TRAINEE MANUAL ICE

NAVIGATION

Course name: ICE Navigation

Part C – Detailed teaching syllabus
This can be in any form of organization, eg. Table or
free exercices.

Section 3 The Danger of Ice

3.1 The Different Types of Ice
There are various types of sea ice, according to its
stage of development.

Within each of the stages listed below, there are also

sub-types, depending on the internal structure of
the ice.
New Ice
Recently formed ice composed of ice crystals that
are only weakly frozen together (if at all). They have
a definite form only while they are afloat.
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Nilas
A thin elastic crust of ice (up to 10 cm thick), easily
bending on waves and swell; under pressure it grows
in a pattern of interlocking 'fingers' (finger rafting).
Young Ice
Ice in the transition stage between nilas and first-
year ice, 10-30 cm thick.
First-year Ice
Sea ice of not more than one winter's growth,
developing from young ice, with a thickness of 30 cm
or greater.
Old Ice
Sea ice that has survived at least one summer's melt.
Its topographic features generally are smoother than
first-year ice.
Ice Formation
There is a clear cycle of formation and deformation
of sea ice. This process can be broken down into
four steps:
1. Formation
2. Growth
3. Deformation
4. Disintegration
The primary forces that affect the motion of pack ice
are:
• wind stress (at the top surface of the ice), and
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• water stress (at the bottom of the ice).

Wind Stress
The wind exerts a force on the surface of the ice
pack, causing it to move. Furthermore, ridges and
hummocks in the pack present a sail area to the
wind. This means that ice having an uneven ('rough')
surface will move faster than smooth ice. In the
absence of other forces, open pack ice will typically
move at a speed equivalent to 2% of the wind speed.
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Water stress
If the pack ice is being blown across otherwise still
water, the water will exert a drag on the bottom
surface of the ice tending to slow it down. The
rougher the bottom surface, the greater will be the
drag. Similarly, if the water is in motion because of a
current, it will drag the ice along with it.

WATER CURRENT 4
It is essential to consider the presence of sea
currents when estimating the ice drift.
There are three main types of current:
1. Permanent currents, such as the Labrador
Current.
2. Periodic currents, such as tides.
3. Temporary currents, which are wind induced.
For example, if a given region has a permanent
current of 0.5 knots, you would then expect a wind
of at least 25 knots to move the ice against the
current (assuming the ice will move at 2% of the
wind speed).
As a general rule, the speed of sea currents
gradually decreases with depth. Therefore, the
greater the depth of the ice, the slower its
movement. This explains why icebergs generally
move more slowly than the surrounding ice pack.
Sea Ice Forms
Ice can take on many forms, depending on external
conditions and other physical considerations.
Here are some of the more common forms of ice:
Pancake Ice
Circular pieces of ice 30 cm to 3 m in diameter, up
to 10 cm thick, with raised rims due to the pieces
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striking against one another.

Brash Ice
Accumulation of floating ice made up of fragments
not more than 2 m across, the wreckage of other
forms of ice.
Ice Cake
Any relatively flat piece of ice less than 20 m across.
Floe
Any relatively flat piece of ice 20 m or more across.
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Fast Ice
Ice which forms and remains fast along the coast.
Fast ice higher than 2 m above sea level is called an
ice shelf.
Except in sheltered waters, an even sheet of ice
seldom forms immediately. This is because:
The thickening slush breaks up into separate masses
under wind and wave action, the masses taking on a
characteristic pancake form due to the fragments
colliding with each other.
The slush layer dampens down the waves, and if
freezing continues, the pancakes will adhere
together, forming a continuous sheet.
3.2 Icebergs
An Iceberg is a floating mass of freshwater ice that
has broken from the seaward end of a glacier or a
polar ice sheet. Icebergs are typically found in open
seas, especially around Greenland and Antarctica.
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They form mostly during the Spring and Summer,

when warmer weather increases the rate of calving
(separation) of icebergs at the boundaries of the
Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets and smaller
outlying glaciers. In the Northern Hemisphere, about
10,000 icebergs are produced each year from the
West Greenland glaciers, and an average of 375 flow
south of
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Newfoundland into the North Atlantic shipping lanes,

where they are a hazard to navigation.
Arctic icebergs vary in size:

' . 1 1 11IWg

Growlers are roughly the size of a large piano.

Bergy bits are about the size of a small house.
Some are the size of a 10-storey building. Icebergs in
the Arctic are typically about 45 m tall and 180 m long.
Antarctic icebergs are not only far more abundant than
those of the Arctic, but are of comparatively enormous
dimensions. Ninety-three percent of the world's mass
of icebergs is found surrounding the Antarctic.
Usually 1/8th of an iceberg is above the waterline, with
the part above the waterline consisting of snow and ice
which is not very compact. The ice in the cold core is
very compact (and thus relatively heavy) and keeps
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7/8ths of the iceberg under water. The temperature in

the core is constant: between -15° and -20° C. An
iceberg that has tumbled over several times (and lost
its light snow layers) gets relatively heavier because of
its greater compactness, so only about 1/10th rises
above the surface.
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Section 4 Voyage Preparation: What Type of Voyage Is

It?
4.1 Will You Be Entering an Ice Zone?
If it is established that the vessel will be entering an ice
zone the Master
needs to call his Officers together for a voyage briefing.
The briefing should include:
• Risk assessment.
• Time of year and expected conditions.
• State of hull, machinery and equipment.
• The vessel's stability and ability to control 'icing
up'.
• Ice experience of the officers and crew.
• Area of operation and access to icebreakers.
• Laws that can differ between territories.
The Master will need to determine what extra
responsibilities arise for each Officer as a consequence
of the risk from ice.
4.2 The Master
The Master takes overall responsibility and should have
received detailed instructions on the particular voyage.
He also needs to know the ice experience of the
individual Officers and how this relates to his own
experience.
If the Master has ice experience he must:
• ensure that his Officers are completely aware of
the dangers and how these could affect their individual
tasks,
• provide all relevant meteorological information,
• be aware of the Ice Class ice limitations of the
vessel (with regard to such items as the ice condition
and vessel draft).
Note that the local laws and regulations for ship Ice
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Classification in the Baltic differ in the territorial

waters of Sweden, Finland and Russia.
Be aware of the availability of Local Ice Pilots.
Order a check on the ship's external systems to make
sure all are prepared for ice and snow conditions.
Ensure that the vessel has an adequate GM for probable
'icing up' conditions and, where appropriate, for any
icebreaking that is required.
The Master will need information on the availability of
icebreakers and an understanding of how to captain his
ship under the direction of the icebreaker captain.
The Master / Pilot exchange should include the ice
precautions where applicable.
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If the Master's own experience is limited then it is his

own responsibility to take all necessary steps to acquire
the relevant knowledge and skills needed to remain in
full command.
4.3 The Chief Officer
The Chief Officer must make sure he has read all the
relevant documentation and the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) recommendations for navigating in
ice. He will need to know how to ballast the ship for ice
and maintain its trim and how to ensure that the many
ship's systems exposed to temperature change are
protected so they will continue functioning.
Consideration should also be given to:
• equipment manufacturer's instructions with
regard to winter precautions (e.g. hydraulic oil for
cranes and mooring equipment and the deck IG water
seals),
• how the vessel can be prepared to accept a tow
by an icebreaker.
The Chief Officer also needs to know the ice
experience of his fellow Officers and be assured that
they understand their responsibilities.
4.4 The Chief Engineer
The Chief Engineer's job is to make sure the ship's
engines and systems are prepared for ice conditions
and will keep functioning as conditions worsen. He
needs to be aware of the dangers ice poses to specific
functions such as sea chests, bow thrusters, propellers
and rudders. He needs to make sure the internal water
circulation is functioning.
The Chief Engineer should make sure that the
necessary checks, such as to the ship's external
systems, are carried out. Are the correct lubrication
and fuel oils available so they will not freeze or
crystallise onboard?
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He needs to know what levels of ice are expected and

whether the vessel will be required to force its way
through the ice. He requires this knowledge so that he
can be sure the engine has sufficient power to maintain
manoeuvrability.
Even though most ships are now on bridge control of
the main engine, the Chief Engineer still needs to be
kept fully informed so he can allocate his limited
manpower accordingly.
4.5 Other Checks
Have the radars been well maintained? - they will need
to run constantly to avoid freezing.
In calm or relatively calm conditions radar is reliable
for the detection of most icebergs up to a range of
between 12 and 15 miles, bergy bits from 6 to 12 miles
and growlers from 1 to 3 miles, but it must be noted
that even in these
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conditions some growlers - of a size that could seriously

damage the vessel -may not be detected.
In rough conditions it is unsafe to rely on radar when
sea clutter extends beyond 1 mile for all but the
detection of larger icebergs.
While radar and sonar - where fitted - are useful tools
in looking for icebergs, they must not be relied upon.
Their signals can be refracted or absorbed by the
conditions. Even the angle of the iceberg may provide a
weak signal.
Check that all other navigation equipment such as GPS
or DGPS is functioning properly. If sonar is fitted, it is
important to monitor the sea temperature as this and
salinity can prevent the sonar signal from reaching a
nearby object.
The ship will need to be in the right trim and ballast for
ice navigation - it is important that the propellers are
kept below the ice level.
Some method of avoiding freezing condensation on
bridge windows will need to be used. Navigation light
glasses can be smeared with Vaseline.
A check should be made on all de-icing arrangements.
Section 5 Ice Condition and Meteorological Reports
An essential part of the briefing is the meteorological
information. All the Officers on board must be aware
not only of the types of ice conditions to be
experienced, but also the prevailing weather forecasts.

Countries that depend on maintaining traffic lanes during ice conditions have
agencies that provide detailed meteorological reports together with substantial
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information on ice conditions based on monitoring and

analysis. Two key agencies are the Canadian Coast Guard
(www.ccg-gcc.ca) and the Finnish Maritime
Administration (www.fma.fi). The Master is recommended
to make contact with such authorities at any time he is
approaching the national (Coastal State) waters.
The Canadian government places a premium on studying
and understanding the dynamics of sea ice formation and
drift. The Ice and Marine Services Branch (IMSB), a branch
of the Meteorological Service of Canada, provides the
Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) and the United States Coast
Guard, through partnership with the National Ice Centre
in Washington, with accurate and timely reports of sea
ice conditions for the east coast of Canada and the
Canadian Arctic. Headquartered in Ottawa, the purpose
of the IMSB is to improve maritime navigation in Canadian
and international waters and provide crucial
environmental information on pack ice in Canada's
northernmost regions.
5.1 Ice Navigation in Canadian Waters
Every ship of 100 tons gross tonnage or over, navigating in
Canadian waters in which ice may be encountered, is
required to carry and make proper navigational use of the
Canadian Coast Guard publication Ice Navigation in
Canadian Waters. The document is in two parts. Part I,
'Operating in Ice', pertains to operational considerations
such as communications, reporting, advisories, and
icebreaker support. Part II, 'Additional Information for
Navigation in Ice-Covered Waters', is educational in
nature, with information provided to help familiarise
watchkeepers with the Canadian ice environment,
navigation procedures in ice, and vessel performance in
ice.
The document is available in both official languages from
any authorised Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) Chart
Dealer. The catalogue number is T31-73/1999E; the ISBN
number is 0-660-17873-7. A list of dealers is available on
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the CHS website at http://www.charts.gc.ca/chs/en/.

Note: The 1999 version of Ice Navigation in Canadian
Waters is the most current version and there have been
no amendments. As the information does not vary from
year to year, the document does not require frequent
revisions. Canadian Hydrographic Services, as distributor
of the publication, will
maintain a mailing list for those who purchase the
publication, including those who were on the list of their
previous distributor. Any amendments will be sent out
automatically whenever required.
5.2 Finnish Maritime Administration
The Finnish Maritime Administration is the authority
responsible for maritime safety, winter traffic assistance,
fairway maintenance, VTS and pilotage, hydrographic
charting and the provision of ferry services to the
archipelago communities. The Administration ensures that
the basic operational conditions for merchant shipping
and sea transport are maintained and continually
improved, taking into account safety and economic
aspects, as well as environmental consequences. The
activities aim to ensure safe and efficient merchant
shipping, meeting both society's and customers' needs.
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Section 6 Safety Gear

As part of the check on the ship's external systems,
safety gear should be inspected. Are the searchlights
and illumination fully functioning?
Does the vessel have an adequate supply of one of the
proprietary commercial de-icing compounds?
Will the crew have access to adequate protective
clothing, harnesses and safety lines?
Foul weather/high visibility clothing: should be worn on
all external operations during foul weather. If foul
weather gear does not have built-in high visibility
sections, suitable gear (such as armbands) should be
worn so those working can be seen more easily.
Safety harnesses and lines: approved safety harness
should be provided to each person required to go out
on deck. Additional harnesses should be available on
request if required. The provision of a harness to each
person should ensure that any operation which
requires a harness to be worn will be carried out by a
person wearing one. This should normally be the most
experienced person.
Under no circumstances should any type of work
requiring the wearing of a safety harness be carried out
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without the harness.

Persons working in extreme weather conditions should
feel totally safe at all times.
Protective clothing and equipment must be issued to all
those involved. The protective clothing should be
comfortable, well maintained and not lead to an
increase in other risks. Training is needed in its use.
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Section 7 What is the Ship's Capability?

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7.1 Who Requires an Ice Class?

Specific oceans and sea areas as well as applicable Ice
Classes:
Baltic Sea
Bay and Gulf of Bothnia, Gulf of Finland
Finnish/Swedish Ice Class Rules (FSICR)
Gulf of Finland (Russian territorial waters)
Russian Maritime Register (RMR) Ice Class Rules (Non-
Arctic sea area requirements)
Arctic Ocean
Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi Seas
Russian Maritime Register (RMR) Ice Class Rules
Beaufort Sea, Baffin Bay, etc
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Canadian Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention Rules

(CASPPR)
Ohkotsk Sea
Russian Maritime Register (RMR) Ice Class Rules (Non-
Arctic Sea Area Requirements)
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7.2 Types of Ship

Whether the ship is capable of operating safely in ice is
largely dependent on her Ice Classification, which is
established according to the agreed standards of
national and international authorities. Among the most
respected are the marine administrations of Sweden
and Finland together with all members of the
International Association of Classification Societies.
Icebreaker assistance is given to ships that meet the
requirements of the local Icebreaker Management
concerning Ice Class and size. In winter navigation,
passenger ships must, at a minimum, meet the
requirements of Ice Class 1 B.
7.3 Ice Classification
Fundamentally, the philosophy behind Ice Class is the
safety of the hull and essential propulsion machinery
and whether there is sufficient installed power for safe
operation in ice-covered waters.
Strengthening merchant vessels for ice navigation does
not imply that they can break or force ice. They are
not themselves icebreakers.
Ice Classes 1A, 1B and IC can only navigate in waters
with ice floes of respective thicknesses. They cannot
enter fast ice and can only follow icebreakers in such
conditions.
7.4 Criteria for Installed Propulsion Power
Minimum power for maintaining ship speed in re-frozen
(brash ice) fairway navigation channel (Finnish-Swedish
Rules).
Maximum power for prevention of hull and propulsion
system damage (Canadian Rules)
The Propulsion Requirements of any of the members of
the International Association of Classification Societies.
7.5 What are the Finnish-Swedish Ice Classes?
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Ice Class lAS

This is for ships built for severe ice conditions where
ice floes of 1 m thickness are anticipated. Their hulls
are strengthened and are designed to be able to crack
the ice. Propeller and shafting arrangements are
designed for impact loads from ice pieces. Installed
propulsion power is suitable for maintenance of 5 knots
ahead speed.
Ice Class 1A
This is for severe ice conditions with anticipated ice
floes 0.8m thick.
Ice Class 1B
This is for medium ice conditions with anticipated ice
floes 0.6m thick.
Ice Class 1C
This is for light conditions with ice floes 0.4m thick.
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Class II Class Ill

Ships wanting to enter ice zones such as the Baltic,
where policing of Ice Class Regulations is strict, will
only be allowed in if their Ice Class meets the
conditions they are likely to encounter or the services
needed for their safe navigation are available. In the
Baltic these services are free, whereas rescue is not.
Ships with no Ice Class may not be allowed to enter.
7.6 Certificates
Proof of the awarded Ice Class comes in the form of a
Certificate and this needs to be readily available to
show to local authorities. If the local authorities are
dissatisfied, they have the power to prevent ships
sailing into ice-infested waters.
The Finnish authorities have notified the classification
societies that Ice Classifications are now also
dependent on the International Convention on Load
Lines. The minimum engine output for which the
notation for navigation in ice has been assigned is the
minimum required power. This is because several ships
which were ill-equipped for ice and manned by
inexperienced crews were trapped and damaged in the
Baltic in 2002/2003, when the weather was particularly
bad, requiring considerable assistance from the local
rescue services.
The Master must therefore make sure that the
Certificates, load lines markings and Ice Class lines of
the ship comply with the regulations of the territorial
waters in which he intends to sail his ship. In the Baltic,
ships may be in conflict with the Finnish Port State
Control if they show a Load Line Certificate that does
not comply with the Ice Class Marks and the draught.
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7.7 Engine Room Machinery (Propulsion)

The ship's engine output means the maximum power
which the engine can sustain continuously. If the
engine output has been limited by technical measures
or restricted by regulations concerning the ship, the
limited output power is taken to be the engine output
value.
An icebreaker can refuse to assist a ship with
equipment that is not operational before the assistance
starts, or if the hull, engine power, equipment or
manning is such that there is cause to believe that
navigation in ice endangers the safety of the ship or
that the ice-going characteristics of the ship are
inferior to that normally required of ships of the same
Ice Class.
The engine power is governed by the intended role of
the ship and whether she is intended to be able to
force her way through ice and at what thickness.
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7.8 Trim and Stability

The draught must be kept between the load line and
the ballast line during navigation in ice.
The ship must be ballasted and trimmed so that the
propeller is completely submerged and is as deep as
possible. Tanks should be no more than 90% full to
accommodate expansion if it freezes.
The vessel must have an adequate GM to allow for:
(a) the slack water in her ballast/fresh water tanks,
(b) the loss of GM due to 'icing up' of the upper
works,
(c) the virtual loss of GM experienced when breaking
ice floes (grounding). Section 8 What to Look Out For:
Keeping a Keen Watch
As always, a proper lookout should be maintained, but
if an ice zone is to be encountered then the risk of
meeting obstacles is significantly raised. Picking
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a safe passage through fields of ice, often shed by large

icebergs, is a cautious business. This means that the
Officer of the Watch should be aware of the different
types of ice floes and icebergs he is likely to encounter.
He should be familiar with the identification of ice, its
type and formation, sea ice,
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glacier ice, icebergs, detection of pack ice, ice floes,

and other ice types and relevant terms.
Every opportunity should be taken in clear weather to
study the radar returns from all the different
types/concentrations of sea ice to assist the
watchkeepers in their assessment in reduced visibility.
A careful lookout must therefore be maintained at
maximum levels at all times. Further, constant
vigilance must be paid to all ship systems such as radar,
sonar and radio. The bridge crew must be kept on full
alert at all times.
When navigating in ice the Chief Mate will usually assist
the Master in conning the vessel from the bridge. One
mate and an able seaman may be posted (on the bow)
externally as lookouts to assist in the ice conning.
As navigating in ice may be a time-consuming process,
optimum use should be made of the bridge team and all
personnel on board and rest/work hours requirements
should be observed.
8.1 Iceberg Monitoring
Icebergs can be difficult to see, so great caution is
needed. They can be concealed in fog, or blend in with
the grey sky and sea. They can appear small above the
surface but be large beneath it. You may be underway
at night time or during the long Arctic winter.
British Meteorological Routing Charts are available to
show the most likely ice zones and iceberg routes.
These help decide when to set up observation routines
as the zones are approached. There are many other
agencies providing updated information on ice and sea
conditions and the proximity of icebergs.
The United States and Canadian Coast Guards, the
Finnish Maritime Authority and the European Space
Agency, among many others, provide advice and the
latest information on websites and radio
communications. Their services are invaluable to
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mariners and are very often free.

These authorities gather information by satellite,
tracking aircraft and other sensors, but also rely on
first-hand sightings from shipping. Whenever an iceberg
is spotted its position, approximate size, speed and
course must be relayed to the relevant authority within
the area. This maintains up-to-date databases and
helps other ships.
In the Arctic many icebergs originate in the glaciers of
Greenland. As they break they float south in the East
Greenland current carrying them beyond Cape Farvel
on the 60th parallel and towards Newfoundland and the
East Coast of North America.
Many more come from the glaciers of Baffin Bay and it
is estimated that as many as 40,000 icebergs float here
at any one time. Many run aground locally and go no
further but significant numbers slowly drift south with
the Canadian
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and Labrador currents to pose threats to shipping lanes

south of the 48th parallel off Newfoundland. The
numbers vary each year but average over 200 per year,
although they can reach up to 900. Usually they float
no further south than the 42nd parallel.
The Antarctic ice continent is much larger and deeper
than the ice cap of the North Pole. The ice zone around
it spreads north to between the 58th and 62nd
parallels and icebergs are possible anywhere within this
area especially in the glacial areas of the Weddell and
Ross Seas.
However, it should be noted that it is not uncommon to
detect bergs well north of these latitudes and they
have been located north of the 40th Parallel in the
South Atlantic.
An alert lookout is not restricted to using your eyes:
• Listening for the sounds of breaking icebergs is
important, as is the detection of waves breaking over
them.
• The absence of sea in a fresh breeze could
indicate a large object to windward.
• Thunderous sounds but no storm could suggest an
iceberg breaking up.
• Growlers and small pieces of ice could indicate a
disintegrating iceberg.
• If, on a dark night at slow speed ahead, you can
hear the sound of breakers where no land is expected,
watch out for a large object to be avoided.
8.2 Pack Ice
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Pack ice is easier to look out for, but it can still be

difficult to see in certain conditions.
Pale sun, fog and mist can create 'ice blink'. With blue
skies, ice blink can appear as a luminous yellow haze
on the horizon in the direction of the ice. With an
overcast sky it can appear as a white glare on the
clouds.
Sure signs of the approach of an ice pack are the
abrupt smoothing of the sea and the gradual lessening
of the ordinary ocean swell. So too are small ice floes
and certain types of wildlife - including seals, walruses
and birds.
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Section 9 What to Do When Approaching Ice

9.1 Why Following Procedures is Important
As a general rule, ice is an obstacle. It is very strong
and commands great respect from mariners who must
understand its latent power and strength.

When ice is confirmed the Master must be informed

and his presence on the bridge is now necessary. He
must make a report to the local authorities. This also
applies if the vessel is in an ice zone and an iceberg is
sighted.
The Master advises the authorities of the type of ice,
its position, and the time and date of the initial
sighting. He must also pass on information on air and
sea temperature if below freezing. The authorities will
need to know the direction and force of the wind and
any ice accumulation on the ship and the exact position
of the ship.
The Master must advise the Chief Engineer that they
are approaching ice as the vessel's speed will have to
be reduced.
One mate is required in the wheelhouse plotting
continuous positions.
All tanks should be no more than 90% full because if they are full and freeze
solid, they could split.
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9.2 Safety Checks

Checks are crucial because the Master does not want to
risk the ship in frozen sea until he knows the precise
conditions.
• What type of ice is it?
• How thick is it?
• How much is it moving?
The vessel's trim and ballast must be such that the
propeller is kept below the water surface.
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Sea water strainers and filters must be kept clean.

The crew must have the appropriate working/survival
clothing for the conditions. A poorly equipped sailor
will not last long and will not be able to carry out his
duties or survive emergency/abandon ship stations.
Ambient temperatures can be -20° C, with a wind chill
- the equivalent of -30° C.
Ice build-up on the ship's superstructure must be
monitored at all times to ensure it does not become
excessive. In gale or storm conditions where the
ambient temperatures are below zero, the waves and
spray can build up and severely affect the stability of
the ship.
The Chief Engineer needs to be sure that, while the
ship has an Ice Class and can handle the ice, once in
the ice, the ship can keep going and not become
trapped.
9.3 Eliminate or Reduce Potential Hazards
Circumstances can change rapidly in ice zones.
Temperatures can suddenly drop and water that is free
one minute can very quickly become solid.
Maximum vigilance is needed from every Officer and
crewmember to constantly monitor conditions and the
ship's behaviour.
Officers on watch can be on the bridge for a long time.
Even once the ice watch is secured somebody has to
stand watch and that Officer will become tired from ice
operations.
Consideration should be given to 'doubling up' the
bridge watchkeepers with the Master/ Chief Officer
accompanied by the 2nd / 3rd Officer.
Never underestimate the hardness of ice. It can vary in
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thickness and the floes can be of different sizes and

therefore strengths. It can also be moving in a current.
If ridging or hummocking is severe an alternative entry
point should be found as ridged ice may be far too deep
and could severely damage the hull. If the ice has a
definite beginning, or an ice edge, that is the point of
entry to the pack. Always try and enter at 90°.
It is preferable, if possible, to enter on the leeward
side as the windward edge will be more compact with
greater wave action.
The Chief Engineer must be kept informed of the
moment of entry so that he can respond to demands for
extra power immediately.
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Section 10 How to Ensure Safe Passage

10.1 Ship-handling Rules
It is vitally important to maintain freedom of
maneuver. The three basic ship-handling rules are:
• Keep moving, even if very slowly.
• Try to work with the ice not against it.
• Excessive speed leads to ship damage.

In ice zones lookouts and radar operators must be

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particularly alert and must reduce speed without

hesitation if an iceberg is sighted without warning, or
signs warn that one may be close.
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10.2 Communication with Engine Room

Regular communications with the engine room should
be maintained at all times so that the Chief Engineer
and his staff are aware of the prevailing conditions and
are ready to increase and reduce power when
necessary.
The Chief Engineer must ensure that the cooling water
sea chests are working at optimum efficiency.
10.3 Entering the Ice
Entry into the ice must be at slow speed. Depending on
conditions, it should then be increased slowly to
maintain headway and control.
In an area of light drift ice, lookouts should watch for
large floes or fragments of old hard ice that pose
significant threats. These must be avoided. At night in
these conditions all searchlights must be used, with the
helmsman in place ready to take evasive action.
If possible avoid large floes as they may have
underwater spurs. If avoidance is impossible, it may be
possible to push it out of the way. Once it starts to
swing to one side, reduce power and allow it to pass
clear.
If collision is unavoidable then hit the ice as squarely as
possible. Do not hit it with a glancing blow as this could
damage bow plates and swing the ship so as to bring
the stern onto the floe and damage the propeller and
rudder.
10.4 Use of Engines and Rudder
The best speed to maintain depends on two factors:
1. The vessel's tonnage.
2. The density of the ice.
If concentrations of ice vary, so must the ship's speed.
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Faster speeds in light ice could mean striking heavier

ice with a greater way of the ship and cause damage. If
a sudden heavy section of ice is encountered and stops
the ship, the engines must be prepared to go full astern
at any time.
Going astern must be done with great caution as the
propeller and rudder are the most vulnerable parts of
the ship. To go astern, the rudder must be put to
amidships with the engines turning slowly ahead. This
washes the ice astern clear. Crewmen should confirm
that the stern is clear before the ship can
come astern.
Violent rudder movements should only be considered in
emergencies as they may swing the stern into the ice.
Frequent use of the rudder to the hard over positions
can slow the vessel without loss of steerage way.
However, too much rudder can bring the vessel to a
complete stop, which is very dangerous in freezing
conditions.
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10.5 Ramming and Backing

Ramming the ice is very dangerous and acceptable only
if the ship is in danger, and forcing a passage through
to open water or less heavy ice is the only alternative.
It requires great caution and you need to be certain
that the bow will crack the ice rather than the ice
damage the ship.
The method is to ram the ice to break it by sheer
impact and weight and then reverse and try again. This
action needs to be repeated until access to clear water
is made. If progress is slight and the channel created is
not considerably wider than the beam, then the
procedure should be stopped. Extensive damage could
prove fatal even if the ship reached clear water.
Avoid getting trapped in the ice.
10.6 Freeing a Trapped Ship
When a ship becomes trapped, an icebreaker will
usually be required. However, there are a few methods
the ship can try to free itself.
If the propellers are not completely embedded the ship
can try going full ahead and then full astern,
alternating full helm in both directions, which may
swing the ship and loosen the ice grip to allow
movement ahead.
Shifting the ballast from side to side may also help, and
the ship's anchor chains and winches can be used.
Section 11 Working with an Icebreaker
The need for icebreaker assistance is becoming more
and more frequent as interest in operating tankers in
ice infested waters increases. This trend could
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well increase as exports from the North Baltic are set

to double within the next 5 years and there is
increasing interest in the large oil and gas reserves
in the Arctic and Far Eastern areas of Russia.
11.1 Communications
When working with an icebreaker, the Master of the
icebreaker is in overall command and directs all
operations.
All Officers on the bridge must be thoroughly familiar
with icebreaker signals as shown in the International
Code of Signals.
All instructions from the icebreaker must be
acknowledged and executed immediately.
The ship must continuously watch and listen for
icebreaker's signals and for those of other ships that
may be being simultaneously assisted. The agreed VHF
channel must be continuously monitored.
11.2 How the Icebreaker Breaks the Ice
Modern icebreakers are built to the highest Ice
Classification. Icebreaker hulls are designed to
withstand the immense pressure of ice and shaped so
they can crack it, with the power of the engines. The
shape of the hull is such that it can create a wide
channel in the ice for larger ships to follow.
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The size of the channel depends largely on the

thickness of the ice. In thin ice the icebreaker can
move quickly and create a large channel by using the
stern wave.
In thicker ice she will push more slowly and may create
a channel about a third wider than her beam. It may
also be necessary to attack the ice in
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particular formations. A 'herring-bone attack' creates a

large channel suitable for most vessels - but it can take
time.
11.3 Following the Icebreaker's Path
The escorted vessel must follow the path cleared by
the icebreaker. It is important to maintain the same
speed as the icebreaker, which may be 6-7 knots in
open ice, but less in thicker concentrations and no
more than 5 knots in close ice.
It is often better to travel in convoy and in this case the
icebreaker Master will issue instructions on the order
of ships and the minimum distance between them. The
minimum distance is that required for an emergency
stop with the engines full astern. However, the
distance may be less if the pressure in the ice pack is
so great that the channel will not remain open for long
enough for the ship to pass.
In this case, the icebreaker may need to hit the ice at
speed to crack it and force a path. The vessels
following must then proceed without delay before the
gap closes again.
All signals must be immediately and precisely repeated
to the ship behind and passed down the line.
11.4 Emergencies
The icebreaker decides when a ship needs to be taken
into tow. The ship must be prepared with rigged towing
gear at all times in case towing is necessary. A ship that
is being towed by an icebreaker must use its engines
only in accordance with the orders given by the
icebreaker.
Any damage or suspected damage must be reported to
the icebreaker immediately. If the assisted vessel stops
because of ice conditions and the searchlight has been
When a ship is trapped, the engine should be kept running and the propeller
turning, if possible, to prevent ice forming at the stern.
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in use it must be switched off as long as the ship is

stationary.
If the ice conditions deteriorate during the icebreaker
assistance, towing might be the only safe and prudent
way to continue the assistance. Towing should be done
in the normal manner, using (so-called) fork towing. In
this case, the vessel's bow is taken inside the towing
fork and two cables from the icebreaker are attached
to the assisted vessel's bitts, which are designed to
withstand the stresses of towing.
If trouble cannot be avoided, it is often better to ram
the ice and embed the bow than collide with another
ship or the icebreaker.
Ramming the ice is also the best option if there is any
danger of the propeller and rudder hitting the ice.
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Section 12 The Consequences of Poor Seamanship

• Loss of ship and crew stranding
• Drifting with the ice and going aground
• Damage to hull, rudder and propeller
• Increased wear to engine and machinery
• Towing costs, repairs and salvage

Section 13 Legislation
Local regulations of authorities such as the US and Canadian Coast Guards,
and the Finnish Maritime Authority. IMO

APPROVED BY AUTHORISED BY Rev: 01 / Date: 22.06.2020

SQS MANAGER MANAGING DIRECTOR
Guidance: To be filled according to quality procedures
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