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Chapter 11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Introduction
▪ It was found that at low pressure ,when an electric field is
applied to the gas in the discharge tube, a fluorescent glow
appeared on the glass opposite to cathode. These cathode rays
were discovered, in 1870, by William Crookes who later, in 1879,
suggested that these rays consisted of streams of fast moving
negatively charged particles.
▪ By applying mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields across the discharge tube, J. J. Thomson determined
experimentally the speed and the specific charge [charge to mass
ratio (e/m)] of the cathode ray.
▪ In 1887, it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by
ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged particles having small
speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature
were found to emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m
of these particles was found to be the same as that for cathode ray
particles.

These observations thus established that all these particles, although

produced under different conditions, were identical in nature. J. J.
Thomson, in 1897, named these particles as electrons, and suggested
that they were fundamental, universal constituents of matter.In 1913,
the American physicist R. A. Millikan performed oil-drop experiment
and measured the charge of electron as 1.602 × 10–19 C. Millikan’s
experiment established that electric charge is quantised.
Electron emission
If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface
acquires a positive charge and pulls the electron back to the metal. The
electron can come out of the metal surface only if it has got sufficient
energy to overcome the attractive pull.

Work Function
The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal
surface is called work function. The work function is denoted by ϕ0 .
▪ Work function is measured in electron volt (eV).
▪ ϕ0 depends on properties of metal and nature of its surface.
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▪ One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has
been accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.602 ×10–19 J.

The work function of platinum is the highest (ϕ0 = 5.65 eV) while it is
the lowest (ϕ0 = 2.14 eV) for caesium.

The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following
physical processes:
(i)Thermionic emission
By suitably heating, the free electrons will get sufficient thermal energy
to escape from the metal surface.
(ii)Field Emission
By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V/m) to a
metal, electrons will get sufficient energy to escape from the metal, as in
a spark plug.
(iii) Photo-electric emission
When light of suitable frequency incident on a metal surface, electrons
are emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated
electrons are called photoelectrons.

Photoelectric Effect
Hertz’s observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894).
He observed that when light falls on a metal surface, the electrons
escaped from the surface of the metal into the surrounding space.
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Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations

Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations were
allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing
two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit.
Hallwachs, in 1888, connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an
electroscope and found that negatively charged particles were emitted
from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
It was found that zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc., responded only to
ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause electron emission
from the surface.
However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium,
caesium and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light.
Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons when photosensitive
substances are illuminated by light of suitable frequency is called
photoelectric effect.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect

Experimental arrangement consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube

having a photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A.
Monochromatic light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength
passes through the window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C
(emitter). A transparent quartz window permits ultraviolet radiation to
pass through it and irradiate the photosensitive plate C. The electrons
are emitted by the plate C and are collected by the plate A (collector), by
the electric field created by the battery. The polarity of the plates C and
A can be reversed by a commutator. When the collector plate A is
positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to
it. The emission of electrons causes flow of electric current in the circuit.
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The photoelectric current can be increased or decreased by varying the
potential of collector plate A with respect to the emitter plate C. The
intensity and frequency of the incident light can also be varied.

1.Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

When intensity of incident radiation is increased( keeping the

frequency of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixe),
the number of photoelectrons emitted per second increases and hence
the photoelectric current also increases.
i.e., the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light.

2.Effect of potential on photoelectric current

When the positive potential of collector (A) is increased the

photoelectric current increases until all the electrons are collected by the
collector(A). Then the photocurrent becomes maximum and is called
saturation current.

Now the collector is made negative with respect to emitter C. Then the
photocurrent decreases with increases in negative potential and finally
becomes zero. The minimum negative potential of emitter plate A for
which the photocurrent stops or bocomes zero is called the cut off
potential or stopping potential (V0)
At stopping potential,
Kmax = e V0
𝟏
mvmax2 = e V0
𝟐
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3.Effect of Intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated with incident radiation of the same

frequency but different intensities I1, I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1).When the
intensity of incident radiation is increased ,number of photo electrons
emitted per second increases and hence the the saturation current
increases. But as the kinetic energy of photoelectrons remains constant
and the stopping potential also remains constant.

i.e., for a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is

independent of intensity of radiation.

4.Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated at same intensity of light radiation but

differenr frequencies 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 such that 𝑣1 > 𝑣2 > 𝑣3 . When the
frequency of incident radiation increases, the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons increases and hence the stopping potential also
increases. But as the intensity does not change , the saturation current
will be the same for different frequencies.

i.e., the stopping potential increases with increase in frequency of

incident radiation.
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Laws of Photoelectric Effect

i.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation, the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light.
ii.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation, saturation current is found to be proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity .
iii.For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum
cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold
frequency(𝑣0 ) below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place,
no matter how intense the incident light is. Above the threshold
frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the
frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity
iv.The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag.

Threshold Frequency
Threshold frequency is the minimum cut-off frequency of the incident
radiation, below which photo emission is not possible, no matter how
intense the incident light is.
Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light
The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were
explained by the wave picture of light. But the wave picture is unable to
explain the most basic features of photoelectric emission.
▪ According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the
surface of the metal absorb the radiant energy continuously. The
greater the intensity of radiation, the greater should be the energy
absorbed by each electron. This is contradictory to the observations
of photoelectric effect.
▪ As large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy
absorbed per electron per unit time turns out to be small. It can
take hours or more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy
to overcome the work function and come out of the metal. This is
contrast to observation that the photoelectric emission is
instantaneous.
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Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of Radiation

Einstein explained photoelectric effect based on Planck’s quantum
theory of radiation. When a photon incident on a metal surface, a part of
its energy is used as work function and the remaining part is used to give
kinetic energy to emitted photoelectrons.
Energy of photon =work function + KE of electrons
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + Kmax
Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(1)
This is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

At stopping potential V0
Kmax=e V0
e V0 = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(2)

At threshold frequency , 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , KE = 0 , 𝜙0 = h𝑣0

Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝒉𝒗𝟎 -------------(3)

Since Kmax is must be non negative, the photo emission is possible

only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0 , ℎ𝑣 > ℎ𝑣0 , 𝑣 > 𝑣0
𝜙
where, 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
Greater the work function ,greater the threshold frequency.
Below threshold frequency ,photoemission is not possible.
1
but Kmax = 𝑚ν𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2
𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = 𝒉(𝒗 − 𝒗𝟎 ) ------------(4)
𝟐

𝑐 𝑐
c= 𝑣 λ then 𝑣= , 𝑣0 =
𝜆 𝜆0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = hc ( − ) ----------(5)
𝟐 𝝀 𝝀𝟎
where 𝜆0 is called threshold wavelength.

Variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident

radiation
At stopping potential V0 Einstein’s photoelectric equation ,
eV0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
𝒉 𝝓𝟎
𝑽𝟎 = 𝒗−
𝒆 𝒆
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This equation shows that the graph between stopping potential 𝑉0 and
ℎ
frequency 𝑣 is a straight line with slope which is a constant
𝑒
independent of nature of material.

𝑽𝟎 𝒉
From graph , slope = =
𝒗 𝒆
𝝓𝟎
The y- intercept =
𝒆

The graph shows that

(i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν0 for whicthe
stopping potential is zero

For two metals A and B these graphs metal A metal B will be parallel
straight lines
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Particle Nature of Light –The Photon

1) In the interaction of light with matter , light behaves as if it is made up
of particles called photon.
2) Each photon has energy, E=hν and momentum p= hν/c and speed c=
3x 108 m/s
3) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have
the same energy and momentum p, whatever the intensity of radiation
may be.
4) When intensity of light is increased only the number of photons
increases, but the energy of photon is independent of intensity of light.
5) Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
6) In photon-particle collision total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

Example
Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser.
The power emitted is 2.0 ×10–3 W.
(a) What is the energy of a photon in the light beam?
(b) How many photons per second, on an average, are emitted by the
source?
(a) Each photon has an energy E = h ν = 6.63 ×10–34x6.0 ×1014 Hz
= 3.98 × 10–19 J
𝑃 2𝑥10−3
(b) N= = = 5 x1015photons per second
𝐸 3.98𝑥10−19

Example
The work function of a metal is 6eV. If two photons each having energy 4
eV strike the metal surface. Will the emission be possible? Why?
No, photo emission is not possible.
Photo emission is possible only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0
Here energy of incident photon is less than work function
and hence photo emission is not possible.
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Example
The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV.
a) Find the threshold frequency for caesium.
b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought
to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V.
𝜙
a) 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
𝜙0 =2.14 eV =2.14 x1.6x10-19 J
h=6.63 x10-34Js
2.14 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
𝑣0 = =5.16 x1014 Hz
6.63 𝑥10−34

b) e V0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
ℎ𝑣 = e V0−𝜙0
𝑐
ℎ = e V0−𝜙0
𝜆
hc
λ=
eV0 −ϕ0
6.63 x10−34 x3 x108
= =454 nm
1.6 x10−19 x0.6−2.14 x1.6x10−19
Wave Nature of Matter
▪ The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarisation. On the other hand, in
photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and
momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of
particles – the photons.
▪ The gathering and focussing mechanism of light by the eye-
lens is well described in the wave picture. But its absorption by the
rods and cones (of the retina) requires the photon picture of light.
A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle) nature,
might not the particles of nature (the electrons, protons, etc.) also
exhibit wave-like character?
Louis Victor de Broglie argued that moving particles of matter should
display wave-like properties under suitable conditions.
As nature is symmetrical , the two basic physical entities of nature –
matter and energy, must have symmetrical character. If radiation shows
dual aspects, matter should also exhibit dual nature.
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de Broglie Relation -Wavelenth of matter wave

De Broglie proposed that the wave length λ associated with a particle of
momentum p is given as
𝒉 𝒉
λ = 𝒑= 𝒎𝒗
where m is the mass of the particle and v its speed.
λ is called de Broglie wavelength.
The dual aspect of matter is evident in the de Broglie relation. Here λ is a
wave attribute while the momentum p is a particle attribute. Planck’s
constant h relates the two attributes.

Why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like

properties?
The de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving with a speed
of 20 m s–1 is ,
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 2.76x10-34 nm
𝑚𝑣 0.12 𝑥20
This wavelength is so small that it is beyond any measurement. This is
the reason why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-
like properties. But in the sub-atomic domain, the wave character of
particles is significant and measurable.
Example
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron moving
with a speed of 5.4×106 m/s?
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 0.135 nm
𝑚𝑣 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑥 5.4 𝑥106

This wavelength is measurable. i.e., in the sub-atomic domain, the wave

character of particles is significant and measurable.

Seema Elizabeth
HSST Physics
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur