucial role in the development of new
technologies like cloud computing, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things have all
benefited greatly from computer networking (IoT). Businesses are now able to gather
and analyze enormous volumes of data, automate their procedures, and make better
choices faster thanks to these technologies.
In general, we can see “Communication” and “Sharing”, that is all networking is

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about in simple terms. It enables everything that we do today. In the current scenario,
the business would not work without computer networking and our personal and social
life will also feel like it has been stopped.
Uses of a computer network :
There are many different uses and applications for computer networks, including:
Resource sharing: One of the primary uses of computer networks is to share
resources, such as printers, scanners, and data storage devices. This allows multiple
users to access the same resources, which can help to reduce costs and increase
efficiency.
Communication: Computer networks also facilitate communication between individuals
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and groups, whether through email, instant messaging, or video conferencing. This can
be especially valuable for remote workers, or for teams that are spread out across
different locations.
Collaboration: Networks can enable collaboration between multiple users, allowing them
to work together on the same project or document in real time. This can be especially
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useful for teams that are working on complex projects or that need to coordinate their
efforts closely.
Internet access: Computer networks provide access to the Internet, which is essential
for many businesses and individuals. This allows users to browse websites, access
online resources, and communicate with others around the world.
Data sharing: Networks allow for the sharing of data and information, whether between
users in the same organization or between different organizations. This can be valuable
for data analysis, research, and other applications that require access to large amounts
of information.
Security: Computer networks can be used to implement security measures, such as
firewalls and encryption, which can help to protect sensitive information and prevent
unauthorized access.
Why use a computer network?
There are many reasons why computer networks are used in modern society. Some of
the key reasons include:
1. Resource sharing: Networks enable multiple users to share resources such
as printers, data storage devices, and other hardware and software
resources. This can help to reduce costs, increase efficiency, and improve
productivity.
2. Communication: Networks provide a way for individuals and groups to
communicate and collaborate with each other, whether through email, instant
messaging, video conferencing, or other means. This can be especially
valuable for businesses and organizations that have employees in different
locations or who work remotely.
3. Access to information: Networks provide access to information and data,
which can be essential for businesses and individuals who need to access

ER information quickly and efficiently. Networks also enable the sharing of

information between individuals and groups, which can help to facilitate
collaboration and innovation.
4. Internet access: Networks provide access to the internet, which is essential
for businesses, organizations, and individuals who need to access online
resources, communicate with others around the world, and stay up-to-date
with the latest news and trends.
5. Security: Networks can be used to implement security measures such as
firewalls, encryption, and other technologies that can help to protect sensitive
information and prevent unauthorized access.
6. Remote Management: Networking allows administrators to remotely manage
and monitor devices and systems, making it easier to troubleshoot and
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resolve issues without having to be physically present.
7. Cloud Computing: Networking is essential for cloud computing, allowing users
to access and use cloud-based services and applications from anywhere in
the world.
8. Competitive Advantage: Networking can provide a competitive advantage by
enabling businesses and organizations to collaborate more effectively,
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improve productivity, and enhance customer service.

Types of Computer Networks

There are five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
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1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single
person, that is, communication between the computer devices is centered only on an
individual’s workspace. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to
device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy
maintenance and very low cost.
This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
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Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.
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2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects
computers through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that
is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The
two important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up
to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost.
Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office,
etc.

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network

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that is usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited
geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN
mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from 1km to 5km.
Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate
cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
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4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer
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network that connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared

communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses
FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its
transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within
multiple buildings, etc.
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5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical
distance through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location
but extends over many locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area
networks that communicate with each other with a range above 50km.
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Here we use Leased-Line and dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low
and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.
The most common example of WAN is the Internet.
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Comparison between Different Computer Networks :

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Types of Network Topology :

In Computer Network ,there are various ways through which different components are
connected to one another.
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Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and how these components
are connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender
and receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
● Point to Point Topology
● Mesh Topology
● Star Topology
● Bus Topology
● Ring Topology
● Tree Topology
● Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the

sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one
is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Mesh Topology

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In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular
channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
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Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels
are known as links.
● Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In
Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number
of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports required = N *
(N-1).
● Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is
NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
● Communication is very fast between the nodes.
● Mesh Topology is robust.
● The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
● Provides security and privacy.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

● Installation and configuration are difficult.
● The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
● The cost of maintenance is high.

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A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is
also used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub
can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the
same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
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In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
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Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection
i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
● If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
● Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
● It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
● Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
● Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Drawbacks of Star Topology

● If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
● The cost of installation is high.
● Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

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A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless
networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a
non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus
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Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet
connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
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Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the
channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 ● If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
● Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
● The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.
● Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
● CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

● A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
● If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

ER ● If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid

this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha,
Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
● Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
● Security is very low.

A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in
cable television networks.

Ring Topology
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In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
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The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to
transmit the data.
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Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
● Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from
one node to another node.
● Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology

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1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission
is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the
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ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release
releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release
releases the token after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

● The data transmission is high-speed.
● The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
● Cheap to install and expand.
● It is less costly than a star topology.

Drawbacks of Ring Topology

 ● The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
● Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
● The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
● Less secure.

Tree Topology

This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow
of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration ) are used.

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Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary
hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
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because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of Tree Topology
● It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases
the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
● It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
● We can add new devices to the existing network.
● Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Drawbacks of Tree Topology

● If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
● The cost is high because of the cabling.
 ● If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At

the top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or
divisions (child nodes) of the company. Each department has its own hierarchy,
with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The team
members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their
respective managers and departments.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we
have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form.
It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a

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combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses
the protocol that has been discussed earlier.
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Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it
contains a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
● This topology is very flexible.
● The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology

● It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
● Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 ● The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling and network devices.

A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network

may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone
through a switch or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology
connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a
mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient
communication between different buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy
within each building.NCER
To communicate or transfer data from one computer to another, we need an address. In
Computer networks, various types of addresses are introduced; each works at a
different layer. A MAC address, which stands for Media Access Control Address, is a
physical address that works at the Data Link Layer. In this article, we will discuss

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addressing a DLL, which is MAC Address.

MAC (Media Access Control) Address

MAC Addresses are unique 48-bit hardware number of a computer, that is embedded
into a network card (known as a Network Interface Card during manufacturing. The
MAC Address is also known as the Physical Address of a network device.
The MAC address is used by the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the
Data-Link Layer. MAC Address is worldwide unique since millions of network devices
exist and we need to uniquely identify each.
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Format of MAC Address :

MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (6-Byte binary number), which is mostly
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represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. The First 6 digits (say 00:40:96) of the
MAC Address identify the manufacturer, called the OUI (Organizational Unique
Identifier). IEEE Registration Authority Committee assigns these MAC prefixes to its
registered vendors.
Here are some OUI of well-known manufacturers:
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CC:46:D6 - Cisco
3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc.
3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO., LTD
The rightmost six digits represent the Network Interface Controller, which is assigned by
the manufacturer.
The MAC address is represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. But this is just a
conversion, not mandatory. MAC address can be represented using any of the following
formats:
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1. Command for a MAC Address in Windows OS:

ipconfig /all

2. Command for MAC Address in MacOS

Command:
TCP/IP Control Panel
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IP Address:

All the computers of the world on the Internet network communicate with each other
with underground or underwater cables or wirelessly. If we want to download a file from
the internet or load a web page or literally do anything related to the internet, our
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computer must have an address so that other computers can find and locate in order to
deliver that particular file or webpage that we are requesting.

In technical terms, that address is called IP Address or Internet Protocol Address.

Let us understand it with another example, like if someone wants to send you a mail
then he/she must have your home address. Similarly, your computer too needs an
address so that other computers on the internet can communicate with each other
without the confusion of delivering information to someone else’s computer. And that is
why each computer in this world has a unique IP Address. Or in other words, an IP
address is a unique address that is used to identify computers or nodes on the internet.

This address is just a string of numbers written in a certain format. It is generally

expressed in a set of numbers for example 192.155.12.1. Here each number in the set
is from 0 to 255 range. Or we can say that a full IP address ranges from 0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255. And these IP addresses are assigned by IANA(known as Internet
Corporation For Internet Assigned Numbers Authority).

Internet protocol-

It is just a set of rules that makes the Internet work.

The working of IP addresses is similar to other languages. It can also use some set of
rules to send information. Using these protocols we can easily send, and receive data or
files to the connected devices. There are several steps behind the scenes. Let us look
at them
● Your device directly requests your Internet Service Provider which then grants
your device access to the web.
● And an IP Address is assigned to your device from the given range available.

ER ● Your internet activity goes through your service provider, and they route it
back to you, using your IP address.
● Your IP address can change. For example, turning your router on or off can
change your IP Address.
● When you are out from your home location your home IP address doesn’t
accompany you. It changes as you change the network of your device.

Types of IP Address

IP Address is of two types:

1. IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4. It consists of 4 numbers separated by the dots.
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Each number can be from 0-255 in decimal numbers. But computers do not understand
decimal numbers, they instead change them to binary numbers which are only 0 and 1.
Therefore, in binary, this (0-255) range can be written as (00000000 – 11111111). Since
each number N can be represented by a group of 8-digit binary digits. So, a whole IPv4
binary address can be represented by 32-bits of binary digits. In IPv4, a unique
sequence of bits is assigned to a computer, so a total of (2^32) devices approximately =
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4,294,967,296 can be assigned with IPv4.

IPv4 can be written as:
189.123.123.90

Classes of IPv4 Address: There are around 4.3 billion IPv4 addresses and managing
all those addresses without any scheme is next to impossible. Let’s understand it with a
simple example. If you have to find a word from a language dictionary, how long will it
take? Usually, you will take less than 5 minutes to find that word. You are able to do this
because words in the dictionary are organized in alphabetical order. If you have to find
out the same word from a dictionary that doesn’t use any sequence or order to organize
the words, it will take an eternity to find the word. If a dictionary with one billion words
without order can be disastrous, then you can imagine the pain behind finding an
address from 4.3 billion addresses. For easier management and assignment IP
addresses are organized in numeric order and divided into the following 5 classes :

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A loopback address is a distinct reserved IP address range that starts from 127.0.0.0
ends at 127.255.255.255 though 127.255.255.255 is the broadcast address for
127.0.0.0/8. The loopback addresses are built into the IP domain system, enabling
devices to transmit and receive the data packets. The loopback address 127.0.0.1 is
generally known as localhost.
2. IPv6: But, there is a problem with the IPv4 address. With IPv4, we can connect only
the above number of 4 billion devices uniquely, and apparently, there are much more
devices in the world to be connected to the internet. So, gradually we are making our
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way to IPv6 Address which is a 128-bit IP address. In human-friendly form, IPv6 is
written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated with colons(:). But in the
computer-friendly form, it can be written as 128 bits of 0s and 1s. Since, a unique
sequence of binary digits is given to computers, smartphones, and other devices to be
connected to the internet. So, via IPv6 a total of (2^128) devices can be assigned with
unique addresses which are actually more than enough for upcoming future
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generations.
IPv6 can be written as:
2011:0bd9:75c5:0000:0000:6b3e:0170:8394

Classification of IP Address

An IP address is classified into the following types:

1. Public IP Address: This address is available publicly and it is assigned by your
network provider to your router, which further divides it to your devices. Public IP
Addresses are of two types,
 ● Dynamic IP Address: When you connect a smartphone or computer to the
internet, your Internet Service Provider provides you an IP Address from the
range of available IP Addresses. Now, your device has an IP Address and
you can simply connect your device to the Internet and send and receive data
to and from your device. The very next time when you try to connect to the
internet with the same device, your provider provides you with different IP
Addresses to the same device and also from the same available range. Since
IP Address keeps on changing every time when you connect to the internet, it
is called a Dynamic IP Address.
● Static IP Address: Static address never changes. They serve as a
permanent internet address. These are used by DNS servers. What are DNS
servers? Actually, these are computers that help you to open a website on
your computer. Static IP Address provides information such as device is
located on which continent, which country, which city, and which Internet
Service Provider provides internet connection to that particular device. Once,

ER we know who is the ISP, we can trace the location of the device connected to
the internet. Static IP Addresses provide less security than Dynamic IP
Addresses because they are easier to track.

2. Private IP Address: This is an internal address of your device which are not routed
to the internet and no exchange of data can take place between a private address and
the internet.
3. Shared IP addresses: Many websites use shared IP addresses where the traffic is
not huge and very much controllable, they decide to rent it to other similar websites so
to make it cost-friendly. Several companies and email-sending servers use the same IP
address (within a single mail server) to cut down costs so that they can save for the time
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the server is idle.
4. Dedicated IP addresses: A dedicated IP Address is an address used by a single
company or an individual that gives them certain benefits using a private Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL) certificate which is not in the case of a shared IP address. It allows
to access the website or log in via File Transfer Protocol (FTP) by IP address instead of
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its domain name. It increases the performance of the website when the traffic is high. It
also protects from a shared IP address that is black-listed due to spam.

ISO-OSI Reference Model:

Layers of OSI Model :

The open systems interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual model created by the
International Organization for Standardization(ISO) in the year 1984 which enables
diverse communication systems to communicate using standard protocols.(This model
is created in 1976 and implemented in 1984) In plain English, the OSI provides a
standard for different computer systems to be able to communicate with each other.
The OSI Model can be seen as a universal language for computer networking. It is
based on the concept of splitting up a communication system into seven abstract layers,
each one stacked upon the last.

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Layers of OSI Model
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
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4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1. Physical Layer:

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical
layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get
 the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link
layer, which will put the frame back together.

The Functions of the Physical Layer

● Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the

bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus

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● Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
● Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
● Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.

Note: 1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
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Layers or Hardware Layers.

Layer 2- Data Link Layer (DLL) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The
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main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on
the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates the Sender
and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination
host will reply with its MAC address.

The Functions of the Data Link Layer

● Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can
be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of
the frame.
● Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of
each frame.
● Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in

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● Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
● Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given time.
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Note: 1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

2. The Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Layer 3- Network Layer :

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located
in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest
path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender &
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

The Functions of the Network Layer

● Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
● Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address

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Note: 1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

switches.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and

Layer 4- Transport Layer :

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from
the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
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responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer
also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits
the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure
proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its
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header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number
80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications
have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs
sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
The Functions of the Transport Layer

● Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.
● Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process,
the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service

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1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
● Connection Establishment
● Data Transfer
● Termination/disconnection

In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is
reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In
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this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This
approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented
service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note: 1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
2. The Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
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and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.

3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
4. Device or Protocol Use: TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Layer 5- Session Layer :

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

and authentication, and also ensures security.

The Functions of the Session Layer

 ● Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
● Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
● Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

Note: 1. All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer
in the TCP/IP model as the “Application Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
3. Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP

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Layer 6- Presentation Layer :

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.

The Functions of the Presentation Layer are

● Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

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● Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
● Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
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Note: Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF

Layer 7- Application Layer :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data,
which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the
application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to
the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP

The Functions of the Application Layer are

● Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

● FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user
to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
● Mail Services : Provide email service.
● Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

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OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because
of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
OSI Model in a Nutshell:
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TCP/IP Model:
The OSI Model is a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe the functions of
the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and
simpler components.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s
and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four
layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this article, we’ll
study five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are referred to as one single
layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.

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What Does TCP/IP Do?

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to
another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that
the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure
that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its
data into packets and combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the
accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?

TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of
data. In simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send
and receive the mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to
communicate with another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic
difference between TCP and IP.
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How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the
TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets
have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing
happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a
4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one order and again in
reverse order to get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model

1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

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1. Physical Layer

It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible

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for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and
the Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be
talking on the behalf of the receiver.

2. Data Link Layer

The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link
layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two
examples of data-link layer protocols.

3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which
are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main
protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
● IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in
the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that
most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
● ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated
within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information
about network problems.
● ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types:
Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.

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The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of
protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets
of data from one device to another across a network. It does this by assigning each
device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route
that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When
you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then
sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each
packet and uses routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to
reach its destination. The packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it
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reaches its destination. When all of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s
computer can reassemble them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your
computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to
determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are
delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible
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to send data across the Internet.

4. Transport Layer

The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error.
End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
● TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they
were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that
resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate packets.
 A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in
byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up this
transmission.
● UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport
layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not
verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP
rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.

5. Application Layer

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for
end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer
applications from the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer

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are:
● HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and
servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with
SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill
out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
● SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulation software similar to
Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the
encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
● NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks
on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like
bank transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP.
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Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30
PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s
out of sync.

Other Common Internet Protocols :

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TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet Protocols
is how the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some Common Internet
Protocols include:
● HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web Browsers
and Websites.
● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent
over the Internet.
● SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and receive
data.
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:

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