AASTU, School of Mechanical &Manufacturing Eng.

Workshop Practice

Work shop practice

Reference Manual

Prepared by: Manufacturing Engineering Department

Feb, 2016

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MODULE CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION
1. Measuring and Layout tools
1.1 Safety precaution
1.2 Types of Measuring and layout tools
1.3 Classification and mechanical properties of engineering materials
2. Hand cutting tools and Work holding devices
2.1.Safety precaution
2.2.work holding devices
2.3. Cut, chip and file with required tolerances
2.3.1 Types of chisels, hacksaws and files
2.3 Replacing dull or broken tools
3. Drilling

3.1 Safety precautions

3.2 Types of Drilling machines
3.3 Drill bits
3.4 Drilling parameters
3.4.1 Cutting speed
3.4.2 Feed
3.4.3 Depth of cut
3.5 Drilling operations
3.1.1 Reaming
3.1.3 Lapping
3.1.3 Counter sinking and counter boring
4. Hand thread cutting

4.1 Safety precautions

4.2 Definition of threads and thread types

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4.3 Types of Taps and dies

4.4 Tap holder and die stock
4.5 Cutting internal and external threads
5. Scrape and hone holes
5.1 Types of scrappers and honing tools
5.2 Scrapping and honing operations
6. Grinding
6.1 Safety precautions
6.2 Hand (portable)grinding
6.3 Bench grinding
6.4 Pedestal grinding
6.5 Grinding wheel
6.6 Honing

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INTRODUCTION
The working of metals is made possible by the manipulation of tools and machines. Hand
tools are basic tools normally used in the school and college workshop to realize designed
manufactured article. Hand tools should be used in a safe working condition, hand tools and
cutting tools properly maintain and should kept in proper place (storage) .How ever tools and
equipment lost their services in different conditions their fore defective tools should be identified
and properly repairing in order to maximize the working life of the hand tools.
In this module it also deals about the use and the properties of metals; and also deals the
extraction and refining method of metal.
1.1 Safety precaution

 Safety describes that it is the way of doing work correctly to prevent accident.
 It can be defined as the way of prevention of accidents.
 The prevention of accident concerns
 The work man (operator) and his partner
 The work piece
 The working tool
 the work shop
Causes of accidents
 Faulty attitude towards safety
 Failure to recognize danger.
 Emotions (anger, worry, excitements…)
 The other causes of accident are not to take safety as a way of life.
General safety measures
 Dress correctly (wear apron, short sleeved beltless coats).
 Remove rings, wrist watches, necklaces, bra- slates.
 Always walk in the shop
 Protect your eyes

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 No horse play
 No scrap materials on the flour.
 Take care of injuries
1.2 Types of Measuring and layout tools
Accuracy: is the lowest dimension that can be measured using the measuring tool.
Example:
The Accuracy of Steel Rule is 0.5 or 1mm
The Accuracy of vernier calliper is 0.1, 0.05 and 0.02 mm
Precision: the closeness or the agreement occurring between the results obtained for a quantity
measured several times using the same instrument at the same condition
Example
Vernier calliper is more precise than Steel Rule
Micrometer is more precise than Vernier calliper.
Error: is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value (Ideal
Dimension) of the quantity.
Example
True Value = 10mm, Measured value=9.75
Error= 10-9.75=0.25mm
Measuring tools
Semi-precision measuring devices
Semi-precision measuring devices are steel rule, Tape rule, Zigzag rule and etc
Steel rule

It is one of the most basic but most important measuring tools. The common lengths are 150
mm and 300 mm. Metric rules are graduated in millimeters (mm) and centimeters (cm).
When using the rule, take measurements from a datum side or surface, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Hold the edge so that the graduations are in contact with the surface of the object that you are
measuring. If the rule is lying on the flat side there might be an error in the reading. Be careful to
protect the ends of the rule from damage. Any misuse may render it ineffective as a measuring
tool.

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Fig1.1 Steel rule

Pocket or flexible rules (Figure 1.2) have blades made of flexible steel, which are spring-loaded
into a case. They are longer than steel rules and can therefore be used to measure much greater
lengths (typically up to 5 m). They are portable, and can be carried about in the pocket.

Fig 1.2 Tape rule

Precision measuring devices
Precision measuring devices are Venier caliper and Micrometers

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Vernier caliper
It is difficult to take accurate readings with a rule, because you have to estimate measurements.
You can obtain better accuracy with the vernier calliper (Figure 1.3). This consists principally of:

1. A rule scale (the fixed scale);

2. A fixed jaw (part of the rule scale);
3. A vernier scale (a moving scale);
4. A sliding jaw (attached to the moving scale).

The rule scale is graduated in millimeters. The moving scale moves on the rule scale. Attached to
the sliding jaw is a clamp. The vernier scale is graduated to read up to 49 mm. There are 50
divisions, which mean that there is a difference of 0.02 mm between the vernier scale and the
main scale. You need regular practice in using the vernier calliper to ensure that you understand
its principle and use:

1. Move the sliding jaw to be in contact with the faces being measured.
2. Tighten the locking screw on the clamp.
3. Make fine adjustment using the fine-setting screw.
4. Move the jaws so that they just touch the work; do not apply any force.
5. Tighten the head lock.
To read (for example) 25.44 mm from the calliper, look for the number of the millimeter
division below the vernier zero: in Figure 1.3, for example, it is 25. Next find the line on the
vernier scale that coincides with a line on the main scale: in this case 22. To calculate the total
measurement, multiply 20 by 0.2 and add to 25:
That is:
Main scale reading = 25.00 mm
Vernier scale reading = 22 X 0.2 (0.44 mm) Final reading = 25.44 mm
The vernier calliper is a useful tool for taking external and internal measurements Figure 1.4 and
Figure 1.5. Add the widths of the jaws (which are always stated on the calliper) when taking
internal measurements.

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Parts of a vernier caliper:

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object

2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole
4. Main scale: gives measurements of up to one decimal place (in cm).
5. Main scale: gives measurements in fraction(in inch)
6. Vernier gives measurements up to two decimal places(in cm)
7. Vernier gives measurements in fraction(in inch)
8. Retainer: used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring a measurement

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Fig 1.3 Vernier caliper reading

Fig 1.4 external measurement

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Fig 1.5 Internal measurement

Micrometer
A micrometer is a very useful instrument. It enables you to take measurements to within one
hundredth of a millimeter (0.01 mm). The metric micrometer is able to measure ranges of 25 mm
(that is, for 0-25 mm, 25-50 mm, and so on). A common type is shown in Figure 1.6.
The micrometer has a thread with pitch 0.5 mm.
This means that the spindle advances by 0.5 mm for each turn. However, there are 50
graduations on the thimble. So the movement advanced (Fig 1.7) for each graduation of the
thimble is 0.5/50 = 0.01 mm.
The procedure for using the micrometer is as follows.
1. Hold the plastic insert to prevent thermal expansion.
2. Keep the measuring faces square with the surfaces that you are measuring, to ensure an
accurate measurement.
3. Turn the thimble until the faces touch the work.
4. Use the ratchet (if there is one) to obtain the correct pressure when turning the thimble, and
prevent the jaw from moving further when it comes into contact with the work.

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Fig 1.6 outside micrometer

The reading in Figure 4.52 is:

Upper main scale 12.00 mm
Lower main scale (no half mm) 0.00 mm
Circular thimble scale 0.13 mm
13 X 0.01 mm = 0.13mm
Total reading 12.13 mm

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Fig 1.7 outside micrometer reading

The micrometer is an expensive tool, and you must take the utmost care when using it. The
following points should help you.
• Make sure that you store the micrometer away from dust.
• Always clean the measuring faces for good results.
• Oil the micrometer regularly to avoid rust.
• Pack the micrometer in its box when not in use.
• Do not use force on the thimble or ratchet.

Vernier height gauge

The vernier height gauge is used in conjunction with the surface plate, which has a smooth
surface. The gauge has a heavy base. This supports the main scale, which is graduated in a
similar way to the callipers. It has a means for fine adjustment (Figure 1.8). It is used for
accurate measurement of the depths of holes, slots, keyways and the like.

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Fig 1.8 Vernier height gauge

Laying out work

“Laying out” is a shop term which means to scribe lines, circles, centres, and so forth, upon the
surface of any material to serve as a guide in shaping the finished work piece. This laying out
procedure is similar to shop drawing but differs from it in one important respect. The lines on a
shop drawing in the finished work piece, for that reason, all scribed lines should be exactly
located and all scriber, divider, and center points should be exact and sharp.
Common layout tools
Scriber
To obtain an accurate layout, fine lines must be scribed in the metal. A scriber (Figure 1.9) is the
layout tool that is used to produce these lines. The point is made of hardened steel and is kept
chain by honing on an oilstone.

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Fig 1.9 Scribers

Divider
When laying out circles, arcs, and radii, it is best to use the divider (Figure 1.10). The legs of the
divider must be of the same length and be kept sharp. The divider cart be used to lay out and
measure distances (Figure 1.10). To set the divider to the correct length, place one point on an
inch mark of a steel rule and open the divider until the other leg matches the correct measure-
merit required (Figure 1.11).

Fig 1.10 Using divider to layout equal measurement

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Fig 1.11 Correct method of setting dividers

Trammel
When scribing circles, arcs, and radii that are too large to be produced with the divider, a
trammel should be used (Figure 1.12). The trammel is made of three main parts: the beam, two
sliding heads with scriber points, and an adjusting screw that is attached to one of the heads. The
trammel can be made to scribe larger distances with the use of extension rods. This layout tool is
set in the same manner as the divider.

(Figure 1.12) Trammel

Hermaphrodite Caliper
The hermaphrodite caliper (Figure 1.13) is a tool used to lay out lines that are parallel with the
edges of the work piece (Figure 1.14). It can also be used to locate the centre of cylindrical
shaped workplaces (Figure 1.15).

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Fig1.13 hermaphrodite caliper

Fig. 1.14 laying out lines parallel to the edge of work pieces

Fig. 1.15 obtaining centre of cylindrical work

Surface Gage
A surface gage (Figure 1.16) is used for many purposes, but is most often used for layout
work. The gage can be used to scribe layout lines at any given distance parallel to the work
surface (Figure 1.17). The spindle may be adjusted to any position with respect to the base and

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tightened in place with the spindle nut (Figure 1.16). The rocker adjusting screw provides for
finer adjustment of the spindle by pivoting the spindle rocker bracket. The scriber can be
positioned at any height and in any desired direction on the spindle by adjusting the scriber. A
surface plate and combination square (Figure l.18) are needed to set the surface gage to the
correct dimension.

Fig 1.16Surface gage

Fig 1.17 Parallel lines scribed with surface gage

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Fig l.18Setting surface gage scriber on surface plate

Surface Plate
A surface plate (Figure l-19) provides a true, smooth, plane surface. It is used in conjunction
with surface and height gages as a level base on which the gages and the work piece are placed
to obtain accurate measurements. These plates are made of semi-steel or granite and should
never be used for any job that would scratch or nick the surface.

Fig l.19 Surface plate

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Vernier Height Gage

The vernier height gage (Figure 1.20) is a caliper with a special foot block to adapt it for use on a
surface plate. Height gages are available in several sizes: the most common are the 10, 18, and
24 inch gages in English measure and the 25 and 46 cm gages in metric measure. Like the
vernier caliper, these height gages are graduated in divisions of 0.025 inch and a vernier scale of
25 units for reading measurements to thousandths of an inch. Always be sure the bottom of the
foot block (Figure 1.20) is clean and free from burrs.

Fig 1.20 Vernier height gage

Figure 1.21 shows the height gage with a tungsten carbide marker. This marker is used to lay out
lines on glass, hardened steel or other hard materials.

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Fig 1.21 Using height gage with carbide marker

Figure 1.22 illustrates the use of an offset scriber with the height gage. This scriber reaches
below the gage base. Do not attempt to adjust the sliding jaw while it is clamped to the upright
beam.

Fig 1.22 Using height gage with offset scriber

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Combination Square Set

The combination square set (Figure 1.23) is used for a number of layout operations. The set
consists of a blade (graduated rule), square head, protractor, and center head.
Blade
The blade is designed to allow the different heads to slide along the blade and be clamped at any
desired location. The groove in the blade is concave to eliminate dirt build up and permit a free
and easy slide for the heads. By removing all the heads, the blade may be used alone as a rule.
Square Head
The square head is designed with a 45° and 90° edge, which makes it possible to be used as a try
square and miter square. By extending the blade below the square, it can be used as a depth rule.
The square head can also be used as a level.
Protractor Head
The protractor head is equipped with a revolving turret graduated in degrees from 0 to 180 or to
90 in either direction. It is used to measure or lay out angles to an accuracy of 1°.
Center Head
The center head, when inserted on the blade, is used to locate and lay out the center of cylindrical
workplaces.

Fig 1.23 Combination square set

Bevel Protractor
The bevel protractor (Figure 1.24) consists of an adjustable blade with a graduated dial. The
blade is usually 12 inches long and 1/16 inch thick. The dial is graduated in degrees through a
complete circle of 360°. The most common use for this tool is laying out precision angles. The
vernier scale is used for accurate angle adjustments and is accurate to 5 minutes or 1/12°.

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Fig 1.24 Bevel protractor

Steps in making a layout

Planning before beginning any layout is one of the most important steps. Each job may require
different layout tools depending on the accuracy needed; however, there are certain procedures
which should be followed in any layout.
Study the shop drawing or blueprint carefully before you cut off the stock. Allow enough
material to square the ends if required.
Remove all oil and grease from the work surface and apply layout dye.
Locate and scribe a reference or base line. All the other measurements should be made
from this. If the work piece already has one true edge, it can be used in place of the
reference line.
Using the base line as a reference line, locate and scribe all centre lines for each circle,
radius, or arc.
Mark the points where the centre lines intersect using a sharp prick punch.
Scribe all circles, radii, and arcs using the divider or trammel.
Using the correct type protractor, locate and scribe all straight and angular lines.
Scribe all lines for internal openings.
All layout lines should be clean, sharp, and fine. Reapply layout dye to all messy, wide,
or incorrect lines and re-scribe.

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1.3 Classification and Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

Metal classification
All metals may be classified as ferrous or nonferrous. A ferrous metal has iron as its main
element. A metal is still considered ferrous even if it contains less than 50 percent iron, as long
as it contains more iron than any other one metal. A metal is nonferrous if it contains less iron
than any other metal.
Ferrous metals are metals that contain iron. E.g. steel (iron and carbon)
Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron
E.g. Zinc (pure metal), Bronze (Copper and tin)
Ferrous Metal = alloy metals that contains iron (Primary base metal is iron)
Non-ferrous Metal = alloy metals that do not contain iron (Primary base metal does not contain
iron)

Metals

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals

Steels Cast Irons

Plain carbon steels Grey Iron

Low carbon steels White Iron

Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Irons

High carbon steels

Low alloy steels

High alloy steels

Stainless & Tool steels
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Metals can be divided into two groups

Table 1.1

Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals

Iron Aluminum

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

Others Others

Extraction of Iron
• Iron is found in iron oxide in the earth.
• Three primary iron ores: magnetite, hematite, taconite
• Iron is extracted using blast furnace
• Steps in extraction of iron
 Ores is washed, crushed and mixed with limestone and coke
 The mixture is fed into the furnace and is then melted
 Coke(a product of coal, mainly carbon) is used to convert the iron oxides to iron
 Limestone helps to separate the impurities from the metal
 The liquid waste is known as slag that floats on the molten iron
 They are then tapped off (separated)
 The iron produced is only about 90% to 95% pure.
 The iron is then further refined using the basic oxygen furnace and the electric arc
furnace to produce steel which is widely used now.
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Blast Furnace

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Extraction of Iron

 Ore, coke, and limestone are “charged” in layers into the top of a blast furnace
 Ore is the source of the iron , Coke is the source of the carbon (coke is derived from
coal, by heating in a coking oven)
 Limestone acts as a fluxing slag to remove impurities like sulphur and silica
 1100-deg. air blown into bottom of furnace, burns oxygen off the iron oxides, causing
temperature in furnace to get above the melting point of iron (approx 3000 degrees)
 Molten iron sinks to bottom of furnace, where it is tapped off from furnace and cast
into large ingots called “pigs”…pigs contain high carbon content (4% or so), plus
many impurities, such as sulphur and silica which wasn‟t removed by the limestone.

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Ferrous
Ferrous metals include cast iron, steel, and the various steel alloys, the only difference between
iron and steel is the carbon content. Cast iron contains more than 2-percent carbon, while steel
contains less than 2 percent. An alloy is a substance composed of two or more elements.
Therefore, all steels are an alloy of iron and carbon, but the term “alloy steel” normally refers to
a steel that also contains one or more other elements. For example, if the main alloying element
is tungsten, the steel is a “tungsten steel” or “tungsten alloy.” If there is no alloying material, it is
a “carbon steel.”
Steel
• Low carbon steel (mild steel)
• Medium carbon steel
• High carbon steel (tool steels)
• Cast iron
Alloy Steels
• Stainless steel
• High speed steel
Low Carbon Steel
Also known as mild steel Contain 0.05% -0.32% carbon Tough, ductile and malleable
Easily joined and welded Poor resistance to corrosion often used a general purpose material
Nails, screws, car bodies, Structural Steel used in the construction industry
Medium Carbon Steel
 Contains 0.35% - 0.5% of carbon
 Offer more strength and hardness BUT less ductile and malleable; Structural steel, rails
and garden tools
High Carbon Steel
 Also known as „tool steel‟
 Contain 0.55%-1.5% carbon
 Very hard but offers Higher Strength Less ductile and less malleable
 Hand tools (chisels, punches), Saw blades

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Cast Iron
 Contains 2%-4% of carbon
 Very hard and brittle; Strong under compression
 Suitable for casting [can be pour at a relatively low temperature]
 Engine block, engineer vices, machine parts
White
 Hard and brittle, good wear resistance
 Uses: rolling & crunching
 Equipment
Grey
 Good compressive & tensile strength, machinability, and vibration-damping ability
 Uses: machine bases, crankshafts, furnace doors, Engine Blocks
Ductile
 High strength and ductility Uses: engine and machine parts
Malleable
 Heat-treated version of white cast iron
Stainless Steel
 Steel alloyed with chromium (18%), nickel (8%), and magnesium (8%)
 Hard and tough
 Corrosion resistance
 Comes in different grades. Sinks, cooking utensils, surgical instruments
High Speed Steel
 Medium Carbon steel alloyed with Tungsten, chromium, vanadium
 Very hard Resistant to frictional heat even at high temperature
 Can only be ground
 Machine cutting tools (lathe and milling) and Drills

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Nonferrous
Nonferrous metals include a great many metals that are used mainly for metal plating or as
alloying elements, such as tin, zinc, silver, and gold. However, this chapter will focus only on the
metals used in the manufacture of parts, such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium, nickel,
copper, and tin alloys.
• Aluminum, beryllium, and titanium are used in structural applications. Light metals
such as lithium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium also have important engineering
applications.
• Nickel and lead have widespread applications as does copper which is often chosen for
its high thermal and electrical conductivity.
• Cadmium, tin, and zinc are often used as coatings, electrical applications, and for
bearing surfaces.
• Cobalt and manganese are common alloying elements in steels.
Non Ferrous Metals
Properties
• Nonferrous metals such as copper, brasses, bronzes, aluminum, magnesium, nickel,
chromium, titanium, lead, tin, zinc, gold, silver, platinum, the refractory metals, and their
alloys are used in a wide variety of applications; each requiring specific characteristics.
• Metals such as aluminum and magnesium, for example, tend to be high-strength,
lightweight, and corrosion-resistant.
• They offer advantages over other metals in applications which depend on their unique
properties.
• Refractory metals are chosen for their high heat resistance. They retain their properties at
elevated temperatures. The precious metals are chosen for their luster in applications such
as coinage and jewelry. Additionally, they may be used in electrical conductors, contacts,
and biocompatible applications.
Some of these metals are chosen to plate other metals such as nickel, chromium, and zinc which
are used to provide a resistant outer shell. Copper is an excellent conductor and used in
application which require high conductivity. Its alloys, brasses and bronzes, are typically alloyed
for specific purposes.

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Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the earth's crust, behind silicon and oxygen. It
is the most abundant metal. Aluminum is strong, lightweight, electrically- and thermally-
conductive, and corrosion resistant. These properties can be enhanced through alloying. It is
often anodized to help prevent corrosion.
Its electrical conductivity make it an excellent choice for electrical applications such as wiring
and conductors. Its strength-to-weight ratio makes it attractive in structural applications as well
as cast aluminum engine components, e.g. blocks, heads, and manifolds. Its high reflectivity of
infrared and visible radiation makes it desirable in headlights, light fixtures, and much insulation.
It is also used as a paint pigment.
Copper, Brass, and Bronze
Copper has been used in various applications for centuries. It generally finds applications
requiring high thermal and electrical conductivity. For example, the thermal conductivity of
copper is almost ten times greater than ordinary steel. Therefore, it finds use as kitchen products,
wiring and electrical applications, piping and tubing, and other such uses.
Alloys of copper and zinc are termed brasses. Zinc is added to improve the strength and
ductility of the alloy. There are many formulas for brasses which include other alloying elements
than copper and zinc. Brass is used in decorative metal products, cartridge cases, piping and
tubing, and many of the same application as copper.
Bronze
Bronze is an alloy of copper and any other metal. As with brasses, there are many formulas for
bronzes, depending on the application. Aluminum bronzes, tin bronzes, phosphor bronzes, nickel
bronzes, and silicon bronzes are all examples of varying alloys. The principle alloying element
determines the nomenclature. Bronzes are used in applications such as bearings, some limited
structural applications, decorative uses, and applications which require them not to spark when
struck with another metal. This makes them useful in the transport and handling of items such as
explosives, fuels, and flammable materials. Bronzes are often used in statues and can be seen to
form the familiar green oxidized coating.
Magnesium
Magnesium is a light material, lighter than aluminum, derived primarily from seawater.
Magnesium is a very active metal and, when burned, gives off an intense heat and light. It is used

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as an alloying element in steels and in applications which require high strength-to-weight ratios,
such as extension ladders, aircraft, space vehicles, power tools, and similar applications.
Chromium
Chromium is often used in decorative and corrosion-resistant coatings. It is a major alloying
element in many steels, especially stainless steels. It is used to provide a tough, wear-resistant,
corrosion-resistant, decorative surface.
Silver
Silver also finds application in photographic films and papers. At one time, it was used to plate
mirrors. It is now used in the manufacture of photochromatic lenses. Photochromatic lenses
darken when exposed to ultraviolet light. Silver is also used in brazing alloys and long-life
batteries. Silver fulminate (Ag2C2N2O2) is used as an explosive. Silver and silver compounds
are found in many creams, ointments, and salves used for medicinal purposes. Silver iodide has
been used to seed clouds to make rain.
Tin
Tin is a major component of solders and pewter. It is also used as both an alloying element and
plating material. Tin is a major alloy of many copper products. It is used to plate other metals
due to its corrosion resistance.
Zinc
Zinc is commonly used as a plating material for steels. This product is termed galvanized steel.
It is the familiar grayish coating seen on products such as nails and sheets. It is also used in die
castings (such as die-cast children's toys, carburetor bodies, and pump housings) and as an
alloying element in nonferrous metals. Zinc oxide is used in paints, glass, cements, and
medicines.
Properties of metal
Physical, Chemical and Mechanical properties

Physical properties
 These properties are natural and help to identify the characteristics, properties of each
metal.
E.g.
- Shiny (they have metallic luster), It is the property of brightness of the surface of a metal to
reflect light.

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Chemical properties
 Most metals are chemically reactive, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over
changing timescales.

The internal reactions of a metal known as mechanical properties, The two external forces are
mechanical properties are directly related to each other. A change in one property usually causes
a change in one or more additional properties. For example, if the hardness of a metal is
increased, the brittleness usually increases and the toughness usually decreases. Following is a
brief explanation of the mechanical properties and how they relate to each other.
Tensile strength
Tensile strength is the ability of a metal to resist being pulled apart by opposing forces acting in a
straight line. It is expressed as the number of pounds of force required to pull apart a bar of the
material 1 inch wide and 1 inch thick.
Shear strength
Shear strength is the ability of a metal fractured by opposing forces not acting in to resist being a
straight line. Shear strength can be controlled by varying the hardness of the metal.
Compressive strength
Compressive strength is the ability of a metal to withstand pressures acting on a given plane.
Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of metal to return to its original size and shape after being stretched or
pulled out of shape.
Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a metal to be drawn or stretched permanently without rupture or
fracture. Metals that lack ductility will crack or break before bending.
Malleability
Malleability is the ability of a metal to be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes
without rupture or fracture.

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Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a metal to resist fracture plus the ability to resist failure after the
damage has begun. A tough metal can withstand considerable stress, slowly or suddenly applied,
and will deform before failure.
Hardness
Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist penetration and wear by another metal or material. It
takes a combination of hardness and toughness to withstand heavy pounding. The hardness of a
metal limits the ease with which it can be machined, since toughness decreases as hardness
increases. The hardness of a metal can usually be controlled by heat treatment.
Machinability and Weldability
Machinability and weldability are the ease or difficulty with which a material can be machined
or welded.
Corrosion resistance
Corrosion resistance is the resistance to eating or wearing away by air, moisture, or other agents.
Heat and electrical conductivity
Heat and electrical conductivity is the ease with which a metal conducts or transfers heat or
electricity.
Brittleness
Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture or break with little or no deformation,
bending, or twisting. Brittleness is usually not a desirable mechanical property. Normally, the
harder the metal, the more brittle it is.
Heat Treatment
A process used to alter the properties and characteristics of metals by heating and cooling.
Cold working  induce stress in metal  lead to work hardening  prevent further work from
taking place.
Three stages of heat treatment
1. Heat the metal to the correct temperature
2. Keep it at that temperature for the required length of time (soaking)
3. Cool it in the correct way to give the desired properties

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Types of heat treatment:

Annealing
Normalizing
Hardening
Tempering
Case hardening
Annealing
Annealing is the process whereby heat is introduced to mobilise the atoms and relieve internal
stress. After annealing, it allows the metal to be further shaped. It involves the re-crystallization
of the distorted structure. If the Annealing heat treatment is performed by furnace, the cooling
media will be carried out by simply power off the furnace.

Normalizing
This process is only confined to steel. It is used to refine the grain due to work hardening
It involves the heating of the steel to just above its upper critical point and cooling media will be
carried out by still air.
Hardening
Hardening is the process of increasing the hardness of steel by adding a high amount of carbon.
The degree of hardness depends on the amount of carbon present in steel and the form in which it
is trapped during quenching. Once hardened, the steel is resistant to wear but is brittle and easily
broken under load. The quenching media will be water or heat treatment oil.

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Tempering
Tempering is the process to reduce hardness and brittleness slightly of a hardened steel work
piece. It helps to produce a more elastic and tough steel capable of retaining the cutting edge
after tempering. Prior to tempering, the steel must be cleaned to brightness with emery cloth so
that oxide color is visible when reheated. Quenching media will be water or heat treatment oil.

2. HAND CUTTING AND WORK HOLDING

2.1 Safety precautions
2.2 work holding devices
Types
Vise is fastened near the edge of the bench with bolts fig. It is often used to clamp parts
together while cutting, filing or chipping or being assembling.

Fig. 2.1 Heavy duty bench Vise with swivel base

The leg vice is an older form of vice, which is used for heavy work. It is made of mild steel
with cast steel jaws. It has a long leg that touches the ground (Figure 2.2). The leg vice does not
have quick release levers. Although it is strong, its greatest disadvantage is that the jaws are only
parallel in one position, which makes gripping of work difficult.

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Fig.2.2 Leg Vise

Fig. 2.3Hand vise

Hand vise Is used for holding small objects like keys, rivets, small drills, screws, sheet metal,
etc, Which are too small to be held in a bench vice.

2.3 cut, chip and file with required tolerances

2.3.1 Types of chisels, hacksaw and files
Hand cutting tools are Hacksaw, Chisel and File
Hacksaw
Hack saw is a tool used to cut off metal to lengths or to cut out shapes in sheet metal
and other relatively thin sections. It composed of three main parts; the frame, the handle
and the blade. The frame can be of either a solid or an adjustable type. The solid frame is

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more rigid and can accommodate blades of only one specific length. The frame of the
hack saw is steel frame, which can be turned at right angles for cutting deep into the
material. The blade is secured in the rigid frame. The teeth point forward to enable the
saw to cut on the forward stroke. A wing nut at the back of the frame provides adjustment
for blade tensioning.

Hacksaw blades are made of cast or high-speed steel. There are two types: all-hard and
flexible. The difference between the two is that the all-hard snaps easily, and it is therefore not
recommended for school work. The blades come in the following lengths: 225, 250 and 300 mm.
They are also available with 14, 18, 24 and 32 teeth per 25 mm for cutting different materials
(Table 1.1).
Table 1.1
Number of teeth per 25mm(1 Diameter of material to be Material to cut
inch) cut
14 25mm Aluminum, bronze, cast iron
18 6mm Angle iron , cast iron, tool
steel
24 1.6mm Brass pipe ,Heavy sheet
metal
32 Less than 1.6 mm Sheet metal over18gage

Fig.2.4 Adjustable hack saw

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Fig. 2.5 Non adjustable hack saw

While cutting with the hack saw, at least three consecutive teeth should be in contact with the
material. If the material is soft and has a large section, use a blade with few teeth per 25 mm (14
or 18 teeth per 25 mm) Use a fine-tooth blade when cutting a fairly thin section.
Points to be considered when using hacksaw :
1. Hold the work securely in the vice.
2. Grip the hacksaw firmly, using both hands (Figure 4.9).
3. Use the same stance as for filing.
4. Use the full length of the blade.
5. Move the blade in a straight line to avoid breaking it. Do not exert too much pressure on
the blade.
6. Make sure the blade is held tightly in the frame; if it is loose, it is likely to break.

Fig 2.6 using a hack saw

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Chisel

These are sometimes referred to as cold chisels because they are used to cut cold metals.
They are made of cast steel or alloy steel, with a hardened and tempered cutting edge.
The common types of chisel include:
1. The flat chisel, used for general-purpose chiseling;
2. The cross-cut chisel, used for cutting grooves such as keyways, and for chipping;
3. The half-round round-nosed chisel, used for cutting grooves (which are either curved
or half-round);
4. The diamond-pointed chisel, used for working into corners and cutting small grooves.
• Grind off the mushroom head caused by hammering. If it is not removed, pieces may snap off,
and this can be dangerous.
Chiseling is one of the methods of cutting material.
Though, it is inaccurate it is still widely used. The chisel is held in one hand and hammered
to chop out, shear and chip material. When it becomes difficult to use shears or a saw, you can
use the chisel in cutting metal plate or sheet. This process is called chopping out.

Fig 2.7 Flat chisel

Fig 2.8 Cross-cut

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Fig 2.9 Round nose chisel

Fig 2.10 Diamond –point chisel

When chopping out slots and holes, drill holes in the waste to help prevent distortion of
the material and to make cutting easier (see Figure 2.11).
When you are cutting strips from material (about 1.5 mm to 4.5 mm thick), you can use the
shearing process (Figure 2.12):
1. Hold the metal in the vice.
2. Hold the chisel at an angle of about 45° to the work.
You can chip the metal (Figure 2.13) to produce grooves or to reduce the width or thickness.
Nowadays the grinder, shaper and miller are widely used for this purpose, but if these machines
are not available, chipping is still an economical process.

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Fig 2.11 Chopping out

Fig 2.12 Shearing

Fig 2.13 Chipping

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Safety precautions
1. Eye protection must be worn when using chisels.
2. Heads of cold chisels will be ground with a slight radius at the first sign of burring or
mushrooming.
3. Keep the chisel head trimmed at all times to prevent mushrooming particles from flying.
4. Work away from the body when striking a chisel.
5. Chisels must not be used as pries or wedges, as the brittle steel may break and cause injury.
6. Gloves and chisel holders are recommended when using chisels

Files
Filing is a method of removing metal, which is the most widely used hand tool in the school
workshop, is used for this cutting operation. It is made of carbon tool steel containing about 1.3
per cent carbon.
Parts of a file:
1. The handle, which is made either of wood or of mounded plastic (the wooden type is fitted
with a metal ferrule to avoid splitting when fitting the tang);
2. The tang, which is the part that fits into the handle;
3. The teeth, which are either single cut or double cut .
4. The Heel, the part of the file where the tang begins
5. The Belly, It is the edge of the file

Fig 2.14 Parts of File

Use the single cut on softer materials (such as brass and aluminum) and the double cut for
general filing, especially on iron and steel.
Flat File
The flat file tapers throughout the last third of its length. The faces are double cut but the edges
are only single cut. It is used for general bench work.

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Square file
• The square file has teeth on all four sides, which are parallel for two-thirds of the file
length. It is used for shaping square slots and grooves.

Round file
• The round file, as its name implies, has a round cross-section. When the file is tapered as
well, it is known as a rat tail. Some round files are parallel throughout their length. The
round file is used for enlarging holes and for working in curved areas.

• The triangular file is sometimes referred to as three-square. It is double cut on all three
sides. It has a section that is an equilateral triangle, and this makes it useful for getting
into sharp corners.
Triangular file

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Needle file
• Needle files are used for fine work. The ends are knurled to give them a firm grip, as they
do not have handles like the other files.

Half round file

Half Round File: This is tapered double cut and its cross-section is not a half circle but only
about one-third of a circle. This file is used for round cut and filing curved surfaces.

Method of filing
Draw filing
Draw filing produces a finer surface finish than cross filing. Small parts, as shown in figure 2.15,
are best held in a vice. Hold the file as shown in the figure. Notice that the arrow indicates that
the cutting stroke is away from you when the handle is held in the right hand. If the handle is
held in the left hand, the cutting stroke will be toward you. Lift the file away from the surface of
the work on the return stroke. When draw filing no longer improves the surface texture, wrap a
piece of abrasive cloth around the file and polish the surface, as shown in the Figure below.

Fig 2.15 Draw- filing

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Cross filing
Figure 2-16, shows a piece of mild steel being cross filed. This means that the file is being
moved across the surface of the work in a crosswise direction. Keep your feet spread apart to
steady yourself as you file with slow, full-length, steady strokes. The file cuts as you push it.
Ease up on the return stroke to keep from dulling the teeth. Using either position first, file across
the entire length of the stock, then, using the other position, file across the entire length of the
stock again. Because the teeth of the file pass over the surface of the stock from two directions,
the high spots and low spots will be visible after filing in both positions. Continue filing first in
one direction and then the other until the surface has been filed flat. Test the flatness with a
straightedge, or where precision is required, with Prussian blue and a surface plate.

Fig 2.16 Cross filing

Care of files

To make files last, you need to handle them with care.

The following hints should help you to prolong their effective life.
1. Keep them separately in racks and do not allow them to rub together.
2. Never use them on hardened steel.
3. Do not use a file as a hammer.
4. Keep them away from acids to prevent corrosion.
5. Use the file card frequently to avoid pinning (see below) .

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Fig 2.17 Brush or file card

Using the file card
As you file, the teeth of the file may become clogged with metal filings and scratch your work.
This is known as PINNING. You can prevent pinning by keeping the file teeth clean. Rubbing
chalk between the teeth will help prevent pinning, but the best method is to clean the file often
with a file card and brush. Use the file card with a pulling motion, holding it parallel to the rows
of teeth. Then, use the brush to remove any loose filings.

2.4 replace dull or broken tools

Hack saw blade

If the hack blade is broken or dull it should be replaced. While replacing, the blade is set into the
frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle.
Chisel
If the chisel is dull it should be grind to the recommended angle (if possible) or replace.
File
If the file is broken it should be replace.

3. DRILLING

3.1Safety precautions
Drilling machines are one of the most dangerous hand operated pieces of equipment in the
shop area. Following safety procedures during drilling operations will help eliminate accidents,
loss of time, and materials. Listed below are safety procedures common to most types of drilling
machines found in the machine shop.

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• Machine Guarding required – suggest using a magnetic backed safety shield as a minimum.
• Secure the work piece by clamping it to the table or holding it in a vise.
• Clear the table of unnecessary clutter.
• Wear safety glasses.
• Do not wear gloves while drilling.
• Constrain long hair (wear a hat).
• Constrain loose clothing (roll up your sleeves).
• When the tool is about to break through, ease up on the feed force.
• Remove chip fragments only when the machine spindle is stopped.
• Never remove long stringy chips with your bare hands.
3.2 Types of drilling machines
The Drill Press is one of the most frequently used machine tools. They are used mainly for
drilling holes but reaming, countersinking, and boring can also be accomplished with the drill
press. Most workshops are equipped with at least one pedestal-type drill press. These machines
are used to drill holes in wood, plastic, aluminium, brass, steel, and most other common
engineering materials.
Types of drilling machines
Portable hand drill
The portable drill is a hand-supported, power-driven machine tool that rotates twist drills,
reamers, counter bores, and similar cutting tools. The portable drill may be electrically powered
by means of an internal electric motor (Figure 3-1)

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Fig 3.1 portable hand drills

Fig 3.2 portable electric drill

Steps
For drilling by hand, the work piece must be mounted securely. Thin workplaces should
be backed up with a thicker piece of wood or metal to prevent the drill from snagging in

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the work piece. Do not attempt to hold any work piece by hand or serious injury could
result.
Select a twist drill of the proper size for the hole to be drilled. Ensure that the twist drill
selected has the right type of shank for the type of chuck mounted on the portable drill.
Taper shank drills cannot be mounted in a drill with a geared chuck. Check each twist
drill for sharp cutting edges prior to use.
After securing the twist drill in the proper chuck, connect the portable drill to its power
source. Position the portable drill perpendicular to the work piece and centre the chisel
point of the drill in the center-punched hole of the work piece.
Apply firm but not too heavy pressure upon the portable drill, pull the trigger or throttle
button to start the drill.
Apply a few drops of cutting oil to the twist drill and hole (Figure 3-3) to improve the
cutting action and prevent overheating of the twist drill. For long drilling operations, stop
the drill and allow it to cool; then apply additional cutting oil to the drilling area. The
lock button can be engaged for lengthy cutting operations.
Continue drilling the hole while applying enough pressure to produce a clean chip, but
not so much pressure as to cause the motor to strain or the drill to bind. The drill must be
held firmly at all times to prevent the drill from being wrenched from the hands of the
operator if the flutes of the drill should snag on a metal burr in the hole.
As the twist drill nears the back wall of the work piece, release the lock button so that the
drill can be stopped immediately if required. Decrease the feed pressure as the drill
breaks through, and cautiously feed the drill through the wall of the work piece. If the
drill should snag on a burr, stop drilling immediately and withdraw from the hole.
Carefully feed the drill back into the hole while the drill is turning to cut through the burr.

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Figure 3.3 Drilling lubrication

When a portable drill is mounted to a vertical stand, the operating procedure is identical to that
used for the upright drilling machine. Use the lock button while drilling and use the hand lever to
drill to the required depth.
Portable drilling operations can be difficult to an inexperienced operator. It is difficult to keep
the twist drill perpendicular to the work piece during drilling, and it is hard to drill to a desired
depth accurately. If help is available, use the buddy system to keep the drill aligned while
drilling. To drill to depth, mark the twist drill with a light colored marking pen or a strip of tape
and keep a close watch on the drill as it cuts. Another way to drill to depth accurately using the
portable drill is to use a jig, such as a piece of metal pipe or tubing cut to length, to indicate when
the drill has reached the desired depth.
Bench drilling machine
Has only a hand feed mechanism which enables the operator to „feel‟ how the drill is cutting. It
is erected mostly on the bench and used for drilling light work pieces.

Fig 3.4 Bench drilling machine

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Pedestal drill

A drilling machine, called a drill press, is used to cut holes into or through metal, wood, or
other materials. Drilling machines use a drilling tool that has cutting edges at its point. This
cutting tool is held in the drill press by a chuck or Morse taper and is rotated and fed into the
work at variable speeds. Drilling machines may be used to perform other operations. They can
perform countersinking, boring, counter boring, spot facing, reaming, and tapping .Drill press
operators must know how to set up the work, set speed and feed, and provide for coolant to get
an acceptable finished product. The size or capacity of the drilling machine is usually determined
by the largest piece of stock that can be center-drilled. For instance, a 15-inch drilling machine
cans center-drill a 30-inch-diameter piece of stock. Other ways to determine the size of the drill
press are by the largest hole that can be drilled, the distance between the spindle and column, and
the vertical distance between the worktable and spindle.

Fig. 3.5 Pedestal drilling machine

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All drilling machines have the following construction characteristics: a spindle. Sleeve or quill,
Column, head, worktable, and base.
• The spindle holds the drill or cutting tools and revolves in a fixed position in a sleeve. In
most drilling machines, the spindle is vertical and the work is supported on a horizontal
table.
• The sleeve or quill assembly does not revolve but may slide in its bearing in a direction
parallel to its axis. When the sleeve carrying the spindle with a cutting tool is lowered,
the cutting tool is fed into the work: and when it is moved upward, the cutting tool is
withdrawn from the work. Feed pressure applied to the sleeve by hand or power causes
the revolving drill to cut its way into the work a few thousandths of an inch per
revolution.
• The column of most drill presses is circular and built rugged and solid. The column
supports the head and the sleeve or quill assembly.
• The head of the drill press is composed of the sleeve, spindle, electric motor, and feed
mechanism. The head is bolted to the column. The worktable is supported on an arm
mounted to the column.
• The worktable can be adjusted vertically to accommodate different heights of work. or it
may be swung completely out of the way. It may be tilted up to 90° in either direction, to
allow for long pieces to be end or angled drilled.
• The base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine and when bolted to the
floor, provides for vibration-free operation and best machining accuracy. The top of the
base is similar to a worktable and maybe equipped with T-slots for mounting work too
large for the table.
3.3 Drill bits
Twist drills are the most common cutting tools used with drilling machines. Twist drills
are designed to make round holes quickly and accurately in all materials. They are called
twist drills mainly because of the helical flutes or grooves that wind around the body from
the point to the neck of the drill and appear to be twisted (Figure 3.6). Twist drills are simply
constructed but designed very tough to withstand the high torque of turning, the downward
pressure on the drill, and the high heat generated by friction.

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Figure 3.6 Twist drill nomenclatures

There are two common types of twist drills, high-speed steel drills, and carbide-tipped
drills. The most common type used for field and maintenance shop work is the high-speed
steel twist drill because of its low cost. Carbide-tipped metal drills are used in production
work where the drill must remain sharp for extended periods, such as in a numerically
controlled drilling machine. Other types of drills available are: carbide tipped masonry drills,
solid carbide drills, TiN coated drills, parabolic drills and split point drills. Twist drills are
classified as straight shank or tapered shank (Figure 3.6). Straight shank twist drills are
usually l/2-inch or smaller and tit into geared drill chucks, while tapered shank drills are
usually for the larger drills that need more strength which is provided by the taper socket
chucks.
Sharpening twist drills
Twist drills become dull and must be resharpened. The preferred method of resharpening a
twist drill is with the drill grinding machine, but this machine is not always available in field
and maintenance units, so the offhand method of drill sharpening must be used (Figure 3.7).
The offhand method requires that the operator have a knowledge of the drilling geometry
(Figure 3.8).

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Figure 3.7 Off- hand method of drill sharpening

Figure 3.8 Drill Geometry

3.4 Drilling parameters

Selecting Drill Speed
Speed refers to the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the drilling machine spindle. For drilling,
the spindle should rotate at a set speed that is selected for the material being drilled. Correct
speeds are essential for satisfactory drilling. The speed at which a drill turns and cuts is called the
peripheral speed. Peripheral speed is the speed of a drill at its circumference expressed in surface
feet per minute (SFPM). This speed is related to the distance a drill would travel if rolled on its
side. For example, a peripheral speed of 30 feet per minute means the drill would roll 30 feet in 1
minute if rolled on its side. It has been determined through experience and experiment that
various metals machine best at certain speeds; this best speed for any given metal is what is
known as its cutting speed (CS). If the cutting speed of a material is known, then a simple
formula can be used to find the recommended RPM of the twist drill.

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The slower of the two recommended speeds is used for the following formulas due to the
varying conditions that may exist, such as the rigidity of the setup, the size of the drilling
machine, and the quality of finish.
RPM = CSx4
D
Where RPM = drill speed in revolutions per minute.
CS = Recommended cutting speed in surface feet per minute.
4 = A constant in all calculations for RPM (except metric).
D = the diameter of the drill itself.
For example, if a 1/2-inch (0.500-inch) twist drill is to cut aluminium, the formula would be
setup as follows:
RPM = 200 X 4 = 800 = 1600 RPM
.500 .500
Thus, the drilling machine would be set up to drill as close to 1,600 RPM as possible. It is best to
use the machine speed that is closest to the recommended RPM. Metric system of measurement,
a different used to find RPM:
RPM = CS (m) x 320
D (mm)
When using the formula must be
Where RPM = Drill speed in revolutions per minute.
CS = Recommended cutting speed in surface meters per minute.
320 = A constant for all metric RPM calculations.
D = Diameter of the twist drill in millimetres.
For example, if a 15-mm twist drill is to cut medium-carbon steel, with a recommended cutting
speed of 21.4 meters per minute, the formula would be set up as follows:
RPM= 21.4 x320 = 6848
15 15

RPM = 21.4 x320 = 6.848 =457 RPM

5 15

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Round this RPM up or down to the nearest machine speed The speeds on these tables are just
recommendations and can be adjusted lower if needed, or to higher speeds if conditions permit.
Selecting drill feed
Feed is the distance a drill travels into the work piece during each revolution of the spindle. It is
expressed in thousandths of an inch or in millimetres. Hand-feed drilling
Machines have the feed regulated by the hand pressure of the operator; thus, the skill of the
operator will determine the best feeds for drilling. Power feed drilling machines have the ability
to feed the drill into the work at a preset depth of cut per spindle revolution, so the best feeding
rate can be determined.
The selection of the best feed depends upon the size of the drill, the material to be drilled, and
the condition of the drilling machine. Feed should increase as the size of the drill increases. After
starting the drill into the work piece by hand, a lever on the power-feed drilling machine can be
activated, which will then feed the drill into the work until stopped or disengaged. Too much
feed will cause the drill to split; too little feed will cause chatter, dull the drill, and possibly
harden the work piece so it becomes more difficult to drill. Drills ½ inch or smaller can generally
be hand-fed, while the larger drills require more downward torque and should be power fed.

3.5 Drilling operations

3.5.1 Reaming
Reaming has a wide range of applications for finishing bores. It provides a surface
Which is superior to that normally obtained by boring? is quicker than lapping and is suitable for
hand work.
When bores are to be finished by parallel reaming, less time is required on them in the lathe than
if they are to be finished outright by machining or lapping; and if they are machined slightly
tapered, reaming will correct the error. Where sufficient metal surrounds bores, parallel reaming
will pull two which are out of position into alignment, for location by a dowel, or so a shaft or
spindle will turn freely.

Fig 3.9 Reamer

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Figure 3.10 Reaming operations

3.5.2 Lapping
Lapping is the removal of material to produce a smooth, flat, unpolished surface. Lapping
processes are used to produce dimensionally accurate specimens to high tolerances (generally
less than 2.5 μm uniformity). The lapping plate will rotate at a low speed (<80 rpm) and a mid-
range abrasive particle (5-20μm) is typically used. Lapping removes subsurface damage caused
by sawing or grinding and produces the required thickness and flatness. Although the lapping
process is less damaging than grinding, there are two regimes of lapping: free abrasive lapping
and fixed abrasive lapping.
Free Abrasive Lapping is when abrasive slurry is applied directly to a lapping plate (e.g. cast
iron). This is perhaps the most accurate method for producing specimens and causes the least
amount of damage. Free abrasive lapping is accurate because of the rigid lapping surface which
can be tailored to suit a particular material. Fixed Abrasive Lapping is when an abrasive particle
in bonded to a substrate as with abrasive lapping films and SiC papers. Abrasive lapping films
have various particles bonded to a thin, uniform polyester substrate and are also capable of
producing a very flat surface. SiC papers are much thicker than the film and create the potential
for rounded edges on the sample.

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3.5.3 Counter sinking and counter boring

Countersinking
Countersinking is the tapering or bevelling of the end of a hole with a conical cutter called a
machine countersink. Often a hole is slightly countersunk to guide pins which are to be driven
into the work piece; but more commonly, countersinking is used to form recesses for flathead
screws (Figure 3.11) and is similar to counter boring.

Figure 3.11 Countersunk hole

Good countersinking procedures require that the countersink be run at a speed approximately
one-half of the speed for the same size drill. Feed should be light, but not too light to cause
chatter. A proper cutting fluid should be used to produce a smooth finish. Rough countersinking
is caused by too much speed, dull tools, failure to securely hold the work, or inaccurate feed. The
depth stop mechanism should be used when countersinking to ensure the recess will allow the
flathead screw to be flush with the surface (Figure 3.12).

Figure 3.12 Proper and improper countersinking

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Counter boring

When counter boring, mount the tool into the drill chuck and set the depth stop „mechanism
for the required depth of shoulder cut. Set the speed to approximately one-half that for the same
size of twist drill. Compute for the actual cutter size and not the shank size when figuring speed.
Mount the work piece firmly to the table or vise. Align the work piece on the center axis of the
counter bore by fitting the pilot into the drilled hole. The pilot should fit with a sliding motion
inside the hole. If the pilot fits too tightly, then the pilot could be broken off when attempting to
counter bore. If the pilot fits too loosely, the tool could wander inside the hole, causing chatter
marks and making the hole out of round. Feeds for counter boring are generally 0.002 to 0.005
inch per revolution, but the condition of the tool and the type of metal will affect the cutting
operation. Slow the speed and feed if needed. The pilot must be lubricated with lubricating oil
during counter boring to prevent the pilot seizing into the work. Use an appropriate cutting fluid
if the material being cut requires it. Use hand feed to start and accomplish counter boring
operations. Power feed counter boring is used mainly for production shops.

Fig 3.13 counter bore hole

4. Hand thread cutting

4.1 Safety
1. Do not use either the stock or the die as a hammer; the threads may be broken.
2. Remove the die from the stock after every thread cutting, clean them and pack them into
their boxes.

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3. Use plenty of oil during cutting to reduce friction.

4.2 Definition of threads and thread types

Definition of a thread: A thread is a spiral or helical groove cut on the inside
or outside of a cylinder or cone. The thread on a rod is called an external
thread, the thread in side of a hole or nut is called an internal thread. Threads
are used to hold parts together, transmit power and provide accurate
measurements.

Thread types
V-thread: Is used in metric bolts, nuts and machine building parts. It has an included angle of
600.

Square thread: Is formed like square; the depth and width of the groove are
equal. It is used in vises and screw jacks.

Acme thread: Has an included angle of 290 and is stronger than square thread.

Figure 4.1 Types of Thread

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4.3 Types of Taps and dies

Taps are used to cut threads on the inside of a hole, as in a nut. One end of
the tap is square so it can be turned with a tap wrench. As the tap turns, it bites
into the metal, removing material which flows into the flutes. To form the
thread, the hole must be smaller than the outside diameter of the bolt or screw
that fits it. In order to cut, the point of the tap is chamfered, or tapered, with the
cutting edge higher than the back edge.

There are three basic styles of taps:

Taper Taps - This style has an 8-10 thread chamfer, it has the longest chamfer of the three
to distribute action over the maximum number of teeth; and the taper also acts as a guide in
starting the cutting action in the hole. Taper style taps start the thread square with the work-
piece. Taper taps are commonly used in through holes and in materials where a tapered guide
is necessary.

Figure 4.2 Taper tap

Plug Taps - This style has a 3-5 thread chamfer, is most widely used in through holes and
where there is sufficient room at the bottom in blind holes.

Figure 4.3 Plug tap

Bottoming Taps - This style has 1-2 thread chamfer, is made with just enough chamfer for
starting in the hole; as the name implies, it is designed to thread blind holes to the bottom.

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Figure 4.4 Bottoming tap

4.4 Tap holder and die stock
Tap holder or tap wrench is used to hold taps during internal thread (fig 4.5)
Die stock is used to hold dies during cutting of external threads (fig 4.6)

Figure 4.5 Tap holder

Figure 4.6 Die holder

4.5 Cutting internal and external threads
Internal threads
How are Taps used?
 First, measure the thread on the screw or bolt you intend to use. You can use a
micrometer to measure the outside diameter and a screw pitch gauge to measure the
number of threads per inch. If a screw pitch gauge is not available, a scale can also be
used by counting the number of threads to an inch.
 Second, determine the correct size hole to drill before tapping. This is known as the
tap-drill size. Tap drill sizes are usually computed for a 75% full thread which is as
strong as a 100% full thread and does not put undue strain on the tap. The correct tap
drill in each case can easily be found in the “Tap and Drill Chart” in our web page.
 After the hole has been drilled, clamp the work in a vise with the hole in an upright
position.
 Apply a good grade of cutting oil to the tap.

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 Grasp the tap wrench with your right hand directly over the tap, or with both hands
close to the tap, and place the tap in the hole.
 Press and start to turn the tap clockwise into the hole.
 Turn the tap forward until resistance is felt and then turn the tap a quarter-turn
backwards to break the chip. This will cause the teeth of the tap to take a firm hold in
the side of the hole. Make sure the tap is square with the surface of the work.
Once the thread is started properly, the tap will draw itself into the work and
downward pressure is no longer needed.
 Grasp the wrench by both handles and with a slow, steady movement, continue
turning the tap into the hole, backing up occasionally (when increased resistance is
felt) to allow the chips to break.
 Never force a tap because it can become so tightly wedged that it will break. Using
too much pressure and letting the tap get out of line will also break the tap.

Figure 4.7 Starting Tap and holding Tap

External threads
Dies are just the opposite of taps in that they cut external threads on the outside of
pipes, rods or bolts. The die is held in a Die Stock and worked in much the same
manner as a tap.
What are Dies?
Dies are made either of high-carbon steel or of high-speed steel. Unlike taps, dies are used
for cutting external (male) threads.

Figure 4.8 Dies

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Procedures for cutting external threads

1. Square the end of the work and chamfer it (using a file, grinding machine or centre lathe) for
an easy start (Figure 4.22).
2. Grip the die, held in the stock, firmly and squarely on the work.
3. Turn clockwise, about a quarter-turn, and ease back to remove chippings.
4. Apply a good supply of oil (lubricant).
5. Make adjustments of the screws after making a full cut until the depth required is achieved.

Figure 4.9Starting Die

Figure 4.10 after die is started

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5. Scrape and hone holes

5.1 Types of scrappers and honing tools

Scrapers
These are made of hardened alloy steel; they can be made from old files. They come in three
different types or shapes (Figure 5.2). The flat tapered scraper has its cutting edge on the end. It
is used for scraping flat surfaces (Figure 5.3). The half-round scraper has both sides sharpened,
so that it can be used on hubs, pulleys, bearings and similar hollow surfaces (Figure 5.4). The
Triangular three-square scraper is also used for scraping small curved work.

Figure 5.1 Ball pein Hammer Figure5.2 Scrapers

Figure 5.3 Scraping with a flat scraper

Figure 5.4 using the half –round scraper

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Honing tools
Honing tools and abrasives provide maximum processing precision and high tool life -
as the most economical means of ensuring perfect bore geometry. Honing tools can
optionally be equipped with metal-bonded diamond or CBN (cubic boron nitride) super
abrasives or with electroplated cutting grains. The tools are hardened and individually
precision-ground for the specific bore to be machined.

Figure 5.5 honing tools

Honing techniques:
1. fixing the honing stone to a flat surface and working the tool back and forth along the stone.
2. bracing the tool against the tailstock lock and moving the stone along the edge (tool is
stationary).
3. placing the butt end of the handle firmly upright on a bench or the lathe stand and again
moving the stone along the tool.

5.2 Scrapping and honing operations

Scraping is the process of removing high spots on the surface of a piece of work. It is a
difficult operation, and is not often performed in the school workshop. To scrape any given
object or job goes through the following operations:

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1. Apply engineer's (marking) blue on the surface plate.

2. Rub the surfaces of the job to be scraped on the surface plate.
3. Scrape the high spots that show.
4. Continue testing and scraping until the entire work is covered with the color.

6. Grinding
Introduction
A grinding machine is a machine tool used for producing very fine finishes or making very
light cuts, using an abrasive wheel as the cutting device. This wheel can be made up of various
sizes and types of stones, diamonds or of inorganic materials.
The grinding machine supports and rotates the grinding abrasive wheel and often supports and
positions the work piece in proper relation to the wheel. The grinding machine is used for
roughing and finishing flat, cylindrical, and conical surfaces; finishing internal cylinders or
bores; forming and sharpening cutting tools; snagging or removing rough projections from
castings and stampings; and cleaning, polishing, and buffing surfaces. Once strictly a finishing
machine, modem production grinding machines is used for complete roughing and finishing of
certain classes of work. Grinding machines have some special safety precautions that must be
observed.
6.1 Safety precautions

Grinding machines are used daily in a machine shop. To avoid injuries follow the safety
precautions listed below.
 Wear goggles for all grinding machine operations.
 Check grinding wheels for cracks (Ring Test Figure 5-11) before mounting. Never
operate grinding wheels at speeds in excess of the recommended speed.
 Never adjust the work piece or work mounting devices when the machine is operating
 Do not exceed recommended depth of cut for the grinding wheel or machine.
 Remove work piece from grinding wheel before turning machine off.
 Use proper wheel guards on all grinding machines.
 On bench grinders, adjust tool rest 1/16 to 1/8 inch from the wheel
6.2 Hand (portable) grinding

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The portable grinder is a lightweight, hand-operated machine tool. It can be powered

electrically or pneumatically, depending on the model selected. The portable grinder is used in
the field or maintenance shop to grind excess metal from welds, remove rust, and for special
finishing operations around the work area. Since this tool is hand operated, the quality of the
work depends upon the ability and experience of the operator.

Figure 6.1 portable hand grinders

6.3 Bench grinding
Bench grinder which usually has two wheels of different grain sizes for roughing and finishing
operations and is secured to a workbench. It is used for shaping tool bits or various tools that
need to be made or repaired. Bench grinders are manually operated.

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Figure 6.2 Bench grinder

6.4 Pedestal grinding

Pedestal grinder is very similar to bench grinder except in the size of its wheels,
power and also on the floor. It is bigger in size than bench grinder.

Figure 6.3 Pedestal grinder

6.5 Grinding wheel

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Standard types of grinding wheels

Grinding wheels come in many different sizes, shapes, and abrasives (Figure 5-7). Some of the
various types are listed below.
Straight
Straight wheels, numbers 1, 5, and 7, are commonly applied to internal, cylindrical, horizontal
spindle, surface, tool, and offhand grinding and snagging. The recesses in type numbers.5 and 7
accommodate mounting flanges. Type number 1 wheels from 0.006-inch to l/8-inch thick are
used for cutting off stock and slotting.
Cylinder
Cylinder wheels, type number 2, may be arranged for grinding on either the periphery or side of
the wheel.
Tapered
Tapered wheels, type number 4, take tapered safety flanges to keep pieces from flying if the
wheel is broken while snagging.
Straight Cup
The straight cup wheel, type number 6, is used primarily for surface grinding, but can also be
used for offhand grinding of flat surfaces. Plain or bevelled faces are available.
Flaring Cup
The flaring cup wheel, type number 11, is commonly used for tool grinding. With a resinoid
bond, it is useful for snagging. Its face may be plain or bevelled.
Dish
The chief use of the dish wheel, type number 12, is in tool work. Its thin edge can be inserted
into narrow places, and it is convenient for grinding the faces of form-relieved milling cutters
and broaches.
Saucer
The saucer wheel, type number 13, is also known as a saw gummer because it is used for
sharpening saws.

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Figure 6.4 Standard types of grinding wheels

Abrasive materials
The abrasive grains are the cutting took of a grinding wheel. They actually cut small pieces or
chips off the work as the wheel rotates. The shape of each grain is irregular with several sharp
cutting edges. When these edges grow dull, the forces acting on the wheel tend to fracture the
abrasive grains and produce new cutting edges.
Abrasives
Most grinding wheels are made of silicon carbide or aluminium oxide, both of which are
artificial (manufactured) abrasives. Silicon carbide is extremely hard but brittle. Aluminium
oxide is slightly softer but is tougher than silicon carbide. It dulls more quickly, but it does not
fracture easily therefore it is better suited for grinding materials of relatively high tensile
strength.
Abrasive grain size
Abrasive grains are selected according to the mesh of a sieve through which they are sorted. For
example, grain number 40 indicates that the abrasive grain passes through a sieve having
approximately 40 meshes to the linear inch. A grinding wheel is designated coarse, medium, or
fine according to the size of the individual abrasive grains making up the wheel.
Bonding material
Bond
The abrasive particles in a grinding wheel are held in place by the bonding agent. The percentage
of bond in the wheel determines, to a great extent, the “hardness” or “grade” of the wheel. The

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greater the percentage and strength of the bond, the harder the grinding wheel will be. “Hard”
wheels retain the cutting grains longer, while “soft” wheels release the grains quickly. If a
grinding wheel is “too hard” for the job, it will glaze because the bond prevents dulled abrasive
particles from being released so new grains can be exposed for cutting. Besides controlling
hardness and holding the abrasive, the bond also provides the proper safety factor at running
speed. It holds the wheel together while centrifugal force is trying to tear it apart. The most
common bonds used in grinding wheels are vitrified, silicate, shellac, resinoid, and rubber.
Vitrified
A vast majority of grinding wheels have a vitrified bond. Vitrified bonded wheels are unaffected
by heat or cold and are made in a greater range of hardness than any other bond. They adapt to
practically all types of grinding with one notable exception: if the wheel is not thick enough, it
does not withstand side pressure as in the case of thin cut-off wheels
Silicate
Silicate bond releases the abrasive grains more readily than vitrified bond. Silicate bonded
wheels are well suited for grinding where heat must be kept to a minimum, such as grinding
edged cutting tools. It is not suited for heavy-duty grinding. Thin cut-off wheels are sometimes
made with a shellac bond because it provides fast cool cutting.
Resinoid
Resinoid bond is strong and flexible. It is widely used in snagging wheels (for grinding
irregularities from rough castings), which operate at 9,500 SFPM. It is also used in cut-off
wheels.
Grades of hardness
The grade of a grinding wheel designates the hardness of the bonded material. Listed below are
examples of those grades: A soft wheel is one on which the cutting particles break away rapidly
while a hard wheel is one on which the bond successfully opposes this breaking away of the
abrasive grain. Most wheels are graded according to hardness by a letter system. Most
manufacturers of grinding abrasive wheels use a letter code ranging from A (very soft) to Z (very
hard). Vitrified and silicate bonds usually range from very soft to very hard, shellac and resinoid
bonds usually range from very soft to hard, and rubber bonds are limited to the medium to hard
range.

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Figure 6.5 Grinding wheel Abrasive

Figure 6.6 Standard system of marking

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6.6 Honing
Honing is an abrading operation mostly for finishing round hoes but also to lesser
extent external flat and curved surfaces by means of bonded abrasive stones. Because the
abrasive is not free to embed in the surface, soft metallic and non-metallic as well as hard
materials can be honed. Typical applications are the finishing of automobile engine cylinders,
bearings, gun barrels, ring gages, piston pins, shafts, and flange faces.
Operations: Honing stones are made from the common abrasive and bonding materials, often
impregnated with sulphur, resin, or wax to improve cutting action and lengthen tool life. Grain
sizes range from 80 grit for roughing to 320 for finishing hard materials to 500 for soft materials.
The stones are expanded, when working, by a cone or wedge inside the holder. A flexible honing
tool consists of a brush with abrasive nodules on the ends of the bristles. The tool or work piece,
or both, are rotated and reciprocated in relation to each other to hone a hole. The two movements
are run purposely out of phase to cover all the surfaces without a regular pattern or scratches.
Hone forming simultaneously a plate metal onto a base material and abrades the new surface to a
desired dimension and finish. While a honing tool is revolved and reciprocated, electrolyte is
circulated through the hole, and a current is passed between the tool and the work piece. The
operation is fast: for example, in one operation 50 mm (0.002 in.) of copper
is deposited inside a steel cylinder, and the surface is cleaned and finished to size, all in less than
a minute. An example of performance is the removal of 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) of stock in each of
eight cylinders in 30 seconds to a tolerance of less than 12.5 mm (0.0005 in.).

Figure 6.7 Honing Tool

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REFERENCE
1. General mechanics, Asmamaw Tegegne, Addis Ababa, 2003
2. Workshop Technology-1 ,PK Sapra and Rk Kapur,1996
3. Industrial Education Metalwork, Pupils Book Three,Kenya institute of
Education,1989
4. Manufacturing Technology PN RAO, Second edition
5. Metallergy for engineers/Metallergy/ Rollason, fourth edition
6. Production Technology R.K.Jain, S.G.Gupta, Rapanka Publishing
7. Metal work Technology/Metric edition GH Thomas
8. Industrial Engineering and Management M.Mahajan ,2nd 2002
9. Workshop Technology R.S.Kllurm,J,K,Gupta, first edition 1981

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