Leadership

Communication
Leadership
Communication
Third Edition

Deborah J. Barrett
Rice University
LEADERSHIP COMMUNICATION, THIRD EDITION
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Barrett, Deborah, 1949–
Leadership communication / Deborah J. Barrett.—3rd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-337777-3 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-07-337777-5
1. Communication in management. 2. Communication in organizations.
3. Business communication. 4. Leadership. I. Title.
HD30.3.B387 2009
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Dedicated in loving memory of my mother and father
Dedicated to Jim and to my children, Davy and Mary
—Deborah J. Barrett, PhD
Brief Contents
Preface xvi 8 Cross-Cultural
Literacy and
SECTION ONE Communication 254
Core Leadership Communication 1 9 Meetings: Leadership and
1 What Is Leadership Productivity 279
Communication? 2 10 High-Performing Team
2 Leadership Communication Leadership 305
Purpose, Strategy, and
Structure 29 SECTION THREE
3 The Language of Leaders 58 Corporate Leadership
Communication 343
4 Creating Written Leadership
Communication 102 11 Leadership through Strategic
Internal Communication 344
5 Leadership Presentations 152
12 Leadership through Effective
6 Graphics and PowerPoint External Relations 378
with a Leadership Edge 182
APPENDIXES 407
SECTION TWO
Organizational Leadership
Communication 219
7 Emotional Intelligence and
Interpersonal Skills for
Leaders 220

vi
Table of Contents
Preface xvi Application 1.1 Assessing
Leadership
Communication
SECTION ONE Abilities and
CORE LEADERSHIP Establishing an
COMMUNICATION 1 Improvement
Plan 23
Chapter 1
Application 1.2 A Question of
What Is Leadership Ethics 26
Communication? 2 Application 1.3 Defining
Identifying Leadership 3 Transformational
Connecting Leadership to Leadership:
Communication 4 A Communication
Defining Communication 5 Profile 27
Defining Leadership
Communication 6 Chapter 2
Relating Leadership Communication Leadership Communication
to Other Fields of Communication Purpose, Strategy,
Studies 6 and Structure 29
Applying the Leadership
Communication Framework 8 Establishing a Clear Purpose 30
Core Communication 9 Clarifying the Purpose 31
Organizational Generating Ideas 32
Communication 10 Connecting Thinking and
Corporate Communication 10 Communicating 35
Projecting a Positive Leadership Determining Communication
Ethos 10 Strategy 37
Defining Ethos 11 Considering the Communication
Projecting a Positive Ethos 12 Context 37
Connecting Ethos to Audience Using a Strategy Framework 38
Motivation 13 Creating an Action Plan 41
Connecting Ethos and Ethics 16 Analyzing Audiences 42
Being an Ethical Leader 17 By Expertise 43
Making Ethical Decisions 19 By Decision-Making Style 44
Establishing an Ethical Environment By Medium 46
for Others 22 By Organizational Context 46

vii
viii Table of Contents

Organizing Communication Application 3.1 Passive Voice 98

Effectively 47 Application 3.2 Conciseness 98
Selecting Organizational Devices 48 Application 3.3 Positive
Using the Pyramid Principle 49 Messages 98
Creating a Storyboard 50 Application 3.4 Parallelism 99
Application 2.1 Communicating Application 3.5 Usage and
Bad News 52 Mechanics 99
Application 2.2 Developing Application 3.6 Use of Language
Communication Overall 99
Strategy 52
Application 2.3 Using the Pyramid Chapter 4
Principle to Creating Written Leadership
Organize an Communication 102
Argument 56
Application 2.4 Using the Pyramid Selecting the Most Effective
to Structure an Communication Medium 104
Elevator Speech Creating Individual and Team
Project Update 57 Written Communication 104
Creating Individual Written
Chapter 3 Communication 106
The Language of Leaders 58 Creating Team Written
Communication 106
Achieving a Positive Ethos through Interacting with Social
Tone and Style 60 Media 107
How Style Can Impact Audiences 60 Organizing the Content
Determining Our Own Style 63 Coherently 110
Using the Language of Influence 68 Organization and Content 110
Communicating Concisely 68 Opening with Power 111
Writing for Social Media: Additional Developing with Reason 114
Considerations 77 Closing with Grace 115
Following the Language Rules that Conforming to Content and
Matter 77 Formatting Expectations in
The Power of Punctuation 80 Correspondence 120
The Correct Use of Pronouns 89 Letters and Memos 120
Effective Sentence Structure 91 E-mails and Other Electronic
Sexist Language 92 Communication 120
Editing and Proofreading Including Expected Content in
Techniques 94 Reports 127
Making Computers Work A Formal Full-Length Report 127
for us 96 Including Exhibits in Reports 131
 Table of Contents ix

Handling Research Information in Preparing a Presentation to Achieve

Reports 131 the Greatest Impact 164
Proposals and Progress Reports 133 Developing the Introduction, Body,
Executive Summaries 135 and Conclusion 164
Formatting Written Communication Creating the Graphics 168
Effectively 135 Testing the Flow and Logic 168
Layout 137 Editing and Proofreading 169
Spacing and Alignment 137 Practicing to Facilitate Effective
Font Type and Size 138 Delivery 169
Headings 138 Presenting Effectively and with
Lists 141 Greater Confidence 170
Headers and Footers 143 Getting Nerves under Control 171
Application 4.1 E-mail Subject Eye Contact 172
Line Exercise 144 Stance and Gestures 172
Application 4.2 Writing Voice and Speech Patterns 174
E-mails 144 Delivering Effectively with
Application 4.3 Creating an Visual Aids 175
Executive Handling Q&A 177
Summary 145 Overall Effect 178
Application 4.4 Rhetorical Application 5.1 Oral
Analysis of a Presentation Self-
Transformational Evaluation 179
Leader’s Communi- Application 5.2 Practicing
cation 150 Impromptu
Application 4.5 Creating a Twitter Presentations 181
Plan 150 Application 5.3 Developing a
Round-Table
Chapter 5 Presentation 181
Leadership Presentations 152 Application 5.4 Transforming a
Round-Table Pre-
Planning a Presentation 153 sentation for Virtual
Determining Strategy 153 Delivery 181
Selecting the Medium and the Delivery
Method 156 Chapter 6
Round-Table Presentations 156 Graphics and PowerPoint with
Stand-Up Extemporaneous
a Leadership Edge 182
Presentations 159
Impromptu Presentations 160 Recognizing When to
Establishing a Logical and Effective Use Graphics 184
Structure and Format 162 Reinforce the Message 184
x Table of Contents

Provide a Road Map to the Structure Application 6.3 Exercise in

of a Presentation 185 Designing Visuals
Illustrate Relationships and Concepts 215
Visually 186 Application 6.4 Team Graphics
Support Assertions 187 and Oral
Emphasize Important Ideas 190
Presentations 216
Maintain and Enhance Interest 190
Employing Fundamental
Graphic Content and Design SECTION TWO
Principles 191 ORGANIZATIONAL
Conveying Messages Clearly and
LEADERSHIP
Effectively 191
Selecting the Most Effective COMMUNICATION 219
Colors 193
Chapter 7
Selecting the Most Effective
Fonts 196 Emotional Intelligence and
Selecting and Designing Effective Interpersonal Skills for
Data Charts 199 Leaders 220
Ethically Representing Data 201 Appreciating the Value of Emotional
Creating Meaningful and Effective Intelligence 222
Text Layouts 202 Understanding Emotional
Making the Most of Intelligence 223
PowerPoint as a Design and Connecting Emotional Intelligence
Presentation Tool 205 to Leadership Styles 224
Focusing on Meaningful Increasing Our Own
Content 206 Self-Awareness 229
Selecting the Layout and Using Popular Psychological Profiles
Template 208 to Understand Ourselves Better 230
Designing Original Templates 208 Using the MBTI 230
Creating Documents Using The Value of Knowing
PowerPoint 209 the MBTI 233
Inserting Graphs and Other Developing an Approach to Improving
Objects 210 Emotional Intelligence 234
Using Animation 212 Improving Nonverbal Skills 235
Application 6.1 Creating Improving Listening Skills 239
Graphs 214 Motivating and Mentoring 242
Application 6.2 Selecting and Motivating 242
Designing Mentoring 243
Graphics Delivering Feedback 244
Exercise 215 Networking 247
 Table of Contents xi

Application 7.1 Improving Application 8.4 Designing

Listening International
Habits 250 Communication
Application 7.2 Providing Programs 277
Feedback 250
Application 7.3 The Elevator Chapter 9
Speech Meetings: Leadership and
Introduction to Productivity 279
You 252 Deciding When a Meeting Is the
Chapter 8
Best Forum 280
Consider Purpose 281
Cross-Cultural Literacy and Consider Audience 281
Communication 254 Completing the Essential
Defining Culture 257 Planning 282
The Layers of Culture 257 Clarifying Purpose and Expected
Recognizing Major Cultural Outcome 282
Differences 260 Determining Topics for
Context 262 the Agenda 283
Information Flow 265 Selecting Attendees 284
Time 265 Considering the Setting 284
Language 266 Determining When to Meet 285
Power 267 Establishing Needed Meeting
Collectivism versus Information 286
Individualism 269 Conducting a Productive
Spirituality and Tradition 270 Meeting 286
Connecting and Deciding on the Decision-Making
Communicating across Approach 286
Cultures 271 Clarifying Leader and Attendee Roles
and Responsibilities 287
Further Reading 273
Establishing Meeting Ground
Application 8.1 Proactively Rules 287
Managing Using Common Problem-Solving
Diversity 274 Approaches 288
Application 8.2 Creating Managing Meeting Problems and
International Conflict 295
Correspon- Handling Specific Meeting
dence 274 Problems 295
Application 8.3 Preparing an Managing Meeting Conflict 297
International Dealing with Cultural and Personality
Briefing 276 Differences 300
xii Table of Contents

Ensuring That Meetings Identifying Advantages and Challenges

Lead to Action 301 of Virtual Teams 330
Application 9.1: Evaluating Addressing the Challenges of Virtual
Experiences in Teams 331
Meetings 302 Application 10.1 Assessing Team
Application 9.2 Planning a Performance and
Meeting 302 Developing an
Application 9.3 Conducting a Improvement
Problem-Solving Approach 336
Meeting 303 Application 10.2 Assessing Team
Members and
Providing
Chapter 10 Feedback 337
High-Performing Team Application 10.3 Managing Team
Leadership 305 Conflict 338
Building an Effective Team 306 Application 10.4 Launching
Deciding to Form Teams 306 a Virtual
Forming the Team 307 Team 340
Establishing the Necessary Team
Work Processes 308
Creating the Team Charter 309 SECTION THREE
Using Action and Work Plans 312 CORPORATE LEADERSHIP
Delivering the Results 315 COMMUNICATION 343
Learning from the Team
Experience 319 Chapter 11
Managing the People Side Leadership Through Strategic
of Teams 320 Internal Communication 344
Position and Responsibilities 320
Team Experiences 321 Recognizing the Strategic and
Expectations 321 Cultural Role of Employee
Personality 322 Communication 346
Cultural Differences 322 Establishing Effective Internal
Handling Team Issues Communication 347
and Conflict 324 Supportive Management 349
Types of Team Conflict 324 Targeted Messages 349
Approaches to Handling Team Effective Media and Forums 350
Conflict 326 Well-Positioned Staff 351
Helping Virtual Teams Ongoing Assessment 351
Succeed 329 Assessing Employee
Defining Virtual Teams 330 Communication Effectiveness 352
 Table of Contents xiii

Using Missions and Visions to Establishing the Most Effective

Strengthen Internal Medium or Forum 390
Communication 354 Determining the Best Timing 390
Understanding the Importance of Monitoring the Results 393
Missions and Visions 355 Building and Maintaining a Positive
Defining Missions and Visions 355 Corporate Image 394
Ensuring That the Mission and Working with the News Media 397
Vision Are Effective 357 Understanding the Media’s Role and
Building an Effective Mission Importance 397
and Vision 357 Deciding When to Talk to the
Designing and Implementing Media 398
Effective Change Preparing for and Delivering a Media
Communication 363 Interview 399
Determining the Scope of Change Handling Crisis
Communication 364 Communications 400
Structuring a Communication Application 12.1 Communication
Program for Major Change 365 with Customers
Application 11.1 Merging after a
Benefits 371 Crisis 403
Application 11.2 Communicating Application 12.2 Writing a Press
Bad News to Release 404
Internal Application 12.3 Developing
Audiences 372 an External
Application 11.3 Developing a Communication
Change Strategy 405
Communication
Strategy 375 APPENDIXES

Chapter 12 Appendix A Self-Assessment

of Leadership
Leadership Through Effective
Communication
External Relations 378
Capabilities 407
Developing an External Relations
Appendix B The Business of
Strategy 380
Clarifying Purpose and Strategic
Grammar 415
Objectives 381 Appendix C Usage Self-
Identifying Major External Assessment 424
Stakeholders 383
Creating the Major Messages 384 Appendix D Successful Case
Selecting and Coaching the Analysis and
Spokesperson(s) 389 Discussion 430
About the Author
Deborah J. Barrett is professor of the Practice of Professional
Communication and director of the Program for Communica-
tion Excellence at Rice University.
Deborah has taught communication for over 25 years, spe-
cializing in professional communication for the last 20 years.
At Texas A&M University, she was a visiting assistant professor
in technical writing; at Houston Baptist University, she was an
associate professor in English and director of the writing spe-
cialization and English internship programs; and at Rice Uni-
versity, she was a lecturer of MBA communication at the Jones
Graduate School of Management from 1988 to 1991 and from
1998 to 2006.
Deborah’s leadership approach to communication has developed
over many years of teaching but has also been influenced by her years
as a consultant working independently and for McKinsey & Company
and Hill & Knowlton. At McKinsey & Company, she was a communi-
cation consultant for over five years. She served as a leader in the
change communication practice, developed and conducted firm train-
ing, and led and worked with McKinsey teams on communication and
general management consulting projects throughout the world. She
was one of the few communication consultants firmwide selected to
attend McKinsey’s Engagement Leadership Training, its advanced
leadership training for senior associates. At Hill & Knowlton, Deborah
was a senior managing director, brought in to build a change manage-
ment practice.
In her consulting work, she has been able to put her academic expe-
rience and leadership communication concepts to the test. Her consult-
ing work includes developing major change programs, designing and
conducting vision/strategy development programs, writing strategic
plans, creating communication strategy for mergers and acquisitions,
and developing internal communication improvement programs. She
has coached many senior-level executives, including CEOs of major cor-
porations, in writing, speaking, and interpersonal skills and has con-
ducted numerous workshops for leaders at all levels.
Deborah has published articles in professional journals and pre-
sented papers at professional conferences around the world on com-
munication ethics, change communication, employee communication,
cross-cultural communication, virtual teams, PowerPoint, effective
MBA communication, emotional intelligence, and leadership commu-
nication. She serves on the editorial boards of the Business Communi-
cation Quarterly, Education Review of Business Communication,
xiv
 About the Author xv

Corporate Communication: An International Journal, and International

Journal of Knowledge, Culture, and Change Management.
Her BA in English and speech and her MA in English are from
the University of Houston, and her PhD in English is from Rice
University.
Preface
Leadership Communication is a text to guide current and potential lead-
ers in developing the communication capabilities needed to be transfor-
mational leaders. The content is based on research in communication
and leadership and on the author’s years of experience teaching profes-
sional communication and working as a consultant, independently as
well as for one of the leading management-consulting firms and one of
the leading public relations firms. This third edition of Leadership Com-
munication maintains the instruction to help readers achieve the objec-
tives of the previous editions by focusing on strategy and emotional
intelligence, but it has been updated and changed specifically to empha-
size transformational leadership, ethics, and integrity and to include
guidance on the use of current social media.

Text Objectives
Leaders need core communication capabilities in strategy, speaking,
and writing. They also need to be able to communicate effectively with
diverse audiences, understand cultural differences, conduct productive
meetings, manage global teams, create and communicate visions, lead
change initiatives, and foster external relations. Leadership Communi-
cation includes all these subjects and covers important fundamental
communication skills needed by all leaders.
Mastering leadership communication means learning to do the
following:
1. Project a positive ethos.
2. Lead and communicate with integrity.
3. Analyze audiences and create targeted, meaningful messages.
4. Develop effective communication strategies for all situations.
5. Select and use the most effective media, including social media, to
reach all audiences.
6. Use the language of leaders, communicating clearly, concisely, and
correctly.
7. Create well-organized, coherent communication.
8. Deliver presentations and use presentation technology with
confidence.
9. Display emotional intelligence and cross-cultural literacy.
10. Lead small groups, whether in teams or meetings.
11. Develop a vision and messages to guide and motivate others.
12. Design and deliver messages to reach all stakeholders with positive
results.
xvi
 Preface xvii

These are the primary objectives of this text. Leaders use all possi-
ble communication tools within reach, and use them effectively. This
text will help you know how to use those tools and show you how to
improve your communication capabilities. As a result, you will learn to
communicate more effectively and position yourself to be a transfor-
mational leader in your organization and beyond it.

Changes to This Edition

For those who have used previous editions of Leadership Communica-
tion, this edition has been revised with a specific emphasis on trans-
formational leadership throughout and to appeal to and be useful to
advanced undergraduates as well as graduate students and executive
audiences. In addition, it includes the following changes:
1. Social media (blogging, Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, etc.) and other
technology, such as electronic presentations, shared workspaces,
research management (Zotero), are included throughout the text with
applications calling on the use of these new media. Also, the written
communication chapter includes several pages specifically on social
media (blogging and microblogging), and the chapter on external
relations includes recent media case situations as well as examples
from Groundswell to illustrate the power and importance of Web
presence and use for reputation management and client interactions.
2. All exercises have been updated and renamed “Applications” to
emphasize the focus on applying the principles introduced in the
chapters, whether using the text in a classroom setting or individ-
ually to improve communication abilities.
3. The Introduction is now Chapter 1, which has been expanded to
include the following:
a. More on leadership and on transformational leadership in
particular.
b. The placement of leadership communication in the field of pro-
fessional communication overall.
c. Several pages on ethics and an exercise on determining what is
or is not a question of ethics.
In addition, the self-assessment, formerly located at the end of the
Introduction, has been moved to Appendix A, and overall applications
on leadership communication have been added to this new Chapter 1.
4. Chapters 2 and 3, now Chapters 3 and 4, have been reversed, with
the instruction on the language of leaders applying to all of leader-
ship communication and including more on power, influence, and
persuasion.
5. Chapters 4 and 5 (now Chapters 5 and 6), on presentations and
graphics, include instruction on creating and delivering online and
Web presentations.
xviii Preface

6. The Managerial Leadership Communication level of the leadership

communication framework and section of the text have been
renamed “Organizational” to reflect the broader coverage of this
section and the text overall.
7. Chapter 6, on emotional intelligence/interpersonal skills and cross-
cultural communication, has been split into two chapters (now
Chapters 7 and 8) with more content on both subjects. In addition,
Chapter 7 includes new sections on motivation and on networking
(including networking tools, such as Facebook and LinkedIn).
8. Chapters 9 and 10 include more on conducting virtual meetings
and teams.
9. Chapter 11 includes more on change inspired by transformational
leaders in particular.
10. Chapter 12 includes a discussion of using new media, such as
blogs, Twitter, and Web monitoring and presence, to manage exter-
nal reputations.

Instructor Supporting Materials

For instructors, this text is supported online at www.mhhe.com/
barrett3e. Included on the site are PowerPoint lecture slides, suggested
approaches to the chapters, discussions of all chapter applications
with answers to exercises, a test bank, suggestions for using the book
to prepare students for action or service learning or other similar con-
sulting engagements, and sample syllabi.
Acknowledgments
Before recognizing each person to whom I am grateful, I want to thank
three organizations for their direct and indirect contributions to the
original creation and publication and the subsequent development of
Leadership Communication:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin—The editors for their guidance and support
and the talented production staff for making this edition a reality.
McKinsey & Company—The firm overall for the opportunity to
work with some of the brightest thinkers and with executives and man-
agers who exemplify leadership communication.

Rice University—The university for giving me the opportunity to

work with excellent students, both the MBA students as I developed
the concept of leadership communication and the outstanding under-
graduates as I have expanded the leadership communication concepts
to help students of all levels serve as leaders in the community and in
whatever professional worlds they enter.

Thank you to the reviewers who were kind enough to review the
book and offer their suggestions for improving this edition:
Judy Jones Tisdale, PhD, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill; Carol White, Georgia State University; and Sandi L. Zeljko,
PhD, Eastern University
I want to thank my communication colleagues who contributed
their time, energy, expertise, and friendship when I first developed the
book and over the years since the first edition was published in 2006:
Chuck McCabe, Beth O’Sullivan, Beth Peters, and Larry Hampton.
For this edition, I want to thank another communication colleague,
Sandra Elliott, who stepped in on very late notice to provide a fresh
editorial eye and to add substantially to the social media instruction
and exercises. Also, I want to thank Webtrends for allowing us to use
Sandra’s research on social media best practices and their examples
and case studies.
Also, I owe a special thank you for this edition to Shar’-Lin Anderson,
the program coordinator for our Program for Communication Excel-
lence, for providing help with the manuscript at various stages, for
managing the permission process, and for updating the URLs and
other Web references.
I also owe a huge thank you to all my students over the years, who
continue to be my inspiration for constantly looking for ways to
improve the teaching of communication.
xix
xx Acknowledgments

Finally, I want to thank Jim, my husband, friend, and partner, who

put up with my many weekends of work and long days and frequent
tests of new ideas on him, and for always being there to help keep
some balance in my life. And as always, I have to thank Kramer, who
slept in my lap, with his head resting on my arm, while I worked on
this edition, just as on all of the others, no matter the clicking key-
board or late hour.
 1
Section
Core Leadership
Communication
Corporate

Organizational
Internal
relations
Core

Strategy
Writing Meetings
Emotional Speaking
intelligence

Cross- Teams External

cultural relations
Literacy
Chapter
1
What Is Leadership
Communication?
The art of communication is the language of leadership.
James C. Humes, speech writer for five U.S. presidents

Effective leadership is still largely a matter of

communication.
Alan Axelrod, Elizabeth I, CEO: Strategic Lessons from the Leader Who
Built an Empire
Aspiring individuals should seek to learn the skills necessary to become
transformational leaders. Organizations throughout the world need
transformational leaders who possess a high degree of integrity and are
motivated to lead people to higher levels of performance. Transforma-
tional leaders provide new direction, new inspiration, and new behav-
iors for their organizations. Therefore, they are essential ingredients in
organizational development and societal progress.
Bruce A. Tucker & Robert F. Russell, “The Influence of the
Transformational Leader,” Journal of Leadership and Organizational
Studies.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Identify leadership with an emphasis on transformational leaders.

• Connect leadership to communication.
• Define leadership communication and the leadership communication
framework.
• Appreciate the importance of projecting a positive ethos.
• Recognize and manage ethical issues and create an ethical organizational
environment.

2
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 3

A leader must be able to communicate effectively. When asked to

define leadership, theorists and practictioners alike frequently use the
words “influence,” “inspire,” and “transform,” all of which depend on
communication, verbal and nonverbal. Leaders lead through their
words and their actions. This text focuses on both, thus the emphasis
throughout on emotional intelligence, the ability to understand the self
and others. The leadership focus here is on inspirational and transfor-
mational leadership. The hope is that the present and future leaders
using this text will learn to communicate to bring about positive
results for themselves and for their organizations or communities.
In Leading without Power: Finding Hope in Serving Community,
Max De Pree says, “Leaders are constantly communicating.”1 In a
business setting, studies have shown that managers spend most of
their day engaged in communication, with communication occupying
70 to 90 percent of their time every day.2 The sheer amount of time we
spend communicating underscores how important strong communi-
cation skills are in whatever leadership position we assume or in
whatever career we pursue. Mastering leadership communication
becomes a priority for all individuals who want to lead others and
want their groups, their organizations, or the broader community to
follow them, trust them, and consider them leaders.
This chapter begins by identifying leadership and exploring how
leadership and communication are connected, then defines “leadership
communication” and the framework that governs the organization of
the text, and concludes by explaining the importance of projecting a
positive ethos and of recognizing and managing questions of ethics.

Identifying Leadership
What exactly is leadership? Theorists and practitioners have devoted
thousands of words and numerous articles and books to the subject.
Google lists 154,000,000 entries under “leadership (definition).” Many
universities offer leadership programs. Job descriptions frequently ask
for candidates with leadership skills, and many corporations encour-
age and provide leadership development. In fact, “investment in lead-
ership education and development by corporations has become
increasingly popular, reaching nearly $50 billion in 2000.”3
What, however, does leadership entail? Researchers seldom agree
completely on how best to define it, some saying they know it when they
see it. Pressed, most would agree that leaders are individuals who guide,
direct, motivate, or inspire others. They are the men and women who
influence others in an organization or in a community. They command
others’ attention. They persuade others to follow them or pursue goals
they define. They control situations. They improve the performance of
groups and organizations. They connect with others, and they get results.
4 Section One Core Leadership Communication

These individuals may not be presidents of countries or CEOs of

companies, but they could be. They could also be experienced employ-
ees who step forward to mentor those who are less experienced,
researchers who discover a cure for some disease or invent something
to make our lives easier, managers who direct successful project teams,
vice presidents who lead divisions and motivate their staff to achieve
company goals, educators who inspire their students to achieve their
potential, or students who bring about positive change in their schools
or in the broader community.
Leadership theorists define leadership by the traits leaders possess,
by the tasks they perform, by the positions they hold, and by the
accomplishments they achieve:
Traditional theories of leadership focus on the traits of leaders (personal-
ity, charisma, referent power), the process by which individuals become
leaders (the tasks, the people, and the situation), or the interactions indi-
viduals have with others that create their leadership status. In the last,
the focus is either on the exchange or transaction between the leader and
others, or on the impact the leader has on individuals or an organization
which inspires change or a difference of some sort, a transformation.4

The leadership focus in this text is on the type of leadership called

“transformational.”5 This type of leader possesses a positive ethos (author-
ity and credibility), inspires trust and respect, connects with others indi-
vidually and in groups, articulates a clear and motivating vision, and
skillfully motivates and guides others to act. The transformational leader
displays four primary behavioral characteristics: “idealized influence,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized con-
sideration.”6 In addition, he or she exhibits important communication
abilities, such as listening, persuading, and articulating ideas effectively.7
Discussions on leadership often come back to one question: Is a leader
born or developed? In other words, can individuals learn to be leaders?
The short answer is yes they can: “Organizations and individuals
can indeed directly influence the quality and the quantity of their leader-
ship. . . . It is not a matter of whether leaders are born or made. They are
born and made.”8 Avolio argues that, in particular, “transformational
leadership skills can indeed be developed.”9 Leadership Communication
is devoted to helping individuals develop as transformational leaders by
mastering the most important capability they need, the ability to com-
municate effectively.

Connecting Leadership to Communication

The fundamental premise on which this book rests is that effective
leadership depends on effective communication, that ability to connect
to others and, through that connection, guide, direct, motivate, and
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 5

inspire. Good communication skills enable, foster, and create the

understanding and trust necessary to encourage others to follow a
leader. Without effective communication, leaders accomplish little.
Without effective communication, a leader is not a leader.
Being able to communicate effectively is what allows individuals
to move into leadership positions. In business, for instance, an early
Harvard Business School study on what it takes to achieve success and
be promoted in an organization says that the individual who gets
ahead in business is the person who “is able to communicate, to make
sound decisions, and to get things done with and through people.”10
This text tackles the first of these capabilities directly, and by teaching
individuals to communicate more effectively, it also helps them improve
their ability to get things done with and through people. After all, com-
munication is about people.

Defining Communication
Communication is the transmission of meaning from one person to
another or to many people, whether verbally or nonverbally. Commu-
nication from one person to another is often called the “rhetorical sit-
uation,” which is commonly depicted as a simple triangle consisting of
the context, the sender, the message, and the receiver (Exhibit 1.1).
Exhibit 1.1 suggests very simple and ideal communication. There
would be no miscommunication or misunderstandings. The sender
would understand the context and the audience (receiver), select the
right medium, and send a clear message. The receiver would receive
and understand that message exactly as the sender intended.
In reality, communication is much more complex and interactive,
with many opportunities for messages and meanings to go astray.
Exhibit 1.2 shows some of the numerous interruptions or breakdowns
when communicating even an apparently simple message.

EXHIBIT 1.1 Context

The Traditional Message
Diagram of the
Rhetorical
Situation

Medium

Sender Receiver
6 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 1.2 Context

Organizational Noise
The Interruptions
to Communication Sender controlled Message Receiver perceived
• Inappropriate context • Unclear purpose or
• No understanding of message
audience • Illogical message or
• Muddled thinking structure
• Wrong medium • Offensive tone
• Wrong spokesperson • Affective or cognitive
• Poor timing dissonance
• Poor usage or style • Cultural
• Inappropriate appeal misperceptions
• Questionable ethics Sender Receiver • Negative ethos

Complications in communication come from the interruptions or

interferences in the transmission of a message, whether the context,
sender, or receiver causes them. The context in which the information
is sent, the noise that surrounds it, the selection of the medium, the
words used in the message, the image of the speaker—all influence the
meaning as it travels successfully, or as intended, from one person to
another.

Defining Leadership Communication

Effective leadership communication requires the ability to anticipate
the potential interruptions in the transmission of the message, appre-
ciate the context, understand the audience, select the right medium,
and craft clear messages that allow the meaning to reach the specific
receiver as intended.
One goal of mastering all aspects of leadership communication is to
move us as close as possible to the ideal of meaningful message trans-
fer. Leadership communication necessitates minimizing or eliminating
all interruptions and interferences by understanding the receivers (the
audience) and developing a communication strategy (objective and
plan) to facilitate the effective transmission of messages.
So what is leadership communication?

Leadership communication is the controlled, purposeful transfer of meaning by

which individuals influence a single person, a group, an organization, or a com-
munity by using the full range of their communication abilities and resources to
connect positively with their audiences, overcome interferences, and create and
deliver messages that guide, direct, motivate, or inspire others to action.

Relating Leadership Communication to Other Fields

of Communication Studies
The discipline of communication consists of many fields of study that
differ in their characteristics and the content they emphasize. For
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 7

EXHIBIT 1.3
The Positioning Outside the
Academy Mass media
of Leadership communication/
Communication journalism
Business
communication

Management
communication Technical
communication

Leadership
communication

Academic
Organizational
communication
Corporate communication
communication
Inside the
Academy

example, the field of business communication differs from technical

communication, which differs from corporate communication, which
differs from organizational communication. While little value here is
gained by engaging in a scholarly debate on how one field of commu-
nication differs from another, it is useful to realize what differientiates
leadership communication from the rest of the fields of communica-
tion studies in general. Exhibit 1.3 illustrates the number of fields
within the discipline of communication and shows the placement of
leadership communication in relation to them.11
Leadership communication rests on top and cuts across many of the
others. Leadership communication includes some of the topics often
included in the other fields because leaders emerge in all academic and
professional arenas, and individuals wanting to develop the communi-
cation abilities for any leadership role in a professional setting need
some of the abilities developed inside or outside of the academy. How-
ever, the emphasis in leadership communication is on leadership and
on the most important communication subjects leaders need to master
in professional settings.
Although all of us use some of the basics of business communication,
such as how to deliver our messages effectively in memos and e-mails or
how to create and deliver effective presentations, three of the fields
emphasize subjects closer to those included in leadership communica-
tion: managerial communication, organizational communication, and
corporate communication.
8 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Managerial communication emphasizes the abilities managers need

as they supervise and lead others in mostly business environments;
organizational communication tends to focus on the behavioral and
interactive and interpersonal skills individuals need to assume leader-
ship roles inside an organization; and corporate communication
emphasizes the abilities leaders need as they lead change efforts,
develop visions and missions, and manage public relations and policy
making.
These are the fields of communication most often associated with
providing the instruction for business or similar professional settings,
as opposed to academic and technical environments. Leadership com-
munication’s focus is also communication in professional and organi-
zational settings, although effective communication abilities help
leaders in academic and technical environments as well in leadership
roles in the broader community.

Applying the Leadership Communication Framework

All professional communication, from business to corporate commu-
nication includes, to a lesser or greater extent, the following topics:
developing communication strategy, understanding audiences, and
writing and speaking effectively. The leadership communication
framework used to organize this text begins with these core skills
before focusing on the interpersonal, cross-cultural, and other leader-
ship capabilities expected of individuals leading meetings and teams at
the organizational level and then the visionary and broader commu-
nity leadership abilities found at the corporate level of the framework.
Leadership communication as defined and used in this text consists
of layered, expanding abilities from core strategy development and
effective writing and speaking to the use of these skills in more com-
plex situations. As leaders’ perspectives and control expand, they will
find that they need to improve their core skills with even greater ana-
lytical and synthesizing abilities.
Leadership Communication starts with the core communication top-
ics represented in the center of the framework (Exhibit 1.4), then
moves from the inside of the spiral to the outside, expanding outward
to apply the core skills to a wider array of audiences and increasingly
complex organizational situations.
The leadership communication framework is depicted as a spiral to
avoid suggesting a hierarchy, since all effective communication depends
on the core skills at the center. These are also our more individual skills.
To be a leader, we need to master the skills at the core. We also need to
expand our skills to include those needed to lead and supervise groups
and, eventually, to incorporate those on the outer circle, the corporate
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 9

EXHIBIT 1.4
The Leadership Corporate
Communication
Framework Organizational
Internal
relations
Core

Strategy
Writing Meetings
Emotional Speaking
intelligence

Cross- Teams External

cultural relations
Literacy

communication skills needed to interact successfully with all internal

audiences and external stakeholders.

Core Communication
Communication strategy is included in the section on core skills (Sec-
tion 1), but leaders will find they always need to take a strategic
approach to be a master of leadership communication. Therefore,
developing a communication strategy will be emphasized throughout
all sections of the text as we move from inside to the outer rings of the
spiral. Strategy is the foundation on which any effective communica-
tion depends. Leaders need to be able to analyze an audience in every
situation and develop a communication strategy that facilitates accom-
plishing their communication objectives.
Leaders need to be able to structure and write effective simple and
complex correspondence and documents, from text messages and
e-mails to proposals and reports. They need to be able to write and speak
in the language expected of leaders, language that is clear, correct, and
concise. In addition, they need to be able to create and deliver oral pre-
sentations confidently and persuasively, using graphics that contribute
to delivering the messages. These are the capabilities at the core of all
professional communication.
Success in organizational and corporate communication depends
on mastering these core capabilities. Although listening is a core skill
in any rhetorical situation, it is included in the organizational section
of the text (Section 2) instead of the core section because leading and
10 Section One Core Leadership Communication

interacting with others effectively requires even greater attention to

hearing what others say, not simply what we think we hear them say.

Organizational Communication
Organizational communication builds on the core skills. These are
the capabilities that individuals need when they interact with others,
whether one-on-one, with groups, or in a broader organizational con-
text. Organizational communication skills begin with emotional
intelligence and interpersonal skills, the essential skills needed to
interact effectively with others as individuals or groups. Next, the
section covers cross-cultural literacy and communication, which
involves having the ability to understand and appreciate cultural
differences and communicate successfully across and work within
different cultures. The organizational communication section also
includes leading meetings and managing teams, both essential capa-
bilities for today’s leaders.

Corporate Communication
Corporate communication, the topic of Section 3, involves expanding
from the organizational skills to those abilities needed to lead an orga-
nization and address a broader community. Communication becomes
even more complex when we need to think about how best to commu-
nicate to all internal and external stakeholders. Again, any good com-
munication depends on having a strategy, but as the audiences become
more diverse and larger, the communication strategy becomes more
complicated. Leaders find as they move into higher levels of an orga-
nization that they need to be able to direct change programs and lead
vision development. In addition, they take on greater responsibility for
the organization’s reputation and become the company’s face and voice
for the public.

Projecting a Positive Leadership Ethos

Leadership communication at all levels and across the spiral depends
on the ability to project a positive image, or more specifically, a positive
ethos. The word “image” is often associated with illusion or superficial-
ity. It embodies what an audience thinks of us initially based on mostly
superficial perceptions. “Ethos” refers to qualities of greater depth and
substance. It ties more directly to our character, which our audience
judges according to the culture in which we are communicating.
“Charisma” is another term often used to describe someone who has
the ability to persuade others and to connect with an audience. It
resembles ethos in its effect on an audience, but it differs in that it sug-
gests exuding a power over others based more on emotions than on
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 11

reason. Public figures who were charismatic leaders and exemplified a

positive ethos include John F. Kennedy, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin
Luther King, Jr.
Both image and charisma can be used to describe leaders, but since
ethos ties more directly to the character of the speaker or writer, it
serves as a better word to use in capturing the positive qualities lead-
ers should possess. Projecting a positive ethos, then, better defines the
goal leaders should seek in mastering leadership communication.
A positive ethos will take leaders a long way toward influencing
their audiences with their intended message, whereas a negative
ethos is one of the greatest barriers to effective communication. How
leaders are perceived makes the difference in how well they are
believed, how persuasive they are, and ultimately how effectively they
communicate. Successful leadership communication depends on
projecting a positive ethos.

Defining Ethos
To understand ethos, it helps to look back at the original definitions
found in the writing of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who identified
three types of persuasive appeals:
• Logos
• Pathos
• Ethos
Logos is an appeal based on the logic of an argument, while pathos is an
appeal based on the use of emotions. Ethos is an appeal based on the
perceived character of the sender of the message: Is the person trust-
worthy, confident, believable, knowledgeable, and a man or woman of
integrity? If the audience does not trust or believe the speaker or writer,
logic or emotion will have little persuasive force.
According to Aristotle, ethos is the most important persuasive
device and most critical ingredient in the rhetorical situation: The
“character of the speaker may almost be called the most effective
means of persuasion he possesses.”12 Therefore, “the orator must not
only try to make the argument of his speech demonstrative and worthy
of belief; he must also make his own character look right and put his
hearers, who are to decide, into the right frame of mind.”13 An effective
speaker can “inspire confidence in the orator’s own character” and
“induce” belief and acceptance in the audience.14
What is it that will help leaders inspire confidence and induce others
to listen to them? One of the primary requirements is credibility. In their
extensive research on leadership, James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner
found that credibility is the number one reason people follow some-
one.15 To be an effective leader, we must be credible to our followers.
12 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Credibility is essential to creating a positive ethos. Aristotle said, “Per-

suasion is achieved by the speaker’s personal character when the speech
is so spoken as to make us think him credible.”16
For audiences to view leaders as credible, they must perceive them
as knowledgeable, authoritative, confident, honest, and trustworthy.
Leaders can achieve the first two through hard work and position. For
instance, if we are giving a presentation on the future of energy pro-
duction in the United States, we must know the industry and the mar-
ket as well as something about politics and regulatory policy. We can
learn the facts and appear knowledgeable. In addition, if we are a CEO
of a major energy company, our audience will probably perceive us as
someone with the authority to talk about energy.
We can exude confidence by being well prepared and feeling com-
fortable delivering presentations. We can even create an aura of hon-
esty and trustworthiness through effective delivery techniques, such as
maintaining steady eye contact, having an easy rapport with the audi-
ence, and being well prepared to answer questions. Thus, we can take
specific actions to build greater credibility. By doing so, we can begin
to establish a positive ethos.

Projecting a Positive Ethos

To build a positive ethos, leaders need to know how others perceive
them; however, determining how all audiences perceive us is not easy.
Research on managers’ ability to judge how they are perceived found
that “most managers overestimate their own credibility—considerably.”17
Discerning how others perceive us takes honest self-reflection and
often the assessment of others. Few people really see themselves as
others see them.
To see ourselves completely honestly would be a powerful advantage.
To quote the Scottish poet Robert Burns from his poem “To a Louse”:
“O wad some Power the giftie gie us/To see oursels as ithers see us!” In
this famous poem, Burns tells the story of a woman dressed immacu-
lately who exudes an air of great superiority. On closer inspection,
however, her observers see that she has lice and realize she is not as
immaculate as she appears on the surface.
The idea that, when two people meet, six people are really in the
room—the persons as they see themselves, the persons as the others
see them, and the persons as they actually are—underscores the com-
plexity of perception and self-perception.18 Deciding which perception
is the most accurate would lead to a philosophical tangle, although
determining which one is most important would depend on the pur-
pose of the encounter. If one of the individuals intends to influence the
other, then the perception of the other takes on great importance and
the need for that individual to know how he or she is perceived
becomes critical.
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 13

What can leaders do to find out how they are perceived? They can
develop greater emotional intelligence (see Appendix A for a self-
assessment, which contains several questions related to emotional
intelligence). In addition, leaders can obtain feedback from others; one
popular performance tool is the 360-degree feedback, a multisource
feedback process. It combines our self-evaluation with that of our
superiors, our peers, and direct reports to create a well-rounded evalu-
ation of us. It provides an excellent method for uncovering discrepan-
cies between how we see ourselves and how others see us.
Self-exploration and some sought-after honest feedback from others
will bring the greater self-awareness necessary to judge ourselves more
accurately and to recognize the signals others send back to us, either in
their words or, often more importantly, in their body language and
their actions. This self-knowledge can help in building a positive ethos
(for more information on self-assessments and ways to improve emo-
tional intelligence, see Chapter 7).
In addition to critical self-reflection and the evaluation of others,
we can improve our ability to suggest a positive ethos by building a
positive reputation, improving our professional appearance, project-
ing greater confidence, and learning to communicate more effec-
tively. Reputation could include title, organizational positions, past
roles or accomplishments, and public opinion. We can achieve a
positive appearance through appropriate and culturally expected
dress and grooming. To suggest confidence to our audience, we can
use eye contact, establish a rapport, and speak easily about a subject
without notes when making a presentation. By using language effec-
tively to capture the meaning and inspire trust, we can create believ-
ers in our message.

Connecting Ethos to Audience Motivation

The importance of understanding our audience cannot be overempha-
sized; therefore, several pages in Chapter 2 are devoted to analyzing
audiences. An audience’s receptivity to us, our ethos, or our message
can assist or be a barrier to their receiving our message as we intend.
Looking briefly at what makes an audience receptive to our message is
helpful in expanding our understanding of ethos.
What is it that makes others attend to our message? What is it that
persuades them to listen and to act? In a recent article in Harvard Busi-
ness Review, Robert Cialdini argues that “no leader can succeed with-
out mastering the art of persuasion.”19 Just as creating a positive ethos
aids in the art of persuasion; understanding what motivates others to
listen and to act helps as well.
People are obviously much more likely to listen to or care about
what we say if our messages are meaningful to them or if they have an
interest in them. Combine this interest with knowing how to encourage
14 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 1.5 Power Type Source of Persuasion

Sources of Power
Coercive The prospect of being punished
Source: French, J. R. P. and
Raven, B. (1958). The bases
Reward Prospective benefits or rewards
of social power in D. Legitimate Recognized position or title
Cartwright, (Ed). Studies in Referent Personal attractiveness or charisma
Social Power. Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Expert Expertise of the speaker
Press. Used with permission; Information Possessor of needed information
Hocker, J. L., and Wilmont, Connection Interpersonal relationships, linkages
W.W. (1985). Interpersonal
Conflict, 2nd ed. Dubuque,
IA: Wm. C. Brown.

the audience to trust us and believe our message, and we will have an
attentive audience. When the audience has a stake in our subject and is
inclined to believe us, they are prepared to be persuaded.

Power
The art (or, some might argue, science) of motivating people has been
studied for years, by Freud, Jung, James, Maslow, Alderfer, and others.
One useful approach is that of John French and Bertram Raven. They
diagnosed five sources of power to persuade others to attend to a mes-
sage (Exhibit 1.5). More recently, Hocker and Wilmot have added to
these five sources of power the power of information and of connec-
tions through interpersonal relationships. They argue that power exists
in all social interactions, with communication functioning to influence
others, often through the power one person has over others.
The previous example of a CEO of a major energy company demon-
strates creating an ethos based on the motivational power of expertise
and legitimacy associated with title and position. When combined with
the use of the “referent” appeal or the charisma of being a confident,
effective presenter, the CEO establishes sources of persuasion. If we
add to this scenario that the audience consists of energy analysts
responsible for reporting on the industry’s future, we have the appeal
of “reward” and “information,” a very receptive setting for persuasion
to occur with five of the power influencers in place.
The CEO’s persuasive ability depends on an emotional appeal and a
positive ethos, a combination that may work as well as or better than
facts and figures in many cases: “Arguments, per se, are only one part
of the equation. Other factors matter just as much, such as the per-
suader’s credibility and his or her ability to create a proper, mutually
beneficial frame for a position, connect on the right emotional level
with an audience, and communicate through vivid language that
makes arguments come alive.”20
Knowledge of what motivates others can help in creating a positive
ethos, which will make us more persuasive. Words and how we use them
reflect who we are. We can use the most effective words in any given
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 15

situation, or put the right “spin” on a subject for a particular audience,

but if we stray too far from what we believe, our audience will probably
perceive us as untrustworthy. And trust is essential in persuading others.

Trust
Trust is complicated. What makes one person trust another? Two
researchers looked specifically at trust and the relationship between
superiors and subordinates in an organization and found five character-
istics of the people others trust, four moral values and one behavioral:
1. Integrity—the reputation for honesty and truthfulness on the part
of the trusted individual.
2. Competence—the technical knowledge and interpersonal skill
needed to perform the job.
3. Consistency—reliability, predictability, and good judgment in han-
dling situations.
4. Loyalty—benevolence, or the willingness to protect, support, and
encourage others.
5. Openness—mental accessibility, or the willingness to share ideas
and information freely with others.21
Being sensitive to the motivation of others is important to successful
persuasion, but so are integrity and sincerity. Otherwise, we risk pro-
jecting a negative ethos.
Our ethos may be the most persuasive tool we possess. Although it
may be difficult for a leader in business to be perceived as honest and
trustworthy in today’s scandal-laden business world, the success of
individuals and companies often depends on it.
Two examples of the value of a positive ethos and business leaders
with good reputations are Warren Buffet and Bill Gates and their two
companies. Berkshire Hathaway and Microsoft are two of the highest
performing and two of the highest ranked in any poll of positive repu-
tations. Their leaders and their companies have a positive ethos.
The extensive research into emotional intelligence has shown that
company leaders set the tone, create the mood, and determine the
actions of the organization. They and their companies are trusted
because of their reputation, because they are good at what they do,
because of their knowledge, because they appear confident, and because
they are believed to be ethical. All of these conditions lead to a positive
ethos.
A positive ethos is essential to success as a leader and is critical in
leadership communication. For some, achieving a positive ethos may
mean making some changes in the outward manifestations on which we
are often judged by others. This type of studied attempt to control per-
ception is called image management, which can be seen as deception.
16 Section One Core Leadership Communication

However, the type of leader being coached here is again the trans-
formational leader, with all of the positives associated with this type of
leader—as described by Bass, those “who are seeking the greatest good
for the greatest number without violating individual rights, and are
concerned about doing what is right and honest, [the leaders who] are
likely to avoid stretching the truth or going beyond the evidence for
they want to set an example to followers about the value of valid and
accurate communication in maintaining the mutual trust of the lead-
ers and their followers.”22
The positive ethos for a transformational leader often comes down
to trust. Trust creates credibility; credibility creates a positive ethos.
Without question, trust is lost whenever leaders deceive others: “The
credibility of the leaders suffers when the truth is stretched. Trust in
the leaders is risked and . . . trust is the single most important variable
moderating the effects of transformational leadership on the perfor-
mance, attitudes, and satisfaction of the followers.”23 In other words,
the transformational leader is expected to be honest. Therefore, behind
that positive ethos should be positive ethics as well.

Connecting Ethos and Ethics

While we can control or develop some of the outward manifestations
of a positive ethos, it is more difficult for an individual to change or
for an audience to determine the true character of the communica-
tor. For the transformational leader, a positive ethos exemplifies a
strong inner character (Exhibit 1.6). We would hope all leaders are
honest, honorable, truthful, fair, and ethical—in short, that they
have integrity: “Integrity in all things precedes all else. The open
demonstration of integrity is essential; followers must be whole-
heartedly convinced of their leaders’ integrity,” writes Max De Pree
in his book Leadership Jazz.24
We judge our leaders by the ethos they project: their outward mani-
festation in their dress, behavior, charismatic appeal, knowledge, and
expertise; their inner character; and their communication actions. Do
they speak and write clearly, confidently, and correctly? Are they good
listeners, attending to their own nonverbal signals and those of others?
Do they seem sincere in their connections to others? Do they show
emotional intelligence and an understanding of and appreciation for
cultural differences?
We can see leaders’ outward projections of the self and the actions,
but the inner character is below the surface, leaving us to judge based
on what we see and on the behavior and actions. Our judgments, then,
are filtered through our perceptions and influenced by our own view of
the world and the clarity of our own cultural and experiential lens.
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 17

EXHIBIT 1.6 Ingredients for Creating a Positive Ethos

Outward manifestation: Inner character: Communication actions:

• Appropriately • Honest • Skilled speaking and

dressed and behaved • Honorable writing
• Charismatic • Truthful • Empathetic listening
• Well prepared and • Fair • Appropriate nonverbals
knowledgeable
• Ethical • Sincere connection
• Documented • Displayed emotional
expertise: intelligence
– Education
– Credentials • Cross-cultural literacy
– Experience

Positive Ethos

Therefore, unfortunately, we can be deceived. History shows that a

person’s projected image may not reflect reality. Ethos and ethics are not
always aligned; someone can project a positive ethos and appear honest
and trustworthy yet have little or no ethical foundation behind that pro-
jection. Someone skilled in deception can fool others; the absence of
honesty and integrity is not always apparent to an audience.
When we judge the ethos of another, we have four possibilities:
1. The person is ethical and projects a positive ethos.
2. The person is ethical but projects a negative ethos.
3. The person is unethical and projects a negative ethos.
4. The person is unethical but projects a positive ethos.
Since effective leadership communication depends heavily on the
ethos projected, we need to be sensitive to the ethical foundation
below the surface. As James Kouzes and Barry Posner found in their
research on leadership, “If people are going to follow someone will-
ingly, whether it be into battle or into the boardroom, they first want to
assure themselves that the person is worthy of their trust. They want to
know that the would-be leader is truthful and ethical.”24

Being an Ethical Leader

It is important for any leader to look critically at the motivation and
meaning behind his or her words and actions. Today, in particular, orga-
nizations are looking for ethical leaders; therefore, our reflection on our
ethos as part of the self-assessment should include some analysis of the
18 Section One Core Leadership Communication

ethical foundation it reflects. For instance, does our ethos suggest the
characteristics of an “ethical leader”: “fairness, mutual well-being, and
harmony”?25 A positive ethos suggests a “good” character, and a sug-
gestion of a good character makes leaders more persuasive. As Aristotle
said, “We believe good men [and women] more fully and more readily
than others.”26 A good character suggests an ethical foundation that
makes our audience trust us and be more receptive to what we say.
An ethical foundation and ethical behavior are expected of transfor-
mational leaders: “The effectiveness of genuine transformational lead-
ership [is grounded] in three essential pillars: 1) moral character, 2)
ethical values, and 3) the morality of the processes of ethical
choices.”27 Transformational leaders are judged by how they treat oth-
ers, and ethics become most obvious when interacting and making
decisions about those working with and for them.
Exhibit 1.7 lists the typical kinds of ethical issues a leader confronts
in a professional environment. According to Trevino and Nelson, 60
percent of the ethical issues that managers face are in the human
resources (HR) area—for example, offering one job candidate more
money than another for the same position in the same location, reward-
ing one employee with a larger bonus than another, not using the same
evaluation criteria for all members of the same team, and providing
privileges for one person over another. All of these violate fairness and
can lead to lawsuits, which is one reason most organizations have HR
professionals involved in hiring, firing, and performance situations.

EXHIBIT 1.7 Types Definitions and Examples

Types of Ethical
Issues Common in Human resources issues • Question of fairness
Organizations • Privacy, performance evaluations, hiring,
firing, discrimination, harassment
Source: Trevino, L. K., and
Nelson, K. A. (2007). Conflicts of interest • Compromised judgment or objectivity
Managing Business Ethics, • Overt or covert bribes, trading influence or
4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley.
privileged information or appearance of
doing so
Customer confidence • Providing quality product or service at a fair
price, representing both honestly, and
protecting customer confidentiality
• Product safety and effectiveness, truth in
advertising, privacy, confidentiality, fiduciary
responsibilities
Use of corporate resources • Fulfilling your responsibility to your employer/
organization
• Truthful, honest, responsible use of corporate
resources, care with corporate reputation
and financial resources
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 19

EXHIBIT 1.8 Religion Variation on the Golden Rule

The Golden Rule
across Cultures Buddhism “Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find
hurtful.”
Source: Barach, J. A.
(1985). The Ethics of Hard- Christianity “Whatsoever you wish that men would do to you, do so
ball. California Management to them, for this is the law and the prophets.”
Review 27, p. 2.
Confucianism “Tsze-Kung asked, saying ‘Is there one word which may
serve as a rule of practice for all one’s life? The Master
said: ‘Is not reciprocity such a word? What you do not
want done to yourself, do not do to others.’”
Hinduism “This is the sum of duty: do naught to others which
would cause pain if done to you.”
Islam “No one of you is a believer until he desires for his
brother that which he desires for himself.”
Judaism “What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. This
is the entire Law: all the rest is commentary.”

In many cases, though, leaders do not have someone to look over

their shoulder and help them answer questions of ethics. Instead, they
need to address them on their own. Having a defined and organized
approach to making ethical decisions can prove very useful for all lead-
ers. The next section provides a few approaches that can be used in
any of the situations encountered in Exhibit 1.7.

Making Ethical Decisions

Throughout history, the golden rule—the principle of reciprocity, or
doing unto others as we expect them to do unto us—has been one
approach to determining ethical behavior. Interestingly, it crosses cul-
tural boundaries and appears in some form in the teachings of the
world’s major religions, as illustrated in Exhibit 1.8.
Although what is considered ethical in one culture may differ from
another, the golden rule and research indicate “that people around the
world tend to identify a similar set of values, suggesting that people
from different cultures generally agree that honesty, fairness, and
respect for human life, for example, are important.”28 In most profes-
sional settings, tradition, professional codes of conduct, company codes
of ethics or value statements, laws and regulations, international trade
agreements, and contracts help individuals determine what is ethical
for them or their organization. When faced with an ethical question
not answered in one of these, a leader usually follows one of the tradi-
tional approaches:
1. End results (consequentialist)—focuses on harms and benefits to
stakeholders to arrive at a decision that produces the greatest good
for the greatest number.
20 Section One Core Leadership Communication

2. Duty (deontological)—emphasizes duties, rights, and justice, based

on moral standards, principles, and rules.
3. Social contract (group virtue)—bases ethical decisions on the cus-
toms and norms, the character and integrity of the moral community.
4. Personal (individual virtue)—bases ethical decisions on the con-
science, what feels right to the individual.
Frequently, ethical questions call on a combination of these. For exam-
ple, consider the following scenario:
You have a friend who has sent you a sexist joke through e-mail at
work. You are considering forwarding it to some of your closest friends.

Using the end result approach to ethics, you decide those receiving it
will not be harmed and might actually benefit in having a laugh. In
fact, knowing your friends well, you think, they will all find it funny, so
you think it passes the “greatest good for the greatest number test.” In
terms of duty, the question becomes a little more complicated. A sexist
joke violates today’s moral standards. It also could violate most social
or group virtues, particularly those of the organization in which you
work, although you think the customs and norms of your group would
allow such a joke. Finally, it comes down to your conscience. Does it
feel right to you personally? That you are stopping to think about it
suggests it does not, so you make the wise decision, not to send it.
For more complicated ethical decisions, we can apply a more ana-
lytical decision-making process, such as that developed by Hosmer
(Exhibit 1.9).
Using the same scenario, our analysis would take us through each of
the steps in the process as follows:
1. Moral standards and impacts: The joke could benefit some of your
friends because they would get a laugh out of it, but it could harm
others, particularly if your friends sent the e-mail to others, which

EXHIBIT 1.9 Hosmer’s Analytical Process to Resolve Ethical Questions

Determine

1 2 3 4
Understand moral economic
standards and recognize outcomes
Propose
moral impacts: Define the
convincing
• Benefits to some complete Consider legal
moral
• Harms to others moral problem requirements
solution
• Rights exercised
• Rights denied Evaluate
ethical duties

Content source: Hosmer, L.T. (2003). The Ethics of Management. New York: McGraw-Hill. Graphic original.
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 21

they could easily do. In that case, your company could find out
about it, which would hurt you and it could go to people it would
offend. You could argue that you are exercising your rights, that of
the freedom of speech, but by doing so, you are potentially denying
the rights of others, the group of people against whom the joke is
aimed and any others who might be offended by it.
Given the leaning in this first step, you would not even need to
go to the next step, but for the sake of illustration, let’s do.
2. The moral problem: The moral problem is one of individual rights
versus society’s norms. Jokes at the expense of others are at the base
of much humor. We can look at popular situation comedies so much
a part of U.S. culture for numerous examples, such as The Office,
Two and a Half Men, Scrubs, and, going back a few years, Seinfeld.
Many of these shows contain sexist jokes. Some shows make politi-
cal statements in their humor, which could offend large groups of
people, such as Boston Legal and Saturday Night Live, so in com-
pletely analyzing the moral problem, we soon realize the issue can
become complicated placed in the context of contemporary society’s
idea of what is right and what is wrong.
3. This step has three parts: economical, legal, and ethical duty. Eco-
nomically, you could suffer, of course, if your company has a policy
against using e-mail for personal use or for purposes that could be
considered to violate the rights of others, which it probably does; if
so, you could be fired. Also, if you own the company or are in a lead-
ership role where your actions are noticed by stakeholders, your
company could suffer financial loss if your e-mail hit the Internet or
ended up in the hands of clients or customers. Legally, the e-mail
potentially violates the law, particularly if it damages another’s rep-
utation, creates a hostile work environment, or otherwise causes
duress for anyone else. Under the ethical duty portion of your analy-
sis, you would look at the four traditional approaches to ethics pre-
sented above, particularly the ones on duty and social contract.
4. Finally, you come to your moral solution, which, given the balance
between the pros and the cons in steps 1–3, would be the decision
not to send the e-mail.
Whether a simple moral question or a more complicated ethical
dilemma, leaders have to be prepared to make decisions, realizing that
those decisions affect their ethos and that of their company. Having an
analytical approach is not always warranted; however, often the deci-
sions are complex, and such an approach is necessary. When possible,
the leader can fall back on the “front-page” test, or perhaps today we
ought to call this the “Internet test.” Would he or she want to see his or
her decision or action on the front page of the newspaper or on the
Internet for all to see?
22 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Establishing an Ethical Environment for Others

In addition to having to make ethical decisions, leaders are responsible
for establishing the ethical culture for their organization. Leaders will
want to create a climate of integrity to motivate ethical behavior across
their organization. They will want to avoid any of the following nega-
tive organizational cultures, which the Ethics Resource Center found
to result in unethical behavior:
• Lack of any of the following:
– Satisfaction with information from top management
– Trust that top management will keep promises and commitments
– Satisfaction with information from supervisors
– Trust that supervisors will keep promises and commitments
– Trust that coworkers will keep promises and commitments
• Rewards for employees who are successful, even if it is through
questionable means.29
Again, we can see how important trust is for the individual and the
organization. Leaders need to create an open environment in which
followers and employees feel free to speak up and come forward
when and if they witness any unethical or questionable behavior.
They need to exemplify in their own behavior the behavior they
expect of others and display honesty and integrity in all they say and
all they do. They need to make sure the members of their organiza-
tion know the laws, rules, and norms that apply in their country,
industry, and company.
Finally, to create an ethical organizational culture, leaders should
take the following steps:
1. Set high standards and communicate them loudly and repeatedly in
public and private.
2. Establish an environment of open communication within and out-
side of the immediate unit or division.
3. Be consistent and transparent.
4. Act swiftly when standards are violated.
5. Encourage complete candor with direct reports.
6. Don’t shoot the messenger.
7. Get out and interact with employees at all levels.
8. In a crisis, be open, honest, and accessible.
This chapter has established the foundation for the rest of the text. It
explores the transformational leader, which is the type of leader that
mastering leadership communication will help individuals become.
The text is designed to help current leaders and prospective leaders
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 23

become effective communicators in all situations as it teaches them to

be better leaders by being better communicators. Mastering the
instruction provided in Leadership Communication will take leaders of
all types a long way toward being a transformational leader. It will help
them develop and project the positive ethos and other leadership com-
munication capabilities they need to achieve positive results for them-
selves, for their organizations, and for their community.

Application 1.1 To complete the following self-assessment, you should reflect on your level of
Assessing experience and expertise in each of the areas and on the roles you currently
Leadership play in which improved leadership communication abilities would help you be
more successful. If you need help in defining the areas or understanding what
Communication specific topics would be included in each, you may want to refer to and com-
Abilities and plete the comprehensive self-assessment provided in Appendix A—Checklist of
Establishing an Overall Leadership Communication Ability before completing Part 1.
Improvement
Part 1
Plan Using the following assessment table, score your own abilities in each of the
general leadership communication areas and then answer the questions that
follow it.

Score Leadership Communication Area 1 ⫽ Need lots of work here

Ethos, credibility, leadership image 2 ⫽ Need some work here
(how you are seen by others) 3 ⫽ Acceptable, but could be stronger
4 ⫽ Very good abilities, close to
Audience analysis leadership communication level
Communication strategy 5 ⫽ Excellent abilities, leadership
communication level achieved
Written communication
Oral communication
Visual communication
Emotional intelligence: dealing with Your
own feelings
Emotional intelligence: interacting with
others
Coaching and feedback
Cross-cultural literacy
Team communication and dynamics
Internal, employee communication
External relations
24 Section One Core Leadership Communication

1. What do you consider your greatest leadership communication strengths?

2. What do you consider your greatest leadership communication weaknesses?

3. What leadership communication roles do you currently play and which

areas of leadership communication are most important in them?

Part 2
Answer the following questions to help you develop your goals before moving
to the plan in Part 3:
1. What communication leadership roles would you like to play in the future
(at your organization or in your career overall)?

2. What are your short-term and long-term leadership communication

improvement goals?

3. What new skill do you want to work on first, second, third, etc.?

4. What barriers do you anticipate having to overcome to reach your improve-

ment goals?
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 25

5. How long do you think it will take you to achieve your goals?

6. How will you know you are succeeding?

7. How will you obtain feedback?

Part 3
In Word or Excel, create a table or grid similar to this one to develop your per-
sonal leadership communication plan. Using a table or grid format will help
you track your progress more easily. Be sure to make your goals and action
steps specific.

Improvement Goal Action steps to achieve goal Deadline Method to measure success
26 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Application 1.2 Answer the questions for each of the following scenarios and be able to explain
A Question of your answer and rationale for coming to the conclusion that you do.
Ethics 1. You have to travel to New York for a conference. Your company will cover
your food expenses and has given you the option of taking a per diem of
$75 or submitting itemized receipts ($75 maximum per day). Since you
know the cheap places to eat in New York, you know that you will come
out with money in your pocket if you take the per diem, so you do. Is this
ethical or not?
2. Your close friend and colleague tells you that she is going to take the per
diem and pocket the extra money in the scenario in #1. What should you
do, if anything? Should you report her?
3. As a researcher, you prepare research reports for your company. The com-
pany has a rotating work schedule, which allows you to work three days
at the office and two at home. Since you are a very fast worker, you are
able to complete the research and write the two required reports in three
days at the office, so you regularly enjoy a four-day weekend. Is this right
or wrong?
4. You regularly use the Internet to shop and buy gifts. During the workday,
you spend your down time looking for good deals and doing your shop-
ping while at work. Is this ethical or not?
5. You have a friend who sends you political cartoons and jokes attacking
political parties, governments, and leaders through e-mail at work. You
sometimes forward these to your friends. Is this right or wrong?
6. A good friend of yours has applied for a job at your company and has given
your name as a reference. At previous jobs, your friend has had problems
with poor performance, but you really like him and would find him fun to
be around at work. Do you give human resources a positive reference for
your friend or not?
7. Your company policy states that you cannot accept gifts of more than $50
value. One of your best clients offers you tickets to a professional soccer
match worth $150. Since you really want to attend the game and do not
want to offend the client, you accept the tickets. Is this right or wrong?
8. As part of a team developing a new software product, you discover that
a teammate accepted an expensive gift from your Japanese partner
while in Japan working out the details of your agreement to bring
the product to market. Do you report the teammate to management
or not?
9. You are a member of a hiring committee for a nonprofit organization,
focusing on environmental issues. The committee has narrowed its search
down to the “perfect candidate.” However, when one member performed a
Google search of her name, he found pictures and some personal confes-
sions in Facebook that he found very offensive. He feared that her “ques-
tionable judgment,” as he called it, could hurt the organization’s
fundraising efforts. Is hiring her or not an ethical question?
10. One of your employees has a personal blog. Apparently, he uses this blog
regularly to lambast his fellow workers, pointing out their flaws and mock-
ing their mistakes. Another employee found the blog and has brought it to
 Chapter 1 What Is Leadership Communication? 27

your attention, noting that she is offended by his behavior. Is speaking to

him about his blog ethical?

Source: Items 1, 3, 4, 6, and 7 are modified versions of scenarios from Barbara A. Wilson’s
study “Predicting Intended Unethical Behavior,” presented at the Association for Business
Communication convention 2004. Deborah J. Barrett at Rice University created the other
scenarios for class discussion.

Application 1.3 Find an example of someone you consider to be a transformational leader and
Defining write a communication profile that includes the following information:
Transformational 1. The individual’s name, title, current position, and relationship to you.
Leadership: A Explain if you know the person personally or professionally; if you do not,
Communication explain why the person interests you.
Profile 2. Your rationale for selecting him or her. Include why you have selected this
person and why you think he or she is a good example of transformational
leadership.
3. Your sources of information. How have you learned about the person?
4. A video (a link) or some other example of the person’s communication
abilities.
Be prepared to discuss your selected leader and show the video if instructed to
do so.

Notes 1. De Pree, M. (2003). Leading without Power. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

2. Mintzberg, H. (1973). The Nature of Managerial Work. New York: Harper &
Row; Eccles, R. G., and Nohria, N. (1991). Beyond the Hype: Rediscovering
the Essence of Management. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
3. Ready, D. A., and Conger, J. A. (2003). Why leadership development efforts
fail. Sloan Management Review 44, No. 3, pp. 83–88.
4. Smith, B. N., Montagno, R. V., and Kuzmenko, T. N. (2004). Transforma-
tional and servant leadership: content and contextual comparisons.
Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies 10, No. 4, pp. 80–92.
5. For more on transformational leadership, see Burns, J. M. (1978). New
York: Harper & Row; Bass, B. M., and Avolio, B. J. (1993). Transformational
leadership: A response to critiques. In M. M. Chemers and R. Ayman (Eds.),
Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions. New York: Free
Press. Smith, Montagno, Kuzmenko (2004); Pounder, J. S. (2008). Transfor-
mational leadership: Practicing what we teach in the management class-
room. Journal of Education for Business 84, No. 1, pp. 2–8.
6. Bass B. M. (1985). Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New
York: Free Press; Bass, B. M. (1996). New Paradigm of Leadership: An
Inquiry into Transformational Leadership. Alexandria, VA: U. S. Army
Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences; Bass, B. M. &
Avolio, B. J. (Eds.). (1994). Improving Organizational Effectiveness through
Transformational Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications;
Smith, Montagno, Kuzmenko (2004).
7. Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of
Legitimate Power and Greatness. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press; Spears, &
28 Section One Core Leadership Communication

L.C., Lawrence, M. (Eds.). (2002). Focus on Leadership: Servant Leadership

for the 21st Century. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
8. Conger, J. A. (2004). Developing leadership capability: What’s inside the
black box? Academy of Management Executive 18, No. 3, pp.136–39.
9. Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full Leadership Development: Building the Vital Forces
in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10. Bowman, G. W., Jones, L. W., Peterson, R. A., Gronouski, J. A., and
Mahoney, R. M. (1964). What helps or harms promotability? Harvard Busi-
ness Review 42, No. 1, pp. 6–18.
11. Original idea for a diagram of the field of communication and their over-
lap is from: Shelby, A. N. (1993), Organizational, business, management,
and corporate communication: An analysis of Boundaries and relation-
ships. Journal of Business Communication, 30, No. 3, pp. 241–67.
12. Roberts, W. R., Trans. (1954). The Rhetoric and Poetics of Aristotle. New
York: Random House, p. 25.
13. Roberts (1954), p. 90.
14. Roberts (1954), p. 91.
15. Kouzes, J. M., and Posner, B. Z. (1993). Credibility: How Leaders Gain It
and Lose It, Why People Demand It. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
16. Roberts (1954), p. 25.
17. Conger, J. A. (1998). The necessary art of persuasion. Harvard Business
Review 76, No. 3, p. 88.
18. Bamlund, D. C. (1962). Toward a meaning-centered philosophy of com-
munication. Journal of Communication 12, pp. 197–211.
19. Cialdini, R. (2001). Harnessing the science of persuasion. Harvard Busi-
ness Review 79, No. 9, pp. 72–80.
20. Conger (1998), p. 87.
21. Butler, J. K., and Cantrell, R. S. (1984). A behavioral decision theory
approach to modeling dyadic trust in superiors and subordinates.
Psychological Reports 55, pp. 19–28.
22. Bass, B. M. (2004), The ethics of transformational leadership. In J. Ciulla
(Ed.), Ethics: The Heart of Leadership, 2nd ed. Westport, CT: Praeger.
23. Podsakoff, P. M., Niehoff, B. P., Moorman, R. H., and Fetter, R (1993).
Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in
leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizen behaviors. Leadership Quar-
terly 1, pp. 107–42.
24. Kouzes and Posner (1993).
25. Solomon, R. (1998). Ethical leadership, emotions, and trust: Beyond
“Charisma.” In J. B. Ciulla (Ed.), Ethics: The Heart of Leadership. Westport,
CT: Quorum Books.
26. Roberts (1954), p. 25.
27. Bass, B. M., and Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character, and authentic trans-
formational leadership behavior. Leadership Quarterly 10, No. 2, p. 186.
28. Ethics Education in Business Schools, AACSB Task Force Report 2004.
29. National Business Ethics Survey 2007, Ethics Resource Center.
Chapter
2
Leadership
Communication
Purpose, Strategy,
and Structure
The direction-setting aspect of leadership does not
produce plans; it creates vision and strategies.
John P. Kotter, “What Leaders Really Do,” Harvard Business Review

Inspiring leaders are very clear on what they are trying to

say. . . . If you want to inspire, you have to find the words.
Carl Rogers described this in terms of two translations—
from an awareness of what you’re experiencing or feeling
that translates into thoughts, and then the translation of
those thoughts into words.
James G. Clawson, “The Inspirational Nature of Level Three
Leadership,” Inspiring Leaders

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Establish a clear communication purpose.

• Develop a communication strategy.
• Analyze audiences.
• Organize written and oral communication effectively.

29
30 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Leaders need to consider their purpose, strategy, and structure early in the
communication process. Strategy consists of two actions: (1) determining
the purpose, goals, or vision of what we want to achieve and (2) develop-
ing how best to achieve the purpose, goals, or vision. When developing a
communication strategy, we first determine exactly what our goal or pur-
pose is in communicating with our audience, and then we decide how
best to accomplish that purpose and connect with that audience.
Communicating with anyone inside or outside an organization with-
out stopping to develop a strategy and analyze the audience could keep
us from connecting with that audience and potentially harm both us
and the organization. In short, not developing a strategy could prevent
messages from reaching audiences as we intend. Exhibit 1.2 in Chapter 1
demonstrates the numerous interruptions that can hinder our message
arriving as we intend and explains that leadership communication
necessitates anticipating the interruptions. A sender can eliminate many
of the interferences or barriers to successful communication by taking
time to develop a strategy and understand the audience.
In this chapter, you will learn to apply communication strategy to
achieve your communication goals, whether those goals involve a
fairly narrow communication activity, such as an e-mail sent to apply
for a job or a presentation to explain your findings in a research pro-
ject, or are part of a larger communication event, such as a merger or
crisis that involves multiple communication channels. Effective com-
munication strategy allows you to anticipate and more likely avoid the
barriers and, therefore, eliminate the interferences that could prevent
your messages from reaching your target audiences.
Effective leadership communication depends on your thinking and
planning strategically, understanding your audience, and structuring your
communication for different situations, delivery methods, and audiences
to ensure that you connect with your audience and deliver your intended
message. You will learn to establish a clear communication purpose,
develop a strategic leadership communication plan, analyze audiences,
and ensure that your message is logically and appropriately organized for
the different audiences you will encounter, whether participating in an
online or offline discussion, delivering a presentation, or creating written
correspondence or reports.

Establishing a Clear Purpose

Leaders recognize that communication has consequences. To ensure that
those consequences are what we intend them to be, we first need to estab-
lish a clear purpose for each communication activity in which we engage.
What do we want our audience to know as a result of reading our e-mail,
following our blog, subscribing to our Twitter, or listening to our presen-
tation? What is our message for them? What do we want them to do?
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 31

In professional communication, we usually have one of four overall

goals:
• To inform—transferring facts, data, or information to someone.
• To persuade—convincing someone to believe or act in a certain way.
• To instruct—instructing someone in a process, procedure, or policy.
• To engage—involving someone in a collaborative exchange of ideas.

Sometimes we may simply want to transfer information and are

expecting no response or action as a result, but most often leadership
communication is action-oriented. We want the receivers to respond,
to follow up, or to do something in response to our communication. To
ensure that their responses or actions conform to our expectations, we
need to be very clear about our specific purpose.

Clarifying the Purpose

Breakdowns in communication frequently occur because we have not
taken enough time to articulate a clear purpose. If we initiate the com-
munication, the purpose emerges from our own thoughts and ideas,
and we may need to generate the ideas to make the purpose clear and
support it. If we are responding to a message sent to us, the sender’s
message may influence our purpose and determine our response. If we
are setting up regular communication through online channels, we
need to ensure that the purpose of that channel is clearly communi-
cated to those who will subscribe or follow.
In some cases, the purpose emerges easily. For example, if we need to
tell our team that we are planning to introduce a new product, our pur-
pose is to inform them of our decision and explain the product. How-
ever, if the product represents a radical departure from our company’s
current strategy or core business, our purpose becomes more complex:
now, we need to persuade them that the decision is a good one, which
may require us to analyze the advantages and disadvantages and gather
support for our argument before we share our decision with them. We
may even need to establish an in-depth rationale that the decision is
valid, which means we should spend time generating ideas and clarify-
ing the advantages and disadvantages so that we can clearly and con-
cisely state our purpose as well as the reasons behind it.
In other cases, the purpose may evolve over time. For example, if we
start a corporate blog, our initial goals may be to inform and instruct
people about our products or offerings. However, as we gain followers, we
may prefer to engage them in conversations that can have a direct impact
on the types of changes we want to make in our product or organization.
Whatever our approach, in this phase of developing a communica-
tion strategy we should not be concerned with organizing or editing
our communication. Rather, we should focus on making our purpose
32 Section One Core Leadership Communication

clear to ourselves and/or our team, which may not even involve begin-
ning to create the communication itself. We need to turn off the com-
puter, put our phones on silent, and let the ideas flow.
Finally, we need to remember that clarifying our purpose is an iter-
ative process; once we start on the next step, we may revisit our pur-
pose and edit it.

Generating Ideas
Once we determine our specific purpose, and sometimes while we are
determining it, we can begin to come up with supporting words and ideas
and explore our thoughts about the subject. In addition, we may need to
make sure that our ideas are complete, particularly if our communication
is complex. In the previous example of introducing a new product, we
would want to explore the pros and cons of introducing the new product
before we attempt to persuade our product team that it is a good idea.
In this stage of developing communications, it is essential that we
free up the creative side of our brain to think about our purpose and
capture all our ideas quickly. We should not try to create and correct at
the same time; the corrective impulse interferes with the creative one
and often shuts down creativity entirely. We need to turn off the inter-
nal censor and let the ideas flow. Try one of these four methods to help
you and your team generate ideas:
1. Brainstorming
Brainstorming in this context is conducting an internal discussion
with ourselves, recording the subject and any ideas related to it as they
occur to us without concern for merit, order, or logic. We might look
for the pros and cons, for instance, or attempt to isolate the main top-
ics and list all examples that come to mind. In this type of individual
brainstorming, we would want to follow the same rules applied in any
well-facilitated group brainstorming session:
• Write down your purpose or overall idea.
• Using free association, list all the words or phrases that come to
mind related to the purpose.
• Remember, no idea is a bad idea, so suspend evaluation and turn off
the internal censor.
• When you run out of ideas, look back over your list to see if any of
the ideas already recorded inspire other ideas.
Some people find that a time limit helps push their thinking; others
find that it hinders them by adding an element of stress. Do what
works best for you.
2. Idea Mapping
Idea mapping, also called mind mapping, is similar to brainstorming
in that we attempt to generate as many ideas as possible related to our
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 33

EXHIBIT 2.1 Generating Ideas through Idea Mapping

Supporting
Idea 1

Supporting Main Idea

Idea 3

Supporting
Idea 2

main topic; it differs in that, instead of a list of ideas, we create a visual

representation of our ideas. We first write our main topic in the mid-
dle of the page, represented by the oval in Exhibit 2.1. Then, we write
down all the ideas that come to mind in relation to this idea, starting
with the most general and working outward.
If you find that this more visual form of idea generation works for
you, you may want to designate different shapes for different kinds of
ideas, but you should not let the visual design slow you down. Again,
you must avoid filtering, editing, or evaluating and let your mind roam
freely from topic to topic.
What you produce may appear random, although patterns will start
to emerge that will help you refine your topic and hone in on what it is
you really want to say. You can then draw similar shapes around
related ideas or color-code them. Later, you can go back and better
organize your idea map, possibly regrouping some topics and remov-
ing others. The goal is to create an exhaustive page of ideas and
thoughts that support your main idea. Then, you might move to a new
page to start collecting the facts and data for each of the supporting
topics, represented by the smaller shapes in Exhibit 2.1.
Note that a real idea map will probably appear more random and
chaotic than this example, but that is as it should be. The goal is to
34 Section One Core Leadership Communication

generate ideas and to attempt to be complete in doing so, not to create

a neatly drawn diagram.

3. The Journalists’ Questions: Who? What? Why? When? Where?

How?
Another useful tool to help us generate ideas is the journalists’ ques-
tions of who, what, why, when, where, and how. Journalists use these
questions to generate ideas for a story. This approach is particularly
useful when working with policy, process, and procedural topics.
For instance, if we were writing an e-mail describing a change in
policy, we would want to establish the following:
a. To whom does the policy apply?
b. What exactly is the policy? What has changed?
c. Why is the policy in place? Why have the changes been made?
d. When does the policy take effect?
e. Where would people needing more information obtain it?
f. How would they obtain it?

4. The Decision Tree

The decision tree is a way to break a topic into its parts, so that we can
see how the subtopics relate and whether we have the right support
and enough support (Exhibit 2.2). It resembles idea mapping but is
more structured and depends on an internal question-and-answer dia-
logue to be most effective. For example, if we were creating a presen-
tation to persuade our organization that it should design and launch a
new educational software package, our argument might be as demon-
strated in Exhibit 2.2.
It may help you to use this approach if you think of it as a dia-
logue, beginning with the main topic, “ABC should design and launch

EXHIBIT 2.2 Supporting topics

An Example of a Topic 1 —
Decision Tree Competitive
analysis

Main argument
Supporting topics
ABC should design Topic 2 —
and launch a new ABC’s strengths
educational software in this area
package this
summer.
Supporting topics
Topic 3 —
Costs/projected
revenue
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 35

a new educational software package this summer.” This assertion

leads to a series of “why” questions. The answers become the sup-
porting topics. The why answers are (1) because no one else is com-
peting in this space, (2) because we have the internal capabilities to
design and launch the product efficiently and effectively, and (3)
because the costs would be low and the revenue potential high. Then,
in developing the supporting topics, you would provide the data and
facts for each of these. Once you have finished with the decision tree,
you will probably have a very complete argument and will be ready to
develop the communication strategy to deliver it.

Connecting Thinking and Communicating

Using these methods of generating ideas can help us clarify our pur-
pose and our thinking. Our thinking and our communicating are inter-
twined and clearly dependent on each other. If our thinking is
muddled, our communication will be; if our communication is mud-
dled, it is probably because our thinking is as well.
In “Clear Writing Means Clear Thinking Means . . . ,” Marvin H.
Swift demonstrates the connection of clear thinking to clear writing
and presents a very instructive example of how the relationship of
writing and thinking might work when drafting a memo.1 Here is the
first draft of the memo:

First Draft of the Memo

To: All Employees

From: Samuel Edwards, General Manager
Subject: Abuse of Copiers

It has recently been brought to my attention that many of the people who
are employed by this company have taken advantage of their positions by
availing themselves of the copiers. More specifically, these machines are
being used for other than company business. Obviously, such practice is
contrary to company policy and must cease and desist immediately. I wish
therefore to inform all concerned—those who have abused policy or will be
abusing it—that their behavior cannot and will not be tolerated.
Accordingly, anyone in the future who is unable to control himself will
have his employment terminated. If there are any questions about
company policy, please feel free to contact this office.

Source: Swift, M. H. (1973). Clear writing means clear thinking means . . . Harvard Business Review,
January–February, p. 59. Used by permission of Harvard Business School Publishing, all rights reserved.
36 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Notice that the tone in this first draft is accusatory and angry. The
writer isolates himself from his audience and refers to the employees
as “the people who are employed by this company.” With his subject
line, “Abuse of Copiers,” and the statement that employees will be “ter-
minated,” he creates a negative tone, making it doubtful that anyone
would feel “free” to contact his office with questions.
If his purpose is to inform the employees of the problem, he has
done that; however, if he thinks, as a leader should, about how best to
motivate his followers, or as in this case, his employees, this memo
would not accomplish his purpose. It would not create cooperation or
support for him, the company, or the policy. Instead, it could alienate
him from his employees and cause resentment.
As Swift discusses, when the writer wrote the first draft, his emotions
were clouding his thinking. He was not thinking clearly and his writing
shows it. After considerably more thought, particularly about how his
audience would perceive his message and how he wanted them to
respond, he rewrote his memo several times to yield the final version.

The Final Draft of the Memo

To: All Employees

From: Samuel Edwards, General Manager
Subject: Use of Copiers

We are revamping our policy on the use of copiers for personal matters. In
the past, we have not encouraged personnel to use them for such purposes
because of the costs involved. But we also recognize, perhaps belatedly,
that we can solve the problem if each of us pays for what he takes.

We are therefore putting these copiers on the pay-as-you-go basis. The

details are simple enough . . .

Source: Swift, M. H. (1973). Clear writing means clear thinking means . . . , Harvard Business Review,
January–February, p. 60. Used with permission of Harvard Business School Publishing, all rights reserved.

In this final version, he is showing much more consideration for his

audience and thinking about how best to motivate them. It does a much
better job of accomplishing his purpose. His positive tone is more effec-
tive than the negative tone of the first draft. He now uses “we,” which
brings him and the employees together. The style is also more concise
and the content clearer. He is no longer isolating himself from his
employees and projecting a threatening, punitive image. He has assumed
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 37

a positive ethos. This version will achieve the results he intended—to stop
the misuse of the copiers—without alienating his employees.
This example also demonstrates one test you can use to see if your
purpose is clear—the use of an effective subject line (or a title in a
longer document or presentation). A subject line should capture the
purpose of your memo or e-mail and set the tone. Notice the difference
in the negative “Abuse of Copiers” and the more neutral “Use of
Copiers.” If you find yourself struggling to create a subject line that
clearly reveals your intention in an e-mail or a memo, or a title that
specifically tells your audience the purpose of your report or presenta-
tion, then your purpose may not be clear in your own mind. If it is not
clear to you, it will certainly not be clear to your audience.
This example illustrates the importance of clarifying your purpose
before communicating it to others. It underscores that clear thinking
about purpose as well as the audience yields clearer, more effective
communication. Your purpose establishes the direction you want to go
and the results you intend to achieve with your messages, which sets
the stage for you to develop a strategy to accomplish those results.

Determining Communication Strategy

Once we have clarified our purpose, we are ready to engage in the more
tactical side of communication strategy. Effective communication—
whether a simple e-mail, a complex report, a meeting, or a presentation—
requires going beyond clarity of purpose to the plan for accomplishing
our purpose, the second essential step in any good strategy. At this
point, communication strategy shifts to determining how to achieve
our communication objectives within the context surrounding the
communication.

Considering the Communication Context

All communication occurs in a context of interrelated conditions that
surround it. Leadership communication never exists in a vacuum. As
we define our purpose and develop our strategy, we need to recognize
the context in which the communication occurs. Before we create any
form of communication, we need to stop and assess our context. The
following questions should help in that assessment:
1. What else is going on in the world, industry, distribution channel, or
organization that will affect how the audience will receive this com-
munication?
2. Where does the communication fall in the overall flow of communi-
cation—first or last?
3. What has happened before and after?
38 Section One Core Leadership Communication

4. What are the organizational implications?

5. What are the people implications?
6. What does the audience know or believe about the context, com-
pared with what the sender knows or believes?
7. What are the audience’s expectations of this communication channel?
8. What are the cultural differences I should consider?
Understanding the context is essential to helping us ensure we cre-
ate and develop our messages, so that our audiences listen to and
accept them as we intend. Our audiences can be easily distracted by
the noise around them, causing them to misunderstand our message,
reject it, or miss it entirely. For example, in times of economic turmoil,
any mention of cost-cutting measures can cause employees to become
anxious and worry that their jobs may be in jeopardy, even if the com-
pany has no intention of letting anyone go. That does not mean the
company cannot send the message, but it does mean it needs to word
the message to reassure the employees as much as possible.
A specific example of a disconnect between the context and the mes-
sages occurred a few years ago, when a company announced the lay-
offs of a large number of its employees at the same time that is was
promoting its high-profile golf tournament. When the company met
with the employees to announce the layoffs, the employees angrily
pointed to the company’s spending money for the tournament. The
management team was unprepared for such a response, since they had
not considered the context of the tournament as they developed their
announcement.
The employees’ anger carried over into the public domain, causing
the community to question the company’s integrity and hurting its
business and reputation for years following the event. In today’s envi-
ronment, this anger could have spilled over into employees’ blogs and
Twitter accounts and other social media, creating a buzz that would be
difficult for the company’s public relations and marketing teams to
quell—a high price to pay for not considering context.
Leaders need to be sensitive to what is going on around them and
consider the contexts of the messages they send; otherwise, they risk
their messages’ getting lost and perhaps alienating their audiences to
such an extent that they will have difficulty regaining their attention
and trust.

Using a Strategy Framework

Our strategic communication planning can be complex or simple, but
we should approach it with a clearly defined method, ideally one that
calls on our analytical skills, just as we would call on these skills for any
problem we needed to solve. The Communication Strategy Framework
(Exhibit 2.3) illustrates an approach to establishing a communication
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 39

EXHIBIT 2.3 Context

Communication
Strategy
Framework
Purpose
Timing
Feedback
Messages

Media/
Communicator
forum

Audiences

strategy that will ensure that we consider all of the angles and antici-
pate any issues that might emerge to interfere with communicating the
message we want to deliver.
We need to consider each of the components in the framework: the
purpose, messages, media/forum, timing, and communicator. At the
base are our audiences, the foundation on which all of these other
strategy components rest. Audience analysis is critical to any commu-
nication strategy and is so important that the next section of this chap-
ter discusses it at length. In addition to analyzing our audience, we
need to devise a method for assessing the impact of our communica-
tion on our audience through a feedback loop.
Using a framework helps us develop the “how-to” side of our com-
munication strategy. We can and should use it for all types of commu-
nication activities before we send any messages, even in day-to-day
communication, but it is particularly important in complex, critical
situations, such as mergers and acquisitions, crises, and major change
programs.
Exhibit 2.4 provides representative questions we should ask in ana-
lyzing each of the strategy components in the framework.
Our purpose guides the direction of our communication strategy,
and in an organizational context, that purpose should link directly to
the overall strategy. We may have one overall purpose or many,
depending on the complexity of the communication situation. We may
also have several messages that have to be tailored to different media
and target audiences. Our overall purpose and overarching message
should be consistent from group to group; however, the emphasis, the
submessages, and the expected reactions may differ from audience to
40 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 2.4 Component Key Questions to Ask Yourself

Key Questions in
Developing a Purpose What is my objective or what do I want to accomplish?
Communication Do I have different but related purposes for different
Strategy audiences?
How does my purpose relate to and support the organi-
zation’s strategy?
Message What is my overall message?
How do I formulate my message to make it acceptable to
my audience(s)?
What do I expect others to do because of my message?
What are my supporting messages?
Do they differ for each audience?
Medium/Forum What is the most effective means or channel for
reaching each audience (e-mail, blog, memo, letter,
meeting, speech, podcast, etc.)?
Do I need to consider costs, logistics, or other practical
matters in selecting my communication medium or forum?
Communicator Am I the best person to deliver the message?
If not, who should deliver the message(s)?
Who would be the most credible or otherwise effective
communicator for different messages or audiences?
Timing Does timing matter?
If so, when should the message(s) be delivered and in
what order?
Audiences Who are my primary audiences? Secondary? Accidental?
What are their interests in this situation? What are their
stakes in the outcomes?
How will they be affected by my messages?
How should I ask for feedback from this audience?
Feedback How will I determine if my audience is receiving my
messages as I intend?
How will I measure or assess the impact?

audience. For example, investors may applaud a merger of one com-

pany with another, yet employees may be fearful and unhappy.
In addition, with more complex communications, such as those that
affect the entire organization, the organization may need different
communicators for different audiences and messages, and it will need
to select the spokespersons carefully. In a merger or acquisition, for
instance, both organizations will have several communicators and
slightly different messages for the different audiences. The communi-
cator could include the chief executive officer, chief financial officer,
and chief public affairs officer, as well as the entire management team,
area supervisors, and local representatives.
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 41

EXHIBIT 2.5 Example of Communication Strategy Analysis for a Merger (portion only)

Target Communi-
Audience Medium Purpose Message cator Timing
Investment Meetings/ Inspire confidence in A strategic move CEO Day of
community Internet company’s stability designed to make announcement
and value both companies
stronger
Local media Press Generate positive Good for the CEOs of both Day of
conference/ public opinion and local economy companies announcement
Blogs allay any fears of and the people of
changes in their the community
services
National Press Generate positive Good move for Public affairs Day of
media release/ public opinion and the industry, official announcement
calls/ reassure potential sound financial
Internet investors move, etc.
Employees E-mail/ Keep good employees Good for all CEO, senior Right after
(acquirer) IM/ from leaving and employees, management announcement
meetings reassure all that the creating stronger team
company is stable company, secure
future for all
Employees E-mail/IM Keep good employees No layoffs, no CEO, senior Right after
(acquired) meetings in place and make major changes management announcement
them as comfortable will occur (only if team
as possible this is true)

Keep in mind as well that employees will become spokespersons for

your organization; they will carry messages to others through e-mail,
social networking sites, personal blogs, and the like. Part of any com-
munication strategy should include proactively managing these mes-
sages and planning to respond to them.
Exhibit 2.5 illustrates how an organization might use the frame-
work to develop a strategy for communicating a merger. It represents
an excerpt from an actual strategy developed for a merger between two
major high-profile companies. The complete communication strategy
in this case consisted of several pages of an Excel spreadsheet contain-
ing over 25 different audiences and messages and with the timing bro-
ken down to minutes before and just after the merger announcement.

Creating an Action Plan

If preparing for a major communication event, or any communication
that will reach multiple audiences and affect an entire organization,
you will want to develop your communication strategy through an
overall action plan similar to the one illustrated in Exhibit 2.6. The
major phases of the strategy development and implementation are
42 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 2.6
Three-Phased
rform analysis
Communication 1: Pe p strategy /
Action Plan se elo
ha dev

strate g y
ent efin e/
P h a s e dj u s

:R
pl se 2
a

em
3: t st

im h a
M r

P
on
it
at or
eg res
y u lt s
/

analysis, implementation, and assessment. The illustration suggests

that the process is iterative, since you will probably find that you need
to make adjustments once you begin to implement the strategy.
In Phase 1, you should use the strategy framework or a similar ana-
lytical tool to guide the analysis and frame the strategy. You then
develop and communicate the plan. Finally, you monitor the impact
and assess the success or failure of the communication strategy.
The previous merger example represents a portion of a much larger
plan resulting from the analysis performed in Phase 1. Then, in Phase 2,
the messages were transmitted to the identified audiences through the
appropriate medium. In Phase 3, the organization conducted a survey
to determine how well the merger messages had been received, so that
they could adjust the approaches if necessary. For more about how you
might develop a complex communication strategy, see Chapter 11
on change communication and employee communication in Section 3
of this text.
To summarize, effective communication depends on clarifying the
purpose; developing a thorough, thoughtful communication strategy;
and having an action plan for more complex communication.

Analyzing Audiences
Analyzing an audience is fundamental to any communication strategy,
since the characteristics of audiences will determine the approach and
shape the targeted messages. As the communication strategy frame-
work illustrates, audience is the foundation on which all of the other
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 43

EXHIBIT 2.7 Audience Medium Purpose Approach

Audience
Expertise Table Layperson/ Magazine article To entertain Make interesting and practical
nonexpert Newsletter To inform Give background
Source: Table created
based on information from
Pamphlet To engage Define terms
Houp, K. W., Pearsall, T. E., Blog, Twitter Use narratives and analogy
& Tebeaux, E. (2000).
Reporting Technical
Executive E-mail To inform Focus on decision making
Information, 9th ed. New Memo To persuade Keep simple
York: Oxford University Presentation Be honest and direct
Press. Used by permission
of Oxford University Report Give conclusions and
Press, Inc. recommendations early
Expert Journal article To inform State the how and why
Report Present limited back-
Professional ground information
network/ Use language of the discipline
blog State inferences and conclusions
White paper Cite numerous references
Technical Reports To inform State the how and why
Procedure To instruct Provide limited background
Professional/ information
network/blog To persuade Keep practical/avoid theory
White Paper
Combined E-mail To inform Avoid technical language
(diverse) Memo and jargon
Report To instruct Use sections, divisions,
Blog To persuade and headings
Define terms/limit technical
Twitter
information to appendixes
Keep prose clean, concise,
and simple

components in the framework rest. A leader addresses many different

audiences, making it difficult to generalize about what approach to use
in all circumstances; therefore, we need to analyze our audience in
every communication situation and should approach each audience as
unique. Four approaches to analyzing an audience are (1) by expertise,
(2) by decision-making style, (3) by medium, and (3) by organizational
context.

By Expertise
Exhibit 2.7 demonstrates approaching audiences by analyzing their
levels of expertise. The exhibit shows the different media, purposes,
and approaches to use with the different levels of knowledge and expe-
rience of audiences to ensure that they are receptive to the messages.
Research on how organizations learn has found that companies
consist of communities of practice.2 Communities of practice are
44 Section One Core Leadership Communication

groups that have common interests or a common knowledge base and

interact frequently. The group could be a work group, a team, a func-
tion, a department, or even a company.
Individuals within a community of practice have a common knowl-
edge base and usually a similar level of expertise. For example, the
industries in which an organization functions will share knowledge
and expertise, although within each of the organizations, individuals
will have different specific areas of focus and greater depth in one
area. In the energy industry, the exploration geologists, the petroleum
engineers, and the geophysicists within a company may differ in
degrees and in fundamental understanding of the science within their
industry, but they have a common vocabulary and some shared knowl-
edge and can be communicated with effectively using similar language
and media—that suggested in the “Expert” and “Technical” rows in
Exhibit 2.7, for instance.
In a university setting, the departments represent communities of
practice; however, the professors and students within the departments
are not limited to the knowledge represented in one subject area, and
an approach to communication to professors in engineering could
safely be used with professors in biology, or the approach used with
professors of history could resemble that used with professors of English.
Again, most likely we would want to approach them as Exhibit 2.7 sug-
gests we approach experts and technical people.
When joining an organization early in our career, we usually join
fellow experts, and we learn to communicate using the jargon of that
discipline. As we move up in an organization, we begin to communi-
cate more with individuals outside our area of expertise and our audi-
ences become broader, more diverse, and less technical. The result is
that we have to shift our approach to one we would use with a com-
bined or nonexpert audience.
Leaders need to communicate to audiences with a range of expertise
from the layperson, or nonexpert, to the technical or highly specialized
individual. Taking time to think through these different levels of audi-
ence expertise and interests before or even as we develop our docu-
ments and presentations will help us ensure that our audiences
understand and accept our messages.

By Decision-Making Style
When we seek a decision from our audience, we want to consider their
decision-making style to ensure that we use a communication
approach that is persuasive to them. In a Harvard Business Review arti-
cle, Gary A. Williams and Robert B. Miller provide one useful
approach to analyzing decision-making styles and argue that “persua-
sion works best when it’s tailored to five distinct decision-making styles.”
Their research indicates that “more than half of all sales presentations
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 45

EXHIBIT 2.8 Decision-Making Styles

Style Characteristics Communication Approach
Charismatics Talkative, captivating Begin with bottom line
Easily intrigued by new ideas Focus on results
Make decisions based on information, Present straightforward arguments
not emotions Use visual aids
Thinkers Intelligent, logical, academic Openly communicate any concerns
Impressed by arguments supported by data up front
Tend to be risk averse Have lots of data ready
Need time to come to their own conclusions Provide all perspectives
Be prepared to go through methods
Be prepared for silence
Skeptics Demanding, suspicious of every fact Build credibility in yourself and your
Aggressive, almost combative style ideas by enlisting the help of someone
Need to trust someone to believe their ideas they trust
Don’t like being challenged or made to Emphasize the credibility of your sources
look uninformed in any way Make arguments as concrete as possible,
using specific examples
Followers Cautious, responsible Present proven methods, references,
Risk averse and testimonials
Prefer innovative applications of proven Show how the idea is safe yet innovative
solutions Use case studies
Make decisions based on track records, Present options
theirs or others’ Provide details
Controllers Logical, unemotional, sensible, detail- Carefully structure your argument
oriented, analytical Provide details from experts
Abhor uncertainty and ambiguity Don’t push too hard
Focus on the facts and analytics of Provide the facts and leave them
an argument to decide

Source: Adapted and reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. From “Change the way you persuade,” by G.A. Williams & R.B.
Miller, 80 (5), pp. 65–74. Copyright © 2002 by Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.

are mismatched to the decision-maker’s style.”3 Exhibit 2.8 explains

the styles they identify.
In any situation, internal or external to an organization, knowing
how the audience makes decisions will help us target our messages
appropriately. We should try to anticipate our audience’s response,
considering very carefully what they will do after reading what we
have written or hearing what we have to say. We should try to adopt
the audience’s point of view, assume the “you attitude.” What is it
that they need to hear to agree with our message? What will appeal
to them? What will help them make the decision we want them
to make?
46 Section One Core Leadership Communication

By Medium
It is important to consider an audience’s expectations for communica-
tion based on the medium through which they receive that communi-
cation. For example, employees may not expect to respond directly to
the CEO if she sends an e-mail through a distribution list but may feel
very differently if the same CEO puts a post on her blog. Likewise, cus-
tomers interacting with our organization’s Twitter accounts expect to
be able to carry on online conversations if they desire, so we should be
prepared to answer any tweets we receive if we interact through that
medium.

By Organizational Context
It is also helpful when analyzing our audiences to consider the organi-
zational context. Where are they, what do they know, and what do they
need to know? When we communicate professionally, we are communi-
cating within an organizational context. Whether the communication is
simple or complex, we need to think carefully about organizational rela-
tionships and how they affect motivation. The questions in Exhibit 2.9
are designed to help not only determine who our audience is but also
understand better what motivates them in a particular organizational
context.
While most often communication may be too rapid to allow us to
answer all of these questions every time we send a message, and in
many cases our familiarity with the audience will minimize the need
for analysis, with any important correspondence or report we should
at least be able to articulate very clearly our purpose in writing to them

EXHIBIT 2.9 1. Does the communication respond to a previous communication or par-

Questions to ticular request? If so, what? Where is this communication in the overall
Clarify Audience flow of communication?
and Organizational 2. What is the organizational context for this communication?
Context 3. Who are the primary audiences (the persons who will act) and who
are the secondary audiences? Who might be an unintended or
accidental audience?
4. If they are the decision makers, what motivates them and how do you
best persuade them?
5. If they are not the decision makers, what is their relationship to the
decision maker?
6. How much do they know about the subject? What do they need to know?
7. What do I expect them to do in response to this communication?
8. How do I expect them to feel?
9. What do they have to gain or lose by accepting my ideas/recommendations?
10. How will this communication affect the organization?
11. Overall, what do I expect to happen as a result of this communication?
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 47

and our expectations of the audience as a result of this communica-

tion. This clarity of purpose combined with a good sense of our audi-
ence supports any successful communication strategy.

Organizing Communication Effectively

Once we have clarified our purpose, conducted our audience analysis,
and created a strategy, we are ready to select the best structure for
organizing our communication as the audience will see or hear it. The
organization of our communication needs to be part of our early think-
ing and planning because the audience and our relationship to them
determines how best to deliver our messages. We may use a rough out-
line, decision tree, or other device to organize our thinking as we
develop our ideas, but we need to stop and ask if that structure is the
best way to communicate this message to this audience.
Structure depends on purpose, messages, audience, and strategy.
For instance, if our purpose is to persuade a hostile audience, we
might want to begin indirectly, saving our main message or recom-
mendation for the end. If we are addressing a decision maker who
needs to see details before making a decision, we may want to pre-
sent the facts upfront. If we are in a culture where relationships are
valued more than results, we might want to begin by talking about
general, nonbusiness topics before introducing the main subject of
the communication. If, however, our audience consists of typical,
busy U.S. executives, we will need to get to the main subject quickly,
right upfront, or we risk losing their attention and trying their
patience.
In thinking about our communication, we need to adopt the per-
spective of the audience and select and organize our information
specifically for them. If we used the decision tree or idea mapping to
develop our ideas, we already began to organize them and have
selected and discarded some information. We can now shift to focus-
ing on the logical ordering of our writing or speech for the audience.
In the case of text messages, instant messaging, and microblogging,
we may not need to organize every outgoing message that carefully.
However, we still need to ensure that any message sent through these
and other social media fit into our overall plan for the structure and
usage of those media. In other words, we need to organize our
approach, even if we do not always need to organize our immediate
message fully.
You may find the following questions helpful to determine the best
approach to organizing your communication:
• What is the most effective way to open communication with this
audience?
48 Section One Core Leadership Communication

• How should I arrange the information I provide to ensure that the

audience will follow the discussion easily, understand the main
ideas, and be receptive to the information?
• What is the most effective way to end this communication?
Our audiences are busy, just as we are, and will be much more likely to
respond positively to a blog post, an e-mail, or any other communica-
tion if we use the following guidelines:
• Get right to the main message.
• Stay on topic.
• Establish relevance to them.
• Organize the communication to be immediately accessible and rel-
evant to their decision-making process.
How you open your communication will depend on audience analy-
sis. The general rule for professional communication, however, is that
our purpose for writing or speaking usually comes first. Back-
ground information is included only if we need it to establish a context
for our communication or our relationship to the problem addressed.
Likewise, we should place our recommendations at the beginning
unless we have a specific reason for delaying them. If we delay the con-
clusions or recommendations until the end, many readers will go look-
ing for them anyway, and listeners will become impatient waiting for
them. Our audience wants to know immediately why we are writing or
speaking to them. Therefore, with most business audiences, we need to
deliver our main message immediately.
How we organize our communication once we move into the body
of our discussion will depend on our analysis of our audience; how-
ever, the logic of the entire document or presentation, as well as that of
each section of it, should be obvious to anyone. Our argument should
be so logical that anyone can follow our reasoning and understand
why one point follows another.

Selecting Organizational Devices

Usually, we use one or more of the following methods to organize indi-
vidual sections and even the entire document or presentation:
1. Deduction (general to particular)—conclusions or recommenda-
tion, then the supporting facts, arguing from general principles to
specific situations.
2. Induction (particular to general)—supporting information, facts
that build to the conclusions or recommendations.
3. Chronological—first, second, and so forth, used to describe a process
or procedure or relate events in the order they occurred as a narrative.
4. Cause/effect—because of X and Y, Z happened; a powerful and
common form of analysis.
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 49

5. Comparison/contrast—similarities, then differences.

6. Problem/solution—explanation of the situation or problem, fol-
lowed by ways to solve it.
7. Spatial—relationships of steps, pieces, or items to each other.
Frequently, the structure of our communication is either deductive
or inductive. If deductive, we begin with an overarching argument or
general principle, and then we provide levels of facts grouped logically
by topic to support our major assertion. If inductive, we present our
facts or groupings of facts first and build our argument from point to
point, ending with a “therefore” and our conclusion.

Using the Pyramid Principle

In The Pyramid Principle, Barbara Minto illustrates how to structure an
effective discussion in a business context by applying classical deduc-
tive and inductive logic.4 The approach can be very helpful in ensuring
that an argument is logical, complete, and effective in reaching differ-
ent types of audiences in all contexts.
The Pyramid Principle emphasizes the “top-down” approach to orga-
nizing and presenting a message. It consists of one overarching sum-
mary statement, with levels of support linked in a dialogue (answering
why, what, or how) below it. This dialogue is similar to the approach we
use to create a decision tree to generate ideas. We start with our con-
clusion or recommendation at the top and then work through the levels
of support, testing each level to make sure it answers “why,” “what,” or
“how” for the level above it (Exhibit 2.10).

EXHIBIT 2.10 Example of a Pyramid

BankCorp should
launch its new
bank card in China

Why?

China is an A card in China Implementation

attractive market would be profitable would be easy

Why? Why? Why?

Already
Political There are Costs Potential Marketing
have staff
climate is no major would be revenue is plan is
on the
favorable competitors low high developed
ground
50 Section One Core Leadership Communication

The Pyramid Principle is governed by the following rules:

1. The pyramid must be Mutually Exclusive, Collectively Exhaustive
(MECE). That means that the topics at each level should not overlap
with each other and that the evidence to support each should be bal-
anced and as complete as necessary and reasonable.
2. Each level must summarize the ideas grouped below it.
3. The “ideas in each grouping must always be the same kind of idea.”5
4. The “ideas in each grouping must always be logically ordered.”6
Placing the levels in a sentence is helpful to test the logic and flow of
a pyramid-structured argument. The sentence should make sense, flow
easily, and be parallel. For example, for the pyramid in Exhibit 2.10,
the sentence would read
BankCorp should launch its new bankcard in China because China is an
attractive market, a card in China would be profitable, and implementa-
tion would be easy.

Using the Pyramid Principle helps us structure a complete and logi-

cal argument. As we create the pyramid, we can easily see gaps in our
evidence, establish the balance of our argument, and determine if each
level logically supports the next. We can see if we have too much sup-
port for any one topic and not enough for another. A pyramid also
makes it easy for us to see that each level of our argument clearly and
logically supports the level above it and that we have not duplicated
support under any of the topic boxes. In addition, drawing a pyramid
helps if we are working with a team to create a document or presenta-
tion. With all topics and supporting details visually displayed, we can
easily divide the topics into tasks, avoid duplication of effort, and
determine quickly where the team needs to do more analysis.

Creating a Storyboard
Another technique for working out and mapping the structure of a
document or presentation is a storyboard. A storyboard is particularly
useful when working in a team to prepare a presentation. It allows
everyone to see the logical flow and encourages each team member to
imagine the individual graphics needed to support each idea. It also
helps in dividing these pieces up for completion by the individual team
members (Exhibit 2.11).
This storyboard contains what is called “ghost” slides, which sug-
gest the content without actually showing it. They work well in helping
us select the types of charts that would best support our conclusions
and work particularly well with a team, making it easier to divide the
slides up across the team members as they complete the data gather-
ing necessary to fill in the information.
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 51

EXHIBIT 2.11 Launching a New Agenda Recommendation

Example of a Bank Card in China
Storyboard for a • Recommendation We should launch
Presentation, Marketing Task • Market analysis our new bank card Market Analysis
Force Report • Profitability
Video, or Podcast in China as soon
• Implementation as possible
November 20, 2004

Regional Cultural Profile Business Climate Market Shares

Demographics
• Xxxxxxx
• Xxxxxxxxxx
• Xxxxxxx
• Xxxxxxxx

Cost Summary Cost Breakdown Revenue

• Xxxxxxx
Profitability • Xxxxxxxxxx
• Xxxxxxx
• Xxxxxxxx

Marketing Plan Implementation Plan Next Steps

• Xxxxxxx • Xxxxxxx
Implementation • Xxxxxxxxxx • Xxxxxxxxxx
• Xxxxxxx • Xxxxxxx
• Xxxxxxxx • Xxxxxxxx

Ensuring a tight, logical organization for any communication is an

important step in creating documents and presentations that deliver
our intended messages to audiences so that they are receptive to them.
Using a plan or map of the argument, whether a pyramid, an outline, a
decision tree, or a storyboard, will strengthen simple messages and is
essential in more complex communication. We should always establish
a logical structure and think carefully about the organizational devices
that will work best with our different audiences.
This chapter has focused on clarifying messages and developing a
communication strategy, both essential skills for anyone wanting to
master leadership communication. In addition, the chapter has illus-
trated how best to generate and organize ideas, so that they will reach
different audiences as intended. Applying the principles and guidelines
in this chapter to all the types of communication discussed in the
remaining chapters of the book will help ensure that whatever type of
communication activity involved will more likely accomplish the pur-
pose and result in the action the sender of the message desires, which
is the hallmark of effective leadership communication.
52 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Application 2.1 The Case: Superior Foods Corporation Faces a Challenge

Communicating On his way to the plant office, Jason Starnes passed by the production line
Bad News where hundreds of gloved, uniformed workers were packing sausages and
processed meats for shipment to grocery stores around the world.
Jason’s company, Superior Foods Corporation, based in Wichita, Kansas,
employed 30,000 people in eight countries and had beef and pork processing
plants in Arkansas, California, Milwaukee, and Nebraska City. Since a landmark
United States–Japan trade agreement signed in 1988, markets had opened up for
major exports of American beef, now representing 10 percent of U.S. production.
Products called “variety meats”—including intestines, hearts, brains, and
tongues—were very much in demand for export to international markets.
Jason was in Nebraska City to talk with the plant manager, Ben Schroeder,
about the U.S. outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow dis-
ease) and its impact on the plant. On December 23, 2008, the U.S. Department
of Agriculture had announced that bovine spongiform encephalopathy had
been discovered in a Holstein cow in Washington State. The global reaction
was swift: Seven countries imposed either total or partial bans on the impor-
tation of U.S. beef, and thousands of people were chatting about it on blogs
and social networking sites. Superior had moved quickly to intercept a con-
tainer load of frozen Asian-bound beef from its shipping port in Los Angeles,
and all other shipments were on hold.
After walking into Ben’s office, Jason sat down across from him and said,
“Ben, your plant has been a top producer of variety meats for Superior, and we
have appreciated all your hard work out here. Unfortunately, it looks like we
need to limit production for a while—at least three months, or until the bans
get relaxed. I know Senator Nelson is working hard to get the bans lifted. In
the meantime, we need to shut down production and lay off about 25 percent
of your workers. I know it is going to be difficult, and I’m hoping we can work
out a way to communicate this to your employees.”

The Assignment
After reading the Superior Foods case, complete the following actions.
1. Clarify your purpose(s) for communicating with the employees at the
Nebraska plant. Consider what the employees will want to know and how
they will need to feel about Superior Foods.
2. Use one of the idea-generation approaches introduced in this chapter to
determine your primary messages.
3. Draft a message to the employees, paying very careful attention to the orga-
nization and presentation method.

Source: Case developed by Beth O’Sullivan and assignment by Deborah J. Barrett, Rice
University, 2004. Used with permission.

Application 2.2 The Case: Spree Cruise Lines

Developing At 9:00 a.m. on Monday, Tara Hoopes, manager of corporate communications
Communication for Spree Cruise Lines, arrived at her office at Spree’s corporate headquarters
to find several messages already in her inbox. The New Orleans city attorney,
Strategy
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 53

Mike Litke, had contacted several people at corporate headquarters, suggesting

that the company may be liable for damages to two buildings close to where
their latest cruise vessel had launched, and people in the company wanted to
know how to approach discussing the situation with him and others.

Please call the investor relations Please call the City Attorney
office at ext. 3620 — need to in New Orleans—she’s claiming
discuss the upcoming shareholder that several small, historic
meeting. buildings incurred foundation
and mortar damage yesterday.
Thinks it might have been
caused by vibrations from the
Sensation leaving.

The 750-foot Sensation had set sail from New Orleans on Sunday afternoon,
bound for a five-night cruise to Cozumel and Cancun. Tara checked the statis-
tics on the vessel and its itinerary:
• Built in 1984, cruising speed 20 knots, gross tonnage 50,000, slated for
dry-dock repairs in several months.
• Carrying 1,200 passengers on board, mostly U.S. Americans, about 35 per-
cent under age 35, 40 percent between the ages of 35 and 55, and the
remainder senior citizens.
• Staffed by Captain Hernan Galati, Chief Engineer Scotty Ferguson, and
veteran Cruise Director Ned Carnahan. Additional staff on board: 650 crew
members representing 20 countries.
• Cruising to Cozumel with a Sunday departure, followed by a day at sea on
Monday and arrival in Cozumel on Tuesday morning. On Tuesday night,
was scheduled to depart for Cancun, docking there all day Wednesday
before returning to New Orleans on Friday.
Tara reached for the phone just as it rang. Ned Carnahan and Captain Galati
were on the line. Before she could tell them about the full situation in New
Orleans, they presented her with some problems of their own.

Sunday Night Aboard the Sensation

Ron and Marilyn Nelson stood on the stern deck, enjoying the view. It had
been an exciting day, watching the huge ship dwarf the buildings on shore as
they departed New Orleans. They had already explored the ship, delighted to
find an Internet café, a sushi bar, two pools, and the rock-climbing wall. They
had listened carefully to the announcements over the ship’s public address sys-
tem and had skimmed the Spree Fun, the ship’s newsletter, which listed a wide
array of excursions to book before their arrival on shore. As they had waited in
line to book their excursions, Marilyn noticed the weather maps hanging on
the wall in the main deck lobby.
54 Section One Core Leadership Communication

“Looks like a tropical storm over in the Bay of Campeche,” she noted.
“Don’t worry,” Ron said. “This is a huge vessel, and its engines are strong
enough to outrun any storm!” Ron was an ocean engineer by trade, and he was
an authority on anything that floated on or happened under water. He added,
“We’re on vacation—let’s enjoy it!”
They booked a catamaran sail/snorkel trip and a horseback-riding excur-
sion to visit the Mayan ruins at Tulum, leaving plenty of time for shopping in
Cozumel and Cancun.
Now, standing on the stern of the vessel, there was no evidence of a storm.
Ron and Marilyn watched the two wakes made by the twin engines—frothy
white foam that trailed from the ship into a moonlit sea. They went down the
back staircase into a quiet, unused bar and lounge area. The glassware on the
metal shelving was clinking together loudly, making an eerie echo across the
room. Other parts of the ship were noisy with the voices of excited passengers,
but as they passed into the quiet cigar lounge, they could clearly hear a loud,
rhythmic bumping sound. Ron remarked, “There is something wrong here; it
sounds like the dual engine props aren’t synchronized.”
Later that night, Marilyn could not sleep. It seemed that the vibration was get-
ting worse and the plastic grids over the lighting system in the cabin were rattling
loudly. Concerned, she got up and went to the Internet café to check information
about cruise ships. Were they meant to make so much noise? She chatted with a
couple of friends online, who told her that they hadn’t had noise like that on their
cruises, which only worried worry her more. Finally, she posted to her Facebook
status: “Listening to the loud vibration on the Sensation—been going on for
hours. Should I be worried?” Responses began coming in quickly, and soon Mar-
ilyn’s network was re-posting the news in other places. The buzz had begun.

In the Captain’s Quarters

At 6:00 a.m. Monday morning, Scotty Ferguson, chief engineer, knocked at
Captain Galati’s door. He said, “Sir, the propulsion unit running the left engine
prop won’t hold up—we’ve got to shut it down. Running it could result in per-
manent damage, but we might have to restart if we need the full 20-knot
engine speed to outrun the storm later in the cruise.”
“Scotty, are you sure?” asked the captain. “It will take us three days to reach
Cozumel if we travel on half power. And we’ll have to skip Cancun and turn
right around to get back to dock by Friday. The guests have already booked
their on-shore excursions. Let’s get Ned up here.”
Ned, the cruise director, grumbled to himself as his stateroom phone rang.
He thought to himself, Just one last cruise on this old ship; corporate promised
I could move to a European route if I just finished this one last cruise. He
spoke briefly with the captain and told him he would be right up.
On his way to the captain’s quarters, he thought about what Captain Galati
had told him, and his mind worked quickly—I think we’d better call Tara at
corporate, tell the passengers, refund or reschedule all the on-shore excur-
sions, monitor the Internet café to see how many people have already con-
tacted travel agents to disembark in Cozumel—and what about that storm?
Even though passenger tickets clearly stated that itinerary changes could
occur and that Spree would reimburse only $30 per person, it was Ned’s job to
keep the passengers happy—not to mention what this could mean for
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 55

Sensation’s future marketing plans. He was already calculating the financial

impact to the cruise line and he couldn’t help wondering if the minor engine
troubles on the last cruise hadn’t been properly repaired.

Tara’s Phone Call

“Hello, Tara, we’ve got a delicate situation here,” Ned said.
Captain Galati interrupted, “We have to shut down one engine immediately;
I know the passengers will be upset, but the integrity of the ship is my first
concern.”
“Of course, Captain,” Tara said. “Tell me what’s going on.”
They reported the damage to the engine’s propulsion system and their deci-
sion to shut down one engine and reduce their cruising speed to 10 knots.
The arrival into Cozumel would be delayed; rather than arriving at 9:30 a.m. on
Tuesday, they would most likely arrive at 4:00 p.m. To ensure a timely return to
New Orleans by Friday, they would have to depart Cozumel at 2:00 a.m. Wednes-
day, skipping the Cancun destination altogether and cruising straight through.
Tara’s cell buzzed; her boss had sent a text. “Check Twitter buzz on
Sensation—we have a problem.” A quick search showed her that the passen-
gers were aware of the potential problem already; they’d been buzzing about it
all night. And then there was the city attorney.
Tara thought for a moment. “Ned, Captain Galati, we have a bigger problem
than you might realize. Your passengers have already been talking to friends
and family about the noise, and people on shore are getting worried. The city
attorney here is also suggesting that our ship may have damaged some build-
ings as it left port. There’s a lot at stake for Spree here. I think we’d better talk
about how best to approach the situation.”

The Assignment
1. Identify all of the key audiences for the communication surrounding this
incident. What do you know about each of them? Are there other audiences
linked to this audience, either as secondary or “future” audiences?
2. Answer the following questions about the audiences identified in question 1.
a. What is the message you want to send to each key audience?
b. What information does the audience already know and what information
do they need or want to have about the situation?
c. How does this audience feel at this point and how would you like them
to feel at the conclusion of the situation or after receiving your commu-
nication?
d. How will you motivate or persuade them to accept your messages?
3. Develop a communication strategy considering the following questions:
a. What are your key objectives for this communication? (Consider per-
sonal as well as departmental and corporate objectives.)
b. Who is the best spokesperson to deliver this message and why? What
other people could serve as spokespersons?
c. What is the best channel, or medium, to use to communicate with this
audience? Also consider the option of using several channels for these
communications.
56 Section One Core Leadership Communication

d. When is the best time to communicate the information?

e. Are there cultural or other contextual considerations you should keep in
mind?
f. How will you know if your communication has been successful?

Source: Spree case and assignment developed by Beth O’Sullivan, Rice University, January
2004. Updated by Sandra Elliott, April 2009. Used with permission.

Application 2.3 Use the Pyramid Principle to structure an argument based on the facts pro-
Using the vided here. First, establish an assertion at the first level in answer to the fol-
Pyramid lowing question: Should AmeriHotels build a new, upscale hotel in Metroburg,
near a new major downtown convention center and sports arena? Second,
Principle to identify at least three primary supporting ideas. Third, group the facts under
Organize an the supporting ideas.
Argument
1. No other hotels exist within walking distance of Metroburg’s new conven-
tion center or the sports arena.
2. Experts predict a downturn in hotel bookings for at least the near term
(one to three years) and possibly longer.
3. No restaurants exist outside of the convention center or sports arena, and
the restaurants that do exist within the convention center offer “fast food”
only.
4. Members of several ethnic groups and other local residents, many of
whom had residences displaced by the convention center and sports arena
developments, may oppose building permits.
5. The new convention center is in a high-crime area.
6. There are three other four-star, upscale hotels in the vicinity (within a
short driving distance) of the new convention center.
7. The city of Metroburg has obtained funds for park and landscaping efforts
in the area.
8. Studies indicate that businesses thrive in the areas surrounding large
urban convention centers and sports complexes/arenas, particularly in the
accommodations/dining sectors.
9. Some statistics indicate a high correlation between sports arenas in large
urban areas and increased numbers of outside visitors who stay overnight.
10. The city of Metroburg has committed to increased police presence/patrol
in the area.
11. AmeriHotels has a spotty record concerning minority hiring and relation-
ships.
12. Last year, AmeriHotels adopted a new vision statement promising that the
company would make diversity and community-based hiring a top priority.
13. AmeriHotels has experience building in inner-city locations.
14. AmeriHotels has asked its followers on Facebook and Twitter for their
thoughts, and the response has been generally positive.
15. One group, the Alliance for Inner City Development, has openly posted
videos to its Web site in which members of the local community say they
will be priced out of their homes and will be forced to leave.
 Chapter 2 Leadership Communication Purpose, Strategy, and Structure 57

16. There is land near the new convention center and sports arena available
for purchase and development.
17. Property values in the Metroburg downtown area have skyrocketed in the
last year.
Source: This pyramid exercise was adapted from an exercise originally designed by June
Ferrill, Rice University.

Application 2.4 We should always have an elevator speech (a succinct but meaningful sum-
Using the mary) ready that we can deliver when we are asked unexpectedly by a team
leader or supervisor to update them on our progress. It is also frequently used
Pyramid to
in business plan competitions and in real situations with venture capitalists,
Structure an for example. The pyramid is a very useful device for structuring any short pre-
Elevator Speech sentation you are asked to deliver, whether a summary of the research you are
Project Update doing or a project in which you are involved.
1. Think of some research you are doing or a project in which you are involved
or have just completed, and create a very brief (one-minute) bottom-line
summary of it, using the pyramid as your stucturing device.
2. Pretend someone has asked how your research or project is going.
3. Find a partner; give him or her your summary.
4. Now, give each other feedback and do it again.

Notes 1. Swift, M. H. (1973). Clear writing means clear thinking means. . . . Harvard
Business Review January–February, p. 60.
2. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Also, see Wenger, E., McDermott,
R., and Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating Communities of Practice. Boston:
Harvard Business School Press.
3. Williams, G. A., and Miller, R. B. (2002). Change the way you persuade,
Harvard Business Review, 80 (5), pp. 65–74. Copyright © 2002 by Harvard
Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.
4. Minto, B. (1996). The Pyramid Principle: Logic in Writing and Thinking. Lon-
don: Minto International.
5. Minto (1996).
6. Minto (1996).
Chapter

3
The Language of Leaders
To say language is everything to a leader is no understate-
ment. It’s a fact.
Tom Peters, Management consultant and author of In Search of
Excellence.

Just as an artist works from a palette of colors to paint a

picture, the leader who manages meaning works from a
vocabulary of words and symbols to help construct a
frame in the mind of the listener.
Gail T. Fairhurst and Robert A. Sarr, The Art of Framing: Managing
the Language of Leadership

Without the right words, used in the right way, it is

unlikely that the right actions will ever occur. . . . Without
words, we have no way of expressing strategic concepts,
structural forms, or designs for performance measurement
systems. In the end, there is no separating action and
rhetoric.
Robert G. Eccles and Nitin Nohria, Beyond the Hype: Discovering the
Essence of Management

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Achieve a positive ethos through tone and style.

• Communicate clearly and concisely.
• Follow the language rules that matter.
• Edit and proofread your own writing more effectively
58
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 59

Leaders lead and inspire others to action through their effective use of
language. In The Art of Framing: Managing the Language of Leadership,
Gail Fairhurst and Robert Sarr argue that “leadership is a language
game, one that many do not know they are playing. Even though most
leaders spend nearly 70 percent of their time communicating, they pay
relatively little attention to how they use language as a tool of influ-
ence.”1 The introduction to this text discussed how leaders use lan-
guage as a tool of influence every day. Their ability to influence their
audience positively, overcoming barriers to effective communication,
is the essence of leadership communication.
The goal of this chapter is to help you create a positive ethos through
the effective use of language—the use of the right words in the right way
through the right communication channel to achieve the outcome you
intend. The language we use creates our ethos. If we are unsure and lack
confidence in our writing or speaking abilities, our choice of words, our
style, and our tone will reveal it. If, on the other hand, we are confident
in our ability to use the language of leaders, that confidence will resonate
in our words and enhance our influence with all our targeted audiences.
In one of the best and most concise books on style, The Elements of
Style, E. B. White says, “Every writer, by the way he uses the language,
reveals something of his spirit, his habits, his capacities, his bias. This
is inevitable as well as enjoyable. . . . No writer long remains incog-
nito.”2 And no speaker does, either. We reveal who we are through our
use of language. For instance, in the following speech given a few years
ago by the then CEO of Pennzoil, Hugh Liedtke, during a legal battle
between his company and Texaco over a company they were both seek-
ing to buy, reveals his ethos:
There is perhaps a greater question involved [than the legal details]. It
turns on the crucial point of integrity in our industry.
It’s one thing to play hardball. It’s quite another thing to play foul
ball. Conduct such as Texaco’s is not made legal simply by protestations
that the acts involved were, in fact, legal. All too often such assertions
go unchallenged, and so slip into some sort of legal limbo, and become
accepted as the norm by default. In this way, actions previously
considered amoral somehow become clothed in respectability.
Pennzoil’s litigation challenges this mindless slip into acceptability.
We seek to test the acceptable standards of behavior in our industry.
A contract is a contract. We used to say that in the oil industry,
business was done on a handshake. Should it now require handcuffs?
. . . We believe that integrity is more than just a word. It is a
standard of conduct in a world perhaps gone slipshod. Our industry
was built on that standard, and Pennzoil will continue to make every
effort to see to it that this standard is upheld.3

From this short portion of his speech, without knowing anything about
Mr. Liedtke, you have formed opinions about his ethos. His language
60 Section One Core Leadership Communication

suggests an ethos of confidence, honesty, dedication to his company and

his industry, and a rather folksy and down-to-earth quality, with his base-
ball metaphor and comment about business being done on a handshake.
Since this was a prepared presentation to his stockholders, Mr. Liedtke
may have had some help from a speechwriter, as CEOs quite often do for
important speeches, although he was well known for his communication
abilities and for writing his speeches himself. Speechwriter or not, the
words would have to be natural to him, or he would not have sounded
sincere. Overall, Mr. Liedtke creates a positive ethos and influences his
audience to trust him and follow him. He presents himself as a leader—
through the use of clear, confident, resonant language.
Leaders want their audiences to perceive a positive ethos in their
tone, to see them as confident, and to trust and believe them. This
chapter begins by discussing how you can achieve a positive ethos
through your writing and speaking style, which your audience per-
ceives as your tone. It provides ways to make your style more concise
and, by doing so, to ensure that you sound more forceful and confi-
dent. It then highlights the language of persuasion, reviews the correct
use of language expected in leadership communication, and concludes
by providing techniques to help you to edit your own work.

Achieving a Positive Ethos through Tone and Style

To project a confident tone when we speak and when we write, we
need to possess confidence not only in our knowledge on the subject
but also in our ability to capture the content in the right words used in
the right way. We want to sound confident and speak with authority; at
the same time, in some channels, we want to sound approachable and
open to conversation
The words we select and how we decide to combine them in sen-
tences create our style; our audience perceives that style as our tone,
and through that tone, they make assumptions about our ethos and
our objectives. The tone, or what our readers perceive as our attitude
toward them or toward the subject, influences the success of our mes-
sage and inspires others to believe in us and our vision. For transfor-
mational leaders, it is crucial to know how best to use language for
positive impact and to avoid a style that creates any negative responses
in their audiences.

How Style Can Impact Audiences

We want to be clear and crisp in our language yet not sound too harsh
or brusque, as the sample e-mail illustrates in Exhibit 3.1. As you read
this e-mail, ask yourself what kind of ethos the writer is projecting.
What are the connotations of the language? (Note: The example e-mails,
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 61

EXHIBIT 3.1
Dismissal E-mail
with a Harsh, To: John Smith <[email protected]>
Uncaring Tone From: J. T. Cole
Subject: Layoff

Dear John:
Effective with the close of business on Wednesday, May 10, 2008, your job
will be abolished and no further work will be authorized on that position.
Your support and assistance of B-Sky Airlines in its sales efforts have been
most appreciated.
Sincerely,
James T. Cole
Director of Reservation Sales
cc: Personnel file
Employee
Original mailed to home address.

memos, letters, and so on in this chapter were written as you see them
here. The names and dates have been changed, but the rest of the con-
tent is as it appeared in the originals.)
The e-mail in Exhibit 3.1 shows no concern for the audience. It
begins with the harsh statement that John’s job has been “abolished”
and then ends with an attempt to soften the brutal effect by thanking
John for his “efforts.” The thank-you seems insincere and even out of
place in this otherwise cold, bad-news note. One element of style that
contributes to the distancing, uncaring tone is the use of passive voice
sentence constructions: “will be abolished,” “will be authorized,” and
“has been most appreciated.” These distance Mr. Cole from his audi-
ence and from the actions. In addition, that this message was sent in
an e-mail makes the tone seem even more uncaring.
Imagine the difference if he had written the following sentences
instead:
As of May 10, 2008, I will abolish your job and authorize no more
work on your position.
and
I appreciate your support of and assistance at B-Sky Airlines in its
sales efforts.
The first would be too direct; besides, it is unlikely Mr. Cole has
made this decision. It is a decision people above Mr. Cole have made,
so selecting a direct, active style in the opening sentence would not
62 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 3.2
Rewritten B-Sky Airlines
Dismissal Letter 121 no. 20th Bld.
Newyork, 10021

Dear John:

As you know, B-Sky has encountered extremely difficult financial times

over the last few months. We have done everything we can to keep the
airline functioning as in the past so that we can serve our public and keep all
of our employees employed. Now, however, we have come to a point where
we must make some difficult decisions. The most difficult decision is having
to let some of our people go. Regrettably, your department is one that we
must cut. Therefore, as of May 10, 2008, we will no longer authorize work in
your department.

Your severance package will include the following. . . .

We all regret that the layoffs are necessary. We value your department
and your individual contributions to B-Sky Airlines. We appreciate your
sales efforts over the years and wish you the best for the future.

Sincerely,
James T. Cole
Director of Reservation Sales

make this e-mail more effective. The letter in Exhibit 3.2 delivers the
same message with a better ethos.
The message has not changed—John is still out of a job—but at least
Mr. Cole has shown some concern and seems sincere in his regrets and
in his appreciation. Since it is a bad-news letter, the indirect style is
more appropriate. In addition, the words selected in the second ver-
sion create a more positive ethos for Mr. Cole. Finally, sending this
harsh message as a letter would make Mr. Cole appear to be taking
more effort with his communication, which could also help some in
delivering such bad news.
The letter in Exhibit 3.3 is also a rejection letter with a problem in
tone. In this case, a student received it from the U.S. House of Repre-
sentatives when he applied for a summer internship. How would you
feel if you received it?
The opening to this letter is probably acceptable. It is direct and
expresses some regret. The second paragraph, however, alienates the
reader and makes the sender seem foolish. To admit that a decision is
“arbitrary” makes it sound as if it had no basis in logic, as if they drew
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 63

EXHIBIT 3.3
Rejection Letter One Hundred First Congress
with an Alienating U.S. House of Representatives
Tone Committee on the Budget
Washington, DC 20515

March 8, 2009

Blakeman Brown
6500 South Main
Houston, TX 77030

Dear Blakeman:

Thank you for applying to the Budget Committee Republican staff for
an internship. I am sorry that we will not be able to accept you to our
program this summer.

We had several dozen applicants. However, we have room for only two
interns this summer. Our selections process, therefore, was fairly arbitrary
in light of these odds.

Again, thanks for applying.

Sincerely,

Martha Phillips

the names out of a hat. In fact, the wording may distort the writer’s
intentions and may be inaccurate.
These examples, as well as the Liedtke speech, illustrate how impor-
tant the words are that we choose to convey our messages.

Determining Our Own Style

In a classic Harvard Business Review essay on style, “What Do You
Mean You Don’t Like My Style?” John Fielden illustrates and analyzes
the different styles that a business writer might use in response to a let-
ter from a business acquaintance. The sender (Frank Scalpel) has
asked the receiver to serve on a committee. His serving on this com-
mittee could be perceived as a conflict of interest, since it could place
the receiver in the position of evaluating his own company’s proposals
to automate the hospital’s information flow. However, it is not clear if
Frank is aware of the potential conflict or if he is simply being careless
and not thinking that the receiver’s company might be submitting a
proposal that the committee would then be reviewing.
64 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Fielden includes four possible responses to the letter, all reprinted in

Exhibit 3.4. As you read each one, think about the tone and the perceived
ethos of the sender, and ask which of these responses most resembles
what you think of as your own style.

EXHIBIT 3.4
Responses to Response 1
Frank’s Letter
Source: Reprinted from
Harvard Business Review.
Mr. Frank J. Scalpel
Fielden, J. (1982). What do Chairman, Executive Committee
you mean you don’t like my Community General Hospital
style? May-June, pp. 1–8.
Copyright 1982 by Harvard Anytown, U.S.A
Business School Publishing
Corporation; all rights Dear Frank,
reserved.
As you realize, this litigious age often makes it necessary for large companies
to take stringent measures not only to avoid conflicts of interest on the part
of their employees but also to preclude even the very suggestion of conflict.
And, since my company intends to submit a proposal with reference to
automating the hospital’s information flow, it would not appear seemly for
me to be part of an evaluation team assessing competitors’ proposals.
Even if I were to excuse myself from consideration of the XYZ proposal,
I would still be vulnerable to charges that I gave short shrift to competitors’
offerings. If there is any other way that I can serve the committee that will
not raise this conflict-of-interest specter, you know that I would find it
pleasurable to be of service, as always.

Sincerely,

Response 2
Dear Frank,
Your comments relative to your respect for my professional opinion
are most appreciated. Moreover, your invitation to serve on the hospital’s
data processing evaluation team is received with gratitude, albeit with
some concern.
The evaluation team must be composed of persons free of alliance with
any of the vendors submitting proposals. For that reason, it is felt that
my services on the team could be construed as a conflict of interest.
Perhaps help can be given in some other way. Again, please be assured
that your invitation has been appreciated.
Sincerely,

(continued)
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 65

EXHIBIT 3.4
(continued) Response 3
Dear Frank,
Thank you for suggesting my name as a possible member of your data
processing evaluation team. I wish I could serve, but I cannot.
XYZ intends, naturally, to submit a proposal to automate the hospital’s
information flow. You can see the position of conflict I would be in if I were
on the evaluation team.
Just let me know of any other way I can be of help. You know I would
be more than willing. Thanks again for the invitation.

Cordially,

Response 4
Dear Frank,
Thanks for the kind words and the invitation. Sure wish I could say yes.
Can’t though.
XYZ intends to submit a surefire proposal on automating the hospital’s
information systems. Shouldn’t be judge and advocate at the same time!
Any other way I can help, Frank— just ask. Thanks again.
Cordially,

What is the tone of each response in Exhibit 3.4? What is the pro-
jected ethos of the writer? Which writer appears more confident and at
ease with himself? In addition to asking yourself which one is closest
to your natural style, you should also ask which one of these you might
use even if not your usual style, and which would you never use.
Answering these questions will help you get a sense of your own style
and the tone that is typical of your writing.
Every person has an individual style. It is your voice; it is the “you”
that your reader perceives and your “natural” style and tone. However,
if the situation justifies it, you might adopt any one of these styles,
although Response 1 and Response 4 are probably a little far from a
style you would consider using. Most people would probably see the
first response as too formal and stilted, the second too passive, and the
fourth too casual.
Most businesspeople select Response 3 as closest to their own and
as preferable for the situation. Although it is a good letter, it contains
66 Section One Core Leadership Communication

some problems with tone in the second paragraph in the context of the
case. Since Frank’s motivations are unknown and we do not want to
offend him, we would not want to say “naturally” or “you can see.”
These words imply that Frank knows he is asking the receiver to do
something questionable. This implication, in turn, casts doubt on
Frank’s ethics and could result in a loss of face that would damage his
relationship with Frank.
If you would select Response 3, the one most other business people
would select, you are probably already using the style usually found in
professional communication. You may use this style consistently for
this kind of communication, most likely varying it only slightly when
the situation calls for a different tone, such as when communicating
with a close friend or family member. Often, we are not even that
aware of the tone we project, although we should be.
In today’s professional environment, the numerous channels we
have available make selecting the appropriate style for communica-
tion more complex. For example, again, realizing that the tone in
e-mails often seems more impersonal and indirect than we might
intend, what tone should we use to respond if a colleague sends us
an overly pushy e-mail asking us to help her land a position in our
company? How should we respond if our manager sends us what
sounds like an angry text message, given that text messages are so
abbreviated that they can sound harsher than intended? How should
we respond if a competitor posts a blog entry challenging our busi-
ness practices, or should we?
As we can see, using the language of leaders effectively involves
more than just an understanding of traditional styles of communica-
tion; tone, word choice, and style are influenced by changing commu-
nication technologies.
After looking at the examples provided in this chapter, you should
realize how your ear detects tone in writing and speaking without your
even being aware of doing it. You should apply the same scrutiny to
hearing your own tone that you applied to analyzing the tone in the
previous examples. You should read what you have written out loud
and practice a presentation aloud or, even better, record what you plan
to deliver and play it back to yourself. If you are still not sure how you
sound, you should ask others to read what you have written and listen
critically to your tone.
We need to know how others perceive the language that we use, our
tone. The more we can anticipate the audience’s response and hear
how we sound to others, the better able we will be to control our tone
and use it to influence our audience. Being aware of our style and tone
moves us one step closer to developing our leadership style and a pos-
itive ethos.
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 67

EXHIBIT 3.5 1. Do not try to imitate someone else’s style. Although you can adjust your
Guidelines for
tone slightly to different situations, you do not want to move too far
Creating a
away from your natural voice. If you do, you risk sounding artificial and
Positive Ethos
perhaps superficial.
2. Read what you have written aloud to hear how you sound, and if something
is particularly sensitive, ask the opinion of another person before you send it.
3. Never send something out when you are angry or upset. Always wait
until you have control of your emotions and can select your language
carefully. This guideline is especially true with instant communication
channels, such as e-mail and instant messaging.
4. Be careful in your use of complex language or “thesaurusitis,” finding a
word in a thesaurus and using it because it is a “big” word when a simple
one would be better, for example, saying “utilize” instead of “use,”
“obfuscate” for “confuse,” or “appellations” for “titles.”
5. At the same time, be careful of your use of shortened words and phrases.
“LOL” may be generally understood these days, but it’s not appropriate
to use in professional e-mails. Remember, abbreviations can carry differ-
ent meanings to different people in different cultures or contexts.
6. Use strong verbs and avoid passive voice unless you have a specific
reason to use it (see discussion below).
7. Select a positive over a negative construction when possible. For exam-
ple, say, “We will begin implementing the changes you recommended
on January 22” instead of “We will not be able to implement your
recommended changes before January 22.”
8. Avoid using too many modifiers or empty words, such as “sort of,” “kind
of,” “possibly,” “thing,” or too many “ly” words in particular.
9. Be careful in the use of qualifiers, such as “in my opinion,” “I think,” “I
believe,” “probably,” and “I feel.” They can make you sound too unsure
of yourself and hesitant.
10. Eliminate fillers, such as “you know,” “uh,” and “um” from your speech.
11. Avoid “up speak,” making statements sound like questions.
12. Be careful with the use of jargon (see discussion below). Use it only
when it is the best way to say what you want to say and when you know
for sure the audience will understand it

Although we never want to move too far away from our natural
style, since to do so will make us sound insincere, we may need to
change it some for different situations and techology. We can learn
from specific techniques leaders use to make our language more pow-
erful and to improve our ethos, developing an ethos that signals to our
audience that we know what we are talking about and can be trusted.
Exhibit 3.5 provides some guidelines for creating a positive ethos in
writing and speaking.
68 Section One Core Leadership Communication

To test your style, try stepping back and looking critically at some-
thing you have written. Put yourself in the shoes of your audience. Ask
yourself, “How do I come across?” “Is there confidence in my tone?”
“Do I project a positive ethos?”

Using the Language of Influence

If we follow the guidelines to creating a positive ethos, we will see
the impact our language will have on our audiences. As discussed in
Chapter 2, in professional settings we are usually communicating with
four primary purposes in mind: (1) to inform, (2) to persuade, (3) to
instruct, or (4) to engage. Often, however, even when communicating
to inform or instruct, we are also attempting to influence or persuade
others. That’s what transformational leaders do.
We use our ability to influence when we negotiate an agreement or
sell something, but we also use it to convince others to believe in our
visions. We influence others in everyday situations, such as to per-
suade someone to hire us or give us a promotion, to obtain support for
our recommendations, to argue for the validity of our research find-
ings, and even to sway our colleagues to go to lunch at our favorite
restaurant.
Our style influences and persuades others, and our tone, the way
our audience interprets our style, affects their perception of us. When
we engage others in our blogs or exchange text messages with friends
or colleagues, the undercurrent often is one of influencing others to
believe as we do, to do as we do. This capability to persuade even infor-
mally is crucial for transformational leaders, and as discussed at
length in Chapter 1, our ethos as created by the language we use can be
the most persuasive tool we have.
The next section will provide some guidance on improving your ethos
even more by making your style persuasive, forceful, and concise.

Communicating Concisely
Being concise in our writing and speaking has become even more
essential to communicating effectively in a professional setting today:
If we do not deliver our message in a few words, we risk losing our
audience, especially in the instant communication channels that have
sprung up all over the Internet. In addition, we can risk muddling our
message, since concise witing is usually more lucid and clear. Clear
writing tends to be direct, to the point, and free of jargon, pomposity,
and wordy constructions.
Again, looking at Mr. Liedtke’s speech, he says, simply, “A contract
is a contract” and “We believe that integrity is more than just a word.”
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 69

He could have said, “Contracts are legal documents that are meant
to be obeyed” or “It is believed by most people that integrity means
being trustworthy and honest.” If he had, his presentation would
not have been as powerful, and his ethos would not have been as pos-
itive. His sentences are very concise, containing only the words he
needs to deliver his meaning. Additional words would dilute that
meaning.
Unfortunately, early education and a steadily growing focus on
standarized testing may have negatively influenced some of our writ-
ing habits. In the past, teachers often gave writing assignments that
specified a certain length. As a result, we may have counted words,
added fillers, and used complicated language to meet the required
length, when what we should have been doing was saying the most
with the fewest and simplest words possible. Instead of looking
for what the French call “le mot juste” (just the right word), we
chose bigger, more impressive words and wrote sentences full of
deadwood—words that could and should be removed because they
are meaningless.
To achieve conciseness in professional writing, we often need to
break old habits of wordiness that we do not even realize we have.
Writing concisely requires practice and a critical eye for our own style,
as well as an understanding of how others view that style in various
channels.
To help you make your writing more concise, this section offers a
series of guidelines. These guidelines are not rules on style, because
“rules” suggests “right” or “wrong.” The guidelines only demonstrate
what is usually preferred when communicating as a leader.
Once we begin to master our own leadership style and develop
our voice, we may find that we need to break away from stylistic
guidelines because the guidelines hinder the delivery of our message
or interfere with the rhythm of our prose. In other words, we have a
good reason to do so. We may want to be wordy or even purposely
vague at times. We may want to write in passive voice or begin a sen-
tence with “there is.”
The meaning we intend should guide our choice to write or speak as
seems best to us. We will simply want to ensure that carelessness or
haste is not the reason for our wordiness. As the French philosopher
and mathematician Blaise Pascal wrote years ago, when he apologized
to a friend for writing such a long letter, it takes much longer to write
something short than to write something lengthy. He wrote,
“I have made this [letter] longer, because I have not had the time to
make it shorter.”4
The following 10 guidelines will help you achieve greater concise-
ness and a style that is more direct and forceful.
70 Section One Core Leadership Communication

1. Avoid the overuse of the passive voice—the actor

should usually come first in the sentence.

Passive Voice Active Voice

The report was written by the committee. The committee wrote the report.
(seven words) (five words)
Object action actor Actor action object

Choose the active voice unless you have a specific reason for using the
passive, such as the following:
• You want to protect the actor in the sentence.
• You are not sure who is responsible for the action.
• The actor is unimportant.
• The company style, discipline style, or some other mandate dictates
otherwise.
The lesson here is to use the passive voice because you intend to use
it, not out of haste or carelessness.
Beware of using grammar/style checkers to determine if you are
using passive voice. While they can be useful in flagging passive con-
struction, they cannot distinguish between past tense sentence con-
structions and passive voice; therefore, they will often label a
sentence passive when it is not. See Appendix B for a discussion of
voice and tense.

2. Avoid overusing expletives, such as “there is” or “it

is”—watch for the “it is . . . that” construction, in
particular.

Construction with Expletives Nonexpletive Construction

There is one manager at BDC who One manager at BDC is not
is not very efficient. very efficient.
There are two fundamental issues The team should analyze two
in the area of effectiveness that the fundamental issues in the area
team must analyze first. of effectiveness first.

Use your meaning and emphasis to guide your use. For instance, in the
second example, the emphasis shifts from the issues to the team, when
you may want to highlight the issues.
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 71

3. Avoid the use of prepositional idioms.

Idioms to Avoid Concise Replacements

due to the fact that because
during the time that while
for the purpose of to
for the reason that because, since
if the conditions are such that if
in order to to
in the event that if
in the area of in
in the case of in
in the interest of for
in the nature of in
in the region of around
next to by
on the top of on, above
over and above beyond
with regard to regarding
with the purpose of to

While usually these idioms are unnecessary, you may want to use them
to ensure clarity, particularly if your writing will be translated into
other languages, or you may decide that the rhythm of your
prose necessitates their use. Again, use them intentionally, not out of
carelessness.

4. Avoid the overuse of relative pronouns—”who,”

“which,” and “that.”

Unnecessary Relative Pronouns Sentences without Relative Pronouns

Mr. Bigelow is a man who never Mr. Bigelow never misses a
misses a meeting. meeting.
The documentation which was written Joan Browning’s documentation
by Joan Browning is helpful. is helpful.

5. Avoid the repetition of words and ideas.

Look at the following introduction and conclusion from a one-page
letter:
72 Section One Core Leadership Communication

We on the board of the United Way were disheartened by the statement

you made yesterday. We feel that there is a grave misunderstanding. If this
misunderstanding is not cleared up, it will harm both the needy and the
unity we are all trying to foster in the community. I wish to have a personal
meeting with you to clear up this misunderstanding immediately.

If this boycott is carried out, the needy will suffer. Organizations such as
the Red Cross, the Boy Scouts, and Catholic Counseling, all badly in need
of contributions, will suffer. If we can iron out this misunderstanding,
all these worthy charities will benefit. Solving this misunderstanding is in
all of our best interests. This misunderstanding will also harm the unity that
we are trying to bring to El Paso. All of the races and religions of the
community must live in harmony. We must not let this misunderstanding
polarize the community.

Obviously, a misunderstanding exists, but the needless repetition

weakens the effect of the letter. The writer needs to think a little deeper
to give the argument substance. Needlessly repeating words and ideas
suggests shallow thinking and careless writing.
The following example, based on the policy statement discussed in
Chapter 4, illustrates a common type of repetition found in lists:
In order for an employee to qualify for reimbursement, the employee must
satisfy all of the following requirements:
(1) Employee must be of production foreman level or higher or the rank of
secretary or higher.
(2) Employee must enroll in a state-accredited institution in courses at the
college or graduate level.
(3) Employee must complete the course with at least a “C.”

If you find you are repeating the same words at the beginning of
each item in a list, you need to move the repeated words into the intro-
ductory sentence. Usually, you can set up the list so that you start each
item with an active verb, which will make your writing more direct
and forceful; see the following example:

For employees to qualify for reimbursement, they must

• Be of production foreman level . . .
• Enroll in a state accredited institution . . .
• Complete the course with at least a “C.”

Excess verbiage can be very irritating to your audience, so you should

try to make every word you write and speak significant. You should
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 73

repeat words or ideas only to emphasize an important message or to

create a particular rhetorical effect. For instance, you usually want to
state your primary message and the main supporting topics in both the
introduction and the conclusion of a presentation, and if some discus-
sion intervenes in a document, you may find that you need to restate
your main message later.
At the same time, do not be too concise. For example, one-word
responses to e-mails are often read as dismissive or abrupt, perhaps
even angry. Consider the context of your writing and determine if rep-
etition of a key concept is imperative to the ethos.

6. Do not overuse descriptive words, particularly adverbs

(-ly words).
The first version sounds insincere and exaggerated in addition to being
too wordy.

Ineffective Use of Words Ending in -ly Example with -ly Words Removed
I personally felt that the CEO’s The CEO’s presentation convinced
wonderfully articulated presentation the stockholders.
decisively swayed the stockholders
in his favor.

7. Avoid weasel words—ambiguous, noncommittal

words, such as the following.

almost different like special

as much as elements look things
aspect feel manner up to
basis field situation virtually
can be help

8. Be aware of jargon (language used in particular

disciplines) and other kinds of gobbledygook.
Legal documents are full of jargon, creating the perception that
lawyers are always talking only to other lawyers, or as cynics might
say, legal language perpetuates the need for more lawyers:
The aforementioned documents for the application of the captioned corpora-
tions for a Certificate of Authority to Transact Business in Texas are enclosed.

The legal profession is not alone in the tendency to use jargon; all
professions use the language of their discipline. Writers and speakers
create problems anytime they continue to use the specialized language
of their discipline when communicating with others outside their
74 Section One Core Leadership Communication

discipline. For example, engineers, IT professionals, accountants, and

investment bankers should feel comfortable using the language of
their group with their group but not when writing or speaking to those
not of the same profession.
The higher up you move in an organization or the more you com-
municate to the public on your organization’s behalf, the more diverse
and less specialized your audience becomes. As an organizational
leader, you are addressing all employees, external stakeholders, and
the general public. Jargon can make portions of your audience feel
excluded or lead to their misunderstanding your message.
Jargon is so widespread in most professions that you probably find it
handy shorthand and use it daily without realizing it, but you need to
learn to avoid it. In fact, a number of Web sites have emerged dedicated
to fighting the overuse of business jargon in particular. They provide lists
of jargon, translations of jargon terms, and even ways to avoid jargon.
One site provides the following passage as a way to test your recogni-
tion of business jargon, and it offers $100 to the first person to e-mail a
one-paragraph summary of 150 or fewer words explaining clearly what
this company does. It asks readers to answer the following questions:
• How many examples of jargon can you find in the excerpt below?
• What do you think this company does?

Unicorp: Dedicated to Excellence

One of Unicorp’s corporate objectives is to develop strategic relationships with
key customers and be recognized for our ability to deliver services of superior
value. This competitive advantage will be achieved through continued focus on
our core competencies, management attention to the development of opera-
tions and process management excellence in all parts of our business, the identi-
fication and application of best processes, and continued attention to direct and
indirect cost management. The focus on core competencies will promote the
concentration of knowledge in select areas consistent with the tenets of Uni-
corp’s strategic plan, Unicorp 2000. Management’s attention to operations and
process management excellence in all business areas will be achieved through
the continued expansion of our management and technical staff, as well as
through consistent application of corporate quality programs such as bench-
marking and continuous improvement, leading to the establishment of Unicorp’s
superior business processes in each core competency. Finally, continued attention
to direct and indirect cost management will enable Unicorp to offer customers a
superior, value-added package of high-quality service at a competitive price.

Source: www.westegg.com/jargon.

To combat the overuse of business jargon, the authors of Why Busi-

ness People Speak Like Idiots created a software program called
Bullfighter, which works similarly to a spell-checking program to rid
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 75

your documents and PowerPoint presentations of jargon. You can

download a free copy of the program at www.fightthebull.com.
Although we all use jargon, we need to be sensitive to its use and
abuse. Jargon is a particular problem in international settings, where
it can cause miscommunication. If we recognize that jargon has its
place and use it only with audiences who share our cultural and busi-
ness contexts, we will be safe. We need to be careful, however, that we
do not let jargon become our only way of sharing information because
our communication will seldom be clear if we do.

9. Avoid nominalizations (turning verbs into nouns

by adding –tion)

Nominalization Example Active Verb Example

The product management team will The product management
perform an investigation of the team will investigate the
marketing strategy. marketing strategy.

Your communication will be much more powerful if you avoid nom-

inalizations and use active verbs whenever possible. Review your sen-
tences to determine if you have, in fact, selected the most appropriate
words to serve as the verbs.

10. Avoid redundancies.

The redundancies in Exhibit 3.6 are more common in speech than in
writing, but you should be careful to avoid them in both. This guide-
line warrants a few words of caution, however:
• You do not want to become so obsessed with cutting redundancies
that you hinder your natural voice or flow. The result can be choppy,
disjointed prose.
• Occasionally, the rhythm of your prose or the need to translate your
communication into another language may necessitate your using
redundancy.
The list in Exhibit 3.6 should make you sensitive to common redun-
dancies so that you can avoid them or at least be more aware of how
often you hear them and use them. In Exhibit 3.6, only the words in
bold are needed to convey meaning.
As George Orwell in “Politics and the English Language” says, “If it is
possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.” Our goal should be to keep
all our communication as short and simple as possible and eliminate
everything that is not relevant and necessary.
76 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 3.6 actual experience difficult task mutual cooperation

Popular
advance planning direct confrontation my personal opinion
Redundancies
advance warning during the course of old antique
all meet together each and every one and the same
alongside of either and/or both pair of twins
and moreover end result past history
as for example established fact period of time
at 12 midnight few in number personal friend
at 12 noon final end plan ahead
at about foreign imports postponed until later
at some time to come grand total raise up
basic fundamentals I myself personally reason is because
but however introduced for the reason why
but nevertheless first time refer back
chief protagonist irregardless (not remand back
climb up even a word) repeat back
close proximity is now pending return back
combine together lift up revert back
commute back and major breakthrough rough rule of thumb
forth mass media sufficient enough
complete monopoly may possibly sworn affidavits
consensus of opinion merge together true facts
continue on most equal usual custom
definite decision most unique when and if
different kinds mutual agreement whether or not

In addition, you should use the simple word over the complex in most
cases. For example, look at how complex, exaggerated language can
destroy the beauty and effectiveness of the familiar Christmas poem,
“The Night before Christmas”:
Twas the nocturnal segment of the diurnal period preceding the annual
Yuletide celebration, and throughout our place of residence, kinetic activity
was not in evidence among the possessors of this potential, including that
species of domestic rodent known as Mus musculus. Hosiery was meticu-
lously suspended from the forward edge of the wood burning caloric appa-
ratus, pursuant to our anticipatory pleasure regarding an imminent
visitation from an eccentric philanthropist among whose folkloric appella-
tions is the honorific title of St. Nicholas.
Source: Parady by GIMS; otherwise, author unknown. Original by Clement Clarke Moore or Henry
Livingston.

This passage exemplifies “thesaurusitis.” It demonstrates the danger

of selecting the complicated over the simple. In leadership communi-
cation, we want to apply Henry David Thoreau’s dictum on life: “Simplify,
simplify, simplify.” Simplifying our language will allow us to connect
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 77

more easily with our audience and help them perceive the positive ethos
we hope to project.
To conclude this section on conciseness, wordiness can indicate
careless communication. Beyond carelessness, our audience may also
interpret wordiness or the use of complicated language as deception or
purposeful obfuscation. The resulting lack of clarity can even suggest
that our thinking is careless, superficial, and imprecise or that we are
too busy or do not care enough about our audience to take the time to
make our communication clear and concise. It takes time to find “le
mot juste,” but doing so will improve our ethos and our ability to connect
with and influence our audience.

Writing for Social Media: Additional Considerations

Blogs, social networks, collaborative workspaces, and even microblogs have
become inundated with corporate presences. If we are involved in writing
for social media, we should keep three additional guidelines in mind:
1. Be honest and enter the space humbly.
The social media space is filled with people declaring themselves
experts in everything from logistics to search engine optimization.
We will not win followers by insisting we are among them; we must
prove our expertise first.
2. Say something meaningful.
We prove ourselves worthy of being read by saying something that
adds to the conversation already going on in the network. Listen to
what others are saying, and add when and where you can.
3. Don’t be too concise.
Tweets that overuse shortened words or “me too” comments do not
represent a strategic use of language. We should use the space
strategically to help develop a conversation.

Following the Language Rules that Matter

A concise and confident style and an appropriate tone contribute to a
positive ethos. In addition, studies have found that the correct use of
language affects ethos as well: Beason writes that “[grammatical] errors
create misunderstandings of the text’s meaning, and they harm the image
of the writing (and possibly the organization to which the writer
belongs . . .). Errors affect a person’s credibility as a writer or employee.”5
Most audiences are surprisingly adept at detecting errors in writing
or speaking, and many can be harsh and unforgiving. Errors in gram-
mar, spelling, and mechanics may cause an audience to characterize the
speaker or writer as hasty, careless, indifferent, uninformed, ignorant,
78 Section One Core Leadership Communication

stupid, or poorly educated or as a faulty thinker, a poor oral commu-

nicator, or someone who is not a detail person—to the detriment of the
ethos of the individual and the organization.6 As one investment
banker wrote in the previously referenced study,
The banking industry is more or less thought of as being a perfect
industry. . . . And we try to do everything right, and I guess it bothers
me if we present something on a piece of paper that is not . . . as near
perfect as it can be. If I’m going to write you a letter, then my image
went out in the letter, or my company’s image. My bank’s image needs
to be nearly perfect, and a grammatical error, I think, would be offensive
to some of my customers.7

The letter in Exhibit 3.7, sent by a vice president to a placement cen-

ter director and the deans of a major university, reinforces the impor-
tance of being very careful in your use of language. For a leader,
correct use of the English language is crucial. Our credibility as a
leader, our ability to represent ourselves and our organization, and our
ethos all depend on using language carefully. Careless errors are poten-
tially damaging to a company: As Leonard and Gilsdorf found in their
research, “Usage errors in business messages can cause misreading[s]
that carry a high price. (Not all business messages with potential legal
or financial consequences get reviewed by editors and legal counsel.)
Error-prone writers might, for example, inadvertently obligate them-
selves or their firms financially, compromise themselves or their firms
ethically, or erode their own and their firms’ credibility.”8
The rules that govern the English language are numerous; however,
some are more important than others and, according to survey find-
ings, matter more than others in contemporary professional commu-
nication. What follows is a brief overview of the rules that matter to
professionals today and a guide to traditional U.S. English business
grammar (as opposed to journalism or other contemporary usage).
If you see yourself as very strong in English grammar, you can skip
the short review provided here. If you are unsure, you might want to
pause before reading the next section to complete the “Usage Self-
Assessment” (Appendix C). If you suspect you need more review or
have forgotten some of the terminology used in discussing grammar,
you should read Appendix B (“The Business of Grammar”).
This section emphasizes rule violations or errors that can cause mis-
reading or suggest that the writer is careless or not well informed: in
other words, the rules that affect ethos. The principle that governs this
review of the rules is that it is better to be safe and follow traditional
business grammar than to adopt what we see or hear in other contem-
porary settings, particularly in the media.
Even in more casual communication, such as responses on blogs or
social networks, we should follow the basic rules, since anything we
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 79

EXHIBIT 3.7
Letter to Dear Jerry, Martin, and Susan:
Placement Center
Director and I am pleased to tell you that shortly I will be extending offers for positions
Deans to two of your graduating students. A colleague and I interviewed 20
students on campus and brought four in for follow-up office interviews.
Without exception the students were bright, articulate, and well prepared
analytically. The comments back from my colleagues following the office
interviews were glowing about the students’ abilities and personalities.

That is the good news.

The bad news is that some of the students have serious problems on paper,
specifically in writing their cover letters and resumes. One candidate is
getting his MBA at “The Univesity of XXX.” One worked at “Merill Lynch.”
One doesn’t know the difference between “perspective” and “prospective.”
The examples are endless. Everyone makes mistakes, and that’s part of being
human. However, I would think that students’ resumes and cover letters
would be a place where they would do more than spell-check—they would
carefully read line by line; they would ask their friends or Placement Center
advisors to review the documents, etc.

I eliminated some strong candidates from consideration because of errors,

but others slipped through my review. I will not let that last part happen
again. In the future, I will eliminate from my review any candidate with
these kinds of errors, without regard to their experience. I’m sure that is the
approach that most recruiters take anyway, which brings me to my core point:

As an alumna who spends a great amount of her personal time working to

advance the university’s recognition, I am gravely embarrassed to think that
these kinds of errors are circulating throughout the business community.
I do not buy the story that these students should be responsible for
themselves. They should be responsible for much more than
that—representing the school and their alumni as well as themselves. I am
more disappointed than you know that this is not the case. I am not sure how
best to communicate my concerns to the students, but I am confident that
among the three of you, the correct approach will be taken.

Best regards,

Lauren

Lauren LeBlanc
Vice President of Investments
80 Section One Core Leadership Communication

put in writing can be easily copied or forwarded. You may find some
of the rules more conservative than those you have learned in the past
or observed in some business settings or in the media. The goal is to
prepare you as a leader to make educated choices. You will be pre-
pared to choose to ignore a rule rather than violate it from lack of
knowledge.
Surveys of executives and of members of the Association for Busi-
ness Communication have identified the types of errors that business
professionals find most bothersome.9 Exhibit 3.8 lists the top 20 types
of errors executives find most distracting. The second column contains
the sentences used in the survey to illustrate the errors; the third col-
umn, possible corrections.
These errors bother professionals the most because they suggest
that the writers are being hasty and careless. The errors in the top 10
are also the types of errors that can cause the reader to misinterpret or
fail to understand the meaning. These errors fall into three primary
clusters of grammar and usage rules all leaders should know:
1. Punctuation
2. Pronouns
3. Sentence structure
The following sections discuss the important rules within each of
these clusters, which if mastered will allow you to avoid most of the
mistakes in Exhibit 3.8.

The Power of Punctuation

Why does punctuation matter? It allows us to follow the complete
thoughts embodied in sentences and distinguish between them. Punc-
tuation makes reading easier if used correctly and can lead to mis-
reading if used incorrectly. Look at the challenge of sorting out the
writer’s meaning in the following passage, for example:
That that is is that that is not is not that that is not is not that that is
that that is is not that that is not is not that it it is.10

Believe it or not, with the proper punctuation, this passage makes

perfect sense (see endnote 10 for the answer). Of course, this example
exaggerates the issue, but it makes the point that punctuation has
power, some marks having more than others. (If you want additional
information on correct usage of punctuation marks beyond this brief
review, see Appendix B.)
The strongest marks of punctuation are the end marks (? ! .), and
the weakest are commas (,) and dashes (—), with the colon (:) and
semicolon (;) resting somewhere in between in terms of their power
to separate two independent clauses or complete sentences.
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 81

EXHIBIT 3.8 Top 20 Most Distracting Grammatical Errors

Type of Error Example Sentence with Error Corrections (in bold)

1. Sentence Although the Department of Although the Department of Transportation
fragment Transportation has implemented has implemented rules making it legal for
rules making it legal for employ- employers to test an employee for drugs if
ers to test an employee for he or she works in the airline, trucking, gas
drugs if he or she works in the pipeline, or maritime industries, many still
airline, trucking, gas pipeline, or do not test their employees.
maritime industries. and
and Small companies suffer in a tight labor mar-
Small companies suffer in a tight ket, one of their problems being that they
labor market. One of their prob- can’t compete for qualified personnel.
lems being that they can’t com-
pete for qualified personnel.
2. Unpunctuated When the time came for the When the time came for the representatives
parenthetical representatives to sign the con- to sign the contract, however, the bid was
expression tract however the bid was withdrawn.
[interrupter] withdrawn. and
and The chair fired five department heads,
The chair fired five department among them Jerald Destefano.
heads among them Jerald
Destefano.
3. Run-on He focused all his energies on He focused all his energies on his personal
sentence his personal goals he never goals; he never wavered from his chosen
wavered from his chosen path. path.
or
He focused all his energies on his personal
goals, and he never wavered from his
chosen path.
or
He focused all his energies on his personal
goals and never wavered from his chosen
path.
4. Faulty parallel
Most people he encounters are Most people he encounters are impressed by
structure impressed by his calm manner, his calm manner, meticulous attire, and
meticulous attire, and being ambition.
ambitious.
5. Dangling Looking very tired and worn, a Looking very tired and worn, the committee
modifier decision was finally reached by finally reached a decision.
the committee.
6. Apostrophe in Signs at the lot instruct motorists Signs at the lot instruct motorists to park
plural noun to park between the line’s and between the lines and not back into any
not back into any parking space. parking space.

(continued)
82 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 3.8 (continued)

Type of Error Example Sentence with Error Corrections (in bold)
7. Comma splice Only 1,000 new full-time jobs Only 1,000 new full-time jobs will be
will be created, management created; management will fill the remain-
will fill the remaining 9,000 ing 9,000 positions by urging part-timers
positions by urging part-timers to apply for existing full-time positions.
to apply for existing full-time Or
positions. Only 1,000 new full-time jobs will be
created. Management will fill the remain-
ing 9,000 positions by urging part-timers
to apply for existing full-time positions.
8. Use of After lunch, the chair introduced After lunch, the chair introduced Jameson
reflexive Jameson and myself to the and me to the assembly. Use object
pronoun when assembly. pronoun. Apply the “us” test.
objective case
is needed
9. Use of “less” After the recession, Textron After the recession, Textron rehired fewer
for a count rehired less technicians than technicians than Puritan Mills did.
noun Puritan Mills did.
10. Use of nomi- The vice president directed my The vice president directed my associate
native case associate and I to submit reports and me to submit reports to the executive
pronoun in to the executive committee. committee. Use object pronoun. Apply the
compound in- “us” test.
direct object
11. Use of The three buyers talked The three buyers talked among
“between” for between themselves and de- themselves and decided to use the same
more than two cided to use the same vendor. vendor.
12. Adverbial The reason I fired him after two I fired him after two years with our com-
clause as com- years with our company is be- pany because he was incompetent.
plement to cause he was incompetent.
linking verb
13. Its/It’s Specific Dynamics claims that Specific Dynamics claims that its agreement
confusion it’s agreement with our with our company has been violated.
company has been violated. and
and As McAuliff pointed out, it’s (it is) a good
As McAuliff pointed out, its a thing that the auditors talked to the depart-
good thing that the auditors ment before making the findings public.
talked to the department before
making the findings public.
14. Use of adverb The accounts supervisor felt The accounts supervisor felt bad yesterday.
“badly” with badly yesterday.
state-of-being
verb “feel.”
15. Misspelling of I voted against the provision as a I voted against the provision as a matter of
“principle” matter of principal. principle.

(continued)
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 83

Type of Error Example Sentence with Error Corrections (in bold)

16. Lack of apos- Our firms performance has Our firm’s performance has been excellent.
trophe in pos- been excellent.
sessive noun
17. Starting a A recent IRS effort attempted to A recent IRS effort attempted to scan tax
sentence with scan tax returns. But because returns, but because the scanner could not
“But” the scanner could not decipher decipher the taxpayers’ handwriting, the
the taxpayers’ handwriting, the process ended up costing more than the
process ended up costing more manual method.
than the manual method.
18. “Which” used Customers find it hard to Customers find it hard to locate the store, a
to refer to en- locate the store, which affects serious problem that affects business.
tire preceding business.
clause
19. Use of plural Auto retailers on the Internet let Auto retailers on the Internet let the buyer
pronoun to the buyer configure a vehicle to configure a vehicle to his or her taste and
refer to singu- their taste and see the firm price see the firm price of the car he or she
lar noun of the car they want. wants.
or
Auto retailers on the Internet let buyers con-
figure a vehicle to their taste and see the
firm price of the car they want.
20. Use of plural Either the vice president or the Either the vice president or the marketing
verb with marketing director are going to director is going to the reception as a com-
either/or sub- the reception as a company pany representative.
ject structure representative.

Source: for first two columns is Leonard, D. & Gilsdorf, J. (2001). Big stuff, little stuff: A decennial measurement of executives’ and
academics’ reactions to questionable usage elements. Journal of Business Communication 38(4), 440. Reprinted by permission of Sage
Publications. Column three (corrections) has been added by this text’s author.

To use end marks, colons, and semicolons correctly, you need to rec-
ognize independent clauses (see Appendix B—“The Business of Gram-
mar” for more on clauses and sentences). Identifying independent
clauses will help you avoid creating fragments, run-on sentences, or
comma splice errors (types of errors #1, #3, and #7 in Exhibit 3.9).
The following chart illustrates what marks can and cannot do
between independent clauses.

Independent Clause Strongest Independent Clause Usage

1. Mary balanced the books ?!. John paid the bills. Acceptable
2. Mary balanced the books ; John paid the bills. Acceptable
3. Mary balanced the books : John paid the bills. Acceptable
4. Mary balanced the books — John paid the bills. Not acceptable
5. Mary balanced the books , John paid the bills. Not acceptable
Weakest
84 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Depending on intonation, you could read sentence one in the chart

as a question, an exclamation, or a simple sentence, and the second
independent clause could be a separate sentence as well. The use of the
semicolon in sentence two would be correct, since the sentences
are independent but clearly similar in length and structure. The use of
the colon in sentence three would not be typical, but it is also accept-
able. Sentences four and five, however, are not correct, since the dash
and the comma are too weak to separate the two independent clauses.
Confusion often occurs over what to do with the marks in between
the two power positions of the end marks and the commas—the colon
(:) and the semicolon (;).

Colons
The colon is used to introduce lists or to signal that what follows
explains or elaborates what has come before. It creates a sense of
anticipation. The sentence that follows demonstrates the use of a colon
to introduce a list:
The officers of the European organization are as follows:
President—Gini Puccini, Rome
Vice President—Andreas Jung, Berlin
Secretary—Jorge Borges, Madrid
Treasurer—Josephine Willingham, London
Note that placing the colon between a verb and its objects is incor-
rect and should be avoided, even though it is common in modern
usage. You should not write the following:
The officers of the European organization are:
President—Gini Puccini, Rome
Vice President—Andreas Jung, Berlin
Secretary—Jorge Borges, Madrid
Treasurer—Josephine Willingham, London
The following sentence shows the use of the colon to signal that
what follows explains or develops what has come before:
“To be, or not to be: that is the question.”—Shakespeare, Hamlet

Semicolons
The semicolon is used to separate closely related independent clauses
not joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for, so, yet,
nor); to separate independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs
(accordingly, also, besides, consequently, further, however, more-
over, nevertheless, then, therefore, thus, etc.); or to separate a
series of phrases or clauses containing numerous commas.
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 85

The following famous quotation demonstrates the use of the semi-

colon when ideas are closely related and parallel in structure:
“Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do
for your country.”—President J. F. Kennedy
The following sentence demonstrates the use of the semicolon with a
conjunctive adverb:
Susan was well prepared for her interview; however, she still did
not get the job.
If the conjunctive adverb is used as an interrupter, it would not need a
semicolon before it, but it would need commas around it, which is
Type of Error #2 in Exhibit 3.8. See the following example:
Being well prepared for her first interview, however, did not help
Susan to get the job.
The following shows the correct use of the semicolon in a sentence
with many commas:
The organization has scheduled the next round of office photos for
the following dates in these locations: May 20, 2009, Miami,
Florida; August 25, 2009, Johannesburg, South Africa; and Sydney,
Australia, November 15, 2009.

Dashes and Commas

You should avoid using dashes (—) to separate two independent
clauses. In fact, you should use the dash sparingly, if at all, in more for-
mal writing, although you might want to use it to set off a parentheti-
cal expression. Such usage signals that the information within the
dashes is important or necessary. For example, in the following sen-
tence, the sentence needs the information set off by dashes to have
meaning:
The works of three major writers—Ben Franklin, Shakespeare, and
Sir Walter Scott—are the source of most common sayings.
Like the dash, commas are too weak to separate two independent
clauses, but commas can be used to set off a parenthetical expression.
They can also be used to separate two independent clauses if helped
with a coordinating conjunction:
Mary balanced the books, and John paid the bills.

Commas after Introductory Phrases

Always place a comma after an introductory clause beginning with a
subordinating conjunction (after, although, as, because, before, during,
86 Section One Core Leadership Communication

even though, if, since, than, though, unless, when, where, whereas,
etc.). Also, it is best to place commas after introductory phrases even if
they are short. Doing so makes it easier for your reader to read your
sentences:
From a humble beginning, Marion Manufacturing Company has
grown to be an enormous multinational corporation.
A comma should always follow an introductory absolute phrase:
The surveys completed, we were ready to start analyzing the results.

Commas with Items in a Series

Contemporary usage (journalism, in particular) has led to the demise
of the comma before the “and” with items in a series. For example,
people write “The flag is red, white and blue.” Leaving out the comma,
however, can create ambiguity and cause misreading; therefore, it is
safer to follow traditional usage and place a comma before the and.
For example, look at the problem created by leaving the comma out in
the following sentence:
Maria says that she joined the Peace Corps because of her parents,
Mother Teresa and Gandhi.
As written, the sentence is saying that Mother Teresa and Gandhi are
Maria’s parents, which we can safely assume is not the intended meaning.
And look at the change in meaning in the following example:
The steering committee recommended that they start their analysis
by looking at the following departments: personnel, benefits and
insurance, production, human resources and social services.
or
The steering committee recommended that they start their analysis
by looking at the following departments: personnel, benefits and
insurance, production, human resources, and social services.
In the first sentence, it is not clear if “human resources and social ser-
vices” is one department or two; thus, the comma is needed to avoid
confusion.
Your decision to use a comma or not should be based on your being
absolutely sure that omitting the comma does not change the meaning or
leave the possibility of misreading. Going through this reasoning, how-
ever, requires more time and energy than just placing the comma before
the “and” anytime you have items listed, which is the most appropriate
choice for business and technical writing.
When writing for other than business audiences, however, you need
to be flexible and sensitive to their conventions; for instance, since
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 87

journalists do not use the comma, when writing journalistic copy or

for the news media, as in press releases, you may want to omit the
comma, but you should test the meaning.
Commas with Nonrestrictive Clauses
Use commas with nonrestrictive clauses (meaning that they can be
removed from the sentence without changing the meaning). Clauses
beginning with that are restrictive, but clauses beginning with who or
which may be either restrictive or nonrestrictive, so you must ask
yourself “If I remove the clause, will the sentence still make sense?”
For example, look at what happens when you remove the clause from
the following sentence:
The data that accompany the report came from his database.
Without the bolded clause, it is not clear what data the writer means.
Therefore, the clause is necessary (restrictive) and does not require
commas around it.
Contrast the following—
The analysis, which includes his formulas, accompanies the report.
The clause provides additional information, but the information that
the analysis “includes his formulas” is not necessary to understand the
meaning of the sentence.
Commas with Dates and Time
In the United States, dates are usually written in the following way:
June 4, 2009
instead of
4 June 2009
Again, follow the customs of the country in which the documents are
created or in which the organization’s main office is located. If you do
use the month, day, year order, you need a comma after the day. If,
however, you use only the month and the year, you do not need a
comma; thus, the following is correct as written:
June 2009
The use of 6/4/09 (month, day, year) is acceptable in informal settings
only and should be used with caution with international audiences,
since it could be read as April 6, 2009.
Apostrophes
Apostrophes are added with an “s” to nouns to show ownership; “’s” is
added to singular and plural nouns not ending in “s”; plural nouns
ending in “s” take the apostrophe alone in most cases, although the
88 Section One Core Leadership Communication

pronunciation usually determines when to add the “s” as well. Apostro-

phes are also used to create contractions (can’t, don’t, etc.). Apostrophes
are not used to create possessive forms of personal pronouns (hers,
not her’s; its, not it’s) or in plural nouns when not possessive (Type of
Error #6 in Exhibit 3.8).
You will also still see the apostrophe used before an “s” after num-
bers, acronyms, and abbreviations—for example, “MBA’s” instead of
“MBAs” or “1990’s” instead of “1990s.” Although most modern guides
to usage say to omit the apostrophe here, technically, either is correct
as long as leaving the apostrophe out does not cause a misunderstand-
ing. For instance, “As” looks like “as” when you might mean “A’s,” as in
“I expect to make “A’s.” Whichever option you choose, be consistent.
Parentheses
Parentheses are used in pairs to set off interrupting information in a
sentence when dashes would give the information too much emphasis
and commas might lead to misreading. Note: The period is placed
inside the parenthesis if the entire sentence is parenthetical and out-
side if not; see the discussion of apostrophes for an example.
Quotation Marks
In the United States, quotation marks should always be placed out-
side periods and commas; inside semicolons and colons; and inside
or outside (depending on the context) question marks and exclama-
tion marks. In other countries (for example, Europe, Canada, and
Australia), the comma and period are placed outside the quotation
marks, so you will need to follow the custom of the country in which
the document is written or the country that serves as the headquarters
of the organization.
.” ,” Always correct
”; ”: Always correct
“?” “!” Depends on the sentence
Even if the construction seems illogical to you, as in the following
example, the rule in the United States remains the same.
Shing-Hwa expects to make good grades in all of her classes; even
in Economics 598, she expects to make an “A.”

Ellipses
The ellipsis is defined as “three spaced periods.” Please note the word
“spaced.” That means that you literally hit the space bar key before,
between, and after each period; thus, it should look like . . . and not
… or…when you use the ellipsis in a sentence, which is not the way
Microsoft Word wants to treat it. If you use the ellipsis at the end of
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 89

the sentence, then you should use four periods, with no space before
the first period. The ellipsis indicates that the writer has omitted some
words from a direct quotation, although it is usually not needed at
the beginning of a direct quotation if you have worked the quotation
into your prose:
William David Thoreau, an American Transcendentalist, wrote
that, when you hire people to work for you, you should not hire
someone “who does your work for money, but him [or her] who
does it for love of it.”
The ellipsis should not be used as you see writers sometimes use it
(particularly in e-mail) to suggest they have more to say but are not
taking the time right now to say it. In other words, they are using the
ellipsis to mean “in addition” or etcetera. This usage is careless and
even irritating to the reader, so you should avoid it. Also, note the
use of brackets [ ] to indicate that words are inserted in the direct
quotation.

The Correct Use of Pronouns

The rules for the use of punctuation will help you avoid some of the
mistakes in the top 20; however, some of the sentences in Exhibit 3.8
contain grammatical mistakes that deserve some discussion. The first
and one of the most frequent and an important mistake in contempo-
rary usage is the misuse of personal and indefinite pronouns (Types of
Errors #8, #10, and #19). See Appendix B—“The Business of Gram-
mar” for a discussion of the correct use of all types of pronouns.

Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun (see the following table) refers to a specific person
or thing mentioned previously (antecedent) and must agree in person
and number with that antecedent.

Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns

I, we Me, us
He, she, it Him, her, it
You You
They Them
Who Whom

Subject pronouns perform the action in the sentence, and object pro-
nouns receive it:
Tomas and I will meet you in the conference room at 10:00 a.m.
Please divide the money between Katya and me.
90 Section One Core Leadership Communication

You should use object pronouns following prepositions (between,

to, from, among, over, under, etc.). One way to test for whether to use
“I” or “me” is to substitute “we” or “us.” In the second sentence above,
for instance, you would not say, “Please divide the money between we.”
Therefore, you know that you should use “me.”
In the first sentence, you might be tempted to use “myself” instead
of “I,” but this usage is incorrect. Although the first person reflexive
pronoun—“myself”—is frequently misused to replace “I” or “me,” such
reflexive pronouns are very seldom used in English. They have a very
specific meaning—an action that reflects or comes back to the subject:
I will do the work myself.
Do not use “myself” just because you are unsure whether to use “I” or
“me”; instead, take the time to test if “we” or “us” is appropriate, and
then you will know which first person pronoun to use.

Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to any particular person or thing—for
example, “anybody,” “everyone,” and “something” (see Appendix B for
a complete list).)
Be very careful with agreement in number—singular or plural—
when using indefinite pronouns. They often cause mistakes in pro-
noun antecedent agreement—for example,
You should say, “Everybody must file his or her report.”
Not “Everybody must file their report.”
If you are unsure, you can use the verb test: “Everybody is” or “Every-
body are”?

Collective Nouns
You should be aware of a cultural difference in the treatment of pronoun
reference to collective nouns, such as “board,” “committee,” “corpora-
tion,” “department,” and “company.” In the United States, collective
nouns are usually thought of as singular and take singular verbs and
pronouns. For example, in the United States, a company is treated as
singular and is referred to by “it,” as in the following example:
Brown & Partners, LLP, is considered successful in its market area.
In other countries, such as Great Britain and Australia, a company is
treated as plural, which means the preceding sentence would read
Brown & Partners, LLP, are considered successful in their market
area.
As with other differences across countries, you should usually follow the
conventions of the country in which the company has its headquarters.
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 91

Effective Sentence Structure

Sentences are traditionally said to convey a complete thought; that is,
they make a meaningful statement. (See Appendix B for more on sen-
tences.) While most writers (or speakers) recognize sentences and
would make few mistakes when constructing them, some common
errors do occur frequently in professional writing that have ended up
in the top 20 mistakes to avoid. In fact, two of the errors in Exhibit 3.8
(Types of Errors #4 and #5) are in the top 10. The discussion that follows
is to help you avoid these types of errors.

Parallelism
Parallelism means that the listed words, phrases, or clauses within
your sentences or the sentences themselves (as in a list of complete
thoughts in a PowerPoint slide) are alike in structure. Parallel struc-
ture makes your sentences easier to read, gives your writing balance
and rhythm, and creates greater efficiency in your prose. The preced-
ing sentence is an example of parallel structure; note the repeated
verbs—“makes,” “gives,” and “creates”—are alike. Now, look at the fol-
lowing sentence, which is not parallel:
The committee recommends that we ask all registrants to sign up
by 5:00 p.m., the day of the race, complete all forms online, pay-
ment should be by credit card, and they should have their numbers
pinned to the front of their shirts.
Look at how much easier the following version is to read:
The committee recommends that we ask all registrants to sign up
by 5:00 p.m. on the day of the race, complete all forms online, pay
with a credit card, and pin their numbers to the front of their shirts.
The following illustrates the use of parallel structure in a bulleted list:
When negotiating, the following actions are essential:
• Identifying interferences to effective communication
• Developing a communication strategy and analyzing your opponent
• Recognizing effective influencing and persuasive techniques
• Learning the specifics of the culture with which you will be
negotiating
Anytime you have a list of bulleted items, as you frequently will in a
PowerPoint presentation, you should be very careful to maintain
parallel structure for all the items.

Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is one that does not clearly or logically refer to the
subject or object to which it is connected. Usually, it occurs at the
92 Section One Core Leadership Communication

beginning of a sentence, and the subject of the clause following it can-

not logically perform the action described:
Worrying that the titles would not align correctly, the template was
adjusted.
Obviously, the template was not worried; some unnamed person was.
The sentence should read as follows:
Worrying that the titles would not align, the designer adjusted the
template.

Sexist Language
Leaders should avoid sexist language. Sexist language shows a bias, or
preference, toward one gender over another, often by implying exclusion
of the nonpreferred gender. Using “man” or “he” all the time is not appro-
priate in most environments, particularly in the workplace. The issue cre-
ates problems when using English because the English language does
not provide easy alternatives for the singular masculine and feminine
pronouns; therefore, you will often need to rewrite sentences to make
your subjects plural so that you are not locked into using “he” or “him.”
For instance, instead of saying,
Everybody must pay his income tax.
You can say,
Taxpayers must pay their income taxes.
or
All Americans must pay their income taxes.
Of course, it is not always so easy to avoid sexist constructions, but you
should take care that you do not offend anybody. In some situations,
however, it is difficult to find a totally inoffensive construction that
avoids doing violence to the language.
Since the 1960s, attempts to find substitutions for “he,” “him,” and
“his” have led to rather awkward replacements:
1. He or she, him or her, he/she, him/her, or his/her.
2. S/he (no equivalent has been created for him/her or his/her).
The first replacement (“he or she”) is grammatically correct and is
sometimes the best alternative; however, it becomes rather awkward
when overused and interrupts the flow of the language. The second
replacement has received negative response, since it looks so strange
and is impossible to pronounce, so it should be avoided.
Again, trying to make the antecedent plural, as in the previous tax-
payer example, is usually your best choice. Remember, although some
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 93

people are now intentionally using a plural pronoun to refer to a sin-

gular antecedent to avoid the problem, you should never do so. You are
better off being perceived as slightly sexist than being perceived as illit-
erate. To write “Everybody should pay their income taxes” is still con-
sidered substandard and probably always will be, since it violates a
basic grammatical rule about agreement of pronouns and the nouns to
which they refer. See Appendix B for a discussion of indefinite pro-
nouns and collective nouns.
The Use of Ms.
“Ms.” is a convenient and well accepted way to address a woman of
unknown marital status; however, if you know the marital status, you
may use Mrs. or Miss if you are sure that your audience prefers to be
addressed that way. Follow your audience’s lead, if possible. If the indi-
vidual has written to you and signed her letter “Mrs. Brown,” then
address her as “Mrs. Brown” when you write to her.
A Note on Letter Salutations
When you are not sure of a woman’s marital status, use “Ms.” in the
salutation of letters. If you are unsure of the sex, then use the first and
last name:
Dear Leslie Smith:
If you do not know the name, address the person by position:
Dear Customer:
Dear Managers:
Never begin a letter with “Gentlemen:” or “Dear Sir:”
You may also remove the salutation and just use a subject line,
although you should use this as a last resort:
Expert Computer Systems
2920 Main Street
Houston, TX 77002
Subject: Defective Computer Parts
Or use an attention line:
Expert Computer Systems
2920 Main Street
Houston, TX 77002
Attention: Computer Parts Department

The Use of Words Ending in “Man” or other “Guy” Words

The suffix “-man” has been replaced by “-person” in words such as “chair-
man,” although in many cases complete substitutions have been offered.
94 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Thus, “chairman” has become “chair”; “mailman,” “letter carrier”;

“policeman,” “police officer”; and so forth. You only need to consider
these changes in general references; if you know the subject is male,
you can use the masculine form of the word.
In addition, you will want to avoid using “you guys” in most profes-
sional settings. Although a popular expression, right up there with
“you all” in some parts of the United States, it should be avoided (as
should “you all,” for that matter, but for different reasons) to ensure
you do not offend a large portion of the population—females.

Editing and Proofreading Techniques

Editing is an important skill that requires discipline and practice. It is
particularly difficult to edit our own work. Many communicators are
not sure what they need to watch for besides the obvious typos and
spelling. However, mostly we just do not take (or have) the time to edit
or proof our own work.
Editing involves reviewing presentations, documents, and all other
written communication to see if they are clear, concise, and correct.
Often, editing means reading closely to see if another word would
work better or determine if we have fallen into passive voice or some
other wordy construction.
Proofreading occurs after editing. It is reading the communication
closely to identify errors in usage, grammar, spelling, or formatting.
We should engage in editing or proofing only after we have com-
pleted the content and feel certain that we have included all of the
information we plan to include. It is particularly important to avoid
editing or proofing in the idea-generation stage of communication,
since to do so will hinder creativity and thinking.
The following provides a few guidelines on editing and proofreading
your own work:
1. Do not proofread as you compose. Proofread after you think you are
finished.
2. Try to put some time between when you write something and when
you proof it.
3. Know what errors you tend to make or overlook, and watch for
them in particular.
4. Watch for common trouble spots, such as transposed letters, con-
fused words, pronoun/antecedent disagreement, dangling modifiers,
and misused apostrophes. Also check for lack of consistency in pre-
sentations, in particular.
5. Proof using a hard-copy instead of on the screen whenever
your communication is important or complex. We tend to miss
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 95

EXHIBIT 3.9 Style and tone

Checklist to
Review the Use of
Language in Your Appropriate tone, not too informal or formal, not potentially
Own Work offensive for selected audience.

No use of inappropriate jargon or abbreviations.

Concise ( not wordy, verbose, or containing passive voice constructions ).

No overuse or misuse of modifiers ( e.g., “ly” words ) or other

qualifiers (“I think”, “I believe”, “I feel”, etc. ).

No diction problems ( wrong or poor word choices).

No unclear or awkward sentence or phrase constructions.

Overall, clear, concise, and confident.

Usage ( top 20 ) and proofreading

No usage or grammar errors.

No punctuation errors.

No spelling errors.

No typos or other proofreading errors.

mistakes on the screen. If writing a comment, text, or tweet, con-

sider using a text editor to compose; then review before copying
and sending.
6. Finally, proofread the document and each slide backwards to catch
typos and spelling errors. Actually start at the end of the page and
sentence and work your way to the beginning. When we proof our
own work, we tend to read what we think we have written instead of
what is actually on the page. By reading backwards, our eyes are
forced to focus on each word.
Most important, we should take the time to read back over our writing
even when sending a text message or e-mail; while it is more difficult
to see our mistakes on a screen, particularly on handhelds, we will see
many of the errors and avoid looking careless.
The checklist in Exhibit 3.9 should help in reviewing the use of lan-
guage in our own work. Combined with Exhibit 4.14 in Chapter 4 on
reviewing written communication, it provides a very complete approach
to editing and proofreading our own work.
96 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Making Computers Work for us

Computers have clearly made creating documents and presentations
much easier, but they have also caused us to make mistakes; therefore,
they deserve a few caveats on their use. In particular, we need to watch
for the following common problems:
1. Jumping into writing a document without adequate planning.
2. Seeing only the screen version, causing us to lose sight of the docu-
ment as a whole.
3. Relying too much on spell-checkers, when they can catch only some
of the mistakes.
4. Depending on grammar-checkers, when they are extremely limited
in what they can correct.
5. Proofreading on the screen, thus missing many typos and other errors.
6. Moving words and phrases around easily, causing us to leave in
extra words and omit necessary ones.
We will improve our writing and avoid many of the preceding prob-
lems if we follow these guidelines:
1. When using the computer for idea generation, recognize that what
we enter at this brainstorming stage seldom qualifies as a final ver-
sion ready for our audience because it will probably lack coherence
or clear organization. We should not let the desire to get it just right
or to organize the ideas at this stage slow down the composition.
Instead, we should use the computer to overcome writer’s block and
get ideas down quickly; then go back through and organize them.
2. Take advantage of features such as word search to look for common
redundancies, wordy expressions, unclear references with “this” and
“that,” or words you may tend to misuse, such as “affect.”
3. Experiment with different formatting to see what makes the docu-
ment more accessible and readable. For letters and basic docu-
ments, Microsoft Word has templates we can use. However, since
the spacing and text font selected are not always the most effective,
we may want to do our own formatting, perhaps postponing it until
after having entered all of the text.
4. Recognize the limitations of spell-checkers, but always run them to
catch careless errors; just do not expect the spell-checker to find all
mistakes. It will not catch “there” and “their,” for instance.
5. Be wary of style/grammar checkers. The English language is too com-
plex and irregular for a style/grammar checker to recognize what is
right or wrong in many cases. For instance, style checkers often label
past tense sentences as passive voice. Thus, unless the writer knows
grammar rules and best style practices well enough to determine
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 97

when the style/grammar checker is incorrect, it can be more danger-

ous to use one than not. In fact, in addition to missing many major
errors, these checkers tend to add errors. We should rely on a gram-
mar checker only to highlight possible mistakes and must know what
to follow and what to ignore; otherwise, we will add more mistakes
than we will correct.
6. Do the final proofreading from a hard copy, not on the computer
screen, whenever possible. When not doing so, as when using IM
or sending text messages, at least slow down long enough to read
back over what you have written before sending.
With longer, more formal documents or any important one, we might
want to have someone else look over our work to provide the “fresh
eye” that leaders sometimes need. We need to remember that audiences
will connect us to what they see written, and while most audiences
may overlook an occasional slipup, errors in the use of language can
harm us and our company.
In conclusion, this chapter has provided instruction in creating a
positive ethos through the use of the language of leadership. To con-
vince others, we need to communicate confidently and reflect an
appropriate tone in all that we write and say. We need to be concise
and ensure that our language is clear, crisp, and meaningful. We need
to recognize the power of language to persuade others; at the same
time, we accept the responsibility to be honest, logical, and ethical and
never misleading or manipulative. Finally, we need to avoid careless
grammatical and usage errors and take the time to edit and proofread
our communication to ensure it is clear and correct.
As leaders, we manage meaning for those who follow us by the
words we select and the way we put those words together to create sen-
tences. The more control we have over the use of language, the greater
our influence and our ability to lead.
98 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Application 3.1 Try your hand at recognizing and changing the passive voice constructions in
Passive Voice the following sentences. First, underline each passive voice construction; then,
rewrite the sentence, making it active. Be prepared to discuss why the passive
might be the better choice in some of the sentences.
1. An order for 5,000 T-shirts was placed by the Student Association.
2. Requests for class transfers will be accommodated if the request is made in
person, the receipt of payment for the class is shown, and a $1 processing
fee is paid.
3. Data were selectively collected to allow computation of the unique ratios
utilized by “corporate raiders” in assessing a buyout candidate.
4. Detailed information on filling out the form is presented forthwith.
5. It has been decided that your proposal does not follow the RFP guidelines
as outlined and, therefore, it must be rejected.
6. To implement the policy, a memorandum will be issued to all management
personnel in my division.

Application 3.2 Eliminate the unnecessary words in the following sentences:

Conciseness 1. We are in receipt of your expense report, but due to the fact that it contains
errors, we need to discuss it with you as soon as possible.
2. Per your e-mail, we are sending you the report in regard to our analysis of
the Patrick Co. reengineering project.
3. Please be advised that, as of January 10, 2009, we will no longer authorize
work on the Javia account.
4. To ensure that the optimal conclusions will be drawn, it is absolutely essen-
tial for you to ensure the analysts are given any and all data that are neces-
sary for effective completion of the analysis assigned to them to complete.

Application 3.3 Rewrite the following sentences to make the messages positive:
Positive 1. Please don’t waste ink and paper. Don’t print PowerPoint in anything but
Messages pure black-and-white format.
2. I cannot meet with you before Monday to discuss the report, so you should
not wait for my approval to create the final version.
3. We are not hiring any new employees until the next quarter earnings are
available. Please do not contact us until then.
4. I don’t think it will be too much trouble to change the policy as long as no
one disagrees with the changes.
5. Our market presence was weak internationally, so we have launched a new
marketing campaign in Bolivia, Italy, and India.
6. Our refineries do not release dangerous particles into the air.
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 99

Application 3.4 Rewrite the following sentences to make them parallel:

Parallelism 1. Highland Services offers friendly, fast responses to all customers, our tech-
nicians are professional, and lowest cost is our goal.
2. To persuade your audience, you must:
• Consider the audience’s motivation.
• Include your bottom-line message early.
• The strongest arguments should come first.
• Key points summarized at the conclusion.
3. The team gave the following reasons for not completing the project on time:
• Unrealistic time allotment.
• Major computer problems.
• They lacked the necessary data.
• The team just did not get along at all.

Application 3.5 The following paragraph contains usage and mechanical errors. Correct the
Usage and errors in the space provided within the passage. Sentences may contain more
than one error or none.
Mechanics
(1) Group leaders must prepare the program agendum and should distribute it
at least several days before the meeting. (2) They should also ensure that the
group have a satisfactory place to meet. (3) A designated conference room or a
suitable substitute. (4) If the meeting is a formal conference and has a number
of people which are not acquainted leaders should place name cards on the table
in front of each persons chair. (5) Having started the meeting, name cards make
discussion easier. (6) Once the meeting has started, discussion leaders must keep
it moving. (7) Each of the members have to assume the same responsibility. (8)
A group sometimes drifts off course into trivial and unrelated matters, therefore,
leaders must guide them back to the central problem. (9) Though leaders must
have kept the group process moving, they must often be careful about revealing
their own position. (10) This has been of great importance to my colleagues and
I. (11) We recognize that a high status person for example a company president,
can cut off discussion by revealing their own view to clearly.

Application 3.6 After you have read the following e-mail from Mr. Thompson, answer the ques-
Use of Language tions below. Note: Again, this note was actually sent.
Overall 1. How do you like the way the e-mail looks—letterhead, formatting, and the
like?
2. Does the e-mail’s appearance influence your response to it? How?
3. What mistakes in usage do you notice?
4. Are there any expressions that Mr. Thompson uses that bother you in par-
ticular? What are they, and why do they bother you?
5. How do you feel about Mr. Thompson? Do you like him? Do you trust him?
Why or why not?
6. What would you change about the way the e-mail was written?
 Sent: August 28, 2009

To: Mr. Robert Browning, General Partner

From: Charles J. Thompson, Jr
Subject: Follow-up

Hey Rob. . .

We’re in receipt of your good letter of July 20, 2009, and it’s good to hear
from you again... Good to learn that you’re doing well. As for myself, still
trying desperately to ‘Catch-up’ after having returned this past Monday,
from a very enjoyable vacation. All this past week has been devoted to
‘Wading thru papers’, which I am sure you fully understand...since you
wer Golfing in the California all week!

The purpose of our letter to you today is to get your response as to the
‘Common-denominators’ ‘which are prevalent in the acquisitions you’ve
made thus far, in relationship to the types of situations you are desirous
of pursuing at this time...

I am seeking to ‘Get a handle’ on the main points of your acquisition thrust

in order that we may approach your needs more intelligently, and therefore
ultimately aid/be beneficial and/or instrumental with such needs...

Look to hear from you with this written documentation in order that we
PRESS ON in your behalf...

I’m out of here for the entire week of 20th for NCN in Chicago, and look
to hear from you as soon as possible...

Rob, that’s the news from the Thompson Tower.

With the Best of Regards, I remain

Very truly yours,

Charles J. Thompson, Jr., President
Executive Consultants, Inc. - “Where True Consultants Meet Worthy client’s Needs”
P.O. Box 44296
New York, NY 11201
Phone 917-562-7471
Fax 917-733-1234
[email protected]
www.ECI.com

CONFIDENTIALITY NOTICE: This tranmission (and any attached documents) may

contain privileged, confidential, proprietary and/or trade secret information belonging to
the sender which is entitled to protection and/or is exempt from disclosure under applicable
law. The information is intended only for the use of the individual or entity named above.
If you are not the intended recipient, you are hereby notified that any disclosure, copying,
distribution or the taking of any action in reliance on the contents of this information is
unauthorized and strictly prohibited. If you have received this transmission in error, please
immediately notify the sender and delete this e-mail from your system. Thank you for your
cooperation.
 Chapter 3 The Language of Leaders 101

Notes 1. Fairhurst, G., and Sarr, R. (1996). The Art of Framing: Managing the Lan-
guage of Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
2. Strunk, W., Jr., and White, E. B. (1959). The Elements of Style. New York:
Macmillan, p. 53.
3. Petzinger, T., Jr. (1987). Oil and Honor: The Texaco-Pennzoil Wars. New
York: Berkley Books, pp. 271–72.
4. Blaise Pascal, Lettres provinciales, Letter 16. Pascal’s quotation in French
reads: “Je n’ai fait celle-ci plus longue que parce que je n’ai pas eu le loisir
de la faire plus courte.”
5. Beason, L. (2001). Ethos and error: How business people react to errors.
College Composition and Communication 53, No. 1 (September), pp. 33–64.
6. Beason (2001).
7. Beason (2001), pp. 56–57.
8. Leonard, D., and Gilsdorf, J. (2001). Big stuff, little stuff: A decennial mea-
surement of executives’ and academics’ reactions to questionable usage
elements. Journal of Business Communication 38, No. 4, p. 440.
9. Hairston, M. (1981). Not all errors are created equal: Nonacademic read-
ers in the professions respond to lapses in usage. College English 43, pp.
794–806. Results based on a survey of 101 professional people, asking
them what usage and mechanical errors bothered them the most.
Leonard, D., and Gilsdorf, J. (1990). Language in change: Academics’ and
executives’ perceptions of usage errors. Journal of Business Communica-
tion 27, pp. 137–58. Results based on a survey of 133 executive vice presi-
dents and 200 Association for Business Communication members. In
2000, Leonard and Gilsdorf repeated their survey, but they changed the
format slightly. Instead of the categories of lapses used above, they used a
scale ranging from “most distracting” to “least distracting.” The survey
respondents totaled 64 executives and 130 academics. They found that the
usage errors that “distracted” both the executives and the academics were
very similar to those they had found in their 1990 survey. They also found
very little difference between the two groups.
10. Ravenel, W. B., III. (1959). English Reference Book. Alexandria, VA: Newell-
Cole, p. 143. With added punctuation, the passage reads as follows: That,
that is, is. That, that is not, is not. That, that is not, is not that, that is.
That, that is, is not that, that is not. Is not that it? It is. For similar punc-
tuation challenges, see Barrett, D. J. (1986). From “Thinking Man” to
“Man Thinking”: Exercises requiring problem-solving skills. Activities to
Promote Critical Thinking. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of
English.
Chapter
4
Creating Written
Leadership
Communication
Developing excellent communication skills is absolutely
essential to effective leadership. The leader must be able
to share knowledge and ideas to transmit a sense of
urgency and enthusiasm to others. If a leader can’t get a
message across clearly and motivate others to act on it,
then having a message doesn’t even matter.
Gilbert Amelio, president and CEO, National Semiconductor
Corporation

More and more, the ability to speak well and write is im-
portant. You know, writing is not something that is taught
as strongly as it should be in the educational curriculum.
So you’re looking for communication skills. . . . I think
this communication point is getting more and more
important. People really have to be able to handle the
written and spoken word.
Richard Anderson, CEO, Delta Air Lines. New York Times interview
with Adam Bryant, 2009

Right now, your customers are writing about your prod-

ucts on blogs and recutting your commercial on YouTube.
They’re defining you on Wikipedia and ganging up on you
102
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 103

on social networking sites like Facebook. These are all

elements of a social phenomenon—the groundswell—that
has created a permanent shift in the way the world works.
Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff, Groundswell. Boston: Harvard, 2008.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Select the most effective written communication medium.

• Create individual and written communication.
• Interact with social media effectively.
• Organize communication content coherently.
• Conform to expectations in correspondence.
• Include expected contents in reports.
• Format professional communication effectively.

Professional written communication falls into one of two broad types:

(1) correspondence (text messages, e-mails, blog posts, memos, and
letters) and (2) reports (including proposals, progress reviews, perfor-
mance reports, and research documentation). Through their corre-
spondence and reports, leaders assert their influence in a wide range
of organizational settings. Leaders write correspondence several times
daily. They also write different kinds of reports, from complicated
studies and white papers with recommendations and pages of analysis
to shorter progress reviews.
Audiences carry with them certain expectations when they receive
and read the various genres, or types, of written professional commu-
nication. In addition, they judge the leadership qualities of the writer.
The audiences ask: Is the message clear? Is the argument logical and
complete? Is the tone appropriate? Has the writer been careless in the
content or use of language? Problems in any of these areas can prevent
our messages from reaching our audiences as we intend.
The inability to create clear and coherent written communication has
hindered countless careers. Even something as apparently innocuous as
an internal e-mail can hurt us and our organization. For example, an
e-mail discussed in this chapter damaged a midwestern CEO’s reputa-
tion and resulted in a substantial dip in his company’s stock price.
Once we are in a leadership position, our communication becomes far-
reaching and public, with the power to change the entire direction of
our organization. By recognizing the importance of every written com-
munication we create, we begin to appreciate the importance of mak-
ing sure we approach the writing of all of it with utmost care, from the
simplest text messages and e-mails to the most complicated reports.
104 Section One Core Leadership Communication

This chapter focuses on helping you create written leadership com-

munication that accomplishes your communication purposes. Chapter 2
emphasized that leadership communication depends on establishing a
clear purpose, developing a communication strategy, analyzing an
audience, and ensuring that we use the most effective organizational
structure. This chapter will begin by applying these principles to cre-
ating written communication. In addition, this chapter discusses how
to make all types of written communication coherent to our audiences
and explains the relatively new world of social media, providing a
strategy for approaching the most common types as a leader. It con-
cludes by emphasizing achieving coherence by using a logical struc-
ture and effective organization and by making sure our documents
conform in content and format to the expectations in the typical pro-
fessional settings.

Selecting the Most Effective Communication Medium

As with any effective leadership communication, we need to clarify our
purpose, analyze our audience, and develop a communication strategy
before we put pen to paper or fingers to the keyboard to create a doc-
ument. We have a number of options to consider when selecting the
best document medium.
When writing, people generally reply in kind: For example, if some-
one sends us an e-mail, we send an e-mail back, or if someone sends us
an instant message (IM), we respond via IM (or, if the request is com-
plicated, we ask the person to call or e-mail). When we are initiating
the chain of communication, the usual communication practices of
the organization will probably guide our choice of medium. If the
organization uses IM or e-mail for everything, then we will as well.
If we have complete freedom to select the medium and are not lim-
ited by the previous chain of communication or the practices in the
organization, we should select the medium best suited for the context
and our message. Exhibit 4.1 lists some of the advantages and disad-
vantages of each written medium to help in deciding which is the best
to use in different situations.

Creating Individual and Team Written Communication

Once we have developed our strategy and selected the most appropri-
ate medium, we can then create and perfect our written communica-
tion. Whether we are creating our communication alone or in
collaboration with a team or other group, having a plan will help us be
more productive and streamline the creation process considerably.
This pre-work is even important for writing in social media; we should
make a plan before entering the space.
EXHIBIT 4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Written Medium
Medium Advantages Disadvantages
Blogs • Personal and somewhat casual • Still a new medium; standards have not
• Reaches a large audience been set, and expectations are unclear
• Easily shared • No way to ensure that the message
reached the intended audience
• Easily shared
Tweets • Immediate and casual • Because it is so immediate, can be sent
(Microblogging) • Easily shared without thoughtful consideration
• Fosters conversation and • Still a new medium; standards have not
collaborative thinking been set, and expectations are unclear
• Easily shared
Social Network • Reaches “fan” base, so fosters • Limited audience
Post (Facebook viral spread of message • Easily overlooked
event, wall post, • Fosters collaboration and • Potential for negative social backlash
etc.) conversation
Text message • Fast, easy, immediate • Too abbreviated for more complex or
sensitive communication
E-mail • Fast, immediate • Easily distributed to the world, acciden-
• Easily distributed to one or many tally or on purpose
• Creates a permanent electronic • Discoverable in litigation
trail • Formatting sometimes lost in transmission
Memo • Usually considered informal and • Slower than e-mail
for internal use • Thought of as more informal than a
• Creates a permanent paper trail letter
• Allows writer to control layout • Creates a permanent paper trail
Letter • More formal, reserved for exter- • Slower than e-mail
nal use primarily • Creates a permanent paper trail
• Creates a permanent paper trail
• Stands out from the crowd
• Allows writer to control layout
Discussion • Informal • May be seen as too casual and even
outline • Tends to encourage discussion careless unless positioned effectively
Chart pack • Can be informal or formal • Usually requires discussion in person
or deck depending on the setting or at a minimum text explanation to
• Easy to create effective data charts accompany it
White papers • Usually seen as more informal than • Seen by many now as a sales tool, thus
a report with a focus on educating causing some to question purpose and
and providing information usually not see them as always trustworthy
through electronic channels • Commercial use has weakened credibil-
• Often used by businesses, partic- ity as a source of new ideas or as exam-
ularly high-tech, to promote ple of thought leadership
products, services, ideas
Reports • Usually viewed as formal • Are seldom read in their entirety
• Allow fuller discussions and • May require additional time and effort to
analysis of subjects compile and to format
• Come in numerous shapes and
sizes (see report table below)

105
106 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Creating Individual Written Communication

Exhibit 4.2 provides a phased approach to follow if working alone,
from the initial steps of establishing purpose and strategy to the final
step of producing a completed document. Approaches to creating writ-
ten communication differ from person to person. Some people work
best from an outline, while others feel more comfortable using the idea
mapping or brainstorming techniques discussed in Chapter 2. We
should find the approach that works best for us, realizing that we will
be more productive if we follow some sort of step-by-step plan.
Ideally, we should go through each step in order, making sure that
we leave all editing until the final phase. One of the greatest barriers
to idea generation is editing while writing or creating. The brain can-
not be creator and critic at the same time. The purpose and strategy
affect content, organization, format, and style. They will, of course,
govern how we approach the process and how we complete it.
Our purpose will usually be clear by the time we reach Phase 2,
although sometimes we may find that we start writing the draft before
we know exactly where we are heading. Sometimes we simply need to
get words on the page or screen to help the ideas flow, and as they do,
we gain greater clarity in our message. For example, when sending
e-mails, we may write a few sentences that we end up deleting once
we realize what we really want to say. If we find we are hitting a writ-
ing block, we may need to go back to brainstorming or mind mapping
to free up our ideas.

Creating Team Written Communication

Leaders often manage the process of document and presentation cre-
ation within a team setting. Doing so effectively requires preplanning
and a clearly defined approach. Without a plan, team document and

EXHIBIT 4.2
Individual Written
Communication Phase 1: Phase 2: Phase 3:
Analyzing and Creating and Refining and
Creation Process
Planning Developing Proofing

1. Clarify your purpose 6. Decide on the best 12. Reorganize, if necessary

2. Develop your organization 13. Revise, cutting excess
strategy 7. Generate ideas 14. Read the document aloud
3. Analyze your 8. Gather data to check tone and flow
audience 9. Check for completeness 15. Print out and proofread
4. Select your medium 10. Double-check your logic the final version
5. Determine your key 11. Write a complete draft
messages with headings
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 107

presentation creation can involve extra work and yield lower-quality

results. Teams use one of two ways to divide the tasks: (1) single scribe
or (2) multiple writer. Both of these approaches can be managed on-
line with such applications as Google Docs or other collaborative work-
space. For instruction in these two approaches to dividing up the work
across a team and using Google Docs to collaborate on team work, see
Chapter 10.

Interacting with Social Media

More and more, leaders are expected to interact in the social media
space. A recent Rosetta study (2008) states that 59 percent of top retail-
ers have a fan page on Facebook, for example.1 Forbes.com, in fact,
recommends that even CEOs should use social networks and Twitter.2
Through blogs, Twitter accounts, Facebook profiles, and professional
networking sites, leaders project their ethos and interact with their
company’s varied audiences, often without the assistance of a market-
ing or PR team, and often without direction, which can be risky.
Social media are changing the face of communication across all
industries, even finding their way into political campaigns. For exam-
ple, U.S. President Obama used social media, such as Facebook,
YouTube, and Twitter, very effectively in his election, communicating
easily and frequently with his constituencies and leaving most of the
other candidates constantly playing catch-up. In fact, some say his
“victory demonstrated that platforms like YouTube and Twitter could
transform electoral politics.”3
While some corporations are slower to accept these new media,
most realize they must. Domino’s Pizza is just one of many corpora-
tions recently who faced a scandal facilitated by the Web. Many are
realizing the value and the importance of Web 2.0. They are finding
that “social software can be used to boost productivity” and as Web 2.0
evangelists say, “it can facilitate an open-ended corporate culture that
values transparency, collaboration and innovation. Most important, it
can be an effective way to build a customer-centric organization that
not only communicates authentically but also listens to customers and
learns from that interaction.”4
It is important for us to consider carefully how we want to approach
social media and how we wish to present ourselves in these very pub-
lic, constantly changing spaces. The following sections outline some of
the best strategic practices for using two of the most popular forms of
social media—blogs and microblogs—and recommend strategies for
understanding the different uses of language in these spaces.

Setting up a Professional Blog

The list of companies, blog posts, and Web sites devoted to providing
advice on how to create a professional blog is extensive and will
108 Section One Core Leadership Communication

change quickly, we can be sure, but the following are a few available,
as of the publication of this book:
www.presentationzen.com/
www.tompeters.com/
http://msmvps.com/blogs/tohlz/
www.pptblog.tlccreative.com/
www.visualbeing.com/
http://pptideas.blogspot.com/
A review of many of these top-visited sites shows some commonalities
in the guidelines for using blogs:
1. Define your purpose before you begin.
Denise Wakeman from www.buildabetterblog.com echoes the senti-
ment of many when she suggests that you need to ask—and
answer—a critical question before you begin blogging: Why will
your blog exist?5 She notes that, to answer that question, you will
need to know the audience you want to attract, your goals for the
blog, and what others are already writing. Chapter 2 on leadership
communication strategy can help you with this step.
2. Be involved in the conversation.
Most lists of tips for blogging include a statement much like this one
from Alan Johnson: “The opportunity to interact with your readers
is one of the most important things which makes blogging special in
the first place.”6 If you only post and never respond to your audi-
ence, you will lose the audience. Blogs are designed to foster con-
versation, so make conversation happen!
3. Give credit.
According to Darren Rowse, one of the best-known bloggers on the
Internet, one of the quickest ways to ruin your reputation as a blog-
ger is not to give credit to and link to others when you use their
ideas. In fact, he warns that not giving credit and properly linking
can get your blog banned from some search engines.7 In addition,
many professional bloggers have noted the value of linking to others
as a means of building their own readership and getting involved in
the larger blogosphere.
4. Make it different.
Blogs can go wrong quickly when they are used as simply another
marketing tool. Matthew Fraser and Soumitra Dutta of Forbes.com
warn that “new media require new ways of doing business” and
note that the real value of blogs and other social media is their
ability to foster collaboration and create new channels for inter-
acting with key stakeholders openly and honestly.8 Any blog
you create should be a mix of the personal and the professional—
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 109

one that comes naturally to you and is still good for your orga-
nization.
5. Keep writing.
Professionals bloggers in many different fields warn that the quick-
est way to doom a blog is to take a break and stop writing. As you
define your purpose, put together a time line that includes when you
will post, when you will review and comment on responses, and
when you will read others.
Once we have a strategic plan in place, we need to consider our
strategic approach to language on our blog as well. Blogs are usually
more casual in tone and style than other professional writing, but stan-
dard rules still apply; we should be generally correct and positive in our
language and avoid all the pitfalls discussed in Chapter 3 and later in
this chapter. Likewise, the rules that apply to e-mail and other electronic
communication also apply to blog posts; we should open meaningfully,
establish context, provide only the details we need, and close with grace.

Creating a Microblog Plan

Microblogs, such as Twitter and Friendfeed, have exploded recently. As
of March 2009, Twitter was growing at an overwhelming 1,382 percent
and included more than 7 million accounts in the United States alone.9
Many companies, from media networks to manufacturing firms, have
created Twitter accounts to keep those interested up to date on their
activities. Many organizations monitor Twitter to keep abreast of the
social “buzz” about their company or brand, and some enterprising
companies, such as Comcast, have reached out across these networks
to improve their brand and customer satisfaction.10
Approaching these microblogs, however, can be overwhelming, and
many people have noted their capacity for taking over their time. It is
important, then, that we approach writing microblogs from a strategic
perspective. Once again, Chapter 2 of this book can help in identifying
your purpose, goals, audience, and strategic framework, but without a
clear approach to this relatively new communication channel, it is easy
to flounder.
Many people have made recommendations for how to approach
Twitter. One of the most succinct and clear strategies, however, comes
from Nicole Nicolay (@nik_nik, http://activerain.com/blogs/niknik)
from My Tech Opinion. The following steps summarize her approach,
and the complete article can be found at the link found in the citation.11
1. Select check-in times; don’t check it all day, every day.
2. Determine what kind of tweets you want to include, based on your
goals for your Twitter account. Nicolay recommends five types of
tweets and offers suggestions.
110 Section One Core Leadership Communication

3. Create your tweets and post them to a tool (such as Twutter or

TweetLater) to automate their delivery.
4. Interspace these with spontaneous, interesting items worthy sharing.
Source: Nicole Nicolay. www.mytechopinion.com. Used with per-
mission.
It is worth mentioning that the language of micoblog posts is, by
necessity, much shorter than other forms of professional communica-
tion. However, we should still carefully consider the style and tone of
our posts, as well as their readability. And once again, each microblog
site has its own expectations of how and what we can post; before we
begin putting out our messages, we should become familiar with these
general rules of conduct.

Organizing the Content Coherently

The initial stages of creating written communication can be rather messy,
particularly the idea-generation stage. When we are generating ideas, we
are engaged analytically, which means we are breaking things apart and
probably even free associating as one idea leads to another. Once we have
exhausted the sources of ideas, we move into the stage of organizing them
to present them to others. A professional audience expects order and logic
in a document; they expect it to make sense to them, to be coherent.
To “cohere” means to hold together, which is what we want our com-
munication to do. We want the pieces—sentences, paragraphs, and
sections—to conform to a systematic arrangement or plan that is logi-
cal and apparent to readers. Chapter 2 covered different approaches to
organizing a document or a presentation and the dependence of an
organization on communication strategy and audience analysis. This
section focuses specifically on creating coherence in written communi-
cation by organizing the content and including the content expected by
professional audiences.
For social media, our posts, comments, tweets, and the like should
“cohere” as well—to a central theme or idea. Think of the entirety of a
blog or profile on a social network as a “document” that defines the
writer as a professional in that space.

Organization and Content

Chapter 2 discussed how organization depends on purpose, audience,
and strategy and explained some of the options for organizing our com-
munication. We need to anticipate our audience’s response and stay
focused on our purpose. We will want to select the organizing device,
such as deductive, inductive, or chronological, that best matches our
purpose and content.
In some cases, the type of document will dictate the organizational
structure. For instance, if we are describing a process or procedure, we
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 111

will usually use a chronological structure, taking our readers through

each step in turn. In a proposal, however, we might use any number of
logical structures—including deductive, problem solution, comparison
and contrast, and cause and effect—to organize the document or sections
in the document. These different structures will be applicable, despite the
similarity of the informational content from one proposal to another.
The logic of the entire document, as well as that of each section,
should be obvious to our readers. We want the logic to be so clear and
the organization so tight that no one wonders, “Where did that come
from?” Although they are useful references, too frequent use of the fol-
lowing expressions in a report may signal that the organization needs
to be stronger: “As mentioned or discussed earlier,” “Returning to
point A again,” or “In the previous section.”
In a professional setting, particularly in the United States, we usu-
ally want to organize our document deductively, stating our main mes-
sage, conclusion, or principal recommendation directly at the very
beginning of the document and proceeding through secondary argu-
ments and supporting information. We might select inductive organi-
zation if communicating in different cultures or if we have a hostile or
resistant audience and decide it is best to take an indirect approach by
explaining and presenting our evidence before stating our main mes-
sage or recommendation.
Again, traditional outlines, storyboards, decision trees, and the
Pyramid Principle are effective techniques for organizing a document.
We should anticipate our readers’ questions and attempt to organize
the document so that we answer the questions as they would occur to
the audience.

Opening with Power

In the opening, most of the time we should begin strongly by quickly
stating our main message, but we need to let our analysis of our audi-
ence guide us on how to begin. We may want to begin indirectly for the
following reasons:
• To establish the context for the communication if it is complex and
a part of a chain of communication.
• To include a more gentle opening with some appropriate pleas-
antries if our audience’s culture would expect it.
• To provide some information to soften the bad news we must deliver.
• To explain the reasoning or logic if we have complicated informa-
tion to deliver.
• To explore an idea or posit a topic for discussion in social media
spaces.
Again, we should use our analysis of the audience to determine how
best to begin, but in most cases, we should try to state our main point
112 Section One Core Leadership Communication

as early as possible in our document so that the reader knows our rea-
son for writing.
In the first paragraph of most professional correspondence, we need
to establish the context briefly before the purpose. For example, if we
are responding to an e-mail sent to us, we might begin as follows:

Dear Mara:

In response to your e-mail of October 5, on

setting up a meeting to discuss progress on
the Zinex account, I would like for you to set
up a team meeting for next Monday, October
10, at 10:00 a.m. . . .

Starting by stating our purpose (“I would like for you to set up a team
meeting for next Monday, October 10, at 10:00 a.m.”) without the con-
text (“In response to your e-mail of October 5, on setting up a meeting
to discuss the progress on the Zinex account”) would make the exact
meeting topic we have in mind ambiguous for Mara. While the com-
pany may be small enough and the number of clients small enough to
make ambiguity unlikely, it is always best to make the exact context
clear in the opening of most correspondence.
If the correspondence is longer, we might need to prepare the reader
for what is to come by listing the topics covered as well. Then, we
address the topics in the order introduced, using headings to set off
each major section. To expand on the previous example, for instance,
we might begin as follows:

Dear Mara:

In response to your e-mail of October 5, on

setting up a meeting to discuss progress on
the Zinex account, I would like for you to set
up a team meeting for next Monday, October
10, at 10:00 a.m. In the meeting I have three
primary objectives, which I discuss below:
(1) progress, (2) issues, and (3) next steps.

We would then include a discussion of each of these topics, using the

topics as our headings.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 113

We can remember to include the expected opening in professional

communication, if we keep the CPF acronym in mind:
C ⫽ Context—What is the impetus for the communication? What
surrounds it that could influence it?
P ⫽ Purpose—Why am I writing? What is my reason?
F ⫽ Foreshadowing—What is coming in this communication and in
what order? What should readers expect to see as they read it?
The next example demonstrates a very indirect opening to a letter.
In fact, it is so indirect we cannot even be sure what the writer’s pur-
pose is in writing to Ms. Watson.

Dear Ms. Watson:

This past weekend I watched the Florida Golf Classic on television and was
impressed by the show of support for the tournament. Obviously, the senior
golf tour has progressed to a serious competitive level, and I applaud your
efforts in having a part in the evolution. I am an avid fan of all sports,
especially golf, and am happy to see greats such as Arnold Palmer and Jack
Nicklaus continuing to play competitively. I know that your organization
has only 10 people who work directly on the tournament, yet you have
made the Classic the second largest on the tour, in terms of prize money.
This status is quite an accomplishment, and I would certainly enjoy
contributing to the effort to make the Classic the most recognized
tournament on the senior tour.

The amiable, rambling opening paragraph leaves us wondering about

the purpose and asking, “So what?” By the end of the paragraph, we
may have determined that the writer wants to apply for a position, but
we cannot be sure. The writer could be asking about donating money or
volunteering in some way.
In the second paragraph, this job applicant finally makes the pur-
pose clear:

Joanne Brownstone, who held an internship in public relations in your

organization last year, spoke enthusiastically of her work with the
tournament. She suggested that I contact you about an internship, since my
current studies in business administration and my involvement in the
sports field would contribute to your efforts in planning future
tournaments and events.
114 Section One Core Leadership Communication

This paragraph would have made a much better opening to the letter.
The applicant establishes a context for writing (the source of the infor-
mation about the possible internship opportunity) and then states the
purpose of the letter (to apply for an internship).
In leadership communication, it is particularly important to make
sure we deliver our main message early. We want to start our letters,
memos, and e-mails fast and get to the point quickly, providing only
enough background information to establish the context. Getting to
the point quickly demonstrates greater respect for the busy reader on
the receiving end. The reader must know within the first couple of sen-
tences why he or she is receiving this communication or should con-
sider reading this post.
We can check whether we are getting to the point directly by apply-
ing the “so what?” test. Broadcasters used this test in the past. They
would ask themselves, “Am I saying anything to which my listeners
could say so what?” The “so what?” test works well to remind us to
think about the value of the information we are providing to the reader.
We do not want our readers to say “so what?” to anything we write.

Developing with Reason

We should aim for the same directness and brevity in the discussion or
development section of our documents as we do in our introduction.
Again, we will want to apply the Mutually Exclusive, Collectively
Exhaustive (MECE) test.
We need to test our logic by making sure that our supporting topics
do not overlap and that we have provided adequate justification for
each one. MECE also suggests a balance to the sections in the amount
of information provided for each one. If, for instance, we find that for
one topic we need several pages and for another only a short para-
graph, then we need to reassess our topics and consider grouping that
short one with another or breaking the longer section down into several
distinct topics. Once we know we have the right topics and can develop
each topic adequately, we should feel comfortable that our discussion
section will appear reasonable to our audience.
In solving many of the problems that we tackle in professional set-
tings, we collect more information than we can or should present to our
audience. We need to be carefully selective in the information we include
in our discussions. We want to include only what is necessary to support
our message and further our goal. We must avoid the inclination to
include all of the analysis simply because we or our team has done it. We
should select only the data that are necessary to make our point, and
place other relevant information in an appendix or attachment.
If we are unsure of the importance of certain information, we should
probably leave it out or consign it to an appendix. Most of our audiences
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 115

are more interested in our interpretation of the data than in seeing the
data, so we should be particularly careful to be selective. Again, we
should ask, “Can anyone say ‘so what?’ to this?”
Finally, once we know the content is logically organized and reason-
able in its balance, we want to consider how to make it accessible to
our audience. We can make the document easy to read by formatting
and carefully using headings and bulleted or numbered lists. We will
want to use meaningful (message-driven) headings and avoid long
paragraphs. We want our readers to be able to easily scan our docu-
ment and locate what they want to read.
Most people read documents selectively, which means they go to the
section that is of most interest to them or that is relevant to their
department or function. Studies have shown that very few business-
people read a longer document from cover to cover. Researchers found
that most decision makers read the executive summary, but only 60
percent read the introduction and conclusions, and only 15 percent
read the discussion or main body.12
We should avoid lengthy paragraphs and long sections of discussion
between headings, finding places in a long paragraph to break it up
into shorter paragraphs and use headings and lists. Also, we need to
provide clear transitions from idea to idea within paragraphs and
between them. It is fine to have one-sentence paragraphs. In fact, it is
better to have shorter paragraphs, particularly in e-mails, since the
added white space makes them easier to scan.
The policy statement in Exhibit 4.3 illustrates a poorly organized,
lengthy paragraph. Notice how difficult it is to follow the logic and
how tedious it is to read. In fact, we would probably avoid reading it if
it came across our desk.
Before turning to a reorganized and reformatted version, look
closely at the policy statement in Exhibit 4.3 and think about how to
reorganize and reformat it. As with most policy statements or proce-
dures, this statement could be restructured using the journalist’s ques-
tions of who, what, when, where, and how.
Reorganizing and reformatting the policy statement makes it much
easier to read (Exhibit 4.4). Readers can now scan the reorganized and
reformatted policy quickly and find what they need to know. This
example illustrates the importance of organizing documents into a log-
ical structure, as well as the value of headings in making that logic
clear and in helping the audience read the prose quickly.

Closing with Grace

Once we have taken our audience through our discussion, we should
end as quickly and directly as we began. We should, however, provide
a sense of polite, unrushed closure. Traditional academic writing
116 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 4.3
Example of a Training Division Policy #4503.11
Poorly Organized
and Formatted This policy applies to all employees except Production Division employees
Policy Statement below the rank of supervisor and clerical employees below the rank of
Junior Administrative Assistant. In order to encourage personnel to develop
greater professional competence in their respective fields and to prepare for
professional advancement, personnel registering in credit courses at the
college or graduate level in state-accredited institutions of higher education
will be reimbursed for the direct costs of tuition, registration fees, and
required course textbooks and other materials upon successful completion
of such instruction. Certification that the college course will contribute to
the employee’s professional growth will be provided by the employee’s
direct supervisor and countersigned by the supervisor’s direct superior
unless the supervisor be at the rank of vice president or higher. Successful
completion is defined as completion with the grade of C or higher
(or equivalent). Costs of travel and costs of nonrequired materials such as
paper and clerical help will not be reimbursed. Submission to the Training
Division of receipts for all expenses, approval of the direct supervisor that
the course fulfills the requirements of this policy, and documentation of
successful completion are required before reimbursement through the
Training Division budget. Supervisors are encouraged to allow released
time for personnel to enroll in credit college courses for professional
development when departmental or divisional schedules permit. Released
time is encouraged only when scheduled meetings of credit college courses
occur during regular working hours. If possible and necessary, personnel
may be required to make up working time outside normal working hours.
If the credit college course can be taken outside the individual’s normal
working hours, no released time should be given. To receive
reimbursement, personnel should submit Training Division Form 4503B
to the Training Division in accordance with the instructions on that form.

requires closings that restate or summarize what has already been

said. A letter, a memo, a post, or an e-mail is too short to require such
repetition of ideas, so their conclusions should call for action, mention
contact information or follow-up arrangements, anticipate any prob-
lems, and/or offer a courtesy closing (Exhibits 4.5. and 4.6).
In a longer document, we may want to summarize our main points
very briefly, and depending on the type of report, we may end with our
conclusions or recommendations. However, it is usually more effective
to have stated our conclusions or recommendations up front and end
with next steps or implementation plans.
EXHIBIT 4.4
Example of an ABMC’s Policy on Reimbursement of Educational Expenses
Effectively Training Division Policy 14503.11
Organized and
Formatted Policy The purpose of ABMC’s Policy on Reimbursement of Educational Expenses
Statement is to encourage its employees to develop their professional skills and
prepare for advancement through the completion of college-level courses.
The following outlines who is eligible, what is covered, and how to file.

Who Is Eligible

All product division employees above the level of supervisor and clerical
employees above the level of junior administrative assistant are eligible for
the reimbursement.

What Is Covered

The following are the expenses covered under this policy:

• Direct costs of tuition
• Registration fees
• Required texts and other required materials

Travel costs and costs of general school supplies, such as paper and pens,
are not reimbursable.

How to File

To file for reimbursement, take the following steps:

1. Obtain certification that the course will contribute to your professional

growth from your direct supervisor, countersigned by his/her superior
(if your supervisor is a vice president, the countersignature is not
necessary).
2. Register for the course at a state-accredited institution of higher learning.
3. Complete the course successfully (a minimum grade of “C+” or
equivalent).
4. Submit the following to Sam Gates, Training Division Office, Building C,
Room 209:
• Training Division Form 4503B
• Proof of successful completion of course(s)
• Certification from supervisor
• Receipts for all expenses

Note that classes should be taken outside of working hours. If the class is
offered only during working hours, release time may be allowed as
divisional schedules permit; however, you may be required to make up
missed time.

If you have any questions or need help, call Sam Gates (Ext. 9933).

117
118 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 4.5
Sample Global Communication Services
Transmittal 6108 Martin Lane
Letter Houston, TX 77000

December 11, 2009

Ms. Kerith Karetti, CEO

Hamill Brothers, Inc.
2708 W. 43rd Street
New York, NY 10036

Dear Ms. Karetti:

We have enclosed our final draft of the marketing analysis you requested.
We have enjoyed working with your team to identify the potential to
expand your product into Asia. In the report, we have provided not only
the analysis of the market but also some ideas on how you might
move ahead.

Our analysis indicates a tremendous opportunity for your company, and

we suggest you move forward in developing a complete marketing plan as
soon as possible. We believe you and your team are positioned to move
quickly using this analysis as your launching point.

If we can be of any further help as you move into this project, please let me
know. We always enjoy working with your group and look forward to
continuing our relationship in the future.

Sincerely,

Janette Zuniga

Janette Zuniga
Senior Managing Director

Enclosure: Final Marketing Analysis to Determine Expansion

Opportunities in Asia
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 119

EXHIBIT 4.6
Sample Memo Date: February 2, 2010
To: All marketing team members
From: Alan Zhang, scribe this week
Subject: Meeting notes with next steps from February 1 meeting

As our team decided, we want to keep notes of our meetings and send
them to each other weekly. As the scribe this week, that task fell to me.
Therefore, I am sending you a summary of the meeting organized into
the two main topics that we discussed: (1) making team meetings more
effective and (2) organizing our team tasks. Please review this memo and
let me know before 8:00 a.m., Wednesday, February 10, if I need to add
anything and resend these before our next meeting.

Making Team Meetings More Effective

We decided that we can definitely make our meetings more effective.

Some of the methods we discussed were as follows:

• Schedule more face-to-face interactions, but keep a “get it done and

make it productive” attitude
• Agree to meeting times and maintain communication lines regarding
availability
• Designate a leader for every team meeting
• Distribute an agenda with 24 hours’ notice
• Follow up all team meetings with minutes that express decisions and
agreed-upon next steps

Organizing Tasks More Effectively

We also discussed ways to organize our tasks more effectively. We came

up with two actions:

• Create a team action plan with tasks and responsibilities allotted to

specific members
• Divide up tasks according to project phases

We ran out of time, so we will be continuing this discussion at our next

meeting.

Establishing the Next Steps

Our next step is a phone conference Wednesday at 11:00 a.m., to discuss

the progress on the marketing project and to finalize our approach to
organizing our work more effectively.

I look forward to our next meeting and again, if I left anything out of this
summary, please let me know by Wednesday morning, so that I can send
out a revised version before our conference call. You can reach me at
x6785 or through e-mail at [email protected].
120 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Conforming to Content and Formatting

Expectations in Correspondence
We will determine the actual content of our letters, memos, e-mails,
and text messages based on our purpose, strategy, and audience, but
these types of professional communication carry some expectations of
what we should include. In addition, we want to use a format that fol-
lows standard professional writing conventions, which are designed to
make our documents accessible as well as attractive. Good formatting
reveals and supports the organization, as the rewritten version of the
policy statement in Exhibit 4.4 demonstrates. Format is important in
helping our audience see the structure and logic of our documents and
in making it easy for them to skim or read selectively.
This section illustrates the formatting of typical types of correspon-
dence (e-mails, memos, and letters) and provides information about and
examples of the standard content we will want to include. In particular,
it provides guidelines for e-mail, since it has become such a common
medium for professional communication and is often used ineffectively.
If a company or organization does not have a style guide for the for-
matting of letters and memos, we should follow the conventions
included in most business writing handbooks and in college dictionar-
ies. The examples provided here follow these conventions.
Blogs and social networks also create expectations. For example, Face-
book status updates are usually three lines or less, and Twitter forwards
usually include “re-tweet” info (RT@ and the original Twitter account
name). It is best to skim the content of any social media space and
become familiar with these expectations before beginning to interact.

Letters and Memos

Most businesspeople today prefer the block format for letters, illus-
trated in the sample letter of transmittal (Exhibit 4.5), with a simple
“Sincerely” to close the letter.
Memos should include all the preliminary elements of date, to,
from, and subject (avoid “re” unless it is used by your organization).
The following are two warnings about memos:
1. Make sure the subject line captures the “so what?”—the purpose for
writing—very specifically.
2. Repeat that purpose in the first sentence of the memo (see Exhibit 4.6).

E-mails and Other Electronic Communication

E-mail has rapidly become the most frequently used medium for pro-
fessional and personal communication. It is also the most common
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 121

use of the Internet. Daily e-mail usage is projected to hit 10 trillion

person-to-person e-mails, excluding SPAM, by 2010.13 Although we
still send and receive printed letters and memos, they are becoming
rarer and are often transmitted as e-mail attachments rather than as
hard-copy. E-mails follow a format similar to that of a memo, but they
have some special guidelines we should follow to ensure that they are
effective.
Likewise, electronic communication in many forms has boomed in
recent years. Companies use wikis to collaborate, IMs to ask quick
questions, corporate intranet blogs to share information with employ-
ees, and more. The basic rules that apply to e-mail apply to these forms
of electronic communication as well.

Subject Lines and Post Titles

The subject line or post title takes on tremendous importance, since it
usually determines if our audience will read further. We should take
special care to craft subject lines and post titles that tell recipients why
they should read our message.
Look at the following, for example. Which would you open if they
came from your peers?
Subject: For your information
Subject: Forward: Forward: Forward: Funny!!!!!!!!!
Subject: Reminder
Subject: Agenda for Tomorrow’s Meeting
Subject: How are you?
And which of the following intranet blog posts would you read?
Title: My Saturday
Title: Moving Forward with New Strategies
Title: Hating Life Right Now
Title: More Info from Last Week!
Title: Upcoming Policy Changes
The context of the e-mail or post will influence our inclination to
read it. For example, when our boss, instead of a peer, sends an e-mail,
we will probably open it, no matter what the subject line says because
what he or she has to say is important to our job, our career. Most of us
do not have time for communication that is not directly related to us or
for communication that requires no action on our part, as is suggested
by “for your information,” and few of us have the patience or interest to
open forwarded messages, since they are often mass-mailed and include
jokes or lame examples of someone else’s sense of humor. And, of course,
often they are SPAM and can contain viruses.
122 Section One Core Leadership Communication

If we do not have the power of our position to inspire others to

respond and read our e-mails or posts, then we need to ensure that the
subject line or title captures the audience. Think of it as the title of a
book or the caption from an article. What will make us take that book
off the shelf or click on that caption in the New York Times online?

Tone and Content

We also need to be particularly careful with the tone and content of
our e-mails. A harsh tone will be perceived even more harshly in an
e-mail than in a hard-copy memo because people expect e-mails to be
informal. We need to be extra cautious about what we say in an e-mail
because receivers can easily forward them to the world. Even if e-mails
are not sent to unintended audiences, they still become a permanent,
easily accessed record.
The e-mail in Exhibit 4.7 provides an example of the damage a
harsh message in electronic format can do. The CEO of Cerner, a mid-
western computer company, actually sent it to his management group.
The capitalization, the formatting, and all the content are exactly as
written by the CEO, altough his name has been changed.
McCutcheon sent this e-mail to his 400-member management team
on March 13, and by March 21, it had made its way across the Inter-
net. Shortly afterward, it appeared in its entirety in the New York
Times, and Cerner’s stock dropped by 22 percent.
If we compare this e-mail with the first version of the copier memo
discussed in Chapter 2, we see some similarities. Both were written
when angry feelings clouded rational thinking. Fortunately, the writer
of the copier memo realized before he sent it that he needed to recon-
sider his approach. The CEO of Cerner did not, and with the speed of
the Internet, his message went global, and his company suffered
because of it. This example serves as a warning for everyone using
e-mail: we need to think carefully about all possible audiences and the
possible repercussions of the communication before hitting “send.”

Legal and Other Potential Issues

Given the importance of e-mail, IMs, and other electronic communi-
cation in the workplace, it is surprising people still take them so lightly.
For example, a Business Wire article states,
E-mail, the electronic equivalent of DNA evidence, is playing an
increasingly common role in workplace lawsuits and regulatory investi-
gations. A primary source of evidence in high-profile discrimination,
sexual harassment, and antitrust claims, e-mail is regularly used to
bolster cases, embarrass organizations, and damage reputations. A new
survey of 1,100 U.S. companies reveals that 14% of respondents have
been ordered by a court or regulatory body to produce employee
e-mail, up from 9% just two years ago.14
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 123

EXHIBIT 4.7
Cerner CEO’s From: McCutcheon, Bill (name changed)
E-mail to His Sent: Tuesday. March 13, 2001 11:48 a.m.
Managers To: DL ALL MANAGERS
(reprinted exactly Subject MANAGEMENT DIRECTIVE: Week #10_01: Fix it or changes will
as it appeared be made
when it was sent Importance: High
with errors
uncorrected) To the HQ_based managers:

I have gone over the top. I have been making this point for over one year.

We are getting less than 40 hours of work from a large number of our
HQ_based EMPLOYEES. The parking lot is sparsely used at 8 a.m.;
likewise at 5 p.m. As managers—you either do not know what your
EMPLOYEES are doing; or YOU do not CARE. You have created
expectations on the work effort which allowed this to happen inside
MWCC, creating a very unhealthy environment. In either case, you have a
problem and you will fix it or I will replace you.

NEVER in my career have I allowed a team which worked for me to think

they had a 40 hour job. I have allowed YOU to create a culture which is
permitting this. NO LONGER.

At the end of next week, I am plan to implement the following:

1. Closing of Associate Center to EMPLOYEES from 7:30 a.m. to 6:30 p.m.
2. Implementing a hiring freeze for all HQ based positions. It will require
Cabinet approval to hire someone into a HQ based team. I chair our
Cabinet.
3. Implementing a time clock system, requiring EMPLOYEES to ‘punch in’
and ‘punch out’ to work. Any unapproved absences will be charged to
the EMPLOYEES vacation.
4. We passed a Stock Purchase Program, allowing for the EMPLOYEE to
purchase MWCC stock at a 15% discount, at Friday’s BOD meeting. Hell
will freeze over before this CEO implements ANOTHER EMPLOYEE
benefit in this Culture.
5. Implement a 5% reduction of staff in HQ.
6. I am tabling the promotions until I am convinced that the ones being
promoted are the solution, not the problem. If you are the problem, pack
your bags.

I think this parental type action SUCKS. However, what you are doing, as
managers, with this company makes me SICK. It makes sick to have to
write this directive.

(continued)
124 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 4.7
(continued) [MWCC e-mail continues]

I know I am painting with a broad brush and the majority of the HQ

based associates are hard working, committed to MWCC success and
committed to transforming health care. I know the parking lot is not a
great measurement for ‘effort’, I know that ‘results’ is what counts, not
‘effort’. But I am through with the debate.

We have a big vision. It will require a big effort. Too many in HQ are not
making the effort.

I want to hear from you. If you think I am wrong with any of this, please
state your case. If you have some ideas on how to fix this problem, let
me hear those. I am very curious how you think we got here. If you
know team members who are the problem, let me know. Please include
(copy) Sarah in all of your replies.

I STRONGLY suggest that you call some 7 a.m., 6 p.m. and Saturday
a.m. team meetings with the EMPLOYEES who work directly for you.
Discuss this serious issue with your team. I suggest that you call your
first meeting tonight. Something is going to change.

I am giving you two weeks to fix this. My measurement will be the

parking lot: it should be substantially full at 7:30 a.m. and 6:30 p.m. The
pizza man should show up at 7:30 p.m. to feed the starving teams
working late. The lot should be half full on Saturday mornings. We have
a lot of work to do. If you do not have enough to keep your teams busy,
let me know immediately.

Folks this is a management problem, not an EMPLOYEE problem.

Congratulations., you are management. You have the responsibility for

our EMPLOYEES. I will hold you accountable. You have allowed this to
get to this state. You have two weeks. Tick, tock.

Bill. . . . .
Chairman & Chief Executive Officer

The evidence of the detrimental effects that follow when an internal

e-mail or other electronic communication finds its way to external
audiences through the Internet, let alone the potential use in litigation,
should encourage people to approach all electronic communication
cautiously. Messages sent through electronic media can seriously hurt
an organization’s reputation and hurt the individual who sends them.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 125

The misuse of e-mail can result in employees’ being fired; in fact, it

has: “According to a survey just completed by the American Manage-
ment Association and the ePolicy Institute, over half of the companies
they surveyed in the United States have fired workers for inappropri-
ate usage of e-mail or the Internet. Of the companies surveyed, 43 per-
cent are monitoring e-mail and 45 percent are tracking other Web
activities.”15
Many observers feel that e-mail, blogging, Facebook, IM, and other
computer-mediated communication have led to poorer written com-
munication abilities, despite some growing evidence to the contrary.16
However, it is interesting that in some cases the opposite is happening,
as more and more people are using writing as their primary way of
communicating and connecting to others through their PDAs and
computers. Text messaging and IM, in particular, are rapidly gaining in
popularity, moving from informal communication between friends to
media common in professional communication. By the end of 2013,
the Gartner group estimates that 95 percent of workers in leading
global organizations will be using IM as their primary interface for
real-time communication.17
When e-mail first emerged, hurried writers were sometimes careless
about how they composed their e-mails. Perhaps because of its easy
use or the perception of being informal, e-mail seemed to encourage
carelessness. We used to see spelling mistakes, usage errors, inappro-
priate capitalization (particularly the annoying use of all caps and all
lowercase), and overall poor formatting—all mistakes people are not
as likely to make in a printed memo or letter, and seem less likely to
make today. E-mail seems to have crossed over into the mainstream of
“proper” businesss communication and now has rules on its use; thus,
people seem to be a little more careful when composing e-mails.

Specific Guidelines for IM and Text Messages

Forms of electronic communication other than e-mail are still seen as
“ruleless” to some extent. Therefore, careless writing has somewhat
worsened with the advent of companywide IM systems, such as
Microsoft Communicator, and many of the mistakes found in e-mails
in the past are now found in IM and text messages, perhaps because
these media are so easy to use or perhaps often we are writing in less
than optimal conditions, while standing waiting for the Metro or walk-
ing down the street, for example.
Many of the guidelines for e-mail apply to IM and text messages;
however, the number of words is usually limited so much that our writ-
ing becomes telegraphic. The shorthand language we use in IM may
not be understood in professional contexts and, therefore, should be
used with caution. For instance, the message on the cell screen at the
left would be unintelligible to most professionals today. Might it be
126 Section One Core Leadership Communication

acceptable in the future? Perhaps, but for now, when we use text mes-
saging or IM in a professional setting, we should use complete words
and sentences and proofread our message before sending it. The mes-
sage on this cell phone from one professional to another would proba-
bly read as follows:
John,
Send me an IM re the money ASAP.
J- I am out of the office tomorrow.
SMIM WRT
$ ASAP OOO Thank you.
TOM TY
-B Bill
No doubt electronic communication can be an extremely effective
tool for sharing information and fostering collaboration, but it deserves
as much care as any hard-copy writing, perhaps even more, since it can
be shared much more easily with the world. At a minimum, we should
avoid the following blunders, identified as the 10 most common mis-
takes of business e-mail correspondence, in our electronic communica-
tion in most cases:

Ten Most Common Mistakes of Business E-Mail Correspondence18

1. Unclear subject line.
2. Poor greeting (or none at all).
3. Unfamiliar abbreviations.
4. Unnecessary copies (CCs).
5. Sloppy grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
6. All caps in the message.
7. No closing or sign-off.
8. Rambling, unformatted message.
9. Unfriendly tone.
10. No clear request for action.

Source: Leland/Customer Service for Dummies; copyright © 2000. This material is used with
permission of Wiley Publishing, Inc., a subsidiary of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The bottom line on all forms of electronic communication is to treat

it with care. Take the time to write well, paying attention to organiza-
tion and format as well as style and tone. Tone is especially important,
since it is very easy for our audience to misinterpret our intention in
an e-mail.
Reading our writing aloud, and even reading it to someone else, if the
subject is sensitive and we want to ensure that we will not offend the
audience or come across as negative, harsh, or insensitive can help us
catch problems with tone. In fact, if the content is sensitive, you might
want to reconsider electronic communication as your medium.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 127

Overall, we need to take the time to proofread all our electronic doc-
uments, printing out the most important ones, since it is very difficult
to see mistakes on a computer screen, PDA, or phone. Finally, we
should not be misled into thinking that our audience will overlook
carelessness just because they view a medium as informal. Although
most readers are a little more forgiving with electronic communica-
tion, many are not. Carelessness of any sort can hurt a career; as we
have already seen, an insensitive or careless e-mail could result in our
ending up in The Wall Street Journal or New York Times.

Including Expected Content in Reports

Professional audiences also have expectations for longer documents and
reports. The type of report, the company style, and the industry stan-
dards often dictate content and organization. Leaders in organizations
write reports that inform, instruct, or persuade. Often, they team up
with or supervise others in writing these reports. The reports may be
long or short, formal or informal. They may even tell a story; for
instance, the report might first include an overview of the current situa-
tion, then discuss the details that have complicated the situation, and
finally suggest a resolution or recommendation to improve the situation.
Although many reports serve multiple purposes, such as informing
and persuading, Exhibit 4.8 lists typical types of leadership communi-
cation reports organized by their primary purpose.
One type of report students may create not listed in Exhibit 4.8 is a
case report, frequently used in undergraduate and graduate business
and executive training programs. For case analysis and report contents,
see Appendix D.

A Formal Full-Length Report

When the different types of reports in Exhibit 4.8 are formal, they
include the contents outlined and discussed later in this section. Most
full-length formal reports conform to the content and sequencing pat-
tern in Exhibit 4.9.
A formal full-length report should have a table of contents. If the
report is delivered electronically, the table of contents should contain
hyperlinks to the sections of the report. The table of contents reveals the
organization of the report. It allows readers to see the overall content
and select the sections relevant to their needs and interests. The two
examples in Exhibit 4.10 illustrate a poorly created table of contents and
then a more effective one. The first example does not suggest any form
of organization or grouping of ideas; it appears to be a random list of
topics. The second example, although containing too little information,
at least suggests some logic in organization.
128 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 4.8 Purposes and Types of Leadership Communication Reports

Purpose Report Type Focus of Content
Inform Progress → Outlines the status of the tasks in a project, including work completed,
work remaining, and anticipated delays (see typical contents below).
→ Sometimes includes analysis for discussion or preliminary conclusions
for testing with audiences.
Financial → Includes financial performance for reporting purposes, such as to the
SEC for public companies (for example, 10-Ks and 10-Qs).
Sales/ → Provides the sales achievements and figures for a standard period of
marketing time (a week, month, or quarter).
→ Often includes sales prospects and projections and could focus on
market trends, positioning, and product development.
Operational → Varies across industries and companies, but may include overall
operational/project performance or compliance to regulations, such as
health, safety, and environmental.
Meetings → Provides a summary of the major topics discussed.
(minutes) → Usually includes date, attendees, old business, new business, and
action items.
Research/ → Reports on the results of research and often provides recommen-
investigative dations on actions.
→ Includes investigative research, analysts reports, benchmarking.
Instruct Procedure → Explains the steps to be completed to accomplish some goal.
→ Usually presents the actions in chronological order.
Policy → Summarizes the organizational regulations or guidelines that govern
employee behavior.
Performance → Documents the quality of an employee’s work with the intention of
appraisals creating needed legal records and providing feedback to improve
performance.
Request for → Provides guidelines on the information to include in a proposal.
Proposal (RFP)
Persuade Annual → Reports on the financial performance of an organization with the
intent of influencing external and internal constituencies, primarily
investors and analysts.
→ Frequently includes a company’s mission, vision, accomplishments,
and plans.
Feasibility → Argues that an approach or idea will work; recommends action.
→ Usually focuses on economic, technical, and cultural aspects.
Proposals → Seeks acceptance for a product, service, or potential solution by
defining the needs and benefits (see typical contents below).
→ Often responds to an RFP and is seen as a sales document that is
legally binding.
Business plans → Discusses all of the important components of a business or business
idea, including value proposition, feasibility, and profitability.
→ Follows standard content expectations, such as those provided by the
Small Business Administration.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 129

EXHIBIT 4.9 Content Purpose

Formal Report
Content 1. A Letter or Sets the stage for the report and is usually addressed to
Memo of the decision maker. It should identify the purpose of
Transmittal the attached report, may provide highlights of the
or Preface content, and always ends with a statement of what the
writer expects the receiver to do next in response to
the report. It will also contain contact information for
the sender. Exhibit 2.5 is an example of a letter of
transmittal.
2. Cover Contains a title that captures the “so what” of the
report. Usually contains the sender’s name and the
receiver’s, as well as the date.
3. Title Page Contains the same information as the cover, but may
also contain a short abstract or descriptive summary of
the report contents.
4. Table of Lists all important sections of the report (see examples
Contents below). It will usually list the main headings and
second-level subheadings from the discussion section.
5. Executive Summarizes the main idea(s) from the body of the
Summary document, including conclusions and recommenda-
tions. Generally, approximately 10 percent of the
discussion section length; however, it must be long
enough to capture the central content of the report,
so it may need to be longer than 10 percent. See
discussion below.
6. Introduction Provides context for the report, including any informa-
tion the reader needs to understand the background
and impetus for the report.
7. Discussion Differs from report to report (see discussion of propos-
als and progress reviews below). It contains the devel-
oped content or argument organized logically.
8. Next Steps, Outlines actions you expect the reader to take in
If Appropriate response to the report as well as any follow-up actions
you may be taking as well.
9. Appendix Contains any data or other support for your report
that is too lengthy or detailed for the discussion
section. It may also contain qualifications, any graphs
or diagrams not needed in the body of the document,
and examples of survey instruments. Note: Any item
included in an appendix must be mentioned by
number in the report and then included in the
order referenced.
130 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 4.10
Examples of Table Example of a Poorly Organized and Poorly Formatted Table of Contents
of Contents
Contents
Executive Summary....................................................................................... 1
Background................................................................................................... 2
Hypothesis..................................................................................................... 3
Values of Descriptive Statistics for List Price............................................... 3
Histogram for List Price................................................................................ 4
Values of Descriptive Statistics for Total Number of Rooms...................... 5
Histogram for Number of Rooms................................................................ 6
Values of Descriptive Statistics for the Number of Stories......................... 6
Descriptions of Models................................................................................. 7
F-Tests............................................................................................................ 7
Summary........................................................................................................ 7
Test for Linearity 1........................................................................................ 8
Hypothesis..................................................................................................... 9
The Full Model.............................................................................................. 9
Values of the Expected Values
Goodness of Fit
Restricted Model Hypothesis
Test for Linearity 2

Example of a More Effectively Organized Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 1

Introduction 2

Tests for Linearity 3

1. The Retail Stock Price Index and Standard & Poor's 500 Stock Index 3

2. The Retail Stock Price Index and GNP 7

Two Independent Variable Tests 10

Multiple Regression Model 15

Conclusions and Recommendations 21

 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 131

If a report contains numerous graphs or data charts, we may need to

include a list of figures, with their page numbers, following the table of
contents (see Chapter 6 for guidelines on creating and using graphs).

Including Exhibits in Reports

Many types of documents contain exhibits, from memos to letters to
reports. An exhibit (table, graph, diagram, and the like) should never
be inserted into documents without some discussion of its contents
and relevance or without being assigned a number and given a title,
whether it is inserted directly into the text or placed in an appendix.

Exhibit Placement
It is best to insert an exhibit as close as possible to the text that discusses
it, which means that most of the time we should embed it in our docu-
ment so that it follows closely after any discussion of it, rather than in
an appendix. At times, however, the exhibit may supplement our mes-
sage but not be immediately necessary to the understanding of it, in
which case we may place it in an appendix at the end of the document.

Exhibit Labels
We should assign a number and provide a title for each exhibit
inserted in our document or attached in the appendix. Exhibits are
always numbered consecutively. We must reference the exhibit by its
number in our text discussion just prior to its appearance. If placed in
an appendix, exhibits will need numbers and titles as well, and they
should be in the order of their reference in the body of the document.

Handling Research Information in Reports

Professional reports usually include information that we have obtained
from primary research (through surveys, interviews, experiments, or
direct observation) or secondary research (which is research using pub-
lished materials in books and on the Web). We need to ensure we han-
dle both carefully, fully documenting our methods for primary research
and our sources for secondary research and placing correct citations
within our documents. Electronic versions of research information
should include links to the original material whenever possible.
If we have used information that we gained by reading what others
have said or written, we must include notes and a bibliography or list
of sources cited at the end of the report just before the appendix. The
notes can be parenthetical, placed at the bottom of the page or slide,
or listed at the end of the document just before the bibliography.
Report writers should follow a standard guide for documenting
sources, such as The Chicago Manual of Style, the Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association (APA style guide), or the
MLA Style Manual.
132 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Since Web research is sometimes not well documented, we may not

be sure how to reference it. First, we will want to verify its reliability as
a source. Most reliable Web sources will indicate an author’s name, an
article or book title, and publishing information, such as the publish-
ing company and date, or the author or group’s affiliation with a uni-
versity or professional or research organization. If information is cited
inside another Web source without any of this information, it is our
responsibility to trace back and locate the original source. If we cannot
find one, we should be suspicious about the realiability of the infor-
mation and will probably not want to use it. Once we get back to the
original source, that is the bibliographical information we should use,
with the full URL that takes our audience to the exact location.
Remember that anything we read on the Web and use in our report
must be documented unless it is clearly common knowledge. Our cita-
tion will need to include the complete URL so that the reader can go to
the exact source. Using the home page address alone is not sufficient
anytime the site provides links to other pages within the Web site.
For example, the following is an incorrect Web reference to a direct
quotation:
Since 1980, Bain’s clients have outperformed the S&P 500 index by a 3
to 1 margin. This success is not serendipitous, but a natural result of
the approach that Bain takes to consulting, which always considers
maximization of shareholder value (www.bain.com).

The correct method for handling the same reference follows:

”Since 1980, Bain’s clients have outperformed the S&P 500 index by a
3 to 1 margin. This success is not serendipitous, but a natural result of
the approach that Bain takes to consulting, which always considers
maximization of shareholder value” (http://205.134.84.25/bainweb/
about/expertise/expertise_capability.asp?capability_id⫹56).

Since the reference is rather cumbersome, we can use an abbreviated

version in the body of our document and then place this complete ref-
erence in the bibliography.
Today, resource tools, such as Zotero, can help us keep track of our
online references by pulling the entire contents, a snapshot of the first
page, or at minimum, a link to it into one easily organizable and acces-
sible database. In addition, Zotero will create a complete citation for us
to insert into our documents following whatever style manual we use.
As a reminder of what needs to be credited within the body of a docu-
ment, the rules are as follows: All words or ideas of others and all copy-
righted, published, or Web information we use in our documents, if taken
word for word and placed in quotation marks or if paraphrased (written
in our own words), must have the references placed immediately after
each idea, quotation, or paraphrased statement (parenthetically or with a
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 133

note number). This citation refers to the complete source information—

author, title, city, publisher, date, pages—in either the footnotes or end-
note or in the bibliography entry at the end of the document.
We cite our sources for three primary reasons:
1. To acknowledge, give credit to the person(s) who discovered or
originated the idea.
2. To show that we have done our homework and researched the topic
carefully to see what others have had to say or write about it.
3. To allow our readers to find the source of the information.
Being careful to give proper credit—identifying a source of informa-
tion as the source—is part of the integrity of the individual using the
information. Not giving proper credit is considered plagiarism, a seri-
ous violation of ethical conduct in most cultures and a violation of
copyright laws in most countries.
Proposals and Progress Reports
Since proposals and progress reports are two of the most common
leadership communication reports with expected content that is spe-
cific to each, the following sections outline the typical contents with a
discussion of each major section.
Proposals
A proposal can be written as a formal report with a letter of transmittal,
an executive summary, and the like, or it may be presented as a formal
letter. Whichever format is appropriate for the communication situa-
tion, a proposal will include the sections described in Exhibit 4.11.
Remember a proposal is a sales document designed to convince
someone of an idea or approach, and even us. In addition, it is consid-
ered a legally binding document for the sender and the person receiv-
ing and accepting it, thus the need for an acceptance clause, which is
often included at the end.
Progress Reports
Progress reports are common in professional settings. They may be pre-
sented formally as reports or more informally as memos or e-mails.
They allow us to highlight progress on a project or task and, if appropri-
ate, to showcase our work. They usually include the following sections:
1. Introduction.
2. Project description.
3. Work completed.
4. Work in progress.
5. Work remaining.
6. Overall appraisal of progress.
134 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 4.11 Section Contents

Proposal Contents
1. Introduction Sets the stage with a statement of the problem and
background or establishes the context for the proposal
by discussing appropriate company and industry back-
ground (more detailed background or industry
research may belong in other parts of the document or
in an appendix). The introduction should also include a
general overview of the purpose of the proposal.
2. Needs and Provides a detailed discussion of the organization’s cur-
benefits rent problem or issue and your assessment of its needs
and then discusses how the proposed solution will
meet the needs and be of value to the receiver.
3. Scope Specifies the boundaries of your proposed work by
answering the following questions: (1) What areas are
included in the study and which are not? (2) What is
the main focus of your work? (3) What specifically are
you proposing to deliver?
4. Method and Establishes your research methods or analytical
working approach with your plan for working with clients if
relationship appropriate. For example, do you plan to use a team
and include members of the department or company
on that team? The round-table document included in
Chapter 4 includes an example of a team structure
approach (Exhibit 4.3).
5. Task and Shows proposal phases and timing, specific tasks,
time deadlines, and responsibilities. Often a very detailed
breakdown Gantt chart, Critical Path Method (CPM), or similar
work plan is included in the appendix. Often includes a
discussion of contingencies (other approaches or what
you will do to keep on track if some “what ifs” occur).
6. Costs States the fees or costs for completing the work. Often
proposals will provide different approaches and price
them on a scale from the highest to lowest cost.
7. Qualifications Summarize your key background and experiences,
profiling capabilities. A more detailed description of
qualifications, such as descriptions of similar projects
or evidence of special certifications, may be included in
the appendix if necessary.
8. Acceptance Requests a signature from the receiver to indicate
clause acceptance of the proposal and agreement to pay if
appropriate. An acceptance clause may appear at the
end of a formal proposal or in the letter of transmittal.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 135

A table often works best if the project consists of fairly simple tasks.
It could be set up to include the following columns:

Work Work in Work

Task Completed Progress Remaining Comments

Executive Summaries
Since the executive summary is so critical to a professional report, and
since it is the section of the report that our readers will most likely
read, it must accurately, yet concisely, summarize the major messages
of the original document so that our readers understand the substance
of our report without reading further. The executive summary is an
independent document even though it includes only information dis-
cussed in the report. This independence means that, although it may
contain a graph or other figure in support of the content, it should not
reference graphs or figures in the body of the document.
Although an executive summary is typically no more than 10 per-
cent of the length of the report, it may need to be longer to cover the
content of the report adequately. It should include our major conclu-
sions and recommendations and enough support to persuade our audi-
ence to accept both. The tone should be direct and the style concise
without being too abbreviated. See Exhibit 4.12 for an example of an
executive summary.

Formatting Written Communication Effectively

Formatting is important in creating a professional appearance for all
of our written communication. It makes them accessible to our audi-
ences and easier for them to read. Our goal with formatting is to cre-
ate documents so that readers can easily skim them, find our key
messages, and select what they want to read. The frequent use of head-
ings and lists to break up the text, separate main ideas, and avoid long
blocks of text will make our documents more inviting for the audience.
Effective headings show that we care about helping our audiences
read what we have written. They can add to our ethos and to our abil-
ity to persuade our audiences, particularly if we use message headings
to help pull our readers into our argument.
If we do not have a style guide to follow in our organization, then
our documents should conform to the following business writing
standards.
EXHIBIT 4.12 Example of an Effective Executive Summary

Executive Summary:
Determining the Relationship between CEO Compensation and Company Performance

In response to a request by Chris Moellar, President of Executive Recruiters (ER), Performance

Consultants, Inc. (PCI) was hired to determine what measures Fortune 500 companies use to
establish the compensation of their chief executives. In particular, Ms. Moellar wanted to know if
the CEO’s compensation correlates directly to the financial performance of the CEO’s company.

Analytical Methods

To determine what drives the compensation of top executives, the PCI team selected CEOs from
a representative sample of Fortune 500 companies. For these CEOs, we performed statistical
analysis to determine whether CEO compensation is positively correlated to performance. The
average compensation of the 100 CEOs in our study was $3.1 million, ranging from a low of $0.5
million to a high of $10 million. In assessing company performance, we used five-year
return on investment (ROI) as our primary measure; the companies in our 100-company survey
group reported a five-year average ROI ranging from ($.5) billion to $5 billion.

Performance Impacts Compensation

We found a definite relationship between the five-year ROI of a company and the total
compensation that the CEO receives. Based on our analysis, the CEO compensation increases
with every 10 percent increase in a company’s ROI level (Exhibit 1). In addition, besides
performance, we found only one other factor that significantly influences CEO compensation:
age. The older the CEO, the more salary he or she received.
Exhibit 1 CEO Compensation Correlates Directly to Average Five-Year ROI
Compensation in Millions Average ROI Billions
10 5.5

ROI
8 4.5

Compensation
6 3.5

4 2.5

2 1.5

0 –.5
–10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Percent Increase in Five-Year Return on Investment

Recommendation

Based on PCI’s findings, CEO compensation is directly related to company performance, but other
factors, such as CEO age, also have an impact on compensation. Given our results, ER should
continue to monitor company performance and use the 10 percent increments as the basis for
your recommendations to your clients on compensation levels and on adjustments.

136
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 137

Layout
A letter or memo should follow the standard conventions illustrated in
the sample letter and memo in Exhibits 4.5 and 4.6. Allow adequate
margins, which usually means at least 1 inch on all sides. If we have
letterhead, we will want to align the margins with it. We should never
crowd the page, but we need to avoid placing only a sentence or two
and a closing on the second page of a letter. Instead, we should go back
and cut some words. Also, we need to avoid “widow” words, a single
word at the end of a paragraph appearing on a line by itself.
A report format should be appropriate for the method of delivery to
the audience. For instance, if it is to be bound, we will need to leave a
larger left-hand margin. With all business correspondence and reports,
we should allow plenty of white space for easy reading and a more
attractive appearance.

Spacing and Alignment

Professional documents should be single-spaced with a double-space
(the equivalent of a one-line gap) between the paragraphs and no indent-
ation of the first line of the paragraph. Text should be fully aligned on
the left but not on the right. Full alignment (or justification) causes gaps
when the document is printed, making the text more difficult to read;
therefore, we should avoid using it for letters, memos, e-mails, or
reports. Many of the Microsoft Word templates for professional corre-
spondence include full justification, so we have to override this format
as the default. The only time to use full justification is in a brochure or
other similar promotional material, which will be professionally typeset
and printed.
The following table illustrates how to align text and how not to in
professional correspondence and reports.

How Text Should Not Be Aligned: How Text Should Be Aligned:

Fully Justified Right Edge Ragged Right Edge
Text should be fully aligned on the Text should be fully aligned on the left
left but not on the right. Full justifica- but not on the right. Full justification
tion causes gaps when printed, mak- causes gaps when printed, making
ing your text more difficult to read. your text more difficult to read.
Therefore, you should not use it for Therefore, you should not use it for
letters, memos, e-mails, or reports. letters, memos, e-mails, or reports.

The spacing at the end of a sentence and the beginning of another

depends on the style we are following; we can allow one or two spaces
after the end mark, although skipping two spaces in correspondence
and in most reports makes them easier to read. Microsoft Word lets
users set as the default whichever spacing preferred, which makes it
138 Section One Core Leadership Communication

easy to be consistent and to follow personal preferences or the stan-

dards set by an organization for all written communication.

Font Type and Size

For legibility and case of reading in written communication, we need
to use one of the traditional serif (the tails on letters) fonts:

Times New Roman

Palatino
Garamond

Times New Roman has become the preferred font and is used most fre-
quently in business documents, but any of these will work in most
cases.
The serifs help the eye move across the page, thus making pages of
text easier to read; however, for charts in oral presentations and for
brochures or other documents where the span of text is short, a sans
serif font (such as Arial or Helvetica) is usually best. For online docu-
ments (e-mail, in particular), most people seem to prefer sans serif fonts,
although experts are still debating which is better to use. Since screen
resolution is poorer than the quality of hard-copy printouts of docu-
ments, the sans serif fonts are usually sharper and thus probably the bet-
ter choice. On Web sites, we often see mixtures of fonts, with lengthy
text inserts in a serif font and the titles and links in sans serif fonts.
The bottom line on fonts is to be consistent; in general, use serif
fonts for correspondence and reports and sans serif for presentations
and online correspondence.
A font size of 11 or 12 points is best for correspondence and reports.
A smaller size is difficult to read and causes legibility problems when
faxed, since faxes decrease the size of the type.

Headings
Headings are essential in all but the shortest of formal documents, and
we should make frequent and logical use of them. The formatting of
headings should conform to the standard expectations that govern the
handling of headings, all of which reinforce the major rules of logic,
consistency, and accessibility. Since the purpose of headings is to make
it easier for the audience to access the information in written commu-
nication, we need to make all headings meaningful by capturing the
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 139

“so what?”—the specific message of the text that follows. Headings should
add to our written communication, not distract from it in any way.
The exact formatting varies from discipline to discipline, but tradi-
tional heading hierarchy generally follows formatting illustrated below:

Chapter or Other Major Heading

(bold, centered, may be a larger font)

First Subheading (flush left on a line by itself)

Text that follows the first subheading starts with a capital letter and appears
one line below the heading.

Second Subheading (flush left with period after it). Text that follows the
second subheading starts with a capital letter and appears on the same line.

1. Third Subheading. Period after it, the text would start two spaces after
the period. Text that follows the third subheading starts with a capital
letter and appears immediately after it.

In addition, make sure all the headings are grammatically parallel,

using the same part of speech: for example, all nouns or all the same
verb form, all infinitives (to + the verb constructions), all participles
(-ing forms of the verb), or all command form verbs (“keep,” “make,”
“use,” etc.).
In professional documents, we rarely see all capital letters or large
cap/small cap used in headings, since it makes the text more difficult
to read and takes up more space on the page. In addition, underlining
is used very sparingly; instead, most people use bold when they want
to draw attention to a word or statement. Underlining cuts off the
lower portion of letters, reducing the graphic appeal of the document,
and suggests a hyperlink that may not exist.
All caps and underlining are both remnants from the days of type-
writers, when people had fewer options to distinguish their text and
headings, so in addition to making the text more difficult to read, they
make it look rather old-fashioned.
The following examples illustrate the problems created by using all
caps and underlining:
140 Section One Core Leadership Communication

ALL CAPS SHOULD BE AVOIDED IN HEADINGS AND TEXT

AND SO SHOULD LARGE CAPS/SMALL CAPS
Stay Away from Underlining Completely, Since
Using It Cuts Off the Bottom of Descending Letters

Although computers make it easy to format text—allowing us to

vary font size, style, and color—it is usually better to maintain the
same style of font throughout a document. For example, we usually
would not mix Arial font, or a similar sans serif font, with Times
Roman, or a similar serif font, in correspondence or reports, although
we might mix them in a brochure or Web site.
Instead of mixing font styles, we should use bold and increase the
size of the font:

Avoid Mixing Font Styles Use Bold or Larger Font Instead

Advantages Advantages
(Arial) (Times Roman 14)
Cost Advantages Cost Advantages
(Times Roman) (Times Roman 12)

Finally, the heading does not take the place of the text, just as a sub-
ject line does not take the place of an opening statement of purpose in
an e-mail or a memo. We should start our discussion as if the heading
were not there.

How Not to Use Headings How to Use Headings

Nontransplant program: This program Nontransplant program. The non-
will use only dialysis treatment. transplant program will use only dialy-
Maximum transplant program: This sis treatment.
option is the most cost-efficient and Maximum transplant program. The
practical in my opinion. maximum transplant program is the
most cost-efficient and practical.

To summarize, when using headings, follow the principles listed here:

Principles for Creating and Formatting Headings

1. Keep headings short, meaningful, and consistent in style.
2. Make sure that all headings are parallel—the same part of speech.
3. Use the same font used in the rest of the section, but make it bold, larger,
or centered.
4. Be consistent in handling capitalization (either initial cap each major word
or only the first word; avoid capitalizing every letter).
5. Avoid underlining headings.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 141

Remember, format a report for accessibility and appearance. Use

headings to label the sections so that readers can find them with ease and
the document looks good. Companies or disciplines may have style
sheets or templates that dictate the format. If not, follow the guidelines
discussed here and make sure the headings are logical and consistent
and accomplish the overall purpose of making the document accessible
to the reader.

Lists
Lists are formatted using bullets or numbers. One rule of thumb on the
use of bullets is with more than five items in a list, we need to use
numbers, since they make it easier for the reader to keep track. Punc-
tuating the items depends on the logic of what we have written or on
aesthetics; there are no hard-and-fast rules. We should aim for some
form of consistency, but even that is not always necessary in a longer
document. Some lists treat items as separate units, while others treat
items as grammatical units.

Two Examples of Separate Item Lists

A proposal contains the following sections:
1. Introduction
2. Needs and Benefits
3. Costs
or
A proposal contains the following sections:
• Introduction
• Needs and Benefits
• Costs

A Sample List with Items Treated as Grammatical Units

A proposal contains
1. An introduction,
2. A section on needs and benefits, and
3. A section on costs.

Note that there is no colon after the word “contains,” before the list. A
colon should be avoided between the introduction to a list and the list
unless the introduction is a complete sentence and includes the object
of the verb, as in the following two examples. Keep the items gram-
matically parallel, introducing each item with the same part of
speech.
142 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Incorrect Handling of Listed Items Correct Handling of Listed Items

When writing a formal report, you should When writing a formal report, you
perform the following: should perform the following:
1. Draft the report. 1. Draft the report.
2. Establishing the format. 2. Establish the format.
3. Design of the graphics. 3. Design the graphics.
4. Publication of the report. 4. Publish the report.

If we use bullets instead of numbers, as we frequently do in leader-

ship communication, the same guidelines apply. The previous list
might appear as follows:

When writing a formal report, you perform the following:

• Draft the report.
• Establish the format.
• Design the graphics.
• Publish the report.

Placing periods at the end of each item is a matter of taste and

appearance; just be consistent. Either place periods at the end of each
item, or after none of them.

EXHIBIT 4.13
Example of Head- Negotiating Across Cultures
ings and Footers

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

William J. Barnett Page X

 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 143

Headers and Footers

Documents of more than one page should contain a header or footer
containing identifying information, such as the subject or writer’s name
plus the page number. A longer report often has both a header and a
footer. Usually, one carries the name of the entire document and the
other the section heading and page number, and sometimes the date.
Again, we need to follow the standard guidelines of our discipline or the
style guide of our organization. The following example of a page from a
report is typical of the layout you will find in many organizations
(Exhibit 4.13).
Written communication of all types is integral to leadership commu-
nication. We spend much of our day writing and reading text messages,
blogs, e-mails, memos, letters, and various types of reports. This chap-
ter has provided guidelines to help leaders become more proficient and
more effective in creating documents of every sort.
The checklist in Exhibit 4.14 will help in reviewing our own writing
to ensure the content, structure, and formatting are effective.

EXHIBIT 4.14 Content

Reviewing Your
Own Written Opening
Communication ❒ “So what?” subject line (text, e-mail, memo)

❒ Clear, specific context in the opening

❒ Clearly stated purpose for writing

❒ Specific foreshadowing statement

Body of Discussion
❒ Specific, meaningful content to support each major point

❒ No breakdowns in logic
Closing
❒ Appropriate closing in last paragraph

❒ Contact information and/or next steps established in last paragraph

Structure and Format

❒ Well organized logical, coherent

❒ Adequate transitions between sentences and paragraphs

❒ Effective formatting, following professional standards for the medium

used

❒ No globby (long) paragraphs

❒ “So what?” headings

❒ Effective use of lists and/or bullets

144 Section One Core Leadership Communication

When using this checklist with the checklist in Exhibit 3.9 in

Chapter 3, we have a very complete approach to reviewing our written
communication from the details of language to the structure to the
broader content and formatting covered here.

Application 4.1 Read the following four scenarios and write a brief and complete e-mail sub-
E-mail Subject ject line for each.
Line Exercise 1. You are working on the budget for next year, and members of your depart-
ment met last week to discuss all the changes. You need each member to
provide you with his or her budget figures so that you can roll up the vari-
ous subaccounts. The budget is due tomorrow, and you really need the
members’ input by 4:00 p.m. so that you will have time to complete your
part of the work.
2. To streamline the processing of expense reports, your accounting office has
adopted new software that will enable employees to scan receipts. The new
software also streamlines the categorization of expenses and totals each cat-
egory automatically. Employees should have their reimbursements more
quickly and you will save hours in staff time. The new software is
a bit tricky, though, and you need employees to come to one of three training
sessions so that they will know how to use it. All sessions will be held over
lunchtime, with the first on Tuesday, one on Thursday, and one next Monday.
3. Your company recently adopted and rolled out a new benefits plan. After
the rollout, you received word that there is one new addition that was not
included in your materials: a child care advisory service that helps employ-
ees locate quality, affordable child care for their family. You want to let the
employees know about this new feature.
4. You are the head of the Information Technology Division, and your company
will be implementing a new enterprise resource planning system company-
wide over the coming weekend. Bringing the system online will entail a sig-
nificant effort by your team together with the consultants, and you will need
to shut down the system at 5:00 p.m. on Friday to get started. Since many
people in your company work until 6:00 or 6:30 p.m., even on Fridays, and
sometimes come in on the weekend, you need to inform everyone of the
necessity to shut down the system at 5:00 p.m. on Friday. You believe this will
enable your team to finish by mid-day on Saturday, with time to test and
troubleshoot the system before Monday.

Source: Developed by Beth O’Sullivan, Rice University, March 2004. Used with permission.

Application 4.2 The Case: Refinery Managers Face Budget Challenges

Writing E-mails You work for a major international petroleum company, and you find yourself
in a difficult position. As the budget coordinator for a large business unit made
up of several key refineries, you have noticed that costs are rising so quickly
that the refinery sites may soon become uncompetitive.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 145

To begin getting costs under control, your team analyzes the budget and
finds that a major component of refinery costs consists of an “overhead” allo-
cation of costs from site services managers, as opposed to direct refinery costs.
The site services managers provide an array of critical services to each refinery,
such as central maintenance, storehouse services, security, HSE (health, safety,
and environmental) services, human resources, and training/development ser-
vices. The costs of these services across the full business unit’s refineries are
combined in a centralized cost center; that cost is subsequently allocated
among the various refineries that use these services.
Your team knows that you must find a way to cut these allocated costs, so
you decide to hold a meeting to talk with the site services managers about the
budget and how it can be reduced so that each refinery can maintain a com-
petitive advantage as a site. Of course, it is also important that refinery opera-
tions are safe and secure, so all of the services provided play an important role
in the successful operation of the refineries. However, you need to find out
from the site services managers what items can be cut or reduced while mini-
mizing the impact on people and assets at the business unit level; if certain
items in the site services budget are true necessities, you need to have more
information about what makes them critical to the business.
You have no direct control over the site services managers, although a com-
ponent of their annual bonus comes from how well the various refineries per-
form, so you should think carefully about how you will ask them for
information.

The Assignment
Draft an e-mail to the site services managers scheduling a meeting to discuss
the budget (alternatively, you may choose to create a meeting request). Since
you have no direct supervisory control, it will do little good to demand cuts; in
fact, a demand to cut the budget might result in the loss of a service that mat-
ters most to you! Therefore, consider your strategy and your persuasive
approach carefully as you prepare the e-mail. You may also consider whether
to use a direct or an indirect approach to the memo. Remember to craft a clear
and complete subject line for the memo, provide all the information they need
to attend the meeting, and close with the next steps or how to contact you for
further information.
In addition, consider what you might want to send to your audience to help
prepare them for the meeting. Include a list of the attachments you would
include with this e-mail, along with a brief explanation of why you would
include each one.
Source: Developed by Beth O’Sullivan, Rice University, March 2004. Updated by Sandra
Elliot, May 2009. Used with permission.

Application 4.3 The Case: Merging Benefits at Huge Computer Company

Creating an Two major high-tech companies, Huge Co. (HC) and Computer Co. (CC), have
Executive recently merged to form Huge Computer Company (HCC) and are now starting
to combine the operations of both. A key issue of the integration has been how
Summary
to treat the benefit and retirement plans from the two companies—in particular,
146 Section One Core Leadership Communication

how to blend the plans for the software engineers, who are key to the continued
success of the new company. Read the following case and write an executive
summary of your key findings for the partner of the Human Resources
Consulting firm.

Two Companies—Two Cultures

HC has been an industry leader for the past 20 years in both hardware and
software. HC is a large company, with an employee base of about 22,000 in
four countries. Its corporate culture is relatively formal: HC does things “by
the book.” About 3,500 software engineers work for HC, and all operate out of
the Silicon Valley offices. The average tenure among the software engineers is
10 years. HC redesigned the software engineers’ benefits package 2 years ago,
based on their research in industry best practices. HC spends about $20,000
per employee on annual benefits but has done no surveys to determine
employee satisfaction with the new benefit plan.
CC is a young software company headquartered in Austin, Texas. CC is
known for its leading-edge developments and has risen to the top over the last
seven years. In fact, CORP. Magazine recently recognized CC as one of the “Top
100 Companies to Work For in the U.S.” Its corporate culture still has a casual,
collegiate feel and its business practices are highly flexible, stressing the need
for creativity and innovation. CC has about 8,000 employees, including 2,000
software engineers. Gaining access to those engineers was one of the key reasons
for the merger. CC spends about $26,000 per employee on annual benefits. CC
has had essentially the same benefits package for six out of its seven years of
existence.

A Consulting Team Gathers Information on Benefits

Although technically the two companies have been combined into one com-
pany, they are still operating independently and are just starting to combine
their workforces. The COO of the new entity has hired your consulting firm to
assess the current plans of both companies. It is her goal to develop a blended
system that represents the best features of both benefit plans and a plan that
will be well received by software engineers in both groups.
To learn more about the retirement and benefits plans at both companies,
your team decides to interview HR managers and departmental managers at
both companies. For both HC and CC, you want to gather information on the
following topics:
• The strengths and weaknesses of current benefits programs and areas for
possible improvements.
• An assessment of how well the current plan meets the needs of the software
engineers.
• Each company’s perceptions of the plans of the other company.
• Key areas software engineers will be concerned about regarding the adop-
tion of a common benefits plan.
Your team holds several interviews, from which you gain managers’ percep-
tions and information on both of the existing plans. Notes from two interviews
are included here.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 147

Notes from the Interview of the Computer Co. Benefits Manager

Date: February 17, 2010
Interview Objective: Obtain the CC manager’s perspective on the merger of
benefit plans between HC and CC and on the perceived
strengths and weaknesses of both
Interviewee: Mariel Salinas, Benefits Manager at CC
Interviewers: Two of your team members
Background: The benefits manager, Mariel Salinas, has six years of experience in
human resources and joined CC three years ago. Her previous employer was a
cutting-edge advertising agency, and she feels that the way CC treats its employ-
ees is very consistent with what she experienced at her former job. Both indus-
tries depend on their “human capital” to achieve success; rewarding creativity
and independence is critical to the company’s performance.
When Mariel came to CC, she initiated a benchmarking study to review the hir-
ing and benefits practices of the top 50 technology companies to familiarize her-
self with the industry. She also discovered that CC is way above average on
granting stock options and way below average on employer contributions to
401K plans. In addition, the results showed that CC has earned a reputation as
one of the top 100 best working environments in the country because of flexible
hours and benefits options.
Quotes from the interview:

About Benefits at CC
“Our company is comprised primarily of younger workers. They focus more on
perks like vacation packages, on-site concierge, and the company fitness center.
They aren’t really worried about retirement packages, dental insurance, or life
insurance.”
“To meet our employees’ diverse needs, we use a ‘cafeteria plan’ approach. That
means we supply an à la carte system of point-based options. Employees can
distribute their points to the categories of benefits that appeal to them. As a
result, every employee has a different benefits package, but the dollar values are
consistent.”
“I think one of the weaknesses of our benefits and retirement program is the lack
of long-term focus on retirement. The interests of our employees would be better
served if they were a little more focused on their future.”
“Several employees have complained that our vision plan doesn’t include Lasik
eye correction surgery, but you know, I think that’s over the top. I’m not sure
that we should focus too much of our attention on that sort of thing, or we’ll
soon be paying for all kinds of cosmetic surgery!”

About Benefits at HC
“HC was included in a benchmarking study that we did, but that was three years
ago. And they have revamped their benefits program since then.”
148 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Notes from the Interview of the Computer Co. Benefits Manager (continued)
“When we did the study, the problems HC had were tremendous. In fact, I think
they may have revamped the system when they got the benchmarking data.
The worst part of their program was how it didn’t even begin to compete with
the other benefits packages. In fact, if their employee base wasn’t so old and
set in their ways, they would surely have moved on to a different company
by now. . . . “
“No, I guess I’m not too familiar with their current system. I’ve heard rumors, but
I don’t really know how it works. I guess the strength of their program is that it
must work for their people. Retention at HC is very good. But their employee base
has such a different demographic from our software engineers.”
On Merging the Benefits
“I am very concerned that the people in charge might decide to use HC’s bene-
fits system, since they have so many more employees than we currently have on
our system. And I’m guessing that their program is less expensive. The problem
is that our system is so much better. It’s nationally recognized as being progres-
sive and friendly to our employees. But since HC recently redid their program,
we’ll probably get stuck with their way of doing things.”
“I think the employees are most concerned that the merger is going to rob them
of the innovation and flexibility they’ve come to expect around here. In addition,
I’m afraid that changing the benefits system will send a negative signal to our
folks that the HC system and employees are more valuable in this merger rela-
tionship. I anticipate a huge attrition problem.”

Notes from the Interview of the Huge Co. VP of Human Resources

Date: February 17, 2010
Interview Objective: Obtain the HC perspective on the merger of benefit
plans between HC and CC and on the perceived
strengths and weaknesses of both
Interviewee: Adam Nagami, VP of Human Resources for HC
Interviewers: Two of your team members
Background: Adam Nagami has been in the Human Resources business for
20 years, having started his career as a junior HR analyst at HC. He has “grown
up” with the company and prides himself on keeping current with trends in
HR. As the current VP of Human Resources, he directed the redesign of the
HC benefit and retirement plan two years ago and feels that it is now an excel-
lent plan. Although he did not survey the employees to assess their level of
satisfaction with the plan, he based his changes and recommendations on
industry “best practices” and what he felt was most appropriate for HC’s
employee base.
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 149

Notes from the Interview of the Huge Co. VP of Human Resources (continued)
Quotes from the interview:
About Benefits at HC
“Our employee base consists of mostly people in their late 30s and 40s. Many of
them have families and are focused on having good health benefits. They also care
about long-term savings and we have active participation in our 401K program.”
“As you know, we revamped our benefits and retirement programs two years
ago, and so far, I haven’t heard any negative feedback from our employees, so I
haven’t spent the time or money to conduct any surveys, but let me tell you
about a few key features.”
“We use a standard cafeteria plan that allows a choice between two types of
medical plans and choices on coverage for life insurance and dental. We’ve also
recently added a flexible spending account option to our plan—this allows for
pretax dollars to be set aside to reimburse employees for items not covered by
our regular plan—for example, they can use it to reimburse themselves for out-
of-pocket medical expenses or expenses the plan wouldn’t ordinarily pay for,
such as eyeglasses or Lasik surgery. They can also use it for dependent care—for
their children or older relatives—so it offers lots of flexibility.”
On Merging the Benefits
“I don’t know much about the CC plan, although I know it is highly ranked. I
think that CC’s software engineers are a much younger group and that they
don’t care that much about life insurance or reimbursement for care of elderly
parents, but I think the key here is to show them the flexibility we can offer and
help educate them about planning for their future. As they start families, they
might appreciate some of our benefits. The combined company will now have
almost 30,000 employees, so we can expect to negotiate some real economies
of scale with our providers. I think if we can convince the CC engineers that our
way is best, the transition will go quite smoothly.”

The Assignment
As the head of the consulting team, you need to brief the senior partner on
your findings so that he can then meet with the COO at Huge Computer Com-
pany. You need to synthesize the information from the interviews, consolidate
your key findings, and develop a one-page executive summary comparing the
key features of the plans and making any observations or recommendations
you have about merging the plans. Remember that the senior partner may or
may not read your full report, so any key findings and your recommendations
need to be easy to access and understand.

Source: Case and exercise developed by Deborah J. Barrett, Beth O’Sullivan, and Beth
Peters, Rice University. Used with permission.
150 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Application 4.4 To help you identify the language and writing that characterize transforma-
Rhetorical tional leaders, for this assignment, you are to select and analyze a speech or
Analysis of a written communication created by a person you see as a transformational
leader. The analysis should include the following:
Transformational
Leader’s 1. Name of the speech (occasion) or document.
Communication 2. Audience for the speech or document (actual and implied, if appropriate).
3. Stated and implied purposes (if different from stated purpose).
4. Rhetorical strategies and techniques, such as the use of any of the following
(provide examples from the speech or writing):
a. Figurative language (similes, metaphors, symbols, imagery).
b. Appeals (to emotions, logic, ethos).
c. Logical fallacies.
5. Style (provide examples from the speech or writing).
a. Clarity and conciseness.
b. Use of language, word choices (diction).
c. Passive or active voice.
d. Simple or complex sentences; short or long sentences.
6. Visual strategies and tactics.
a. Format (layout, headings, paragraph length, fonts, etc.).
b. Use of images (photos, graphs, diagrams, etc.).
7. Oral strategies and tactics (for speeches).
a. Music.
b. Volume.
c. Speech patterns (articulation, intonation, emphasis).
d. Other sound effects.
The objective of this assignment is to help you appreciate a leader’s use of lan-
guage for rhetorical purposes (usually to argue a point of view or persuade
others). You should select the speech or written document carefully to ensure
that it has enough depth or substance to allow close reading and analysis. You
should plan to read or listen to it several times, looking deeply at how the indi-
vidual selects words, composes sentences, and organizes thoughts.

Application 4.5 Review the case study in Application 4.3. Imagine that you have briefed the
Creating a senior partner on your findings and, in a somewhat radical move, she has
Twitter Plan asked you to help the company put its finger on the pulse of social media.
Specifically, she has asked you to open a Twitter account through which you
can start sharing the news of how the company is changing and improving and
start tracking what others are saying. Your assignment is to create a Twitter
plan, outlining the types of posts you will create and the expected timing of the
posts. Also, include in the plan at least two samples of the kind of posts you
think will be helpful in building HC’s reputation in the industry.
You might find that Chris Brogan’s “50 Ideas on Using Twitter” has some ideas
you can use: www.chrisbrogan.com/50-ideas-on-using-twitter-for-business/.19
 Chapter 4 Creating Written Leadership Communication 151

Notes 1. http://adamhcohen.com/facebook-retailer-study-october08/.
2. Fraser, M., and Dutta, S. (2009). Yes, CEOs should facebook and twitter,
Forbes.com. www.forbes.com/2009/03/11/social-networking-executives-lead-
ership-managing-facebook.html.
3. Fraser and Dutta (2009).
4. Fraser and Dutta (2009).
5. www.buildabetterblog.com/2009/04/business-blogging-tip-whats-the-blogs-
purpose.html.
6. www.dailyblogtips.com/5-blogging-traps-you-need-to-avoid/.
7. www.problogger.net/archives/2006/01/12/9-ways-to-screw-up-your-profes
sional-blog/.
8. Fraser and Dutta (2009).
9. http://mashable.com/2009/03/16/twitter-growth-rate-versus-facebook/.
10. www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2008/07/07/hurry_up_the_
customer_has_a_complaint/.
11. www.twitip.com/make-a-tweet-plan-to-get-the-most-from-twitter/.
12. Dodge, R. W. (1984). What to Report, as quoted in Houp, K. W., and
Pearsall, T. E. Reporting Technical Information. New York: Macmillan, p. 85.
13. IDC White Paper (March 2007). The Expanding Digital Universe: A Forecast
of Worldwide Information Growth through 2010, p. 7, Figure 7.
14. Business Editors New York Business Wire, May 28, 2003.
15. Alboher, M. (2008). E-mail at Work: Some Basics. New York Times, Febru-
ary 23, p. 1.
16. Leonard, D., and Gilsdorf, J. (2001). Big stuff, little stuff: A decennial
measurement of executives’ and academics’ reactions to questionable
usage elements. Journal of Business Communication 38, No. 4, 439–75. See
more recent work on the influence on IM in particular: Tagliamonte, S. A.,
and Denis, D. (2008). Linguistic ruin? LOL! Instant messaging and teen
language. American Speech 83, No. 1, pp. 3–33; and the research of Pam
Takayoshi and Christina Haas of Kent State at http:fpdc.kent.edu/
center/staff/hassTakayoshi.html.
17. www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id⫽507731.
18. For more guidance on e-mail, you may want to go to www.albion.com/
netiquette/index.html. Virginia Shea’s Netiquette, which she defines as
“network etiquette, the do’s and don’ts of online communication,” was one
of the first sources to provide rules of Internet communication; her site
still remains one of best of the many that are now available.
19. www.chrisbrogan.com. Used with permission of the author.
Chapter

5
Leadership Presentations
A speech or talk should be the oral projection of your
personality, experience, and ideas.
James C. Humes, The Sir Winston Method: The Five Secrets of
Speaking the Language of Leadership

A speech is like a symphony. It can have three move-

ments, but it must have one dominant melody.
Sir Winston Churchill

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Plan your presentation, including developing a communication strategy.

• Prepare a presentation to achieve the greatest impact.
• Present effectively and with greater confidence.
The skills of a leader are clearest when he or she is speaking—whether
informally, with a few people around a conference room table or in a
virtual meeting, or formally, standing before a large group or sitting in
a Webcast delivering a prepared presentation. Much of the 70 to
90 percent of the time that managers engage in communicating is spent
in conversations or presentations, either talking to others one-on-one or
speaking in groups or to groups. According to Eccles and Nohria in their
book Beyond the Hype: Rediscovering the Essence of Management,
“Through their speeches and presentations, managers establish defini-
tions and meaning for their own actions and give others a sense of what
the organization is about, where it is at, and what it is up to.”1
Through public speaking, individuals provide the innovative ideas that
lead to change, participate in the dialogue that makes the organization
152
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 153

EXHIBIT 5.1
The Three “P’s”
Approach to
Presentation Plan Prepare Present
Development and
Delivery

• Determine strategy • Develop introduction, • Get nerves under control

body, and conclusion
• Analyze audience • Deliver, using PPT effectively
• Create graphics
• Select medium/delivery • Handle Q&A’s
method • Test the flow and logic
• Conduct post-presentation
• Organize and establish • Edit/proofread assessment
logical structure
• Practice, checking
room and equipment

grow, and bring attention to themselves and their abilities. As individ-

uals move higher in the organization, their pronouncements become
even more public and they spend greater amounts of time engaged in
public speaking, whether internally to larger groups of employees or
externally to the community. Therefore, leaders must master public
speaking, becoming comfortable and confident in all kinds of presen-
tation situations so that they project a positive ethos for themselves
and their organizations.
This chapter applies the tools and techniques of previous chapters—
determining the strategy, structuring communication coherently, and
using language effectively—to the art of public speaking. The chapter
will take you through each of the action steps in the Three “P’s”
process: planning, preparing, and presenting (Exhibit 5.1). The process
provides an approach to developing presentations that will help you
move through each step strategically so that you can deliver any type
of presentation with confidence.

Planning a Presentation
In the planning phase of developing our presentation, we (1) deter-
mine our strategy, (2) analyze our audience, (3) select the medium and
delivery method, and (4) organize and establish our logical structure.

Determining Strategy
Just as we clarify our purpose to write effectively, we need to define the
purpose of our presentation clearly and specifically and develop a
communication strategy using the communication strategy framework
introduced in Chapter 2 and repeated below (Exhibit 5.2).
154 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 5.2 Context

Communication
Strategy
Framework
Purpose
Timing
Feedback
Messages

Communi- Medium/
cator Forum

Audiences

Context
In presenting, as in writing, we first need to consider the context for
our presentation. What is most important about what is going on in
our organization, in the local area or region, in our market or industry,
or even on the broader stage—in the world—that will be first in the
minds of our audience? There might be an event or something hap-
pening to which we might want to refer to help frame our presenta-
tion, or we might need to establish some background for our
presentation to provide the context that the audience needs to under-
stand our purpose. The more we can relate our presentation to what is
on the minds of the audience, the more easily we will be able to garner
their attention.

Purpose
We also need to establish a clearly defined purpose. What is most
important for us to achieve in the presentation? What do we want our
audience to do in response to what we say? These questions will lead
us logically into the analysis of our audience.

Audience
The more we know about our audience, the more at ease we should be
in presenting to them. At a minimum, for any presentation, we should
be able to answer the following questions:
1. What is my primary purpose in delivering this presentation to this
audience?
2. Who is my primary audience? Will there be secondary audiences
affected by what I say?
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 155

3. What is motivating the audience to attend and how do I motivate

them to listen to me?
4. What do I expect the audience to do as a result of hearing my
presentation?
5. How do I expect them to feel?

Timing
We also need to consider the timing of the presentation. If, for exam-
ple, we are presenting right after lunch, we may find our audience
more challenging to engage. If we are first in the morning, we may
need to deal with latecomers. If it is the end of the day, the audience’s
attention may be on leaving work for the day. Finally, if the presenta-
tion will be recorded and made available to others, the audience’s
attention will vary.

Feedback
We should think about obtaining feedback in all presentation situa-
tions so that we can measure our success in reaching the audience
with our message and make adjustments in our presentation style or
content if necessary. The first question is, is it feasible to obtain any
feedback? And then the second is how best do we obtain it?
If we are face to face with our audience, we should be able to tell
from their reaction to our presentation how they have received our
message, but obtaining more structured feedback may be important
as well. In fact, we may even want to build the feedback into our
presentation by using audience response technology, which allows
our audiences to respond in “real time.” For example, many larger
events make use of Twitter for real-time audience reaction, asking
people to use a “hashtag” when posting about the presentation. Other
such offerings, such as Poll Everywhere, use cell phones and IM tech-
nology to gather feedback. Such easily available audience response
technology can be used in any setting—small meetings, large confer-
ences, classrooms, and so forth—to determine opinions, measure
understanding of concepts, obtain audience questions, or even con-
duct brainstorming.
Of course, the purpose of our presentation will shape the feedback.
If, for example, we are presenting the quarterly performance to the board
of directors, they will probably tell us what they think while we are pre-
senting, and we will be able to discern their response by the questions
they ask during and after the presentation. If we are presenting to ana-
lysts, they, too, will tell us how they feel about what we have said by their
questions, and then we will see if we have succeeded in delivering our
message by what they write.
156 Section One Core Leadership Communication

If, on the other hand, we are delivering a presentation to a large

group at a professional meeting or conference, the only feedback we
receive might be the expressions on the faces of the listeners. This
form of feedback is important and useful, however, and obtaining it
requires our being actively enaged with our audience by establishing
meaningful eye contact, which is important in all presentations, as dis-
cussed below.

Selecting the Medium and the Delivery Method

In developing a strategy for a presentation, we will choose from several
options for the medium and the delivery method. Recognizing the
advantages and disadvantages of each method helps in our selecting
the right one for each situation (Exhibit 5.3). The presentation delivery
methods compared here are assumed to be extemporaneous, a prepared
presentation spoken without notes or text. It is very rare in professional
situations to deliver a memorized presentation or to read a prepared
speech, although occasionally speakers will read their presentations at
technical conferences or use teleprompters at large trade shows and
conventions.
The three most common types of professional presentations—the
round-table, the stand-up presentation, and the impromptu—are dis-
cussed here.

Round-Table Presentations
The round-table presentation method has become increasingly popu-
lar for professional settings. Using this delivery method, we sit at the
table with our audience and deliver a prepared document instead of
standing up in front of our audience to deliver the presentation.
The typical round-table is an interactive exchange between the pre-
senter and the audience. Round-table presentations encourage discus-
sion and tend to be less formal than stand-up presentations, although
they require as much or even more preparation on the part of the pre-
senter. To deliver a round-table presentation effectively, we need to feel
so comfortable with the content that the audience’s questions, inter-
ruptions, or desire to jump to the end of the document do not throw us
off course. Also, we must be very familiar with the content on each
page so that we do not need to look down at it too much.
We select the round-table approach anytime we want to achieve one
of the following:
1. Encourage an informal, interactive discussion.
2. Receive input from audience members.
3. Build consensus or gain agreement on conclusions or recommen-
dation.
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 157

EXHIBIT 5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Delivery Method for Oral Communication
Delivery Method Advantages Disadvantages
Stand-up without • Allows flexibility in delivery of • Requires careful preparation and
visuals content comfort with content
• Makes you appear confident • Means keeping close track of
• Makes it easier to connect with timing, particularly if questions are
audience and establish rapport allowed
Round-table • Allows for interactive discussion • Makes it more difficult to control
• With printed presentation pack, flow of discussion
appeals to auditory and visual • Seems more informal than
audiences stand-up presentation
• Makes it easier to establish real • Presents some delivery challenges
contact with audience
Stand-up with • Allows some flexibility of delivery • Calls for comfort with the technology
computer projection • Provides visuals to support your and creates dependence on it
messages • Requires backup plan
• Appeals to both oral and visual • Makes it harder to keep audience
audience preferences focused on you
Stand-up with • Allows some flexibility of delivery • Seems old-fashioned
overheads • Provides visuals to support your • Limits what you can do with
messages graphics
• Appeals to both oral and visual • Poses some potential technical
audience preferences problems
Stand-up with • Offers complete flexibility • Takes presenter away from audience
flipcharts/white • Encourages discussion when writing on boards
boards • Eliminates technical problems • Makes presenter appear less
• Allows easy recording of prepared
audience contributions • May be difficult to read
Videoconferencing • Allows interaction across • Delays in voice transmission cause
time and space some distraction
• With chart pack, can appeal to • Limits what you can do with visual
auditory and visual audiences aids
• Makes it difficult to establish rapport
• Poses potential technical problems
Phone conferencing • Allows interaction across • Limits what you can do with visual aids
(conference call) time and space • Makes it difficult to build rapport
• Causes loss of body language cues
Webcast • Allows interaction across time • Limits audience interaction and
and space eliminates visual cues
• Allows for a variety of visual aids • Relies heavily on presenter’s vocal skills
• Can be used to foster collaboration • Can feel impersonal
• Easy to gather feedback • Audience easily distracted
158 Section One Core Leadership Communication

4. Check the accuracy of facts or identify sources of missing facts.

5. Uncover and resolve major issues.
6. Present a lot of information in a short amount of time.

Delivering a Round-Table Presentation

Most of the principles that apply to stand-up presentations also apply
to round-table discussions, but round-table presentations differ in the
handling of the materials and in the delivery:
1. We hand out the presentation pack to the group before we start,
which means we will need to control the situation by guiding the
audience through the pack and by keeping them focused on the
page we want to discuss.
2. Since the audience has a printed copy of the presentation in front of
them, we can usually place more information on a page than we
would with an overhead or computer-projected presentation,
although we need to be careful not to overcrowd the page.
The delivery of a round-table presentation should follow the same
guidelines used for any good presentation; however, we need to be even
more aware of the importance of establishing and maintaining eye con-
tact. It is very easy when sitting at a table with a document in front of
us to look down instead of up, so we need to make sure we are so well
prepared that we do not need to look down at the page after turning to
it. We should be looking up and at our audience most of the time.
When we deliver a round-table presentation, the following guide-
lines will help to control the pace and flow of the discussion:
1. Direct the audience to the specific page.
2. State the major message of the exhibit (which should be captured in
the chart title).
3. Explain any legends, symbols, abbreviations, or acronyms.
4. Guide the audience through any complex diagrams or graphs.
5. Allow the audience time to scan the page.
6. Be flexible and responsive to the discussion.
7. Provide transition before turning to the next page.
8. Watch own body language and be sensitive to theirs.
Whenever we deliver a round-table presentation, we need to be very
careful to give our audience enough time to skim the page, and be alert
to their body language. If they need time to think about what we have
given them, we should not feel that we must keep talking: Silence is
OK. In fact, in many cultures, it is expected and valued. Finally, we
need to remember that we want to encourage discussion and welcome
questions as we present.
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 159

Formatting a Round-Table Presentation Handout

The round-table presentation pages resemble the slides in a stand-up
presentation except for the following:
1. The pages are numbered; otherwise, you would not easily be able to
tell people which page you were discussing.
2. The page may contain more information than a slide for a stand-up
presentation.
3. A smaller font (even 12-point) is appropriate.
We may elect to use a chart pack with only the graphs included, but
it is usually better to create an entire presentation, with cover page,
agenda, and appropriate text, as well as the graphs, since people
often pick up the packs without having the opportunity to hear the pre-
sentation. The round-table presentation pack should be complete
enough that anyone picking it up will understand the main messages.
Exhibit 5.4 demonstrates selected pages from a typical round-table
presentation pack.

Stand-Up Extemporaneous Presentations

One of the most popular delivery methods for professional presenta-
tions is still the stand-up extemporaneous presentation. It can be the
most effective form of presentation if structured and delivered cor-
rectly. Stand-up extemporaneous presentations offer four major
advantages over any other method. They allow us to
1. More easily control the flow of the presentation.
2. Maintain eye contact and rapport with our audience.
3. Make adjustments based on the audience’s response.
4. Appear confident and knowledgeable.
Delivering effective extemporaneous presentations means speaking
without relying on external promptings, such as reading from our
computers or from notes. We must resist the temptation to memorize
the presentation or to write everything down because, if we do, we will
sound unnatural and will be unable to adjust easily, should we need to
vary the presentation. On the other hand, we also need to resist the
other extreme of not having any notes because, no matter how experi-
enced we are, we may need to refer to them for supporting information
or numbers.
In most presentation settings today, we will have our laptop com-
puter in front of us with the audience seeing a projected presentation
on a large screen behind us. This arrangement allows us to face our
audience but glance at our laptop without breaking eye contact for
more than a few seconds. We do not want to look at our laptop screen
too much, however, since doing so will decrease our eye contact with
160 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 5.4 Selected Pages from a Typical Round-Table Presentation Pack

Establishing a Marketing Plan

for Brown & Peterson Today’s Discussion

❒ Our understanding of the current situation

Round-Table Discussion Proposal ❒ Study objectives and proposed approach
Presented by
L&B Consulting Firm ❒ Suggested team structure and our capabilities
❒ Outstanding questions and next steps
February 15, 2010

Our Understanding of Your The Largest Law

Current Situation Firms by Revenue

❒ Offices in Houston; Dallas; Los Angeles; $ Millions

Brown &
London; Paris
Peterson
❒ Three primary practices: litigation, business, Davis &
$67 Johnson
and government Jimenez
$92 & Smith
$243
❒ Specializing in areas such as energy, taxation,
labor and employment, corporate, real estate, $177
and finance Kramer $231
❒ Brown & Peterson (B&P), along with its peers, & Mattee James &
is caught in the transition in the legal profession Connelly
from no marketing or self-promotion to need
to establish marketing campaign and
public profile 3 Source: Lawyer Reports, July 7, 2009. 4

(continued)

our audience and make us appear less confident. If a laptop or similar

smaller computer screen is not available for us to see but we have a
podium or table nearby, we will probably want to print out our pre-
sentation in handout version of two to six slides per page. That way we
can glance down to see where we are, yet not have to turn the page
each time we change slides.

Impromptu Presentations
Many of the presentations we deliver in a professional setting are
impromptu, which means we are called on to deliver them without
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 161

EXHIBIT 5.4 (continued)

Success factors Project Objectives

❒ Total revenue ❒ Obtain a better understanding of B&P’s

competitive market
❒ Number of attorneys
❒ Establish profile of B&P’s current image,
❒ Courtroom wins
reputation, and market perception
How do you
❒ Recognition for
leverage your ❒ Determine the firm’s value proposition,
speaking and writing
critical success other key messages, and target audiences
❒ Membership on law factors to build
❒ Develop a marketing communication plan
school faculties corporate
and materials to reach target audiences
reputation?
❒ Bar pass rates and
❒ Define ongoing communication needs
percentile rankings
❒ Ability to attract and
retain top recruits Establish and maintain a highly respected,
5 recognizable public image for B&P 6

Summary of Proposed Approach Potential Team Structure and Responsibilities

Areas Brand Niche

Competitive Ongoing
of identity/image capability
focus analysis communication Steering Committee
research building • Guides strategy development
• Managing Partners
• Ensures link to firm's strategy
Action • Identify • Profile current • Define pra- • Determine • X Consulting Firm
items competitors image/ market ctice area communication
• Establish perception capabilities marketing needs
benchmarking • Identify gaps • Create • Link plan with Team Leaders
criteria • Determine value materials to other initiatives
• Perform basic proposition and illustrate niche • Define individual
competitive messages capabilities communication
research • Identify niche B&P Team Core Team (L&B) Additional Resources
• Identify responsibilities
• Develop survey audiences audiences • Establish • Partners • Deborah Davis • Other partners
• Conduct surveys ongoing • Associates • Kelly Jones • B&P personnel
• Assess communications • PR Director • Michael Smith • Other specialists
promotional • Develop communication plan program
materials • Create marketing materials
• Establish media campaign • Provides • Manages process • Supplies additional
• Identify other public relations information • Performs analysis information and
opportunities
• Works with Core • Develops plan expertise
Team on plan • Creates materials
Project Team
Timing: October–November December–February February–March
10 11

Questions Immediate Next Steps

❒ Will we have access to previous relevant research, ❒ Determine B&P’s success factors
such as the X Consulting Firm findings?
❒ Establish scope of competitive analysis and
❒ How accessible will partners and associates be benchmarking
for interviews and fact finding research?
❒ Identify target audiences
❒ Will B&P be able to free up resources to
❒ Develop interview guides and targets
participate in team problem solving?
❒ Collect all previous research and complete
❒ How much in the way of promotional materials
gathering of promotional materials
has already been completed?
❒ Assemble the B&P team
❒ What will a successful strategic corporate
image campaign look like in your eyes? ❒ Formally launch the engagement

14 15
162 Section One Core Leadership Communication

much, if any, warning. For example, we may find ourselves in the ele-
vator with a superior who asks how the project we are leading is com-
ing along. This is the classic “elevator speech,” in which we only have
the time the elevator takes to go between floors to answer the question.
We can prepare for these kinds of encounters by making frequent
mental or written notes of the project status, noting the major mes-
sages of greatest interest to our audiences. Essentially, we prepare our-
selves for the elevator speech by anticipating that it will occur and
periodically formulating the key message—the “so what?”—to convey
the status of the project, the preliminary findings, or a brief summary
of the analysis.
Of course, at times, we are called on to speak impromptu without
benefit of any preplanning or strategizing. In those cases, the following
techniques will help you perform more effectively:
1. Do not rush into speaking. Take a deep breath and gather your
thoughts. A few seconds of silence will not bother anyone, not even
in virtual presentations.
2. If appropriate, start by giving your name or by saying something
informal to break the ice, such as a positive comment about the sur-
roundings or the people joining the Webcast.
3. If appropriate, refer to something that a previous speaker said, but
again be positive.
4. Think very simply of the primary message you want to deliver and
isolate only a couple of supporting topics.
5. State your message and your supporting topics before you dive into
details, and then go back at the end and repeat the main points.
We will become more comfortable with impromptu presentations the
more we do them, so we should practice them frequently even if it means
creating a bunch of topics, putting them in a bag or an envelope, and
drawing one out daily in our own office or at home (see the impromptu
exercise at the end of this chapter for a few suggested practice topics).

Establishing a Logical and Effective Structure and Format

The organization, or structure, of a presentation proceeds from the needs
and interests of the audience, our purpose, and the demands of the sub-
ject matter. When we start to outline or map out our presentation, we will
refer first to the analysis of our audience to determine the most effective
structure. We need to ask ourselves the following questions:
1. Do we want to start with our recommendation and then present the
data to support it (direct approach)?
2. Do we want to present the facts and lead to the conclusion (indirect
approach)?
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 163

In most situations, it works best to state the conclusions or recom-

mendations first and then provide the supporting data; however, if the
culture would expect a more indirect approach or our audience will be
resistant to our conclusions or recommendations, then we may want
to build our argument by presenting the evidence first. We need to
think carefully about which pattern will work best with this audience.
Then, we consider the nature of our subject matter and our overall
purpose to develop a logical structure for the body of our presentation
that will appeal most effectively to our audience.
Also, if we are presenting on a controversial topic and some audi-
ence members are opposed to our view or approach, we will want to
prepare a refutation and place it either in the body of the presentation
or at the beginning. To ignore the opposition completely may cause
some to question our objectivity and the validity of our analysis.
Although it is usually better to work the refutation into the body,
if we know our audience may be so focused on the opposition to our
argument that they will not listen to anything we have to say, we
may want to address it in our opening. However, we will not want to
spend too much time on the refutation in the introduction, since
doing so could sidetrack the audience from our major argument.
Another option is to leave any mention of opposing views to the
Q&A, but although no one may bring it up, we need to be prepared
if they do. By leaving the opposing views to the the Q&A, we risk
someone making so much of the opposition that it weakens our
argument.
As we map out our preliminary plans for the organization of the
presentation, we need to keep in mind that, in a speech, the audience
cannot go back and look at the preceding message, as they can in a
document. We thus need to make sure that each point is logically
related to the ideas that precede it and the information that follows
and that we use adequate, even obvious, transitions from point to
point. Also, in a presentation we need to use repetition more than we
would in writing, particularly in the body and conclusion, since an
audience’s memory is short and attention span fleeting.
In the initial stage of creating and organizing a presentation, we
need to establish the format, and since most presentations routinely
use PowerPoint templates, we should select one that meets our needs
and helps support our message. In fact, we may want to create a ghost
pack—a pack that establishes the format and contains the slides we
think we are going to use, even if only an idea exists at this point. A
ghost pack can be particularly useful for a team because the team can
easily assign each section or chart to a specific team member. The story-
board in Chapter 2 serves as an example of a ghost pack (Exhibit 2.11).
The ghost pack establishes the format and layout as well as the pre-
liminary outline for the presentation.
164 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Preparing a Presentation to Achieve the Greatest Impact

After we have analyzed our audience, developed our communication
strategy, and determined the overall structure, we are ready to start
preparing the presentation. The preparation consists of developing the
introduction, body, and conclusion; creating the graphics; testing the
flow and logic; editing and proofreading; and practicing.

Developing the Introduction, Body, and Conclusion

Modern expectations for good presentations have not changed that
much from the expectations of the past. What the ancient Greeks
taught about the introduction, the body, and the conclusion is as
applicable today as then—in fact, maybe even more applicable, con-
sidering our short attention spans and poor listening habits.
Therefore, for almost every presentation, skilled presenters follow
this traditional rule:

Tell them what

you are going to tell them.

Tell them.

Then, tell them what

you have told them.

If the presentation is very, very short, we may be able to avoid repeat-

ing our topics at the beginning and the end; however, doing so is always
helpful for our audience. For a longer presentation, it is essential for
the audience to hear the messages repeated. Most audiences will pay
more attention to the introduction—particularly if we provide a hook
(that is, something that captures their attention and establishes what is
in it for them) and to the conclusion than to the middle or body
(Exhibit 5.5). In a longer presentation, we want to keep reminding the
audience of our main arguments and drive them home strongly in the
conclusion. We can be sure we will gain the full attention of every lis-
tener when we utter the magic words “And in conclusion.”

The Introduction
The introduction to our presentation starts as soon as we stand up and
start walking to the podium or front of the room. We will want to take
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 165

EXHIBIT 5.5 Highest

Audience’s Introduction:
Attention in a The Hook
Presentation Conclusion

Final
Summary
Appeal
Q&A
Audience
Attention

Lowest
Beginning End
Presentation

command of ourselves and the situation the moment we stand up, and
we need to be aware that our posture and the way we carry ourselves
will affect the audience’s perception of us before we even start to
speak.
After we have established our presence in front of the room, we
will want to arouse interest and create a positive atmosphere for the
presentation. Numerous options exist for how to start a presentation.
We can start with a fact, a quotation, an example, an -anecdote, a
question, or a reference to the occasion or something else in the con-
text of the presentation. We can start with humor if it is appropriate
to the occasion and if we are absolutely sure it will not offend any-
one. It is usually better, though, to tell a humorous anecdote rather
than a joke.
What we do not want to do is joke about our subject or apologize
for being unprepared; it destroys our credibility and diminishes every-
thing that we say afterward. We should be prepared, or we should not
be there. We need to remember that we are addressing fellow human
beings with similar interests and problems who have come to hear us
because they expect us to say something meaningful. We want to start
quickly, get to the point, and establish a positive relationship with our
audience.
We should introduce our overall message and each of our support-
ing topics, saying something like “I am going to cover (1), (2), and
(3).” Then, we can discuss each of these supporting points in order
and say in the conclusion “I have covered (1), (2), and (3).” For the
166 Section One Core Leadership Communication

opening to a presentation, remembering the CPF acronym is again

helpful:
C = Context—What is the impetus for the presentation? What
surrounds it that could influence it?
P = Purpose—Why am I delivering this presentation? What is my
reason?
F = Foreshadowing—What is coming in this presentation and in
what order? What should the audience expect to hear as they
listen to it?
If we used the Pyramid Principle or wrote out a storyboard, we
should have a tight, logical story that flows easily from slide to slide.
We can test the presentation logic by creating a one-sentence summary
that includes our overall message and supporting topics. If we can cre-
ate a meaningful, logical sentence, then we probably have a logical
story to tell. This story will serve as the guide to the creation of our
agenda slide for the presentation.
If using visual aids, such as slides, we can use them to help cue the
audience to the structure and main messages of our presentation. In
addition to telling them what we will discuss, we will show the audi-
ence an agenda or a today’s discussion slide or, if appropriate for
our topic, the framework or model around which our presentation is
organized.
The agenda page may be a few bullet points of the main sections of
the presentation. The agenda page could be a list of topics or it could
capture our story, which we will present using a narrative structure.
Our first bullet would summarize the current situation, the next one or
two would discuss the complication, and the last would suggest a res-
olution. Even if our agenda slide does not actually contain this story
word for word , the audience should at least be able to determine what
the story is by looking at our bullet points.
An agenda, or setup, slide should be concise but meaningful. Our
agenda slide should not contain a list of all of our slide topics; such a
laundry list suggests a poorly organized presentation. Also, we should
avoid using the following words as bullet points on our agenda: “Intro-
duction,” “Conclusion,” and “Questions.” These take up space without
communicating anything to our audience. Every bullet should capture
a “so what?” Exhibit 5.6 shows the dos and don’ts of agenda pages.

The Body
The body of the presentation, which usually accounts for 80 percent,
should be concise and focused. The effective presenter will follow a
storyboard or similar outline or plan, judiciously selecting the main
points and being careful not to overwhelm the audience with too much
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 167

EXHIBIT 5.6 Examples of Agenda Pages for a Presentation

How Not to Do an Agenda How to Do an Agenda
Today’s Agenda Today’s Agenda
■ Introduction ■ Understanding of current situation
■ Understanding of current situation ■ Project objectives and approach
■ Competitive analysis ■ Team structure and our capabilities
■ Niche capabilities ■ Next steps
■ How you measure your success
■ Project objectives
■ Overview of approach
■ Proposed approach
■ Team Structure
■ Next steps
■ Conclusion
■ Q&A

detail. Keep in mind that our audiences only want to see what is relevant
to them and, in some cases, what we can do for them. Beware of any-
thing in the presentation to which the audience can say, “So what?”
Elaborate on each main point with specific examples or explanations
accompanied by graphics when appropriate (see Chapter 6 for infor-
mation on when and how to use graphics effectively).
Throughout the presentation, we will want to provide transitions to
lead from one topic to the next and one graphic to the next and make
sure that our presentation is so well organized and logical that, when
we move from topic a to topic b, no one could question why we are
doing so. This clear structure is especially true for any presentation
that will be delivered over the Internet, since the audience may face a
short delay between the visual and auditory elements of the presenta-
tion. Again, it is usually best to organize a presentation directly, giving
the conclusions and recommendations first, with the facts to support
or illustrate it woven through the body of the presentation. However,
as discussed previously, the organization depends on our audience
analysis and our communication strategy.

The Conclusion
The conclusion to a professional presentation will usually include a
summary of what we have said by going back over the main points and
reinforcing them. If we are using visual aids, we may want to show the
audience a summary slide that highlights our main messages. We may
even want to bring the agenda slide back at this point, although for a
short presentation that would not be necessary. The conclusion may
also contain the recommendation if we did not make it in the opening
168 Section One Core Leadership Communication

or if we presented it in the beginning but think it useful to repeat it at

this point.
Effective presenters do not just stop talking or say, “Well, that’s all”
in their conclusion. Also, they do not just trail off. We must remember
that this is our last chance to deliver our message, and we should make
the most of it and go out strong. The tone should be energetic and
forceful. We need to work on the conclusion as much or even more
than on the introduction and body.
If our presentation includes a Q&A section, we should include a
conclusion (usually as a slide) that summarizes the main points before
moving into the Q&A, but then after the Q&A, we should also provide
a brief restatement of our major message. This summary statement is
important in bringing the audience back to us; it allows us to address
any concerns the questions may have raised and to ensure the audi-
ence leaves with our message on the top of their minds, not the last
questioner’s message. Of course, often audiences will start to leave
immediately after the Q&A; therefore, we need to be prepared to
regain control and to pull them back in to listen to our final words.

Creating the Graphics

No question, graphics can add to a presentation. Many people are bet-
ter able to take in and process information presented visually rather
than orally. Adding graphics to a presentations helps us reach every-
one. Further, several categories of information—including quantita-
tive, structural, spatial, and highly complex—can be conveyed more
efficiently and effectively in visual rather than auditory form.
We do, however, want to be selective in the use of graphics. Unfor-
tunately, graphics are sometimes overused or misused. The result is a
presentation in which the graphics offer more distraction than sup-
port, making the presentation appear to be all show and no substance.
Since the next chapter discusses when to use graphics, which graphs
to use, and how best to design graphics using PowerPoint, the only
point to be made here is that presenters should use graphics when pos-
sible, but use them with care.

Testing the Flow and Logic

We should take time after planning and preparation and before prac-
ticing to ensure that our presentation flows smoothly and that it is log-
ical. We should test the flow by telling the story of our presentation
aloud to ourselves and to someone else. Can we tell the story in a couple
of minutes? What are the main messages? Do they flow logically from
one to the other? After this test, we may find that we need to go back
and do some reorganizing, but it is worth the time. A presentation has
to be clearly logical to the audience or they will not stay with us.
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 169

Editing and Proofreading

The final form of a presentation should be clear, concise, coherent,
correct, and confident. Once the presentation starts, we cannot go
back and correct the slides or take back slips in what we have said. If
we are using visual aids, we will need to edit and proofread them very
carefully.
In the editing process, we should first look at each slide title and make
sure it is meaningful: Does it capture the “so what?” of the chart below it?
Also, we should look at how much we might be able to cut from bullets
without losing the meaning. We will want to make them as concise as
possible, but not so concise that they no longer say anything.
Finally, we should proofread each slide carefully, looking for consis-
tency in title placement, font type and size, and margins. We need to
remember that mistakes are magnified on a slide. Therefore, it is worth-
while printing our slides and going over each one, reading from the bot-
tom to the top. Then, we will want to project each slide and look at it on
the screen. Finally, if we plan to provide handouts of our slides, we
should preview the printed version in pure black and white to ensure
margins work and no text is lost off the edges of the slides once printed.

Practicing to Facilitate Effective Delivery

Practicing a presentation is often the key to delivering it successfully in
front of an audience. All presenters need to find a practice method that
works for them and make sure that they allow time for it.

Giving the Presentation Out Loud

Just going over our presentation in our mind is not sufficient. Most of
us need to go through our presentation at least twice out loud. It is
best to try to recreate the speaking situation as closely as possible, in
the scheduled location and with the same equipment. Also, we should
practice at least once in front of a mirror, being sure to speak aloud.
Practicing in front of a mirror allows us to see ourselves as others see
us and gives us a chance to see how well we are establishing eye con-
tact. Even better is to video ourselves, or to deliver the presentation to
friends and listen to their feedback.
It is particularly important to set time aside for a group practice
when delivering a team presentation. Practice is the only way to estab-
lish smooth transitions from speaker to speaker, to ensure all sections
are complete and coherent, and to judge the timing accurately.

Checking the Room and Setup

When delivering a presentation using any form of technology, it is
particularly important to check the room ahead of time if at all possi-
ble. We want to be familiar with the equipment and the layout before
we present. In some circumstances, it may be possible to adjust the
170 Section One Core Leadership Communication

layout or setup to accommodate our specific needs. In other cases, we

may have to make adjustments to our own plans to accommodate the
room.
We will want to load our presentation onto the computer hard drive
and make sure it projects as intended. This test is particularly impor-
tant because computer projectors often alter the colors of slides, and
we need to see them exactly as they will appear when we present them
to ensure that there are no distortions. Also, it is a good idea to check
the size of the font for the particular room, making sure the person sit-
ting in the very last row can read the bullet points and see the graphics
easily.
The same strategy applies for any virtual presentation software we
use, such as LiveMeeting or WebEx. When possible, we should test the
environment ahead of time with a partner to ensure that the connection
speed is adequate and that our visual aids do not need to be altered.

Timing
For most professional presentation settings, we will be speaking under
a time constraint. It is very important to obey the time limits. If we are
allowed to go overtime, we may finish our talk, but we risk irritating
the audience. If we are stopped before we finish, we lose the chance to
reiterate our main ideas and to end strongly.
Also, we should prepare for the inevitable, organizing our presenta-
tion so that we can adjust it if it needs to be shortened. One approach
is to build in two or three examples to support each main point and
then cut them back to one or two if we see we are short on time.
Another approach is to cover the most important points first, but that
can lead to an anticlimactic presentation in which we lose our audi-
ence toward the end, so this approach should be used with caution.
Finally, to ensure the timing is right, we will want to practice our
presentation with a timer and keep the presentation a little under the
required time limit. When it comes to time limits, we must be pre-
pared, be flexible, and anticipate the unexpected.

Presenting Effectively and with Greater Confidence

When it comes time to present, we will need to concentrate on our
delivery style, focusing particularly on our eye contact, stance, speech,
and overall effect. We will want to appear comfortable, confident,
enthusiastic, and professional. Since much of the success of our pre-
sentation will be determined by how our audience perceives us right at
the beginning, we should be prepared to establish our expertise and
our value to the audience immediately and maintain that positive
ethos throughout.
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 171

Getting Nerves under Control

Public speaking is often cited as one of humankind’s greatest fears, and
everyone has advice about how to overcome nervousness when pre-
senting, from practicing some yoga deep-breathing exercises to pre-
tending everyone in the room is naked. Some techniques are more
reliable than others.
The advice often given to professional athletes before they perform
is to visualize their success. Sports trainers teach the athletes to see the
moves they are making and imagine themselves serving that ace, mak-
ing that goal, or hitting that home run. All of us have to find what
works best for us.
The most important method for overcoming nerves is to be well pre-
pared. If we know our subject, have our story down pat, and are prepared
for whatever the situation may throw at us, we will not be as nervous.
Nervousness is not all bad. It releases adrenaline, which catalyzes
the energy that usually enhances performance, so a little nervousness
is good. Too much, however, can hurt our credibility.
If suffering from too much nervousness, it may help to put the pre-
sentation into perspective if we remember that the audience is human
and, most of the time, forgiving. We are the only ones who will notice
most mistakes (a typical audience hears only a small portion of what a
presenter says and remembers even less). Our attitude will shape the
audience’s attitude. If we are at ease, they will be at ease. Sometimes it
helps to take a few deep breaths and to think of something pleasant.
We need to be natural, be ourselves.
It helps if we are able to laugh at ourselves. A smile, if the situation
is appropriate, will go a long way toward helping us relax and connect
with our audience. It relaxes our face muscles and makes us appear
more at ease with the audience.
If nervousness makes us forget what we are planning to say while
speaking, a technique called “shirttailing,” repeating what was just
said, may help us recall our words. The audience will think we are
doing it for emphasis, and it should trigger the next idea in our head.
Most important, we need to focus on the audience and not on our-
selves. We need to find that friendly face (and there will be one) and
establish eye contact with him or her. Although we should make sure we
look at the rest of the audience as well, we can keep coming back to the
friend. If possible, it helps to get into the room ahead of time and start to
establish a rapport by chatting with the audience. If we can “get out of
ourselves” and worry more about the audience, we will not be nervous,
and our overall performance will be much more effective. We need to
remember, it is the ability to connect with the audience that makes a
great presenter.
If, however, presenters find that they cannot get their nerves under
control, they may want to try some of the newer virtual reality exposure
172 Section One Core Leadership Communication

(VRE) therapy, a conditioning technique using software that is being

applied to overcome phobias, such as fear of flying, fear of heights,
and fear of public speaking. Although VRE is fairly new and only a few
tests have been conducted to see how well it will work for public
speakers, the early results suggest some success.2

Eye Contact
When leaders present, they seem to connect with everyone in the audi-
ence. If we are in their audience, we feel as if they are talking to us per-
sonally. They do this by looking at different people in the audience for
a few seconds and actually establishing eye contact with them.
Depending on the cultural expectations, our looking directly in the
eyes of as many of our audience members as possible will suggest con-
fidence as well as an interest in them. We do need, however, to be sen-
sitive to cultural differences, since some cultures consider looking
someone directly in the eye offensive, in which case our eye contact
may need to be glancing and indirect.
Presenters want to avoid a rapid eye movement approach, in which
they glance quickly from person to person, since it makes them appear
unfocused and nervous. Also, it is better not to stay locked on one per-
son too long, since it will make that individual uncomfortable. Every
speaker tends to favor one side of the room; therefore, we may need to
concentrate on ensuring that we do not neglect half of the people we
are addressing.
Good speakers really look at the people in their audiences, not over
their heads or out the window. Presentation trainers sometimes advise
presenters to look at people’s foreheads instead of in their eyes; how-
ever, people can tell where we are looking, and by not looking people in
the eyes, we are not establishing a connection with them.
Finally, we need to be careful not to look down at our notes or read
from them; we should only glance at them as necessary (although,
again, if we are well prepared, we will not need many reminders). We
should only glance at our computer screen briefly as well, and never
turn our back to our audience to look at the slide screen.

Stance and Gestures

Our stance and our posture reflect our attitude toward our subject and
our audience and reveal our confidence. Someone who has his or her
head down with shoulders slumping appears unsure or distracted. To
project confidence and establish a positive ethos, we want to stand
straight and tall and look out at our audience. Usually, we will want to
assume an open stance with our feet shoulder-width apart and our
weight evenly distributed. Our goal should be to maintain a comfort-
able, relaxed stance, appropriate to the situation.
We should use our hands as we would in a conversation, although if
we tend to move them too much, we may need to be more restrained
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 173

when presenting. Usually, people look and feel most natural if they
bend their arms, keeping elbows at their sides.
We should avoid pointing or gesturing at our projected slides.
Instead, we should use the features in PowerPoint to highlight the
areas of the slide on which we want the audience to focus. If we find
ourselves in a situation that requires pointing to the screen, we should
be careful not to turn our back. Instead, we should move back even
with the screen, face the audience, and gesture to our side.
Also, since few people are steady enough to hold laser pointers com-
pletely immobile and positioned exactly over what they want to high-
light, it is better to avoid using them.
If possible and appropriate, it is best to come out from behind a
podium. The podium creates a barrier between us and our audience,
and establishing a rapport with them will be easier if we remove the
barrier. We usually do not need to stand in one place unless the space
in the room is limited or our movement might make our audience
uncomfortable. In a large room, in particular, we may need to walk
toward the audience and maybe even from one side of the room to
another to connect with the entire audience. We want to be careful
that our walking is purposeful and not random pacing.
If rocking is a problem, and presenters are having trouble breaking the
habit, they might try practicing by standing in a box or a garbage can, as
strange as it may sound so that they become aware of where their feet are
and that they are moving. Tennis coaches sometimes use this technique
to teach beginners where to place their feet when serving.
Here are some common problems with stance that we will want to
avoid:

Common Problems with Stance and Gestures to Avoid

1. Slouching or assuming a similar informal stance more appropriate to the
company picnic than the boardroom.
2. Leaning to one side.
3. Pacing up and down or around the room too much.
4. Clasping our hands in front or behind us.
5. Standing with our hands on our hips.
6. Gripping the podium until our knuckles turn white.
7. Gesturing too much or when not appropriate or natural.
8. Fidgeting with keys, pens, a pointer, a tie, and the like.
9. Rocking or shifting our feet.
10. Leaning on the podium or sitting on the table.

Few presenters realize exactly what they are doing or how they are
moving when they present, so the best way to see what we actually do
in front of an audience and not what we think we do is to have some-
one videotape our presentations. All of us are amazed at what we do.
174 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Sometimes we find that we are better than we think, which builds our
confidence.
If presenters are not happy with how they appear when they present,
they will want to isolate what they are doing wrong or badly so that
they can work on eliminating it as they practice. To help isolate the
nonverbal problems, it will help to watch the video without the sound,
focusing on the hand and body movements. Also, playing the video in
fast-forward will highlight repeated gestures; although the movements
are exaggerated, such visualization will help us see what we are doing
more objectively.
Although all leaders want to develop their own leadership presenta-
tion style, it may help to watch some good presenters. How do they
stand? How do they move? What gestures do they use? We may want
to try some of their techniques that seem to work particularly well.
With YouTube, we have all kinds of examples of presentations at our
fingertips. The 2008 political season provides a wealth of good and bad
examples. For example, go back and look at Hillary Clinton’s or Sarah
Palin’s presentations at their parties’ conventions. With both, we see
individuals skilled at connecting with their audiences. They both
appear very natural and sincere, and both create very positive ethos for
themselves.

Voice and Speech Patterns

Most of our individual speech patterns have been established by the
time we are five years old; however, we can make changes if we need to
and if we are aware of what we are doing and what we need to change.
Common problems occur in articulation, pronunciation, inflection,
rhythm, volume, and the use of fillers, such as “uh” or “um.”
The key to changing our speech patterns is knowing what we do now,
and a recording is the best way to find out. If we are working with a
video, to hear our speech patterns, we should not watch the video, only
listen to it. Often, we are not even aware of how many fillers we use, for
example, so by listening only and not watching, we pay more attention
to them and realize how dependent we are. Counting the fillers our-
selves or having someone else count them, as they do in Toastmasters,
can be a real eye-opener for many of us. Often, just being aware of the
use of fillers helps us cut back on the number of them we use.
Effective leaders speak clearly so that the audience can understand
them. They speak loudly enough for the people in the back of the room
to hear them. They pause between sentences and use few, if any, fillers.
They sound confident, which comes from making statements and
avoiding “up-speak,” an inflection that occurs if we emphasize the last
word of a sentence, as we do when asking a question.
We should try to observe the following guidelines for the vocal qual-
ities of our delivery:
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 175

1. Speak to the last row in the audience, but raise the volume naturally.
If we have to strain to be heard, then we need to use a microphone.
If we are delivering using voice over internet protocol (VOIP) or
teleconferencing, we should speak at a natural volume.
2. Articulate clearly, making sure to pronounce all important syllables,
particularly the last.
3. Do not talk too fast. Build in pauses between main ideas and be
careful not to run ideas together.
4. Vary the rhythm and pitch appropriately to avoid sounding monot-
one. Our voice should reflect the enthusiasm we feel for the topic
and the energy that generates. Relaxing our face muscles and smil-
ing will often help.
5. Either avoid the words that tend to cause pronunciation problems
or practice them until able to say them perfectly 10 times in a row.
For leaders, the ability to present will be an important part of whatever
position they hold. As emphasized throughout this discussion of deliv-
ery, watching ourselves on video and objectively observing how we
look and sound is the best way to become aware of bad habits or mis-
takes in delivery so that we can improve and become the strong and
confident speaker that a leader needs to be.

Delivering Effectively with Visual Aids

The good techniques for delivery using PowerPoint, overheads, or other
visual aids vary little from delivering a presentation without aids. we
want the audience to focus on us, so our goal should be to make the
handling of our visual aids as unobtrusive as possible. In particular, we
need to be aware of our eye contact, stance, voice, transitions, and timing.
In addition, we need to test the projection or display equipment and any
other technology (for example, remote control, speakers, or microphones)
ahead of time.

Eye Contact
The need to maintain continuous eye contact becomes a problem for
presenters who are accustomed to looking at the projection or laptop
screen. We should look at our audience, not back at the projection
screen or down at our laptop. We should seldom look back, although
we may need to glance at the screen occasionally to ensure the right
slide is up if we do not have a monitor in front of us.
Our goal should be to maintain our eye contact with our audience
at all times. If we turn our back, we lose this contact, and our voice
will be less audible, since we will be projecting at the screen instead
of out toward the audience. In most presentations, our delivery
should proceed as if there were no projected images behind us or in
front of us.
176 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Stance
We should assume a firm stance and position ourself so that we are
facing forward and have easy access to whatever device we are using to
change our slides. We need to make sure we do not block the screen
from the view of the audience in any part of the room. There is no one
best place to stand, since it will depend on the layout of the room. In
the interests of good rapport, we should position ourselves as close to
our audience as possible and not next to the screen, which is usually
located too far from the audience.

Voice
We should be careful to maintain our volume. Presenters have a ten-
dency to let their voices fade when they move to change slides. We
should finish our thought on the current slide and complete our intro-
duction to our next slide; then, stop talking for a second and change to
the slide we have just introduced. Volume goes along with eye contact.
If we maintain strong eye contact, we are more likely to maintain the
right volume of sound also; it is when we look away from the audience
that we are most likely to drop our volume.

Transition
We want to make the transition from slide to slide as seamless as pos-
sible. One technique is to introduce each slide before showing it. Most
presenters wait for the slide to appear and then start talking about it
almost as if they do not know what is coming up until they see it. For
a much more effective transition, we should introduce the topic, which
should be the “so what?” or main message, of the next slide before it
appears. Displaying our slide only after we have introduced it will help
make us appear more confident and our presentation flow more
smoothly.
If we are delivering a Webcast or other virtual presentation, it is good
practice to pause a second or two when moving to a new slide or appli-
cation. From time to time, we should also note for the audience where
we are in the slide or application, since our audience may face a delay.

Timing
We should practice with our slides to ensure we do not have too many
for our allotted time. The rule of thumb is to allow at least two to three
minutes per slide. We should be careful to give our audience time to
absorb complex graphic information and be prepared to walk our
audience through it if necessary. Also, it is better not to use the auto-
matic timing in PowerPoint; it is next to impossible to make it match
the timing of the presentation exactly. Having the slides advance ahead
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 177

of the presenter or even behind will be distracting to the presenter and

to audience.

Technology
If possible, we should always check the technology and the room in
advance and make sure we know how to use it and that everything is
working. We should also see how our presentation projects. Are the
colors as we intend? Are the font sizes large enough for the audience to
see all text from the back of the room? Sometimes projectors distort
our colors, and we need to adjust them before we present. We will
want to see where the screen, the projector, and the computer are posi-
tioned so that we will know where to stand to establish eye contact and
the best rapport with our audience. Also, we will probably want to load
our presentation onto the computer we are using instead of running it
from a disc or thumbdrive. The same applies for any virtual delivery
solution; we should test it beforehand.
Even if all the technology checks out, we will want to come pre-
pared, in case technical problems occur, so we should always bring
handouts as a backup, and never rely on computer projection to work
flawlessly. It may falter in some way or fail entirely. We need to be pre-
pared to handle any situation.

Handling Q&A
It is not unusual for presenters to spend more time preparing for the
question and answer session than for the presentation itself. Effective
handling of Q&A requires thorough preparation, careful listening, and
the humility to say, “I do not know, but I will find out for you.”
Presenters control the presentation content, but they never know
what questioners might ask. At that now famous analyst conference
call shortly before Enron collapsed, Jeff Skilling, then Enron’s CEO,
delivered his prepared remarks effectively; but when faced with hostile
questions, he lost his poise and called one persistent questioner an
obscene, derogatory name that received more media attention than his
prepared remarks.
Leaders manage Q&A sessions by being prepared, even overpre-
pared, particularly for the difficult questions. They anticipate all ques-
tions and prepare answers just in case. They also practice staying in
control of the topics and of themselves.
When we are presenting with a team, all participants should work
out a plan, stipulating who will answer which types of questions. If the
presentation is formal, team members should position themselves at
the end of the presentation to indicate which members are ready to
answer the questions. During the Q&A session, the following tips will
help in managing the audience:
178 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Tips for Handling the Q&A Session

1. Determine and announce the timing of questions before starting the presen-
tation. If delivering a virtual presentation, consider having a moderator
gather questions during the presentation, and use those questions to begin
the Q&A session.
2. Listen very carefully to the question.
3. Repeat the question or paraphrase it for the sake of ensuring you understand
it and so the audience can hear it. This technique also provides that some
time for formulating an answer.
4. Keep answers short and simple: Answer the specific question; then stop.
Avoid talking too long or going off on a tangent.
5. Do not try to bluff your way through an answer. It is better to say very po-
litely, “I am not sure I have an answer for that question at the moment, but I
will find out for you.”
6. Move away from any questioner who tries to isolate you in a two-way–
conversation so that you break eye contact with him or her and reestablish it
with the rest of the room.
7. Handle difficult questions or multilayer questions by answering them as
completely as time allows and in the order they are asked, but be prepared
to say, “I will be glad to discuss this question in more detail after the
presentation.”

After answering the last question, we will want to make sure to

repeat our main message so that we control the way the presentation
ends. Rather than letting the audience leave with the answer to the last
question in their minds, we want them leaving with our main message
in their minds.

Overall Effect
Ultimately, our ethos determines the overall effect of our presentation. A
leader must project a strong, positive ethos in all presentation situations.
Our credibility, knowledge, and integrity must be without question, or
we will lose our audience, no matter how logical our presentation may
be. We want to appear poised and confident.
The best way to project a positive ethos is to believe in what we are
saying and to be fully prepared. As obvious as it may sound, nothing
will take the place of preparation. To deliver an effective presentation,
we must be prepared. Some guidelines suggest spending one hour in
preparation for each minute that we will be presenting. While that may
be too much in some cases and would certainly need to be modified
depending on the type of presentation and our knowledge of the sub-
ject, it suggests emphatically how important it is not to neglect or
 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 179

underestimate preparation time. The success of our presentation and,

in the long run, our career may depend on it.
In summary, to appear confident and project a positive ethos when
presenting, we need to do the following:
1. Focus our energy on our audience.
2. Create and maintain rapport.
3. Adopt a secure stance.
4. Establish and maintain eye contact.
5. Project and vary our voice.
6. Demonstrate our messages with gestures.
7. Adjust our pace of delivery based on the audience response.
8. Relax and be ourselves.

Application 5.1 Videotape one of your presentations, and then use the following form to assess
Oral it. You should watch the video three times: (1) Watch with the sound turned off
to focus on body movements and delivery; (2) listen without watching so that
Presentation
you can hear what you really say; and finally, (3) watch and listen. In addition,
Self-Evaluation if you have a problem with fillers, you might want to listen one additional time
to count the “uhs.”

Needs Work Average Good Excellent

Delivery Strengths:
Leadership image __________________________________
• Confidence
• Stance & movement
• Approach & departure from podium
Gestures __________________________________________ Areas to improve:
Eye contact _______________________________________
Fillers (uhs, etc.) ___________________________________
Energy level _______________________________________
Voice, articulation, ________________________________ Strengths:
language, grammar
• Tone
• Volume
• Pauses
• Rate/pace Areas to improve:
• Fillers
• Articulation
• Language usage
180 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Needs Work Average Good Excellent

Content and organization Strengths:
Introduction _____________________________________
(context, purpose, & topics)
Organization ______________________________________
(coherence & logic)
Knowledge & _____________________________________ Areas to improve:
control of content
Conclusion _______________________________________
(summary of main points)
Graphics Strengths:
Quality of graphics ______________________________
(conforms to graphic
basics—simple, easy
to understand)
Ability to present ________________________________ Areas to improve:
charts & graphics effectively
(introduce before showing,
walking audience through
them if needed)
Effectiveness of _________________________________
chart titles (capture meaning
of the chart)

Overall presentation and improvement plans:

1. What was the best part of your presentation? Why?

2. What are key areas to improve?

3. How do you propose working on improvement areas?

4. How will you measure your progress in these areas?

 Chapter 5 Leadership Presentations 181

Application 5.2 Select a couple of the topics from the following list and practice delivering a
Practicing three-minute presentation on them. Allow yourself two to four minutes of
preparation time for some of them, but also practice reading them and then
Impromptu
starting to talk with no preparation.
Presentations
1. Discuss the most memorable event in your life.
2. Select a TV show and discuss its merits.
3. Discuss why cats make better pets than dogs or the other way around.
4. Discuss why some movie or book is great.
5. Discuss why exams are or are not a good measure of a student’s learning.
6. Describe the most challenging task you have ever completed and how you
accomplished it.
7. Discuss how communication technology, such as cell phones, PDAs, or
blogs, is changing the way people communicate.
8. Discuss the value of working as a volunteer.
9. Discuss the primary considerations for determining which university to
attend.
10. Select a hobby and discuss its merits.

Application 5.3 Huge Co-Revisited

Developing a Review the circumstances surrounding the Huge Co. merger with Computer Co.
Round-Table presented in the application section of Chapter 3. Assume the role of the head
of the consulting team that has interviewed the human resources managers at
Presentation
both Huge Co. and Computer Co. You have been asked to develop a round-
table presentation to deliver to the senior partner and two new consultants
who will be joining the project team. Consider the need for background infor-
mation as well as the synthesized information from the interviews, and create
the ghost pack for the round-table presentation.

Application 5.4 After you developed the round-table presentation material for Application 5.3,
Transforming a you discover that the senior partner will not be able to join you and the two
Round-Table new consultants for your presentation. She requests that you create a virtual
meeting instead. Considering this new development, revisit your materials
Presentation for from the application and make any changes necessary.
Virtual Delivery

Notes 1. Eccles, R. G., and Nohria, N. (1992). Beyond the Hype: Rediscovering the
Essence of Management. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, pp. 47–48.
2. Anderson, H. V. (2003). A Virtual End to Stage Fright. Harvard Management
Communication Letter (January).
Chapter
6
Graphics and PowerPoint
with a Leadership Edge
Charts are an important form of language. They’re
important because, when well conceived and designed,
they help us communicate more quickly and more clearly
than we would if we left the data in a tabular form.
Gene Zelazny (2001), Say It with Charts

Presentations largely stand or fall depending on the quality,

relevance, and integrity of the content. The way to make big
improvements in a presentation is to get better content.
Edward Tufte (2003), The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Recognize when to use graphics.

• Employ fundamental graphic content and design principles.
• Select and design effective data charts.
• Create meaningful and effective text layouts.
• Make the most of PowerPoint as a design and presentation tool.
Leaders need to know how and when to use graphics. Graphics
improve presentations and documents, particularly if the material is
primarily quantitative, structural, pictorial, or so complicated that it
can be illustrated more efficiently and more effectively with a visual aid
than with words alone. Graphics will contribute to the success of our
oral and written communications. Most people are more visually ori-
ented today than in the past, and they expect and respond to graphics
in presentations and printed documents. Even though it is a cliché, the
182
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 183

expression “a picture is worth a thousand words” conveys a powerful

truth. People respond to visuals. In fact, research has proven that pre-
sentations with visual aids are 43 percent more persuasive.1
Leaders use visuals that are integral to the communication of their
intended meanings and not ones simply added for show. When
selected appropriately and designed carefully, graphics embody and
carry the meanings that create our message. Since nearly all word pro-
cessing, spreadsheet, and presentation programs available today make
it possible to create visual content, adding graphics to presentations
and documents has become increasingly easier. However, the ease of
use has also led to gratuitous and poorly designed graphics and pre-
sentations with flash but too little content.
In addition, since most of us create our own presentations and we do
not have the training that a graphic artist would have, we may end up
with less than optimally designed slides. Edward Tufte condemns Power-
Point, arguing that its “cognitive style routinely disrupts, dominates, and
trivializes content.”2 However, PowerPoint and presentations created in
similar programs can and do contain solid content and can and do com-
municate content effectively—but only if the content is solid to begin with
and if the slides conspire fully in communicating the speaker’s message.
Used appropriately, graphics and PowerPoint can provide a leader-
ship edge, that is, the ability to influence the audience positively.
Knowing how to deliver messages effectively with words and pictures
is a powerful combination, and developing even a basic understanding
of the principles of graphic design can provide an advantage.
This chapter will focus on when and how to use graphics effectively,
provide some basic guidelines for designing effective graphics, and
deliver some guidance on designing and presenting PowerPoint slides,
both in person and over the Internet.3

Glossary of Terms Used in This Chapter

• Visual Aid—object, picture, drawing, diagram, graph, table, and the like
included in a presentation to help the audience understand the message.
• Graphics—visual designs, drawings, diagrams, tables, or graphs, intended to
support, explain, illustrate, or clarify a presenter’s message. Note: When Zelazny
says “charts” in the opening quotation, he means graphics as defined here.
• Graph—representation of numerical information in a line, bar, or pie graph or
similar conventionally scaled depiction of data.
• Slide—used in PowerPoint or similar presentation programs to define the sep-
arate pages in a presentation, even though technically they are not intended
to be shown with a slide projector, but using computer projection.
• Chart—page in a presentation, can be text or graphics, often used inter-
changeably for “slide.”
• Pack or Deck—hard-copy collection of slides/charts intended for support and
as handouts in stand-up or round-table presentations.
184 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Recognizing When to Use Graphics

Graphics should never be gratuitous; they should always be purposeful.
They should add to the content of the presentation or the document. For
presentations, in particular, graphics should supplement the content
and never detract from it. They are not meant to replace the speaker.
Specifically, graphics should serve the following purposes:
1. Reinforce the message.
2. Provide a road map to the structure of a presentation.
3. Illustrate relationships and concepts visually.
4. Support assertions.
5. Emphasize important ideas.
6. Maintain and enhance interest.

Reinforce the Message

Reinforcing the message means that the chart captures and empha-
sizes the main ideas expressed by the speaker. Recognizing that many
people are visually oriented, we can help our audience to remember
more of what we say if we reinforce our words with visuals. Although
we do not want to overuse text charts, even a simple one can help rein-
force our message and can be absolutely essential when presenting
material over the Internet. We need to ensure, however, that what is on
the screen is consistent with what we are saying. A common problem
in presenting with word charts is that the speaker says something very
different from the words projected on the screen. This discrepancy
causes the audience to be confused: Do they listen to the speaker or
read the screen?
Presenters need to keep in mind that the words on the screen should
echo what they say. They may paraphrase or expand on the words, but
they should not say anything that diverges too far from what is dis-
played. Also, they should never simply read from the screen. After all,
the presenter should know the subject matter well enough to speak
about it without reading.
Presenters may also want to use graphic charts to reinforce their
message. For instance, if the message is that sales are down, presenters
can reinforce that message with a line graph showing how much and
over what length of time. If the message is that the company needs to
be involved in community outreach, they might show pictures of some
community efforts currently underway, such as inner-city cleanup or
Habitat for Humanity.
The bottom line is that we should always think of ways to use
charts, whether verbal or graphic, to help our audience remember our
message.
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 185

Provide a Road Map to the Structure of a Presentation

Using a text chart to establish the agenda or discussion topics is one
very common method of establishing a road map to the structure of a
presentation. One common mistake, however, is to list all or most of
the slide titles on the agenda chart (see Exhibit 5.6). This laundry list
of topics does not suggest the “structure” of the presentation. In fact,
it can suggest a lack of structure, an aimless stringing together of
ideas. Instead, we should use the agenda slide to reflect the logic of
our presentation, using the Pyramid Principle or other structuring
device to help us group our slides into like ideas, so that the agenda
tells the story in miniature. In other words, we should think of the
agenda as an executive summary with only the headings included.
Then, we will create an effective agenda slide that our audience will
more likely remember.
If our topic is complex, we might want to use a structural graphic as
a road map for our presentation. For instance, in the discussion in
Chapter 5, a graphic was used to set up the steps in developing and
designing a presentation. We could use the same graphic to introduce
each section in the presentation, thus keeping the entire framework in
the audience’s mind as we introduce the specific pieces in the presen-
tation (Exhibit 6.1). When we use a framework or even a text slide to
set up the entire presentation and then each of the major sections, the
slide serves as a tracker, a slide designed to help our audience keep
track of where we are in the presentation.
If we decide to use a framework, we need to be careful that it is not
so complex that our audience gets lost in it or that our presentation is
so short that repeating the same graphic becomes tedious.

EXHIBIT 6.1 Using a Framework as a Road Map for a Presentation

Used first time as an agenda Used in presentation to set up

for the entire presentation: the first section:
186 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 6.2 Misusing a Framework as a Tracker on Each Slide

Audience Analysis Method of Delivery

❑ Who is my primary audience and what ❑ Type
do they know, expect, and feel? ❖ Read
❑ Who is the secondary audience? ❖ Memorized
❖ Extemporaneous
❑ What is my objective and the key
❑ Format
message for this audience?
❖ Stand-up
❑ What do I expect the audience to do ❖ Round-table
and to feel based on my presentation? ❑ Team vs. individual

Some presenters take a tracker too far, placing a small version of it

on every slide in the presentation. It is best to avoid using a tracker in
this way, since it diminishes our workspace and must be so reduced
that, to our audience, it will only be a distraction that adds little, if any,
meaning (Exhibit 6.2).
There are two exceptions: We may want to use this type of tracker if
we are presenting a process flow in which the audience must be
reminded of the whole to appreciate the parts, or we may find such a
tracker helpful in a longer Web presentation.

Illustrate Relationships and Concepts Visually

Graphics usually work better than words to help an audience under-
stand relationships and concepts. For example, the triangle used in
Chapter 2 to introduce strategy is a concept graphic. It shows how all
of the components of a communication strategy connect to the others,
build on them, and influence them with audience analysis as the foun-
dation for every other component above it.
Exhibit 6.3 is a concept chart designed to show the relationship
among the components of an individual communication develop-
ment plan. The framework shows the individual development at the
center, with the team experiences and group instruction influencing
the development from the top and the bottom. Framing the develop-
ment on each end are the beginning self-assessments with an
improvement plan and then the post-assessments with reflection to
measure the improvement results. The presenter could use color and
shading for each arrow and PowerPoint’s building capabilities to
introduce the components one at a time so that he or she could make
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 187

EXHIBIT 6.3 Graphic Showing Relationships

their meaning and their relationship to the other components clear to

the audience.
Concept graphics are useful in clarifying ideas and in creating a
mental picture for the audience. For instance, in Exhibit 6.4, a standard
Microsoft clip art of a puzzle shows different approaches to problem
solving. On one side, we have the “synthesizer,” or the person who puts
things together and sees similarities, and on the other, we have the
“analyzer,” or the person who takes things apart and sees differences.
Exhibit 6.5 illustrates a few of the most commonly used business
concept charts. To see more examples of concept graphics, see Gene
Zelazny’s Say It with Charts; he dedicates an entire chapter to examples
of visual concepts and another chapter to visual metaphors.

Support Assertions
Graphics to support assertions are often quantitative charts; however,
we might use qualitative charts if we have based our assertions on inter-
views or open-ended surveys and want to show our audience quotations
from our subjects. Exhibit 6.6 demonstrates a typical quantitative chart
EXHIBIT 6.4 Concept Graphic

EXHIBIT 6.5 Common Concept Charts

188
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 189

EXHIBIT 6.6 Revenue Doubles Yearly Since 2007

$ in Billions
Example
Quantitative Chart $4
to Support an
Assertion 3

0
05 06 07 08 09
Year

supporting the assertion that revenues have doubled each year since
2007. While this assertion is fairly simple and we could probably get
away with making it orally, adding a graphic that shows the numbers
improves credibility and can have a greater impact on the audience.
Exhibit 6.7 shows a qualitative chart created to support the asser-
tion that communication is a priority in performance reviews. It
demonstrates how we might use quotations from interviews to support
our findings and overall conclusion.

EXHIBIT 6.7 Communication Important in Performance Reviews at ABC

Example
Qualitative Chart Interview Findings Representative Quotations
to Support an Employees beginning to • “My communication ability was high-
Assertion realize communication is lighted as one of my main strengths in
important in reviews. my performance review.”
• “My communication weaknesses kept
me from receiving a good review.”
Employees think • “Communication effectiveness seems to
communication is be a high priority to management in
important to management. reviews now.”
• “This is such a bottom-line company, I
was surprised management put so much
value on what I see as a soft skill—
communication.”
Employees evaluated as • “Employees who are rated high on
“high” in communication communication in reviews receive
effectiveness are rewarded. the promotions.”
• “No matter what kind of deal maker you
are, only the good communicators rise
to the top here.”
190 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Emphasize Important Ideas

All presenters hope that orally emphasizing the important points, and
maybe even repeating them, will fix them in the audience’s memory.
Studies show, however, that audiences remember more of what they
see than what they hear, although they do not retain much of that,
either. To put it simply, as taught in one ancient Chinese proverb,
I hear and I forget;
I see and I remember;
I do and I understand.
The common English expression indicating understanding suggests
the importance of the visual as well: “I see.” Thus, if we want to
emphasize important ideas, we should do so in words and in visual
aids, whether using word charts or graphics.
Maintain and Enhance Interest
Using graphics to maintain and enhance interest requires a word of
warning. Essentially, adding interest means introducing some variety in
our slides and looking for ways to make our presentation graphically
interesting; it does not mean throwing in wild colors, crazy cartoons, or
superfluous animation just for the sake of doing so. As always, the most
important rule for the use of graphics applies here: Graphics should
add to the presentation and the presenter and not detract in any way.
We should think about ways to make our presentations more visually
appealing but approach the task with caution. For instance, a presenter
using Exhibit 6.8 would probably get our attention but would run the

EXHIBIT 6.8
Example of a
Graphic That
EXAMPLE!
Risks Going Too Here’s an example of what not to do:
Far to Add • The background is too light.
Interest • The template is distracting.
• The title does not convey meaning.

• The graphic, the animation,

and the sound emphasize
even more the need for
caution in selecting
graphics.

Note: Please see color version online at www.mhhe.com/barrett3e.

 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 191

risk of our being so distracted by the graphics that we might not hear
the intended message. If we imagine the darts flying into the target with
a swooshing sound, we would probably feel that this chart goes too far
to make a point.
If the presenter used this slide with others on presentations to
reinforce a lesson in what not to do, it could be effective by its con-
trast to the previous charts as a bad example. People do seem to
remember bad examples better than they do good ones. Also, it
could accomplish the purpose of breaking up the purely instruc-
tional slides with something a little lighter. Such a poorly designed
chart does, however, need the appropriate context to convey this
message, which brings us back to the cardinal rule of using graphics:
Graphics should enhance the delivery of our message, not detract from
it in any way.
When preparing graphics for a Web presentation, it is especially
important that we consider what kind of actions in a visual will help
guide interest and what kind will distract. Since the audience will
often only see the visuals we create, we need those visuals to high-
light our key points well. Distracting animation, poor-quality
images, and complicated slides can often work against us in Web
presentations.

Employing Fundamental Graphic Content

and Design Principles
This section focuses specifically on the content and design principles
that we should follow whenever creating data or text charts for leader-
ship presentations. For charts to add to the presentation, they should
convey our messages clearly and effectively to our audience. In addi-
tion, they should be legible and designed so that they contribute to
communicating our messages.

Conveying Messages Clearly and Effectively

The following guidelines apply to all data and text charts:
1. Keep charts simple but meaningful. Often, instruction in creat-
ing and using graphics will include the adage “Less is more,” originally
used by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969), an architect and
designer who started the minimalist school. Effective leaders keep
their graphs simple enough for their audience to understand easily, yet
they also know that the graphs still communicate something. While we
should strive for simplicity in whatever graphs we create or slides we
design, we must avoid reducing the content on the slide so much that
the meaning evaporates.
192 Section One Core Leadership Communication

The content of slides, whether graphics or text, should not be mere

decoration or embellishment. Empty pictures and hollow words add
nothing and should not be part of the presentation. We should always
ask ourselves: Is the graphic useful? Is it necessary? We have all sat
through presentations with slides that were not much more than dec-
orative pictures, objects, or cartoons that added little to the message. If
the visual aid does not add to the presentation, we should cut it, no
matter how attached we may be to the graphic or even how much time
we spent creating it.
In The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint (2003), Edward Tufte argues that
PowerPoint is so flawed that it is impossible to communicate anything
meaningful using it; however, it is not the medium that is flawed—it is
the users of it. Many of the standard presentation templates call on us
to use few words and fairly simply graphics, but that does not mean
that we cannot create a presentation that contains solid, thoughtful,
and meaningful content. We simply need to make sure our message is
clear in our own mind and then make every word and every graphic
work for us in conveying our message. We need to remember we are
delivering the main messages; the graphics are there to support us.
2. Include only one main message per chart or slide. If we have
too many messages, we risk losing our audience. Often, we need to
back away from the slide and ask ourselves the following questions:

• What am I trying to communicate?

• If the audience leaves with only one message from this slide, is it
what I intend?
• Do all words support this message?
• Do the graphics support this message?

If we have too much information for one slide, we should continue the
same message over onto subsequent slides, using the same chart title
with the word “continued” at the end of it.
3. Make sure the chart title captures the “so what?” The title on the
chart should clearly announce the main message or provide adequate
information for interpreting any graphs. We have all heard others say that
“the numbers speak for themselves.” However, the significance of num-
bers is seldom transparent, and numbers can convey a range of potential
messages. Therefore, simply putting a graph up, displaying some num-
bers, does not ensure that our audience will see them the way we do.
It is our responsibility as presenters to make sure the numbers are
configured and displayed to carry the meaning we intend and that
they cannot be interpreted otherwise. We can help ensure that our
audience interprets the numbers as we do by putting a title on the
slide that tells the audience the meaning of the numbers or other data
we are showing them.
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 193

Selecting the Most Effective Colors

The right colors and fonts can make a difference in how effective our
PowerPoint presentation is. Selection should focus on colors and
fonts that show up best when a presentation is projected. Often,
company logos determine colors and fonts; however, these are not
always the best choices to make for entire presentations. To make
effective decisions on colors, it will help you to know something
about color psychology and graphic design. What follows provides
some of both.
Selecting the color combinations for our presentations should not
be arbitrary or simply based on personal color preferences. As with all
aspects of our presentation, we need to consider our message and the
image we wish to project. Knowing the colors most color specialists
consider “right” for presentations can be useful, as can color psychol-
ogy in general. For instance, knowing that too much of a vivid yellow
causes fatigue and even aggravation and that cool shades, such as
blues and greens, have a calming effect could be important in support-
ing our messages. In addition, we should be sensitive to the cultural
associations for some colors to ensure that our colors do not deliver
messages we do not intend.
The focus here is on selecting the colors that project best and pro-
mote legibility for the audience, as well as on how we can draw the audi-
ence’s eye to our most important message by effectively using color.
For more information on the design aspects, the psychology, and the
cultural associations of colors, see the following sources:
• The Color Voodoo publications (most of them can be purchased
through their Web site, www.colorvoodoo.com, for under $30)
• www.colormatters.com
• www.infoplease.com/spot/colors1.html
• www.sensationalcolor.com/color-meaning-symbolism-and-psychology/
• www.lighthouse.org
The Lighthouse International site is particularly interesting, since it
reminds us that many people have impaired sight and have trouble
seeing colors. While only a few people may be completely color-blind,
many have trouble with distinguishing subtle shades of colors.
For everyone, the greater the contrast the better when it comes to
putting colors right next to each other in a presentation. Backgrounds
and fonts that do not contrast sufficiently make the text difficult to
read. Unless company colors dictate differently, it is usually better to
stay with the traditional primary or secondary colors or their combi-
nations for professional presentations and to avoid pastels.
The traditional color wheel (Exhibit 6.9) shows the primary and
secondary colors that tend to work best in presentations. The color
194 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 6.9 The Traditional Color Wheel Color Contrast

Basic Colors and
Light Colors
Contrasts
Green Yellow Green Yellow
Source: www.lighthouse. Effective
org/colorcontrast.html.
Blue- Blue-
Used with permission of Orange Orange
the author; Aries, Arditi, green green
Not
PhD, and Lighthouse Effective
International as the
copyright holder. Blue Red Blue Red

Violet Purple Violet Purple

Dark Colors

Note: Please see color version online at www.mhhe.com/barrett3e.

contrast chart shows how to select opposites for strong contrast. It also
demonstrates what happens when colors of the same hue are placed
next to each other; the red square on the orange slice and orange
square on the red slice do not allow enough contrast for easy legibility
and the squares may not be visible to some people.
The secret of effective color choices is not so much the choice of one
color but the choice of one in contrast to the others used with it: “Most
people—or at least those of us without an art background—don’t
understand that the colors they choose are not as important as the
relationships they create. Some colors work together, others fight
against each other. Establishing a sound relationship is key.”4
We want the colors we select for our presentation to work together,
not against each other. In addition, we want the sharpest contrast,
since the sharper the contrast the greater the legibility
One principle of color relationships to keep in mind is that a lighter
color appears to move outward and a darker color recedes; therefore, a
lighter font shows up better on a dark background than a dark font on
a white background. This color rule is particularly true in a room some-
what darkened, as is usual with PowerPoint presentations. Notice what
happens in Exhibit 6.10 when the background colors are changed.
Clearly, the greater the contrast, the easier it is to see the font—and
the sharper the letters appear. Similar color contrasts should guide us in
selecting colors for shapes and objects. In the two slides in Exhibit 6.11,
when the AutoShape colors are changed, our eye is drawn to the rectan-
gle in the center if it is lighter and to the arrows when they are lighter.
The message we intend to emphasize should determine the colors
we use. If our main message is as the title suggests in Exhibit 6.11—the
“forces” affecting the industry—then making the force boxes a lighter
color will draw the audience’s eyes to them. If, however, we intend to
emphasize the industry’s profit splits, then the colors in the first version
EXHIBIT 6.10
Color Contrast of Red Red Red
Fonts with Blue Blue Blue
Backgrounds Orange Orange Orange
Yellow Yellow Yellow
White White White

Black Red Red

Blue Blue Blue
Orange Orange Orange
Yellow Black Yellow
White White Black

Please see color version online at www.mhhe.com/barrett3e.

EXHIBIT 6.11 (a)

Using Color to Industry Profit Splits Result from Three Forces
Direct the
Industry profit splits Force #3
Audience to the Force #1
Main Message Global
1999 2009 Energy
economic NOCs 50% 75% player
trends Majors 40% 15% actions and
reactions

Force #2
Industry-specific
supply and
demand forces

(b)
Multiple Forces Reshaping Oil Industry

Force #1 Industry profit splits Force #3

1999 2009 Energy
Global
economic NOCs 50% 75% player
trends Majors 40% 15% actions and
reactions

Force #2
Industry-specific
supply and
demand forces

Note: Please see color version online at www.mhhe.com/barrett3e.

195
196 Section One Core Leadership Communication

will work better, since the lighter color draws the eye and seems to pro-
ject outward more. If the profit split is the main message, then the title
for the first slide might be “Industry Forces Result in Dramatic
Changes in Profit Splits.”
In summary, when using colors,
1. Keep them simple and select colors that work well together.
2. Ensure that the colors are easy to see when placed against each other.
3. Check text color, in particular, to see that it contrasts with back-
ground colors sufficiently to be clearly legible.
4. Make sure the colors support the desired image and the intended
message.
Also, light backgrounds in projected presentations usually create
unnecessary glare, which becomes uncomfortable for the viewers. The
same is true for Web presentations, since large amounts of white space
on a computer screen can tire the eyes and make the presentation
appear fuzzy, as Exhibit 6.12 shows. Finally, we should not forget to
consider and, if possible, check the computer and the projection equip-
ment that we will be using. With unfamilier and untested equipment,
the safest background is black with a light font. The projector can dis-
tort the shading of any other color of background, causing too little
contrast and even ugly color combinations.

Selecting the Most Effective Fonts

With computer presentations, recent studies have shown that a light
font on a dark background (dark blue or black) is the most legible;
however, for overhead presentations, a dark font on a white back-
ground projects better in most settings. Some font colors are difficult
to read on some backgrounds. For instance, red fonts on a blue back-
ground result in fuzzy images (Exhibit 6.13).
Most presenters have been warned that the font needs to be large
enough to be read from the back of the room in which they are pre-
senting. Most of the time, a font 20 points or larger will work for the
text within the slides; however, when possible, check the room setup to
be sure. Titles require a larger font, but the default for titles in Power-
Point is usually larger than necessary and makes it difficult to have a
title of any substance. In most settings, 28-point size for the titles
works well. Of course, if presenting the slides over the Internet, we
may be able to use a smaller font, but most experts still agree that any-
thing smaller than 16 points becomes difficult to read, even on a com-
puter screen.
Recent studies in readability have found that, in addition to the size
of the font, the style matters as well. A sans-serif font (such as Arial) is
cleaner and easier to read when projected than a serif font (such as
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 197

EXHIBIT 6.12 Image on Presenter’s Screen

Effects of a Light
Background on WebTrends Products and Services
Web Presentations WebTrends WebTrends
Software on Demand
You own the software Hosted version: no hardware or
software to purchase
Requires IT and Lowers IT requirements for
administrator resources maintenance and administration

Can integrate with other Cannot integrate other data

data sources source (within product)

Can use standard Web server log SmartSource Data Collector

files and/or SmartSource Data log files only
Collector (SDC) log files

Image on Audience’s Screen

WebTrends Products and Services

WebTrends WebTrends
Software on Demand
You own the software: can load Hosted version: no hardware or
on any device you like. software to purchase

Requires IT and Lowers IT requirements for

administrator resources maintenance and administration
Can integrate with other Cannot integrate other data
data sources source, but requiree more effort
Can use standard Web server log Uses SmartSource Data Collector
files and/or SmartSource Data log files only
Collector (SDC) log files

Times Roman), used for printed documents. Thus, the font of choice is
a sans-serif font for projected and Web-delivered presentations (see
Exhibit 6.12).
Capitalization is another element of font selection that we need to
handle carefully. All caps should be avoided; using all caps makes the
text difficult to read and gives the audience the sense that the presen-
ter is shouting at them. Using initial caps on all words within bulleted
lists also decreases readability. Finally, we should avoid underlining
any words or text; it cuts off the bottom of letters and makes the words
more difficult to read. Instead, it is better to use a larger font, bold,
italics, or different colors for emphasis.
The bottom line is to make the font as easy to read and as comfort-
able for the audience as possible. The goal should be legibility, not sim-
ply aesthetics.
198 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 6.13 Examples of Poor Color and Font Selection

Black on white background does not show up well in

computer-projected presentations and should be avoided,

as should a serif font on any background.

If the font is too small, no one can read it.

ALL CAPS ARE HARD TO READ AND LOOK AS

IF YOU ARE YELLING!
Initial Caps Are Distracting and Difficult to Read When
Used for Text within Charts.

Underlining clips off the lower part of letters.

Note: Please see color version online at www.mhhe.com/barrett3e.

The following table is a summary of the guidelines for colors

and fonts.

Guidelines for Using Colors and Fonts

1. Stay with the basic colors (primary or secondary).
2. Go for contrast in backgrounds and fonts and in AutoShapes or any objects or
text placed next to each other.
3. For most settings, use a dark background (dark blue or black) for computer-
delivered presentations.
4. Use a contrasting font, such as white, cream, yellow, or light gold, on dark
backgrounds.
5. Use only a sans-serif font, such as Arial, in computer-projected presentations.
6. Make the font size at least 20 points for text and 28 points for titles (depend-
ing on the size of the room).
7. Do not use the following:
• All caps in titles or text.
• Initial caps except in titles.
• Underlining.
• Red fonts on blue backgrounds.
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 199

Selecting and Designing Effective Data Charts

For data charts to add to our presentation or document, we first need
to clarify our message and then we can determine the type and content
of the graph that will add to, support, or explain that message best. We
may have someone to help design our graphics, particularly if we have
reached a high level in an organization; however, we are more likely to
end up designing our own graphics and creating our own PowerPoint.
Even if we are lucky enough to have help, it is useful as we manage
others and oversee the creation of our presentations to possess some
knowledge of the best types of graphs, as well as the best designs, to
ensure the clarity and accuracy of the different kinds of data we will be
conveying to our audiences.
Edward Tufte, a Yale University statistician and author of several
books on graphic design, provides the following best-practice guide-
lines for creating data charts:

Excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with

clarity, precision, and efficiency. Graphical displays should

• Show the data.

• Induce the viewer to think about the substance rather than methodology,
graphic design, the technology of graphic production, or something else.
• Avoid distorting what the data have to say.
• Present many numbers in a small space.
• Make large data sets coherent.
• Encourage the eye to compare different pieces of data.
• Reveal the data at several levels of detail, from a broad overview to the fine
structure.
• Serve a reasonably clear purpose: description, exploration, tabulation, or
decoration.
• Be closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a data set.5
Source: Tufte, E. R. (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press,
p. 13. Used with permission.

Tufte emphasizes that graphs should be carefully selected and

designed to ensure that the meaning of the numbers dominates, not
the method of analysis. The goal of the graph should be to aid the audi-
ence in understanding the data and our central message. Selecting the
best type of graph for the type of information that we want to convey
and then following a few basic design principles for graphs will help us
communicate our message more effectively. Exhibit 6.14 demonstrates
commonly used data graphs, explains when to select one or the other,
and includes pointers on how to make them easier for our audience to
grasp the content in a presentation.
200 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 6.14 Selecting the Most Effective Graphic Format for Data Charts
Type Guide to Use and Design Examples
Pie • Compares proportions and relative Two Firms Have Highest Revenue
amounts of components
$ Millions Brown &
• Works well with nonspecialists or
executive audience Peterson
Davis & Johnson &
Jimenez $67 Smith
• Start with largest portion at 12:00 $92 $243
• Avoid legends; instead, place numbers
inside and labels outside Kramer & $177
Mattee $231
• Select outline around pie and between James &
segments for printing Connelly

Source; Lawyer Reports, July 7, 2009.

Bar or • Conveys absolute value data, relative Sales Increase Since Matrix
column sizes, or close comparisons
$in Billions
• Emphasizes differences $4
• Works well with most audiences 3

2
• Rotate y-axis label to horizontal
position for easy reading 1

• Keep space between bars smaller than 0

width of bars 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
Year
• Avoid 3-D to allow easier lineup with
numbers on y-axis Matrix implemented

Line • Demonstrates trends or interactions Global PC Market Share in Units

between variables Percent
20 HP
• Good for showing movement
over time
15
• Useful for most audiences Dell
Acer
10
• Avoid legends; instead, place labels
next to lines when possible
• Rotate y-axis label to horizontal 5
position for easy reading
• Avoid using too many lines 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

(continued)

Knowing when to use graphics and the best graph to select helps
ensure that the graphics add to our presentations and documents, but
we also need to remember to consider the ethics of the graphics, par-
ticularly when using data charts.
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 201

EXHIBIT 6.14 (continued)

Type Guide to Use and Design Examples
Desserts Increasing at
Stacked • Conveys differences
Ice Cream’s Expense
bar • Captures a lot of data in a small space
% of Total
• More suited to technical or other
analytical audience 8 Other
19 20 21 21 Desserts
23
23 22 22 23 Ice
• When using colors in bars, ensure Milk
contrast shows when printed in black and
69 58 58 57 56 Ice
white
Cream
• Align numbers across as much as possible
and align labels with numbers
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Corvettes Sold in 2009

Histogram • Shows frequency distributions, indicating
Frequency % of total sales
how many in each class being measured 90 28
• Not immediately intuitive for most people
67 21
• Best used with statistically oriented
audience
45 14

• Rotate labels for ease of reading 22 7

• Avoid double y-axis if possible

3 5 7 11 14
Car Sales

Scatter plot • Shows correlations, how well a variable Work Experience Does Not Affect
follows the expected pattern GMAT Scores
GMAT Scores
• May need to be explained more than most
700
charts making the title even more
important in delivering the “so what?” 680

660

• Rotate y-axis label for ease of reading 640

• Make sure title explains meaning 620

of content
600
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Years of experience

Ethically Representing Data

Tufte emphasizes the importance of the integrity of graphic represen-
tation of data: “Graphical excellence begins with telling the truth
about the data.”5 Ethical leaders would not intentionally distort the
data through manipulating the numbers or purposely designing graphs
202 Section One Core Leadership Communication

that mislead the audience. In addition, they should be careful that they
do not confuse their audience or accidentally mislead them by using
poorly designed graphs or incorrectly selected graphs or by taking or
presenting information out of context.6
As we consider the type of graph to use, we should test the integrity
of our graphics by asking the following questions:
1. Does the data set completely support the message I wish to
convey?
2. Have I provided or will I be able to provide enough context for the
data to be interpreted accurately?
3. Are the numbers accurate and depicted honestly and accurately?
4. Does the design distort or hide the data in any way?
5. Are all axes and data accurately and adequately labeled?
Overall, we need to make sure that our graphics add to the sub-
stance of our presentations and that they do not distort, distract, or
confuse the audience in any way. We want to aim for meaningful and
clear content, honest and accurate depiction, and simplicity. If we then
select the most effective graph to demonstrate or support our message,
the graphics should help us communicate more powerfully.

Creating Meaningful and Effective Text Layouts

Text slides are the staple for most presentations and, in fact, are often
overused. They may seem fairly simple and straightforward from a
design point of view; however, Exhibit 6.15 contains a few guidelines
and examples (first bad and then good) to make text slides more effec-
tive. In addition to the guidelines and examples, Exhibit 6.15 also con-
tains a few technical tips on using PowerPoint.
The goals with any text chart are to make it as readable as possible
and to make sure that it contains meaningful content. Achieving both
of these objectives is not always easy because to ensure legibility we
must minimize the words, which means every word must count. With
very complicated information, keeping the text concise yet meaningful
can be a challenge. If we find it too difficult, then perhaps it is time to
reconsider PowerPoint as the best medium to convey our information.
We may want to use a handout or poster board or perhaps use a
round-table format instead.
Determining what is the best medium should be part of our strate-
gic thinking as we begin to prepare the presentation; however, some-
times we have moved far into the creation of the presentation before
we realize that PowerPoint will not work for all of our information, in
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 203

EXHIBIT 6.15 Guidelines for Creating Effective Text Slides

The Guidelines and PPT Hints The Bad Examples
1. Do not put too many words on the slide, Key Current Quarter Priorities
as done on the slide at the right. You should Global Division:
not have too many bullets or too many words • Maintain consistent price pressure against competition
at each bullet. • Execute toward lower alternative targets
• Implement new global/local philosophy
2. Do not have only one bullet or sub-bullet as Technical Division:
a category. If you do, you should rephrase • Use SWAT team and various Area projects such as ACE in So America and
your points or elevate your bullets. Thus, the Thrust in Europe to impact customer acceptance of the Newline 2000 and
single bullet below “Expansion Division” families and increase channel sales out on Newline 2000, 2500, and 3300
needs to be broken into two. • Analysts removed Newline products from problem watch in July;
communications deliverables sent to Global Marketing groups worldwide
Expansion Division:
• Deplete Technical inventory by end of Q1 to pave the way for AMstart
(launch AMstart with European mono availability in Q3; European and
So American color models in Q4)

3. Use hanging indents for text lists of more than Key Current Quarter
one line. Priorities
Global Division:
Technical Tip: To create the “hanging” indent,
it is easiest to make your ruler visible in <View>
•Implement new global/local philosophy thatWidows
reflects
the structure
and then adjust the bullets. Each bullet level will
adjust when you adjust one of them. •Work with Area divisions to increase/monitor attach
rates
4. Avoid having too many “widow words” Technical Division:
(see right). ♦Use SWAT team and various Area projects such as
ACE in So America and Thrust in Europe to impact
Technical Tip: To get rid of “widow” words, customer acceptance of the Newline 2000
cut words, decrease font, or increase margins, ♦Analysts removed Newline products from problem
but be careful to stay as close to a consistent font watch in July; communications deliverables sent to
and margin as possible. Global Marketing groups worldwide
No hanging indent

The Guidelines and PPT Hints The Good Examples

5. Keep the text simple but present meaningful Key Current Quarter Priorities
content. Note the use of hanging indents and
the spacing between the lines and between the ❒ Global Division
bullets and the text.
❖ Maintain consistent price pressure
❖ Execute toward lower alternative targets
6. Make sure all bulleted items are parallel
in structure.
❖ Implement new global/local philosophy
❖ Increase/monitor attach rates
❒ Technical Division
❖ Improve customer acceptance of Newline
❖ Achieve target market share
❖ Increase channel sales on Newline families

(continued)
204 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 6.15 (continued)

Current Priorities by Division

Division Priority Actions

Global ❖ Implement global/local philosophy
❖ Work with Area divisions to increase
attach rates

Technical ❖ Use SWAT team to impact customer

acceptance of Newline families
❖ Increase channel sales on Newline
families to achieve market share

The Softer Side of Doing Business

Successfully in Vietnam Today

Captures Presented by VBT Team:

“so what?” Mary Smith
Lists team
Jin Nguyen members
Charles Johnson
Identifies
To Area Division Staff
audience Gives
September 8, 2010
date
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 205

which case we may want to use multiple media for the text charts and
for the graphic charts as well.

Making the Most of PowerPoint as a Design

and Presentation Tool
The focus of this section is on using PowerPoint as a tool to communi-
cate our content more effectively. The major caveat in using Power-
Point, as with using any graphics in a presentation, is to recognize that
the PowerPoint slides should enhance the presentation, not dominate
it. No amount of flashy display can have the genuine impact of a
meaningful, logical message delivered effectively.
Poorly designed slides, such as the one demonstrated in Exhibit 6.16,
which was actually used at a board presentation, are responsible for
much of the criticism and disdain for PowerPoint. This slide has too
much “chart junk,” or clutter (the zeros; unnecessary graphic ele-
ments, such as the background; and the 3-D effect). The 3-D effect and
the legend make it difficult to read, the skyline in the background only

EXHIBIT 6.16 An Example of a Poorly Designed PowerPoint Slide

Note: Please see color version online at www.mhhe.com/barrett3e.

206 Section One Core Leadership Communication

detracts from the message, and the axes are unlabeled. As a result, the
slide is more distracting than useful in conveying a message.
The slide in Exhibit 6.16 is reproduced here as it appeared in a cor-
porate presentation, with only the title changed to reinforce the message
that, just because PowerPoint provides all kinds of graphic augmenta-
tion for presentations, it does not mean that we should use them. Exam-
ples such as this one have led some organizations to ban the use of
PowerPoint, which is unfortunate; when used correctly, it can be a pow-
erful and effective presentation tool. Its capabilities can help presenters
in planning, preparing, and practicing their presentations, although its
greatest strength is in the enhancements it provides to delivery.
It is not the aim of this section to teach the basic use of PowerPoint
as a computer software program. The primary focus is on effective
slide design in PowerPoint with the goal of making slides look better
so that they communicate the content more effectively and provide the
presenter a leadership edge.
The following discussions include guidelines on selecting and
designing layouts and templates, inserting graphs, using animation,
and delivering effectively using PowerPoint.

Focusing on Meaningful Content

Using the standard PowerPoint templates to guide content creation
encourages the use of few words and fairly simply graphics. For more
complex messages, most presenters will need to modify the templates;
however, even keeping the templates as they are, the presenter can cre-
ate solid, thoughtful, and meaningful content. Presenters need to make
sure the message is clear and that every word communicates meaning
and every graphic contributes to that meaning.
PowerPoint was not intended to be a replacement for thinking. It is
a medium to help convey that thinking. Just as with any effective com-
munication, the sender of the message needs to have something mean-
ingful to say. The presenter creates the content and is responsible for
ensuring that it is clear and meaningful. PowerPoint is simply a tool to
deliver the content.
Therefore, we should develop our message and determine the con-
tent needed to support it. Then, we can select and adjust or create the
template and layout to help deliver that message and content. We
should not let the template dictate or limit our content. Doing so is
misusing PowerPoint.

Using Microsoft’s AutoContent Wizards

and Content Templates
Some PowerPoint detractors blame the AutoContent Wizard, which
was removed from newer versions of PowerPoint starting with 2007,
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 207

for “dumbing down” presentations and creating presentations

devoid of meaningful content. When Microsoft initially created the
AutoContent Wizards, the creators saw the idea as “crazy” and the
name as a joke. They knew (or certainly hoped) that presenters had
their own content to put into the program, although after creating
the AutoContent Wizards, they found that they did help those facing
writer’s block.
Of course, we cannot provide meaningful content if we simply use a
template instead of thinking up the content. The AutoContent template
may help inspire ideas, but the substance depends on our development
of the ideas.
For example, look at what an AutoContent slide provides for a pre-
sentation on communicating bad news:

Our Situation

State the bad news

Be clear; don't try to obscure the situation

Obviously, this slide contains no content. At most, the templates pro-

vide possible subject headings and suggestions on content, even
though any thoughtful leader would question relying on PowerPoint to
deliver highly emotional messages, such as the communication of bad
news. Obviously, if leaders decided PowerPoint were the best medium,
they would need to supply the content and would have to decide if the
topics and order of them made sense for their organization and the
message they were delivering.
In newer versions of PowerPoint, the AutoContent Wizard has been
replaced by templates with some suggested content. However, again,
the content is extremely limited. For example, in a presentation on
teamwork, the first content slide after the title slide reads as follows:

Purpose and objectives

State the purpose of teamwork

and objectives of this presentation
208 Section One Core Leadership Communication

Selecting the Layout and Template

If creating a new presentation, we may want to start with one of
Microsoft’s many design templates. Some of them conform to the
graphic design and legibility guidelines contained in this chapter with
little or no modification, but for many of them, we will need to darken
the background to create enough contrast with our font and for more
reliable projection of the colors (see the color discussion in the previ-
ous section), alter the font style and size, and personalize to ensure
that our presentation represents our own personality or that of our
organization, not a generic organization.
Many organizations have a standard template they ask their
employees to use. These templates may not conform to the guidelines
in this chapter but are the standard for the organization. If we work
for an organization with a standard template, we will probably have
to use it; however, when we can, we should still try to employ the
standards discussed here.
The most common layout used in PowerPoint is the horizontal, or
landscape. To create slides for a PowerPoint presentation, we do not
need to make any changes in page setup, since PowerPoint defaults
to the horizontal layout when we open the program. If we select
“new presentation,” we will see a white background with black font,
which we could use to create a round-table, handout, or overhead
presentation.
If we plan to use our slides in a stand-up projected or Web presen-
tation and as a handout, we should create or apply a template with a
dark background and light font; then, select “pure black and white” in
the print options commands to print out a standard white background,
dark font format (this will help avoid using up ink cartridges) for the
hand out.
We will need to remember to select “pure black and white” in the
print command window each time we print, however, since Microsoft
does not let us select it as our default print mode.

Designing Original Templates

Designing our own or modifying one of Microsoft’s templates is usually
a better approach than using one of Microsoft’s standard templates,
since it allows us to create a design that reflects our organization’s
image or our own personality and sense of style or to reinforce or sug-
gest our message.
Also, creating our own template suggests we are willing to take the
time to personalize the presentation and that we are not simply pulling
something off the shelf that others could use. Creating an original tem-
plate will mean that the presentation will stand out, as we probably
would want. Again, the template format should not detract from our
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 209

EXHIBIT 6.17
Example of a
Modified
PowerPoint
Template with
Introducing Global
Logo Embedded Communication Services, Inc.

Discussion with
Venture, Inc.
January 12, 2010

Presented by
Mary E. Burch
Vice President of
Development
GCS

Note: Please see color version online at www.mhhe.com/barrett3e.

presentation or attract the audience’s attention more than the message

or the presenter. We will need to check our slides in slide view to
ensure that the background does not overwhelm the foreground (any
text or graphics).
One way to personalize a template is to select a simple picture or our
organization’s logo as the background. It should not be too complicated
or showy, since a background that is too strong could overshadow the
content on the slides, as is the case in the cityscape background in
Exhibit 6.16.
Exhibit 6.17 provides an example of an effective background using
a modified Microsoft template with the company’s logo inserted.

Creating Documents Using PowerPoint

PowerPoint, although primarily a presentation package, can be used
to create documents that include graphics as well. Again, PowerPoint
defaults to the horizontal, or landscape, format, but we can select por-
trait if we are creating a report or other document that
we intend for our audience to read rather than see in a stand-up pre-
sentation. A presentation can be converted to the portrait layout after
created in landscape, but we may need to make some adjustments to
the graphics to make them fit effectively in the new layout. Therefore,
it is better to select portrait before creating slides or use the notes
view instead, as illustrated in Exhibit 6.18.
We might select the portrait layout if we have a number of graphs
and want to ensure that the explanations occur just above them.
210 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 6.18 Example of a Report in PowerPoint—Portrait versus Notes View

Portrait View Notes View

The most important question for measuring the
success of the communication program is the one Individual Improvement Fall 2006–2009
that asks the students if they feel their
communication skills have improved because of
the program. As the chart shows, the students have
self-reported improvement every year since 2006.
If the 2006 number were adjusted to allow for the
lower scores in sections taught by first-time Improved 80% 73% 94% 99%
instructors, the score for 2006 would be 88%. (88%)
Clearly, the students realize and acknowledge that
their communication skills have improved as a result
of the program.

About the 14%

Individual Improvement Fall 2006–2009 Same 15%
No
Improvement 6% 13% 6% 1%
2006 2007 2008 2009

The most important question for measuring the

Improved 80% 73% 94% 99% success of the communication program is the one
(88%) that asks the students if they feel their
communication skills have improved because of
the program. As the chart shows, the students have
self-reported improvement every year since 2006.
If the 2006 number were adjusted to allow for the
lower scores in sections taught by first-time
instructors, the score for 2006 would be 88%.
Clearly, the students realize and acknowledge that
About the
15% 14% their communication skills have improved as a
Same
result of the program.
No
Improvement 6% 13% 6% 1%
2006 2007 2008 2009

Exhibit 6.18 shows an example of a page from a vertical report created

in PowerPoint, using portrait view and notes view. For notes view, we
simply select the notes format when printing the presentation for the
audience.

Inserting Graphs and Other Objects

Many of the design faults that show up in PowerPoint presentations
occur when people insert graphs or objects from other programs,
Excel in particular. This section provides a few suggestions for avoid-
ing and correcting the most common design problems. Exhibit 6.19
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 211

EXHIBIT 6.19
Poorly Designed Evaluation
Graph Inserted Sales
into PowerPoint
from Excel $4,000

$3,000

$ Millions
$2,000

$1,000

$0

4 Q 2004

4 Q 2005
4 Q 2003

4 Q 2006

4 Q 2009
4 Q 2007

4 Q 2008
demonstrates a poorly designed graph for PowerPoint presentation
purposes. Here are the problems:
• The chart has two titles, the one given in Excel and the one used in
PowerPoint.
• Axis labels are not rotated to be read horizontally.
• Bars are too narrow; the space between should be smaller than the
width of the bars.
• Use of 3-D makes reading the locations of the tops of the bars difficult.
• Chart junk clutters the exhibit: the zeros and the repetition of “4 Q”
with each year.
• The background of the graph is not consistent with the background
of the presentation.
Some of these problems could be corrected in Excel before import-
ing the graph; however, it is often easier to correct them in Power-
Point.
Our graphs should look as if they were part of the presentation, not
pulled in at the last minute from Excel without concern for consis-
tency in the formatting and clarity of the information being conveyed.
Exhibit 6.20 shows the same graph reworked for projection in Power-
Point. It is now simple, clean, and easy to read.
Although we end up with a graph that is more aesthetically pleasing,
the main objective of these changes is legibility when the graph is pro-
jected. Taking the extra time to make our imported graphs easier to
read and more attractive for a PowerPoint presentation is worth the
effort; otherwise, our audience may think we are careless or not inter-
ested in their ability to read what we are presenting.
212 Section One Core Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 6.20 $ Millions

Steady Increase in Sales Since 2003
Corrected Bar
Graph Imported $4
from Excel
3

0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fourth Quarter Results

We can, of course, make the graph even more appealing by using

color effectively and by following some of the design principles dis-
cussed previously, but the primary goal when adjusting any inserted
graph or object should be to make it easier for the audience to get the
message.

Using Animation
Animation is a great tool; however, it is easily overused and misused.
The following guidelines will help presenters use animation effectively
so that it adds to the impact of the presentation by supporting the
main messages:
1. Use animation only to control the delivery of the message or
help the audience with the message. We should think carefully about
how we can use animation to control the delivery of our content. For
example, if we want our bullets to appear when we talk about each one
instead of all at once, we should consider how long we will spend on
each bullet. If we are going to discuss each item separately at some
depth and length, then it would probably be worth the effort and slight
distraction to have them appear one at a time; however, if we are going
to talk about all of the bullets in more general terms, it would be better
to have all of them appear at the same time. The same principle applies
for charts and graphs; if, for example, we intend to discuss one line on
a line graph at a time, we might want to have each line appear as we
discuss it, creating the line graph slowly as we share the information.
Although we should aim for one message on a slide, sometimes the
overall message has several layers or pieces to it. For example, if we
have a complex message, such as the one in Exhibit 6.11, we might
want to use animation. When presenting this slide, we could use ani-
mation to control what the audience sees and when. We could bring in
and discuss each arrow (force) while building to the total message of
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 213

multiple forces reshaping the oil industry. Seeing the whole slide with
all of the pieces in place at one time could confuse the audience. They
might not know where to look, so we would want to control their atten-
tion by bringing in the pieces as we talk about them.
Finally, we should make our animation keystroke driven rather than
automatic so that we can control the building of the slide.
2. Do not overuse animation or add it just because it is possible.
It will only distract the audience and even irritate them. Think about
the spinning logo people sometimes place in a corner of their slides or
the moving Flash ads on Web sites. Our eyes go to the logo or object,
no matter how hard we try to focus on the speaker or the other infor-
mation on the page.
3. When animation is used to bring in text or AutoShapes, the text
and shapes should appear or come in from the most logical direction
and the shortest distance. For example, in Exhibit 6.11, the arrow at
the left should come in from the left, the bottom arrow from the bot-
tom, and the right arrow from the right. While this seems intuitive, we
have all sat through presentations with objects flying in from all direc-
tions without rhyme or reason.
4. Avoid using several different animation techniques in one pre-
sentation. Decide on one or two main techniques and stay with them.
Usually, the more conservative the better, which means the “appear”
choice is often the best one.
5. Make sure to test the animation by running the presentation in
slide view from beginning to end. In fact, even if we are not using ani-
mation, we should always review our presentation in slide view, since,
for reasons unknown, animation will sometimes appear that we did
not intend (suggesting gremlins do exist). We can usually get rid of
these gremlins by checking the Animation Schemes and turning off
“Apply to all” if it is selected.
As with all the design guidelines discussed in this chapter, we should
use animation only if it adds to or helps us deliver our message.
Again, keep graphics simple, and design slides so that the audience
can scan them easily and naturally. Also, although culture and preferred
language will determine how someone reads (right to left or left to right),
most now are accustomed to reading charts from left to right and top to
bottom; therefore, we should consider the messages we want to empha-
size when we design the chart. For example, most business and academic
audiences expect to see a title at the top of the chart that tells them the
major message. Make sure to take advantage of this expectation and do
not bury major messages at the bottom or, even worse, in the midst of
everything else in the center. Doing so risks its getting lost. If we must
create a design contrary to an audience’s natural reading inclination, we
should be prepared to guide them to the portion of the slide where we
214 Section One Core Leadership Communication

want their attention. This kind of guidance requires that we practice with
our slides, making sure we can provide this assistance in reading easily
and smoothly without looking back at the slide in a stand-up presentation.
To summarize, when using graphics and PowerPoint, follow these
top 10 guidelines:

Top 10 Guidelines for Using Graphics and PowerPoint for a Leadership Edge
1. Decide on the message, determine what information or data best support it,
and then decide how best to show those data graphically.
2. Use graphics for the right reasons, such as to reinforce the message, to
provide a road map to the presentation, and to support assertions.
3. Select the right kind of graph to illustrate the message.
4. Use integrity in selecting and designing all graphics, making sure any graphs
do not distort the data.
5. Keep all graphics simple but meaningful. The graphic should make the mes-
sage easier to understand, not more difficult. Make sure it is meaningful and
actually says something.
6. Use a title (placed at the top of the slide) that captures the “so what?” of the
slide so that the audience sees immediately the message the graph is com-
municating.
7. Create an original PowerPoint template or modify the standard ones Microsoft
provides so that the presentation reflects the personality of the presenter or
that of the presenter’s organization.
8. Make the font size and any graphic images large enough for the audience to
see, even from the back of the room.
9. Be careful with color selections; go for contrast but be conservative,
remembering that color perception varies from person to person and color
meaning varies from culture to culture.
10. Avoid overusing or misusing animation.

Finally, we should make graphics and PowerPoint work for us not

against us, using graphics to support our message and PowerPoint as
the tool it is intended to be. The presenter should be the focus of the
presentation. The slides are there to aid us, not replace us. Used cor-
rectly, graphics and PowerPoint will provide a leadership edge and
help us project a positive ethos.

Application 6.1 1. Review the quantitative data that follow. You will see that you can make
Creating Graphs several conclusions based on these data. What do you see? Select one type of
comparison (part to whole, time series, etc.) and roughly sketch out a slide
to support the conclusion you have drawn from the comparison. (You do
not need to use all of the data.) Write a title for the slide that captures the
“so what?” of the graph.
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 215

Sales Data for Gizmo Company Products ($000)*

Product A Product B Product C Total
January 85 26 7 118
February 94 30 8 132
March 103 35 8 146
April 113 40 7 160
May 122 45 13 180
June 130 30 10 170
*You may assume that the profit margins on each product are similar.

2. Use the same process to analyze these data and sketch out a slide. Remem-
ber to write a title that tells the audience what you want them to conclude
from the data.

Quench Beverage Company—Cola Sales Data for the United States

and Mexico ($MM)
2002 2003 2004 2005
U.S. 24.1 40.0 37.5 47.4
Mexico 39.9 34.8 23.8 19.9
Source: This exercise was developed by Beth O’Sullivan and Larry Hampton, Rice University. Used with
permission.

Application 6.2 For each of the following topics, decide on the best type of graph to support
Selecting and the message and then design the graphic. Do these very quickly, sketching
what first comes to your mind. Do not worry about being artistic; instead, cap-
Designing
ture your own creative ideas.
Graphics
Exercise 1. Over the last five years, Company A has outperformed its competitor, Com-
pany B (increasing revenue, decreasing costs).
2. GMAT scores are not related to grades in MBA classes.
3. Widgets yield the majority of WidCo’s profit.
4. The bonus percentage depends on employee title and rank.
5. Four forces are driving industry growth.
6. The project consists of three phases.

Application 6.3 Grab a pen, a pencil, or your computer and sketch the very first image that
Exercise in comes to mind for each of the following chart titles. The goal is to work very
Designing quickly and not to get caught up in making the lines straight or the graph or
picture square or perfect in any way. Simply capture the message as best you
Visuals can and don’t over-think it.
1. The Web Site’s Hits Have Quadrupled Since 2009
2. Apple’s IPods Have the Largest Share of the MP3 Market
3. The Team’s Project Will Advance in Three Phases
4. Houston’s Airport System Ranks Fourth Nationally
216 Section One Core Leadership Communication

5. The Age Distribution of the U.S. Population Differs Sharply from That of
Developing Countries
6. Students Are Caught in the Crisscross of Decreased Scholarship Money
and Increased College Costs
7. The Five Programs Are Interrelated
8. The Two Project Teams Must Interact for Better Results
9. The Task Forces Are Moving in Opposite Directions
10. The Range of Discounts Offered for the New PCs Varies Widely by Geo-
graphic Area
11. Forces at Work on the Faculty Will Result in the Restructuring of the
Curriculum
12. The Development of Computer Viruses Follows a Vicious Circle
This exercise was inspired by my former McKinsey colleague, Gene Zelazny, in
“Designing Charts for the Zen of It” in Say It with Presentations by Gene
Zelazny (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000). Thank you, Gene.

Application 6.4 For this exercise, pretend you are in an investment group and your group has
Team Graphics been selected to deliver an updated presentation on the company/division dis-
and Oral cussed in one of the following articles:
Presentations Nestle article
http://www.businessweek.com/investor/content/apr2009/pi20090428_699553.h
tm?chan=investing_investing+index+page_stocks+%2Bamp;+markets
Chrysler article (includes a video!)
http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/content/may2009/db2009051_2
97080.htm?chan=top+news_top+news+index+-+temp_news+%2B+analysis
Zipcar
http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/apr2009/tc20090430_38355
5.htm?chan=top+news_top+news+index+-+temp_technology

Although these BusinessWeek articles work well for this exercise, almost any
article that includes financial performance data will work as well.
Your audience will consist of potential investors in the company, all of
whom will be logging in to a Web presentation.
If you are not already working with a team, form a group of four or five
people for this exercise. Each group will have 40 minutes to develop a
5-minute oral presentation that, since it will be delivered remotely, is heavily
dependent on visual aids for communicating key ideas and maintaining inter-
est. (Your team can choose who will present—not everyone needs to speak,
although it is fine if you want everyone to deliver part of the presentation.)
Your presentation should convey the company’s current situation and
prospects. Your group may make an investment recommendation, if you wish,
but you are not required to do so. You do not need to use all the data in the
article, and you may add other information about the company (if it is from a
reliable source).
 Chapter 6 Graphics and PowerPoint with a Leadership Edge 217

Each group member should offer suggestions about what key messages to
include in your visuals. The team then needs to agree on the “storyboard,” that
is, the ideas to be conveyed and the content and sequence of graphics.
Use the paper and the markers provided or your computer to create the
visual aids you will use for your presentation. Of course, in the real world, you
would have more time to make your visuals look professional. For today, you
should focus on your story, capturing key messages, expressing them graphi-
cally, and presenting them effectively (remember to include an effective open-
ing, strong transitions, and an effective closing for your presentation). Your
visuals may include quantitative charts, diagrams, qualitative drawings, and
word slides (where needed). Be sure to do the following:
• Include a title chart with the names of the group members and the company.
• Write a title that tells the main message of the presentation.
• Create “so what?” titles for each visual.
• Limit your content or “body” visuals to a number you can comfortably pre-
sent in 5 minutes.

Source: This exercise was adapted from an exercise created by Beth O’Sullivan and Larry
Hampton, Rice University. Updated by Sandra Elliot. Used with permission.

Notes 1. Vogel, D., Dickson, G., and Lehman, J. A. (1986). Persuasion and the Role of
Visual Presentation Support. Study sponsored by the University of Min-
nesota and 3M Corporation.
2. Tufte, E. R. (2003). The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint. Cheshire, CT: Graphics
Press. See Barrett, D. (2004). “The Power of PowerPoint.” Proceedings of the
2004 Association for Business Communication Conference for a complete dis-
cussion of attacks on PowerPoint and a defense of it as a presentation tool.
3. PowerPoint is the primary presentation/graphics software discussed in this
chapter because it has become a presentation standard, not to support or
promote Microsoft and its products. All of the best practices presented
would apply to any presentation or graphics software package.
4. Halverson, M. 3M Meeting Network—Choosing the Right Colors for Your
Next Presentation, www.3m.com.
5. Tufte, E. R. (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire,
CT: Graphics Press, p. 53.
6. For examples of graphic distortion and how to avoid it and a discussion of
visual ethics, see Tufte (1983); and Kienzler, D. S. (1997). Visual Ethics.
Journal of Business Communication 34, pp. 171–87. For more on how data
and statistics can be misused or quoted, see Best, J. (2001). Damned Lies and
Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians, and Activists.
 2
Section
Organizational Leadership
Communication
Corporate

Organizational
Core

Emotional
intelligence
Teams

Cross-cultural
literacy
Meetings
Chapter
7
Emotional Intelligence
and Interpersonal Skills
for Leaders
You’ve got to have not just the business skills; you’ve got to
have the emotional intelligence. . . .You have to have the
emotional intelligence to understand what’s right culturally,
both in your company and outside your company.
Richard Anderson, CEO, Delta Air Lines New York Times interview
with Adam Bryant, 2009

Emotional leadership is the spark that ignites a company’s

performance, creating a bonfire of success or a landscape
of ashes.
Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annit McKee (2001), Primal
Leadership: The Hidden Driver of Great Performance, Harvard Business
Review

Leaders are constantly communicating. . . . Their language

goes beyond mere words. Body language, intuition,
presence, accessibility—above all, behavior.
Max De Pree (2003). Leading without Power: Finding Hope in Serving
Community

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Appreciate the value of emotional intelligence.

• Take steps to increase your own emotional intelligence.
220
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 221

• Improve your nonverbal skills.

• Improve your listening skill.
• Motivate and mentor.
• Network to improve leadership connections.
Leaders need strong emotional intelligence and outstanding inter-
personal skills. Recently, interpersonal skills have gained recognition
under the name of “emotional intelligence.”1 Emotional intelligence,
also often called emotional quotient, or EQ, is the capacity to identify
and manage emotions in ourselves and in others. This understanding
provides a foundation for our interaction with others and our ability to
understand and relate to them and is often directly tied to an individ-
ual’s success as a transformational leader.2
“Emotional intelligence” and “interpersonal skills” are sometimes
used interchangeably, but a useful distinction is to see emotional intel-
ligence as what is going on inside of us and interpersonal skills as emo-
tional intelligence in action as we interact with others. Another way to
think about the difference is to think of the relationship of emotional
intelligence to interpersonal skills as we would the relationship of our
IQ to our ability to demonstrate problem-solving acumen. Our ability
to interact effectively depends on our emotional intelligence, which we
display through our interpersonal skills.
Without emotional intelligence, leaders cannot communicate and
connect with others effectively. Our emotional intelligence and inter-
personal skills are judged by how well we interact with others, both
verbally and nonverbally.
In addition, leaders’ own emotional intelligence affects the climate and
morale of the organizations and groups they lead: “‘Emotions are conta-
gious. Research shows that they determine 50% to 70% of the workplace
climate; that climate, in turn, determines 20% to 30% of a company’s per-
formance.’ What’s more, EI accounts for 85% of what distinguishes the
stars in top leadership positions from low-level performers.”3 Thus, the
leader’s emotional intelligence determines his or her success as well as
the organization’s culture and performance. For leadership communica-
tion, emotional intelligence is as important as the strategy, writing, and
speaking skills included in the core of the leadership communication spi-
ral, introduced in the first few chapters of this text.
The need for keen emotional intelligence becomes magnified when we
interact with others in an organization, whether one-on-one, in groups,
in meetings, or in teams; and it is this interaction that is the focus of the
organizational communication ring of the leadership communication
spiral. In addition, the advent of social media and networking sites has
increased leaders’ needs to learn how to interact with a broad, general
audience in intelligent, thoughtful, and considerate ways.
Our successful interactions with others depend on communi-
cation: “The basis of any relationship is communication. Without
222 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

communication—be it sign language, body language, e-mail, or face-

to-face conversation—there is no connection and hence no relation-
ship. The importance of effective communication skills to our
Emotional Intelligence is crucial, and its value in the workplace is
incalculable.”4
While this entire book is dedicated to improving your leadership
communication abilities, this chapter is devoted specifically to under-
standing emotional intelligence and developing the ability to uncover
what Weisinger calls the “emotional subtext,” which means getting
below the surface of the words—in many cases, to the meaning
beneath. This ability is essential to emotional intelligence. The first
sections of this chapter discuss the value of emotional intelligence and
how to achieve it; the later sections on nonverbal communications, lis-
tening, people development through mentoring and motivating, and
networking focus on helping you increase your ability to understand
the emotional subtext and demonstrate the interpersonal skills all of us
need to be successful leaders

Appreciating the Value of Emotional Intelligence

An organization’s culture reflects the emotional intelligence (or lack of it)
of its leaders, and the leaders reveal that emotional intelligence
through their communication ability and style. Think back to the
example in Chapter 4 of the midwestern CEO who lambasted his man-
agers in an e-mail because he thought the employees were not working
long enough hours, citing the empty parking lot as one of his clues to
the slacking workforce. What kind of personality does his e-mail
reveal? What does it say about his attitude toward and relationship
with his management team? What does it suggest about the company
culture? The CEO’s memo suggests emotional intelligence deficiencies,
since he shows little concern for the emotions of his audience and lit-
tle control of his own. He appears limited in his understanding of his
audience and how best to motivate them.
The first version of the memo about the abuse of copy machines in
Chapter 2 also exhibits limited emotional intelligence through its insen-
sitivity to others and lack of awareness of how to motivate employees.
The language in the first version, such as the use of passive voice (“It has
recently been brought to my attention” and “Their behavior cannot and
will not be tolerated”), and the threat (“Anyone in the future who is
unable to control himself will have his employment terminated”) suggest
a culture that is authoritative and hierarchical, where management sits
well above and separate from the employees. The language in the final
version, however, suggests a company where the employees are part of a
community with management: “We are revamping our policy. . . .”
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 223

Both of these examples show how the language that we use reveals
the kind of leader that we are and the type of organization that we
lead. Both are prime examples of how a deficiency of emotional intel-
ligence can lead to communication mistakes, which in turn can lead to
problems in the corporate culture and signal that cultural problems
exist. All of the research into the importance of emotional intelligence
demonstrates that possessing emotional intelligence is valuable to
leaders personally and to the organizations they lead.

Understanding Emotional Intelligence

Reuven Bar-On, who developed the concept of emotional quotient in
1988, provides a technical definition of emotional intelligence. Emo-
tional quotient (or intelligence) is emotional and social knowledge and
the ability to
1. Be aware of, understand, and express yourself.
2. Be aware of, understand, and relate to others.
3. Deal with strong emotions and control your impulses.
4. Adapt to change and solve problems of a personal or a social nature.5
This definition suggests that emotional intelligence begins with the
ability to identify and manage emotions in ourselves and in others, but
it extends also to the ability to translate these emotions into actions
that show flexibility and personal and social problem-solving ability. It
implies that the actions should have a positive impact on others.
Exhibit 7.1 contains a diagram that breaks emotional intelligence down
into components similar to those Reuven Bar-On cites. It illustrates the

EXHIBIT 7.1 Conceptualization of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional
Intelligence

Appraisal and Expression Regulation of

Utilization of Emotion
of Emotion Emotion

Self Others In Self In Others Flexible Redirected

Planning Attention

Verbal Nonverbal Nonverbal Empathy Creative Motivation

Perception Thinking
Source: Figure from Morand, D.A. (2001). The Emotional Intelligence of Managers: Assessing the Construct Validity of a Nonverbal Measure
of “People Skills.” Journal of Business and Psychology 16, No. 1, pp. 21–33. Figures based on Mayer, J., and Salovey, P. (1993). The Intelligence
of Emotional Intellegence. Intelligence, pp. 433–42.
224 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

role of communication and the ways that emotional intelligence can be

manifested.
The diagram in Exhibit 7.1 contains three branches of emotional
intelligence: (1) the appraisal and expression of emotion, (2) the regu-
lation of emotion, and (3) the utilization of emotion. Another way to
think about these three branches is as they might be expressed or
revealed: through communication, by control, and by action. Leaders
demonstrate their emotional intelligence by appraising situations and
other people and by expressing the appropriate emotions. In the left
branch, the focus is on expressing ourselves verbally and nonverbally,
as well as on understanding others by reading their nonverbal cues
and by empathizing with them. The middle branch focuses on the con-
trol of emotions in the self and in others. The right branch deals with
the manifestation of emotional intelligence in actions, such as plan-
ning with flexibility, thinking creatively, motivating others, and redi-
recting attention or energy when appropriate.
Consider the midwestern CEO again; his emphasis is on the self, what
he feels, and what is in it for him—all part of the left side of the diagram.
His e-mail suggests little empathy and little regulation of his emotions.
In the end, his e-mail fails to suggest flexible planning, creativity, redi-
rection, or motivation of his employees toward the actions he desires.
Effective leadership communication depends on being able to analyze
an audience and develop a communication strategy for the context,
which includes the left and middle branches of the emotional intelli-
gence tree in Exhibit 7.1. The CEO has fallen short here, which carries
over into the failure to craft and deliver the messages that will inspire
his employees to act as he wants. This example demonstrates how pro-
foundly emotional intelligence influences our leadership communica-
tion ability, which in turn suggests our leadership style.

Connecting Emotional Intelligence to Leadership Styles

In Primal Leadership, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee argue that leader-
ship styles fall into six broad categories: (1) visionary, (2) coaching, (3)
affiliative, (4) democratic, (5) pacesetting, and (6) commanding. These
last two may have a negative impact on the organization (Exhibit 7.2).
Any one of these styles might be effective in the right situation or in
some cultures, although the authors’ research demonstrates that pace-
setting and commanding rarely work, particularly in the long term.
The style of communication will differ from leader to leader and
from organization to organization, and the leaders will reveal that style
by how they choose to communicate with employees.
The visionary leaders inspire others and would probably be very
visible in the organization, speaking frequently in public internal
forums, holding frequent meetings, sending out statements that moti-
vate and provide guidance to all of the employees, and being accessible
to their followers.
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 225

EXHIBIT 7.2 Leadership Styles in a Nutshell

How It Builds Impact on

Style Resonance Climate When Appropriate
Visionary Moves people toward Most strongly positive When changes require a
shared dreams new vision, or when
direction is needed
Coaching Connects what a Highly positive To help an employee
person wants with the improve performance by
organization’s goals building long-term
capabilities
Affiliative Creates harmony by Positive To heal rifts in a team,
connecting people to motivate during stressful
each other times, or strengthen
connections
Democratic Values people’s input and Positive To build buy-in or con
gets commitment through sensus, or to get valuable
participation input from employees
Pacesetting Meets challenging and Often highly negative To get high-quality results
exciting goals because frequently from a motivated and
executed poorly competent team
Commanding Soothes fears by giving Highly negative In a crisis, to kick-start a
clear direction in because so often turnaround, or with problem
an emergency misused employees

Source: Adapted and reprinted by permission of Harvard Business School Press. From Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional
Intelligence by Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. Boston, MA 2002, p. 55. Copyright © 2002 by Daniel Goleman; all rights reserved.

Visionary leaders are also often tapped to represent their organiza-

tions through blogs, social networks, or other social media interac-
tions. These leaders are often those who inspire conversation, debate,
and change in their fields.
Visionary leaders articulate a purpose and goals that appeal to those
they lead. People believe in them and what they represent and want to
follow them. An example from the political arena is U.S. President
Obama. From the beginning of his campaign, he clearly articulated a
vision and continues to do so now that he is in office. As Jack and Suzy
Welch write in BusinessWeek:
Let’s start with vision, the thing without which a person simply cannot
lead. And look, whether you like his politics or not, Obama’s obviously
got it. From the economy to the environment, education to health care,
the President has articulated his goals to the nation.6

It is important to note that President Obama has been very

involved in social media networks—from Facebook to Twitter to text
messaging—to further both his election and his post-election goals.
He may well represent the new face of visionary leadership in the
Web space.
226 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

The coaching leaders would provide a strong, mentoring culture and

probably place importance on training and development sessions and on
management’s responsibility for developing others. An example cited in
Primal Leadership is David Ogilvy, founder of Ogilvy & Mather, one of the
most successful advertising firms: “Ogilvy’s leadership included a large
dose of the coaching style: having a deep conversation with an employee
that goes beyond short-term concerns and instead explores the person’s
life, including dreams, life goals, and career hopes.”7
The affiliative leader would probably be involved in frequent inter-
action with employees and would walk the halls and be accessible,
both one-on-one and in small groups. He would exemplify teamwork
and collaboration. Joe Torre, the manager of the New York Yankees
from 1996 to 2007, who coached the Yankees to 10 American League
East Division titles, six American League pennants, and four World
Series titles, is the example Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee discuss:
Such open sharing of emotions is one hallmark of the affiliative
leadership style, which Torre exemplifies. These leaders also tend to
value people and their feelings—putting less emphasis on accomplish-
ing tasks and goals, and more on employees’ emotional needs. They
strive to keep people happy, to create harmony, and—as Torre did so
well—build team resonance.8

The democratic leader would probably hold frequent meetings as

well, but he or she would also survey employees and establish methods
to obtain employee input. Democratic leaders are good listeners and
very good collaborators. They are adept at including others in idea gen-
eration and problem solving. They recognize their own limits and will-
ingly call on others to fill in the gaps in their expertise or experience.
Louis Gerstner, Jr., who was chair of IBM from 1993 to 2002, is con-
sidered such a leader. Coming in from outside of the computer indus-
try, he openly and successfully drew on the expertise of those at IBM,
while cutting $9 billion in expenses and laying off thousands and lead-
ing “a sensationally successful turnaround, charting a new strategic
course for the company.”9
Pacesetting leaders are hard-driving, constantly pushing the orga-
nization to excel. They are not likely to hold open forums with employ-
ees, choosing instead to make decisions on their own or with insider
groups and communicating with employees when they have successful
performance to celebrate or a new idea to push. They do not appear
accessible to employees; therefore, open dialogue is unlikely.
The pacesetting style of leader “holds and exemplifies high standards
for performance. He is obsessive about doing things better and faster,
and asks the same of eveyone. He quickly pinpoints poor performers, and
demands more from them, and if they don’t rise to the occasion, rescues
the situation himself.”10 The result is a highly competitive environment
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 227

where employees compete against each other, soon becoming disen-

chanted and frustrated at feeling pressured to perform, no matter what
the cost. This style of leadership may also lead to tense relationships with
customers, now that blogs and social networks allow for robust interac-
tion between the public and corporations.
An example is the leadership team at the top of Enron before its
collapse, Ken Lay and Jeff Skilling, whose leadership turned Enron
into the biggest wholesaler of gas and electricity. Skilling, who is now
serving a 24-year prison term, exemplifies the pacesetting style in par-
ticular. He was well know as extremely hard-driving of himself and
others. He demanded performance and perfection and would not tol-
erate anything less.
When entering the Enron building before the company collapsed in
one of the largest corporate scandals in business history, visitors were
greeted with monitors showing the stock price, which was constantly
touted and used to push employees to perform. While for a business to
emphasize the bottom line may not be all bad, Enron serves as an
example of how the pacesetting leader’s continued high pressure can
be distructive, leading to disillusionment and perhaps bad decisions
and even corruption.
The commanding leader lives by the motto of “Do it because I say
so,” according to Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee. Both the e-mail of
the midwestern CEO and first version of the memo on the abuse of
copiers suggest a command and control leadership style, for example,
and it seems clear these styles would not be effective in motivating
employees in most situations.
However, commanding leadership may work temporarily in some
situations if used judiciously—for example, when a major turnaround
is needed or when facing a crisis. It might also be expected in cultures
in which respect for authority dominates their decision making and
way of working.
Jack Welch, former CEO of GE, supposedly exemplified the com-
manding style when he first took over at GE and needed to bring about
a major turnaround. His firm and controlling top-down leadership
style worked well at that time in the company’s history, although he
switched to a more visionary style soon after accomplishing the imme-
diate need of the company turnaround.
In the four positive styles, the leader’s tone would be receptive and
open, whereas in the pacesetting and commanding styles, the tone
would be closed and distancing. The pacesetting and commanding
tones are suggested in the following: “It has been brought to my atten-
tion that some of you are abusing the copiers” versus the tone of “We
should work together to achieve a pay-as-you-go policy.”
A leader might vary his or her leadership style when the situation
warrants it, but the ability to select the most effective style for different
228 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 7.3 Personal Competence: These capabilities determine how we manage ourselves.
Emotional
Intelligence Self-Awareness
Domains and • Emotional self-awareness: Reading one’s own emotions and recognizing
Competencies their impact; using “gut sense” to guide decisions
• Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and limits
Source: Reprinted by per-
mission of Harvard Busi-
• Self-confidence: A sound sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities
ness School Press. From Self-Management
Primal Leadership: Realiz-
ing the Power of Emotional • Emotional self-control: Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under
Intelligence by Goleman, control
D., Boyatzis, R. & McKee,
A. Boston, MA 2002, p. 39.
• Transparency: Displaying honesty and integrity; trustworthiness
Copyright © 2002 by • Adaptability: Flexibility in adapting to changing situations or over-coming
Daniel Goleman; all rights obstacles
reserved.
• Achievement: The drive to improve performance to meet inner standards
of excellence
• Initiative: Readiness to act and seize opportunities
• Optimism: Seeing the upside in events
Social Competence: These capabilities determine how we manage
relationships.
Social Awareness
• Empathy: Sensing others’ emotions, understanding their perspective, and
taking active interest in their concerns
• Organizational awareness: Reading the currents, decision networks, and
politics at the organizational level
• Service: Recognizing and meeting follower, client, or customer needs
Relationship Management
• Inspirational leadership: Guiding and motivating with a compelling vision
• Influence: Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion
• Developing others: Bolstering others’ abilities through feedback and guidance
• Change catalyst: Initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction
• Conflict management: Resolving disagreements
• Building bonds: Cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships
• Teamwork and collaboration: Cooperation and team building

situations requires the emotional intelligence to assess the situation

correctly and assume the style appropriate for the context and audience.
It means understanding that leaders reveal their emotional intelligence
in their words and their actions.
Exhibit 7.3 contains the “major domains” of emotional intelligence
with their associated personal and social competencies, further illus-
trating how emotional intelligence can be manifested in interactions
with others and in attempts to communicate with and lead them.
According to Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee, no leader possesses all
of these competencies, but “highly effective leaders typically exhibit a
critical mass of strength in a half dozen or so EI competencies.”11
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 229

Some competencies are certainly more important for effective leader-

ship communication than others. These competencies are the focus of
the remainder of this chapter, beginning with those included under
self-awareness and self-management, moving through the relationship
management competencies of developing others, and ending with
increasing your social awareness by learning to network effectively.

Increasing Our Own Self-Awareness

The first step toward emotional intelligence is self-awareness. Socrates
said, “Know thyself,” yet as most thoughtful people realize, knowing
the self is not easy. In his book Emotional Intelligence at Work, Hendrie
Weisinger calls self-awareness “the foundation on which all other emo-
tional intelligence skills are built” and says that self-awareness is an
ongoing process.12 He suggests that everyone exercise self-awareness
at work by asking the following questions several times a day:
• What am I feeling right now?
• What do I want? How am I acting?
• What appraisals am I making?
• What do my senses tell me?
The self-assessment in Appendix A contains a number of questions
relating to emotional intelligence. If you have not completed it, you
might want to go back now and establish a baseline measure of your
self-awareness and overall emotional intelligence.
Another way to become more self-aware is to take personality profiles,
such the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) discussed here. You may
want to visit the Emotional Intelligence Consortium Web site
(www.eiconsortium.org), since it lists and contains links to some self-
assessments of emotional intelligence and 360-degree feedback tools.
You will also find a number of free resources available if you do a Google
search for MBTI or “personality tests”; however, most of these resources
Source: Popular image on
the World Wide Web. will not provide a complete assessment or provide thorough feedback on
Original source unknown. the results, or they may solicit fees for more than the “free” tool provided.
You should, of course, approach any of these solicitations with caution
and check the credentials of the organization or administrator to ensure
that you receive legitimate and complete presults
If you have never had the benefit of 360-degree feedback, or any feed-
back on your emotional intelligence, you will find such feedback pro-
vides different insight from personal assessments or personality tests.
They allow us to see ourselves as others see us. For example, to others
we may not be the lion we see in the mirror in the popular picture of the
kitten looking in the mirror and seeing his reflection as a lion.
What is important to realize is that we can develop our emotional
intelligence and by doing so improve our leadership communication
230 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

ability, but we need to understand our strengths and weaknesses

first.

Using Popular Psychological Profiles to Understand

Ourselves Better
Psychological testing can help us gain insight into our behavior and
how we interact with others, as well as how others interact with us. We
can benefit from knowing ourselves better and identifying characteris-
tics that may hinder our ability to interact effectively with others. With
this knowledge, we can work toward modifying unproductive behaviors
and perhaps, at a minimum, understand better why others respond to
us as they do.
Numerous psychological profiling instruments exist for use by indi-
viduals and businesses. Three of the ones considered sound in their
theory and applicability in a professional environment are the FIRO-B,
the Five Factors, and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Each
can assist us in understanding ourselves and others. Since the MBTI is
the most widely used in business, with over 2.5 million tests adminis-
tered in organizations across the world,13 the discussion here focuses
on the MBTI to illustrate how we might use a personality test to under-
stand ourselves better and to manage others more effectively.

Using the MBTI

Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers developed the MBTI using
Carl Jung’s concepts of personality types as the foundation for their
personality assessments. Our individual personality type remains fairly
consistent over time, although environmental influences can alter our
responses slightly when we take one of the MBTI instruments
The MBTI consists of four dichotomies in 16 combinations. The
dichotomies are as follows:
• Extravert (E) vs. Introvert (I)—indicates how we are energized.
• Sensing (S) vs. iNtuitive (N)—suggests how we take in information
and interpret or understand the world.
• Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)—shows how we tend to make decisions.
• Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)—suggests our approach to life and
work.
A person’s type is indicated by a combination of the letters according
to his or her preferences in each of these dichotomies. Exhibit 7.4
lists the characteristics common to each of the individual letter
designations.
An individual type could be an ESTJ, INFP, or any other of the
16 possible combinations. The combinations, not just one of the letter
labels, determine the personality type, although a letter may dominate.
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 231

EXHIBIT 7.4 How Energized How Interpret/Understand

Descriptors
Commonly Used Extravert Introvert Sensing iNtuiting
for Type Outgoing Introspective The five senses The sixth sense
Indicators External Internal What is real What could be
Breadth Depth Present Future
Interactions Concentration Utility Novelty
External events Internal reactions Facts Insights
Expressive Reserved Tangible Theoretical
Gregarious Reflective Actual Fantasy
Multiple Limited Practical Ingenuity
relationships relationships
Speak, then think Think, then speak Specific General
Do-think-do Think-to-do Analyzes Synthesizes
Methodical Random

How Make Decisions How Live and Work

Thinking Feeling Judging Perceiving
Head Heart Control Flow
Objective Subjective Run one’s life Let life happen
Reason Mercy Set goals Adapts
Laws Empathy Decisive Wait and see
Firm but fair Compassionate Resolved Flexible
Just Circumstances Organized Scattered
Clarity Humane Structured Open
Critique Harmony Definite Tentative
Detached Appreciative Scheduled Spontaneous
Analytical Involved Product focus Process focus

The cartoon here illustrates how the types might differ, even in
something apparently as simple as telling time. Starting with the man
on the left and working across the characters, although we cannot
identify all four letters of their types, we can infer that they most likely
represent the following combinations within the types: SJ, NF, IN, EP.
The SJ is very specific and decisive; the NF is general and focused on
circumstances; the IN is concentrating and lost in thought; and the EP
blurts out an answer without thinking and is not even sure what day
it is. The cartoon demonstrates that even a small action can reveal
something about the deeper personality of a person, although again,
we should avoid jumping to conclusions and overgeneralizing about
any type.

Leaders and Thinking vs. Feeling

Remember that no type profile or set of personality characteristics
makes one person better than another. It just makes them different in
232 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Source: Copyright © 1996–1999 Pat Marr.

important ways. Also, no type is necessarily a better leader, although

studies have shown that certain types are better at some tasks than
others. For example, those leaders with “Feeling” as their decision-
making preference are better at some components of emotional intel-
ligence, such as experiencing empathy and recognizing nonverbal
cues, particularly facial expressions.14 That does not mean that leaders
with a “Thinking” preference cannot or do not use feelings to make
decisions; it only suggests that their first inclination is toward logic
and that they may need to work a little harder at drawing out their
emotional intelligence than the “feeling” person does.

Legal Questions
Finally, organizational leaders need to understand the legal ramifica-
tions of such testing and the potential misuse of the information. You
will want to check with your human resources or legal group if you are
thinking of using the tests to help in team formation or dynamics, for
instance, or to screen prospective employees, a widespread and grow-
ing use. A good source of information on the use of psychological tests
in the workplace, including the legal issues, is Hoffman’s Psychological
Testing at Work.

Taking the MBTI

Many assessments, including versions of the MBTI, are available on
the Web, although some require a fee and a psychologist to contact
takers with the results. To appreciate fully the meaning of the MBTI or
any other legitimate personality profile depends on understanding the
assessment and its intentions; therefore, if you plan to take any psy-
chology profile, you may want to consider talking the results over with
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 233

someone licensed to give the test and reading some of the many books
available on it. For instance, on the MBTI, you might find Otto
Kroeger’s Type Talk at Work helpful. It is particularly useful in relating
the test to the workplace and in explaining how different types handle
different jobs and team situations.

The Value of Knowing the MBTI

Knowing our colleagues’ types can help us as a leader understand how
they are motivated and how better to work with them. For example, if
we are having problems with a member of our group missing deadlines
or being late for meetings, knowing that he or she is a “Perceiver” helps
us understand that his or her actions are not meant to be discourteous
or disrespectful. We can then approach the behavior as a performance
issue and provide feedback and perhaps coaching on the importance of
better time management. That may not solve the problem completely,
but if the individual performs well otherwise, we owe it to him or her
and to our organization to recognize the inherent personality trait and
respond appropriately to alter the undesirable behavior.

For Teams
Awareness of personality types can be advantageous in team settings.
If we are working with a group of individuals who are not collaborat-
ing and seem to enjoy working apart solving problems rather than as a
team, we might infer that they are Introverts and pair them up for spe-
cific tasks. If we have the opposite situation, a team of Extraverts and
one Introvert who rarely contributes to the discussions directly but
whom we know to be able to contribute, we can pull the individual
into the discussions directly with specific requests or questions.

For Virtual Teams

More and more, companies are creating teams that are geographically
diverse. These virtual teams have little to no face-to-face interaction,
making emotional intelligence even more important. Understanding
the personalities of those on a virtual team can help a leader guide
them to success. For example, Extraverts on a virtual team will appre-
ciate being able to lead discussions and present findings, whereas
Introverts may prefer offline discussions and private feedback.

For Individuals
Using a personality profile can help in developing our self-awareness
and understanding how best to interact with and manage others. As a
result, it can contribute to personal development and to the dynamics
of teams and even organizations. We need to keep in mind, though,
that the profiles suggest how individuals are motivated and how they
might approach certain situations; they do not predict behavior and
234 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

certainly should not be used to create labels of individuals or even as

ways to excuse a lack of performance of any type.

Developing an Approach to Improving Emotional

Intelligence
After self-reflection and personality testing, can individuals really
change their emotional intelligence? Goleman and others at the EI
Consortium say “yes”: “EI competencies are not innate talents, but
learned abilities, each of which has a unique contribution to making
leaders more resonant, and therefore more effective.”15 To do so
requires that an individual be committed to change and willing to put
in the effort. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee suggest the following
steps “to rewire your brain for greater Emotional Intelligence”:

Steps to Achieving Emotional Intelligence

1. Who do you want to be? Imagine yourself as a highly effective leader. What
do you see?
2. Who are you now? To see your leadership style as others do, gather 360-
degree feedback, especially from peers and subordinates. Identify your weak-
nesses and strengths.
3. How do you get from here to there? Devise a plan for closing the gap
between who you are and who you want to be.
4. How do you make change stick? Repeatedly rehearse new behaviors—physi-
cally and mentally—until they are automatic.
5. Who can help you? Do not try to build your emotional skills alone—identify
others who can help you navigate this difficult process.

Source: Reprinted from Harvard Business Review. From Primal leadership: The hidden driver of great
performance. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., and McKee, A. December 2001. Copyright © 2001 by Harvard
Business School Publishing Corporation; all rights reserved.

This approach calls on us, first, to assess our strengths and weaknesses;
second, to obtain feedback from others on our strengths and weaknesses;
third, to establish our goals; and fourth, to map out a plan to achieve
those goals. At the heart of changing is the self-awareness that we need to
change. Once we have that awareness, a vision of our destination and a
plan to get there, we can improve our emotional intelligence.
According to Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee “An emotionally intelli-
gent leader can monitor his or her moods through self-awareness,
change them for the better through self-management, understand their
impact through empathy, and act in ways that boost others’ moods
through relationship management.”16 This section discussed developing
self-awareness; the focus of the rest of this chapter is on the other side of
emotional intelligence—relationship management through recognizing
nonverbal communication, improving listening skills, developing others
more effectively, and using networking to expand those relationships.
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 235

Improving Nonverbal Skills

The way we dress, walk, carry ourselves, stand in relation to others, use
our hands, move our head, and change our facial expressions—all com-
municate to others. All of these are types of nonverbal communication,
sending messages without using verbal language. As much as 65 to
93 percent of the meaning in communication is nonverbal.17 Knowing
something about nonverbal communication is clearly important for any-
one wanting to improve his or her communication skills and is certainly
important for any leader.
Nonverbal expressions are usually categorized into one of the fol-
lowing groups:

Categories of Nonverbal Communication

1. Appearance—looks, dress, grooming.
2. Paralanguage—vocal cues that accompany speech, such as volume, pitch,
and rate.
3. Kinesics—body movements, such as gestures, posture, head movement.
4. Occulesics—eye movement, such as eye contact or looking away.
5. Proxemics—where you stand or sit in relation to others.
6. Facial expressions—smiles, frowns, sneers.
7. Olfactics—smells.
8. Chronomics—the way time is used.

All of these affect how we are perceived and how we perceive others,
yet studies have shown that people in general are not very good at
interpreting nonverbal behavior accurately.18 In fact, it is only in judg-
ing facial expressions that we tend to be correct.
While the meaning of nonverbal communication involving body lan-
guage differs substantially from culture to culture, researchers have
identified six facial expressions that are consistently and universally
interpreted across cultures: happiness, fear, sadness, surprise, anger,
and disgust.19
We often misinterpret other nonverbal communication, imposing
our thoughts on others instead of accurately reading theirs. Beyond
the common facial expressions, nonverbal signals are so dependent on
culture and context that we need to take great care in interpreting
them.
In most cultures, the following are nonverbals that could hinder our
being viewed positively by others; in other words, they hurt our ethos:
1. Smiling too often or when not appropriate can make us seem
insincere or superficial, and not smiling at all can cause us to be
seen as troubled or unapproachable.
236 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

2. Using gestures not consistent with our message—in other words,

our body says something counter to the words we are saying—may
cause others to question our honesty or veracity.
3. Standing or sitting small or crouching in our chair instead of
standing or sitting up straight and confident will make us appear
timid and unsure of ourselves.
4. Sitting back from the table instead of forward suggests we are not
interested or engaged in the discussion. In negotiations, a common
tactic is to mirror the movements of the other, which we tend to do
unconsciously in many situations; however, we need to be careful
how we use this tactic and be aware of how we are being perceived
by others when we seem to mimic others or move too far from the
ring of discussion.
5. Tilting our head to one side or the other can make us appear to be
questioning the speaker, which, if we are, is appropriate.
6. Raising our eyebrows suggests questioning as well
7. Not maintaining eye contact in many cultures suggests that we
cannot be trusted, whereas in others, it can be considered rude or
aggressive.
8. Placing our computer or briefcase on the table suggests a lack of
concern for others and if we open our laptop we are creating a bar-
rier between us and the others, which could be appropriate in
informal team meetings but in others could be considered incon-
siderate and rude.
9. Looking down at our cell phone or PDA also suggests a lack of
interest and will offend many.
10. Not touching web to web in a handshake can create a weak hand-
shake where only the fingers touch, which we usually want to avoid.
We should have a firm but not tight handshake (see the image below).
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 237

Developing a better understanding of nonverbal communication

can help us in our communication with others and in our understand-
ing of how they perceive our communications. The following are sug-
gestions to improve nonverbal communication skills:
1. Learn as much as possible about any culture in which you
will be interacting. Much of the meaning of nonverbal communi-
cation depends on culture; therefore, you need to know something
about the culture of individuals before you can fully understand
their nonverbal behavior. Edward T. Hall, one of the first to research
and write about culture and nonverbal communication, says that, to
understand people of a different culture, it is as important to know
the nonverbal language (which he calls the “silent language”) as it is
to know the spoken language. He argues that most people, particu-
larly North Americans, are not even aware of nonverbal language
and its impact:
Of equal importance is an introduction to the nonverbal language
which exists in every country of the world and among the various
groups within each country. Most Americans are only dimly aware of
this silent language even though they use it every day. They are not con-
scious of the elaborate patterning of behaviors which prescribes our
handling of time, our spatial relationships, our attitudes toward work,
play, and learning. In addition to what we say with our verbal language,
we are constantly communicating our real feelings in our silent lan-
guage—the language of behavior. Sometimes this is correctly inter-
preted by other nationalities, but more often it is not.20

For example, many hand gestures acceptable in the United States are
not acceptable in the rest of the world. Exhibit 7.5 illustrates fre-
quently used U.S. gestures that should be avoided in most other parts
of the world.

EXHIBIT 7.5
Common U.S.
Hand Gestures
and Their
Meaning

Thumbs Thumbs OK No.1 Victory or

up = approval, down = peace
good, as in we disapproval,
won or we got not good,
the deal as in we lost
the deal
238 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

The discussion of cross-cultural literacy in Chapter 8 will go further

into some of the cultural differences, so for now, simply realize that
nonverbal communication differs across cultures and misinterpreting
it can result in serious miscommunication. Beyond the six universal
facial expressions, few nonverbal signals carry the same meaning
across all cultures. Therefore, anyone doing business with another cul-
ture must learn as much as possible about the role and use of nonver-
bal communication.
2. Do not judge someone’s actions out of context or leave the
actions unexplored when important to you or the organization.
Remember that nonverbal behavior depends on context. What comes
before and what will come after influence it. For instance, if someone
walks past us in a corridor without speaking, we might assume that
the person is irritated with us for some reason. We assign a meaning
to the behavior that attributes an intention or motive to the other
person.
However, the action could have any number of explanations. Per-
haps the person is simply absorbed in thought or perhaps not feeling
well. If the individual is in the midst of writing a report and thinking
about the analysis and perhaps an Introvert as well, then the person
may simply be absorbed in thought. If someone on the team that is
writing this report has shirked his or her responsibility, then the per-
son could be irritated with that individual, not us. Taken out of con-
text, which includes past actions not observable in the present moment
and perhaps unknown to us, we cannot know for sure, so any inter-
pretation on our part is a guess, and again, we have greater confidence
in our ability to interpret nonverbal behavior than is warranted much
of the time.
If it is important for us to know the motivation for the person’s
actions, we need to ask. Too often, rumors and hard feelings grow in
an office environment because people make assumptions based on
nonverbal behavior.
3. Develop an understanding of and sensitivity to nonverbal
cues. Notice, for instance, when what someone says seems to differ
from how he or she is saying it, often a very reliable nonverbal signal.
If the words and the body movement seem in harmony, then the per-
son is comfortable with what he or she is saying. If, however, the move-
ments seem exaggerated or forced, then the person may be
uncomfortable with the audience or with the subject. Pay attention to
facial expressions, volume, pitch, and pace of the voice. To practice
being more sensitive to nonverbal communication, you might want to
engage a group in role-playing exercises, videotape them, and then dis-
cuss the nonverbal communication that occurs.
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 239

4. Assess your own use of nonverbal communication. The best

way to see ourselves as others see us is to videotape and watch ourselves.
To focus on the nonverbal communication, we should watch the tape
with the sound turned off. If we admire someone else’s leadership
image, then we should imitate the movements and behaviors we
observe. While we never want to be false and never can or should move
too far away from our natural self, modeling the movements of others
and practicing them until they are natural for us can be helpful in
breaking habits that we want to change. Confident speakers stand tall,
establish eye contact, move with purpose, and use natural gestures to
underscore or support their messages.
In addition to observing our body language, we should listen to our-
selves giving a presentation, paying attention to our paralanguage (in
this case, if on videotape, listen and not watch). Is our volume too loud
or too soft? Do we talk too fast? Do we use fillers or allow meaningful
pauses? Less skilled speakers often fill up any pauses with “uhs” or let
each thought run right up into the next one. Skilled speakers, use
silence effectively, allowing their audience to absorb their ideas, and
never relying on fillers of any kind.
We need to pay attention to how we dress and use the space
around us. If we want to be accepted by our peers, we must dress
the part. If we want others to see us as the one in charge, we must
arrange our space to suggest our authority. Even where we sit at a
table sends messages to others. How we arrange our office and our
desk says something about us as a person. While all of these exter-
nal symbols can mislead, they do communicate, and a leader must
be sensitive to them.
Nonverbal communication is as meaningful as spoken words, even
more meaningful in many situations and cultures. Leaders must pay
attention to it in any communication situation and strive to be more
observant of the nonverbal signals people send.

Improving Listening Skills

Leaving listening out of any discussion of communication means leaving
out at least 40 to 45 percent of the communication process.21 Good lis-
tening skills are essential, and the lack of them hinders many people’s
careers. Most do not realize that good listening is hard work. According
to Madelyn Burley-Allen in her book Listening: The Forgotten Skill, there
are three levels of listening, with the highest level (Level 1) requiring
more effort than people tend to expend:
240 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Levels of Listening
Level 1—“Empathetic listening,” where you refrain from judgment and listen
with close attention, attempt understanding, and convey a sincere interest in the
speaker’s words.
Level 2—“Hearing words, but not really listening.” Receivers pretend to hear and
even respond; however, they do not understand the speaker’s real intent because
they are focusing on the words at a logical, nonfeeling level only.
Level 3—“Listening in spurts.” Receivers tune in and out, hearing only part of
what is said. They may even be pretending to listen when they are thinking
about something else entirely.

While we should always aim toward maintaining our listening at

Level 1, a number of barriers can interfere with listening, such as the
following:

Common Barriers to Effective Listening

1. The speaker is talking about a subject of no interest to us or is boring. Although
some blame for not listening falls on the listener, the sender carries responsibility
as well.
2. We do not agree with the speaker; therefore, we do not listen to anything
said or we think about counterarguments.
3. We may be more interested in what we have to say than in the other person.
Extroverts easily fall prey to this communication breakdown.
4. We are distracted by other thoughts or by activities around us.
5. We have preconceptions about the subject or the speaker. Either we think we
know what he or she is going to say before it is said, or we have already
formed a judgment about the speaker or the content.
6. We respond emotionally to the words or ideas the person presents and, there-
fore, turn off our hearing to the rest.
7. We become so distracted by the person’s delivery or something about his or
her appearance that we shift our focus away from the words.
8. We only hear what we want to hear and fail to listen to anything else.

In addition to these barriers, we are so bombarded with noise every

day that we become very good at filtering and hearing only what we
want to hear. For example, we can have the radio on in the car and yet
not hear a word the broadcaster is saying. Poor listening can easily
become a habit, but it is one that must be overcome to succeed as lead-
ers in any organization. Obviously, some breakdowns in listening are
more difficult to overcome than others, such as an uninteresting
speaker; however, everyone can become a better listener in all situa-
tions with some effort. The following chart provides 10 ways to
improve your listening habits:
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 241

Ten Ways to Improve Listening Habits

1. Stop talking.
2. Stop thinking ahead to what you are going to say and turn off your own in-
ternal chatter.
3. Avoid multitasking (for example, talking on the phone while working at the
computer or talking to someone in the room; attending to a lecturer while
working at the computer).
4. Try to empathize with the speaker.
5. Don’t interrupt, but ask questions if something is unclear.
6. Focus on the speaker closely, establishing eye contact if appropriate for the
culture, but do not get in a “power stare.”
7. Do not let delivery or appearance distract you.
8. Listen for ideas, not just for facts.
9. Listen with an open mind, not just for what you want to hear.
10. Pay attention to nonverbal cues and what is not said.

As a leader, it is not only essential to be a good listener, but you want

others to see that you are listening. Exhibit 7.6 provides some actions
we can take to signal that we are indeed paying attention to the other
person and actually hearing what he or she is saying.
Again, good listening is not easy, but effective leadership depends on
it. Therefore, we should work on our listening skills, just as we would

EXHIBIT 7.6 Approach Action

Using Verbal and Nonverbal attending • Eye contact
Nonverbal Cues to • Leaning forward
Signal Listening • Minimal encouragement through head
nodding
Source: Adapted from The
Interactive Skills Program, Verbal attending • Oral cues, such as “yes,” “I understand,”
Dalva Hedlund and L. Bryn “Interesting,” etc.
Freedman, Cornell Univer-
sity Cooperative Extension Asking questions • Open questions: how? what? could? would?
Service. Retrieved from • Closed questions: is? are? do? did? Why
http://crs.uvm.edu/gopher /
nerl/personal/comm/e.html.
questions: open and closed
Focusing • Notice the focus. Is it the speaker, topic,
other person, or the listener?
Reflecting • Reinforce and support the speaker
• Clarify meaning of communication
• Reflect factual or feeling content
Summarizing • Recapitulate for easier remembering,
better understanding
• Show relationship of main points
• Go to beginning of discussion (“remem-
bering where we left off”)
• Summarize in mid-discussion
• Drawing together main points at end
242 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

any other communication skills. Practicing the following exercises

may help sharpen listening skills:
1. After a conversation with someone, a lecture, or any event in which
you were primarily a listener, try summarizing what the speaker
said immediately, either on paper or in your mind.
2. In note-taking situations, look at the speakers and really listen to
them; then record the main ideas, instead of trying to write down
every word they say as they say it.
3. Practice paraphrasing others as they speak, but do not interrupt
them.
4. Listen to a news story or something primarily factual and then try to
summarize what you have heard.
If you are not sure whether you are a good listener, you should take
an inventory of your listening habits, by making a list on your own,
asking someone you trust to give you feedback, or taking a listening
assessment. A little self-awareness will help you realize if improvement
is needed and how much.

Motivating and Mentoring

Motivating and developing others tests a leader’s emotional intelli-
gence. Leaders need to be particularly sensitive to the feelings of oth-
ers and able to establish ways to motivate and guide them that work
with our personality and with theirs. Employee development and man-
agement succession are two of our primary responsibilities as leaders,
and we must consciously want to foster the development of those
around us and below us.22 In addition to our own responsibilities for
developing others, we are the model for the others in their roles as
supervisors, mentors, and coaches.
Motivating, mentoring (the longer-term coaching relationships),
and coaching (the shorter-term, usually more specifically focused rela-
tionships) all require a willingness to guide and help develop others
and the ability to communicate effectively, all abilities associated with
being an effective supervisor and leader.

Motivating
Our success as leaders is often measured by our ability to motivate and
develop others. “In organizations, leaders or managers are judged by
the accomplishments of their team, group, subordinates, or projects.
In order to succeed, they must motivate others.”23 The question of
what motivates people has been debated for years, with most discus-
sions going back to Maslow’s Hierarchy in 1954. Maslow tells us that
needs govern people’s actions from the lowest level of survival to those
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 243

less physical and more emotional or psychological, such as the need

for esteem and self-actualization.
Going back even further than Maslow to early organizational stud-
ies, the famous Hawthorne Studies conducted at Western Electric in
1927 found that personal attention to the workers did more to increase
productivity than an improved physical environment, such as better
lighting. Frederick Herzberg’s research in the 1950s and 60s found that
“people are motivated . . . by interesting work, challenge, and increas-
ing responsibility.”24
A much more recent study found that the following are what a good
manager does to motivate subordinates today:
• Provides direct help, adequate resources, and time.
• Reacts to success and failures with a learning orientation versus a
purely evaluative one.
• Sets clear goals and clarifies where the work is heading and why it
matters.
• Recognizes “real work progress” and praises subordinates for it.
• Works collaboratively as a peer.
• Makes things more fun and relaxing.
• Provides emotional support.25
Clearly, motivation is individual, but it is also clear that individuals
share similar needs. Skilled leaders will recognize those needs and
intentionally address them, both for the betterment of the individuals
and for the performance of the organization. Human capital is too
important not to invest in it, and it is up to the leaders in organizations
to fulfill that obligation. Two actions tied to the motivation responsi-
bility are mentoring and coaching.

Mentoring
All of the leadership communication skills discussed in this text so far—
strategy, audience analysis, effective speaking and writing, and emo-
tional intelligence—are required to be effective as a mentor. We should
have a comprehensive strategy for providing mentoring throughout our
organization and for us personally to mentor the individuals working
directly with us. We need to understand those we mentor in the way we
would any audience and use all of the effective writing and speaking
practices with them. Finally, emotional intelligence takes on even
greater importance once we assume the role of mentor. We need to
understand ourselves and others, recognize the importance of nonver-
bal skills in communicating meaning, and be a skilled listener.
To build a successful mentoring program and establish successful
mentoring relationships, we need to establish roles and responsibilities
244 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

for the mentor and the protégé. The Small Business Administration
Web site provides a useful outline of the responsibilities for both:

Responsibilities of a Mentor
1. Provide guidance based on past business experiences.
2. Create a positive counseling relationship and climate of open communication.
3. Help your protégé identify problems and solutions.
4. Lead your protégé through problem-solving processes.
5. Offer constructive criticism in a supportive way.
6. Share stories, including mistakes.
7. Assign “homework” if applicable.
8. Refer your protégé to other business associates.
9. Be honest about business expertise.
10. Solicit feedback from your protégé.
11. Come to each meeting prepared to discuss issues.

Responsibilities of the Protégé

1. Shape the overall agenda for the relationship—know what you want!
2. Establish realistic and attainable expectations.
3. Be open in communicating with your mentor.
4. Establish priority issues for action or support.
5. Don’t expect your mentor to be an expert in every facet of business.
6. Solicit feedback from your mentor.
7. Come prepared to each meeting to discuss issues.

Source: www.sba.gov/smallbusinessplanner/manage/lead/SERV_MENTORING.html.

Together, the mentor and the protégé must establish an approach

for working with each other and, if appropriate, set up a development
plan with agreed-upon objectives. They will also need to communicate
regularly, but the protégé should be mindful of the mentor’s time com-
mitments and be realistic in his or her expectations. Mentors, on the
other hand, owe it to protégés not to commit to more than they can
deliver and to establish boundaries for the protégés.
On the other side, when looking for a mentor, look for someone acces-
sible and willing. A good mentoring relationship requires a commitment
from both sides and is a responsibility both need to respect and honor.

Delivering Feedback
One function that provides ample opportunity for us to use our emo-
tional intelligence to develop others is by providing feedback. Providing
constructive feedback is one of the leadership communication skills
needed to guide as well as motivate others. The ability to provide feed-
back, be a coach to others, is essential for transformational leaders:
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 245

“The leader emphasizes self-development and offers positive feedback

to improve a worker’s performance. The transformational leader wants
followers to become leaders themselves.”26 It is through feedback that
people develop, particularly if the leader providing the feedback recog-
nizes its potential value and uses it as a way to bring about the
receivers’ growth and development and to help the individuals achieve
their own leadership potential.
Feedback should include both praise and criticism. For feedback to
be useful to the receivers, the feedback provider must be as specific as
possible and use words that will motivate the receivers. For instance,
to say, “Your presentation was not very effective” does not tell them
much. They certainly would not walk away with anything specific that
they could change. Instead, we might want to say, “Your presentation
would have been easier for your audience to follow if you had stated
your main message very clearly at the beginning, listing your main
supporting topics, and then going through each of them in order.”
The goal in feedback should be to connect with the receivers in such
a way that they are receptive to what we have to say and leave with the
specific information they need to perform differently in the future.
Planning a feedback session requires the same effort in strategy devel-
opment and audience analysis that we would apply for any communi-
cation situation. The following steps should work effectively when
providing feedback in most professional settings.
1. Be well prepared for the feedback session. Develop a strategy
and analyze your audience. Then, have all of your facts and unbiased
appraisal information at hand. Be aware of any cultural differences
that may have influenced the person’s performance or the way he or
she may respond to your feedback. Also, think about all of the other
communication strategy components: strategic objectives, medium,
timing, and messages.
2. Create a receptive environment. Depending on your primary
objectives and the type of feedback you are providing, you may want to
meet the receivers in their office or a neutral location. If your office
seems most logical and you do not see any reasons for the receivers to
be uncomfortable there, then at least come from behind your desk to
welcome them into your office.
3. Assume a comfortable demeanor. Establish eye contact, but
not in a challenging way. Smile and exchange some small talk, if
appropriate. Use the pronoun “I” instead of “you.” For instance,
instead of saying, “You are not carrying your load on the team,” say,
“I have noticed some distancing on your part from the team. Is there
anything I should know? Or can I help you in some way?”
4. Start by setting the context for the meeting. If it is a yearly
performance review, say so. If the person’s performance has been
246 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

below standard or behavior has been disruptive, perhaps in a team sit-

uation, then start off briefly explaining the situation, focusing on the
facts only.
5. Move quickly into your main objectives, which should not be
so numerous they overwhelm (usually three or four at most). Have
them organized, so that you can move through them, pausing between
each main point to allow the receiver to respond or ask questions.
Throughout, you should focus on behavior rather than the person-
ality of the receiver, and you should be objective and specific. If the
receiver is doing well, what can you say to reinforce success? If he or
she is making mistakes, what specifically needs to be done differently?
If your main focus is on a problem or an issue, first try to bring out any
positives in performance or actions, but do not make things up just to
make the person feel better. If you can do so honestly, you should begin
by focusing on what the receiver is doing well and mention any suc-
cesses. Direct every criticism at an aspect of performance, behavior, or
attitude that is correctable.
6. Ensure throughout that the receiver understands your points.
Do not take understanding for granted. Ask for questions or whether
the receiver needs any clarification.
7. Finally, close with the next steps, being very specific about the
actions you expect the receiver to undertake as a result of this feedback
session and the timing for completing them.
You may find it easier to remember the steps if you put them into
the GROW model, used by Max Landsberg in his book The Tao of
Coaching (Exhibit 7.7).
Any good feedback session depends on listening and doing more
asking than telling. We should always go into a session well prepared
with specific facts and fair assessments. The goal should be to help the
employee, to serve as a coach and mentor. If we display that attitude,
the receiver will be much more receptive to our feedback.
From the other perspective, when others give us feedback, listening is
important. We do not want to be defensive. Instead, we should listen
attentively and show interest in what the person is saying. If we feel he
or she is being vague, ask for examples, but do not appear to be chal-
lenging the person. There is a big difference between “I do not know
what in the world you are talking about; do you have any examples of
this?” and “I am not sure I understand; could you give me an example?”
This section’s discussion has focused primarily on mentoring and
coaching inside an organization, but often leaders mentor individuals
outside as well. These mentoring relationships may be more informal,
but much of these suggestions apply to these arrangements as well.
Mentoring is an important relationship for the mentor and the mentee
and is a tremendous opportunity for both sides to teach and to learn.
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 247

EXHIBIT 7.7 • Agree on topic for discussion • Invite self-assessment

Using the • Agree on specific objective • Offer specific examples
GROW Model of session of feedback
to Structure a • Set long-term aim if • Avoid or check assumptions
Feedback Session appropriate • Discard irrelevant history
Source: Landsberg, M. l
oa R
(1997). The Tao of Coach-

ea
G
ing. Santa Monica, CA:

lit
Knowledge Exchange 1997.

y
Used with permission of
Profile Books.

a dj
us

s
tW
ra

on
st
te p - ti
ra
gy up
Op

• Commit to action • Cover the full range of options

• Identify possible obstacles • Invite suggestions from the
• Make steps specific coachee
and define timing • Offer suggestions carefully
• Agree on support • Ensure choices are made

Networking
Just as mentoring is a valuable opportunity for both professionals in
the relationship, networking offers another way to connect with others
and “give back” in our professional and personal life. Networking calls
on our emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills to extend our-
selves and connect to communities of practice inside and outside of
our organizations. Today, it is a necessary part of doing business in all
professions. It is not enough just to be good at what we do; we need to
belong to professional organizations and attend events to get to know
our colleagues, expand our knowledge base, and be recognized, as well
as to advance. All professionals work long hours and find breaking
away a challenge, but making the time to network offers learning
opportunities and helps us build the relationships that may be essen-
tial to advance in many career areas.
Introverts or shy individuals may be somewhat apprehensive about
attending networking events. While networking may come more natu-
rally to some than to others, it can be learned by all, and everyone can
become good at it. The benefits can be tremendous for us profession-
ally and personally and far outweigh any perceived risks.
As with any important communication activity, before we head out
to participate in a professional event, we need to be prepared. This
preparation involves four simple steps:
248 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

1. Consider the benefits of the event.

2. Prepare an appropriate self-introduction.
3. Be ready to open a conversation and keep it moving.
4. Have a plan for following up after the event.
First, to consider the benefits of the event, we can ask is we are going
with the purpose of learning something new. Perhaps we want to meet
someone we know will be in attendance at the event. For example, we
may want to find someone who is an expert in an area of interest to us.
Next, we need to learn a bit about the organization and the usual
participants in an event and to determine what is expected in terms of
dress, location, and schedule. All of us feel more confident when we are
well prepared; therefore, we should practice our own brief “self-intro-
duction.” We should walk into any professional or social networking
event ready to deliver our one-minute introduction, our elevator speech
on ourselves. It should be a crisp, concise overview of who we are and
what we do. It might include our position in an organization with some
information about the organization, if unknown to listeners.
Next, we need to be prepared to open a conversation and be an
interesting conversational partner. This might sound daunting, but
remember that if two people are in a room together, they most likely
have something in common. If we determine what that commonality
is, we can form an opening question or comment about it. For exam-
ple, most people can easily relate to the experience of attending a wed-
ding with many people they do not know. After saying “hello,” we
might ask, “Are you friends with the bride or the groom?” At a profes-
sional conference, we might follow up on our self-introduction with a
few questions, such as “Were you at the conference last year?” or
“Which sessions did you find most helpful to your work?”
After opening a conversation, we can then move to additional top-
ics. To be effective at networking, we need to be good listeners and
master the ability to make small talk, which for some personalities is a
challenge. However, some advance preparation can be of help, such as
reading the news and keeping up with local and professional activities.
For example, looking at the blogs or discussion forums for profes-
sional conferences can help us identify current topics. We do need to
make sure, however, that we can converse about more than just pro-
fessional topics.
If we know others at the event, we can offer to introduce our new
conversational partner to some other attendees. If the timing and situ-
ation seem right, we can ask for a business card. After the event, we
should write the date of the event and some brief comments about the
person we met on the back of the card and enter this information into
our contact management system soon before we forget the details.
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 249

Finally, what we do after the event can be just as important as the

event itself in building our network. We need to stay in touch with our
contacts. For example, knowing that they are interested in certain
areas, we might see an article or a Web site we think might be of inter-
est to them, which we can send to them. Professional networking, like
mentoring, is a two-way street.
New media have changed the face of professional networking, with
numerous Web sites available, such as Facebook and LinkedIn, to
name just two of the over 100 sites. Even if mainly for the shy or intro-
verted, these new social media can provide avenues to connect profes-
sionally to others of similar professional interests. After we have met
new contacts at an event, we can invite them to join us online and our
network will continue to grow. Many of these sites offer question
boards or opportunities for further discussions. In fact, these sites
have made it very easy to stay connected with just a few mouse clicks.
One word of caution: We also need to realize that Web sites are pub-
lic places open to all. We need to be aware of the appropriate security
settings and use caution in posting personal information or anything
that we would not want professional contacts to see. We all have heard
horror stories of individuals losing job opportunities because of inap-
propriate materials posted on their Facebook page or tagged on the
pages of others.
The bottom line is that getting outside ourselves and connecting in
sincere and meaningful ways with others inside our professional arena
is important, and networking is one method to do so. It can expand
our sphere of influence and increase our leadership visibility and
potential impact.
Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States, said,
“The most important single ingredient in the formula of success is
knowing how to get along with people.” Essentially, that is the thrust of
emotional intelligence. People who relate well to others do better in
the workplace and as leaders of organizations. They are able to moti-
vate and inspire others to perform up to their potential, a skill every
leader should possess, and one particularly important for transforma-
tional leaders.
Transformational leaders connect with others openly and honestly.
They have emotional intelligence and display their interpersonal skills.
They are sensitive to the verbal and nonverbal communication that
surrounds them. They are good listeners. They are receptive to being
mentored and to mentoring others. Doing so effectively is one
approach they use to bring about change. They are sincerely interested
in others and care about them, and they show it, whether connecting
to others in person individually or in groups or through the numerous
electronic channels available today.
250 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Application 7.1 For this exercise, you will work with two other people. You will each assume
Improving one of three roles: speaker, listener, and observer. You will rotate the roles, so
that each person has an opportunity to participate in each one. The speaker
Listening Habits
should spend about two minutes telling the listener about an event or accom-
plishment that made him or her feel proud or happy while the third person
observes. The listener should not interrupt at all in this one-way conversation.
After the speaker is finished, the listener should tell the speaker what he or she
heard—not only the facts but also some generalizations about the person
made on the basis of the facts. The observer should then tell both what he or
she heard and observed.
For example, if Galen tells Karim about a time he trained daily for three
months to ride his bicycle in a charity marathon, Karim might tell him in
return not only the facts he heard about Galen’s training but also some
assumptions about Galen: perhaps that he is motivated, is dedicated to meet-
ing his goals, and cares about the nonprofit organization for which he was
raising funds.
Now, switch roles and repeat the exercise.

Source: Exercise created by Beth O’Sullivan and Deborah J. Barrett. Used with permission.

Application 7.2 The Case: Coaching Employees

Providing You are the manager of a small group of people responsible for an introduc-
Feedback tory training program for new employees at your company. Your group con-
sists of the following people:
• Rosanna, senior-level trainer with 12 years of experience, 10 at your company.
• Susan, senior-level trainer with 7 years of experience, 4 at your company.
• Hari, senior-level trainer with 15 years of experience, 2 at your company.
• Yang, administrative assistant, 7 years with your company.
Your group decides on the specific content of the training material, based on
the needs of the trainees, and then creates the materials (including lectures,
handouts, and exercises), conducts the training sessions, and provides the
feedback. Although the content for the training is fairly consistent from year to
year, it does require some adjustments to match the number of attendees, the
needs indicated in the assessments of the trainees before each session, and
their course evaluations at the end of each session. The exercises, in particular,
change frequently. Also, the instruction for each session depends on the previ-
ous session. The trainees receive feedback shortly after each session and must
complete a lesson successfully before moving on to the next one. Thus, your
group has two critical deadlines: one for preparing the materials and one for
providing timely feedback.
Susan and Hari are both excellent trainers. In fact, their evaluations have
been some of the highest of any trainers you have had working for you in the
past, except for Rosanna, who has consistently received the highest rankings
since you hired her 10 years ago. All of the trainers are very dedicated to the
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 251

company and to their jobs. Lately, however, you have received negative com-
ments about trainers’ tardiness in returning feedback, particularly directed at
Susan. Susan and Hari are called “Perceivers” in the Myers-Briggs Type Indi-
cator terminology, which means they are easygoing, flexible, spontaneous, and
open, all very positive qualities for trainers, since it improves their ability to
interact with the trainees and to be creative. However, it also means they are
not very good at judging time, often wait until the last minute to get things
done, and sometimes miss deadlines altogether.
Susan and Hari’s frequent tardiness has caused extra work for Rosanna,
who is always punctual and ends up having to complete some of Susan’s and
Hari’s feedback forms and step in when they do not make their deadlines in
creating materials. It also creates problems for Yang, since she has had to stay
late and come in early several times to duplicate materials.
To ensure that all feedback is delivered on time and that all materials are
prepared ahead of time, you decide to try what you think of as “micromanag-
ing,” even though you do not like doing it. You meet with the group to estab-
lish (1) group deadlines for returning feedback and (2) specific responsibilities
and deadlines for each lesson (divided up evenly among all of you). You want
to make sure each of you has time to review the materials and make any
adjustments before they go to the trainees, so you have specified that all mate-
rials be completed and sent to each of you at least a week before they need to
be sent out for copying and distribution.
So far (you are just three months into the yearlong training program),
Susan and Hari have frequently given handouts to Yang at the last minute and
in some cases within as little as 10 minutes before a training session, resulting
in mistakes in the handouts and late starts for the sessions. They rarely make
the one-week-ahead-of-time deadline to distribute their materials to the rest of
the group, and they wait until the absolutely last minute to return their com-
ments on the materials sent to them for review. Also, both have been late
returning feedback to the attendees, and Hari has completely forgotten to pre-
pare the materials for one of the training sessions, leaving you and Rosanna
scrambling at the last minute to get them together. For the sake of your own
stress level but, more important, to ensure that the training program continues
to receive positive reviews from senior management, you know you must talk
to Susan and to Hari.

The Assignment
In breakout groups, answer the following questions:
• What are some of the issues you should resolve before talking to Susan and
Hari?
• Should you meet only with both of them individually, with each member of
the group individually, or with everyone at the same time?
• How should you conduct the session (consider using the GROW model)?
• How can you ensure that the outcome will be what is best for you and for
them?
After answering these questions, individuals may be asked to volunteer to
demonstrate a feedback session based on the case.
252 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Application 7.3 As discussed in this chapter, we should always have an elevator

The Elevator speech—a very short (30-second) introduction to who we are and what
Speech we do—that we can deliver when we meet others. For this exercise,
Introduction to you are being asked to create and practice your introductory elevator
You speech.
1. Working with a partner, pretend that you are attending an event—a profes-
sional conference or some other networking event. In that context, prepare
a 30-second crisp, concise self-introduction for someone who does not
know you at all.
2. Deliver your introduction to one another.
3. Generate a few opening questions or remarks that could open a conversation.
4. Now, give each other feedback and do it again

Notes 1. The term “emotional intelligence” has been used by organizational psy-
chologists for years, but it first became well known in business after the
publication of Daniel Goleman’s book by the same name.
2. “Several writers (e.g., Bennis,1989; Megerian & Sosik,1996) have argued
that one aspect of EQ, self-awareness, is integral to transformational lead-
ership effectiveness.”
3. Gary, L. (2002). Becoming a Resonant Leader, Harvard Management Update
7, No. 7, pp. 4–6.
4. Weisinger, H. (1998). Emotional Intelligence at Work. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
5. Bar-On, R., and Parker, J. D. A. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of Emotional
Intelligence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
6. “Obama: A Leadership Report Card,” BusinessWeek, April 20, 2009.
7. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., and McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership: Real-
izing the Power of Emotional Intelligence. Boston: Harvard Business School
Press.
8. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002).
9. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002).
10. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002).
11. Goleman, Boyatzis, and Mckee (2002).
12. Weisinger (1998).
13. Hoffman, E. (2002). Psychological Testing at Work. New York: McGraw-
Hill. For a discussion of the reliability of MBTI in studying manager per-
sonalities, see Gardner, W. L., and Martinko, M. J. (1996). Using the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to Study Managers: A Literature Review and
Research Agenda, Journal of Management 22, No.1, pp. 45–83.
14. Morand, D. A. (Fall 2001). The Emotional Intelligence of Managers: Assess-
ing the Construct Validity of a Nonverbal Measure of “People Skills.” Journal
of Business and Psychology 16, pp. 21–33; Gardner and Martinko (1996).
15. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002).
16. (2001). Primal Leadership: The Hidden Driver of Great Performance.
Harvard Business Review. 79, No. 11, pp. 42–51.
 Chapter 7 Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders 253

17. Albert Mehrabian found that 55 percent of our message is communicated

through our body language and 38 percent through our voice, which
means 93 percent of communication is nonverbal.
18. Goleman, D. (1991). Nonverbal Cues Are Easy to Misinterpret, New York
Times, p. C-1. Also see Morgan, N. (August 2002). The Truth behind the
Smile and Other Myths. Harvard Management Communication Letter.
19. Morand (2001).
20. Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
21. Nichols, R. G., and Stevens, L. (1957). Are You Listening? New York:
McGraw-Hill.
22. Roche, G. R. (1979). Much Ado about Mentors. Harvard Business Review,
January–February.
23. Harris, T. E., and Nelson, M.D. (2008). Applied Organizational Communi-
cation: Theory and Practice in a Global Environment, 3rd ed. New York:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
24. Herzberg, F. (2003). One More Time: How Do We Motivate Employees. Best
of Harvard Business Review reprint of 1968 article, 81, No. 1, pp. 30–42.
25. Amabile, T. M., and Kramer, S. J. (2007). Inner Work Life: Understanding
the Subtext of Business Performance, Harvard Business Review. 85, No. 5,
pp. 72–83.
26. Tucker, B. A., and Russell, R. F. (2004). The Influence of the Transformational
Leader, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies 10, No. 4, p. 103
Chapter
8
Cross-Cultural Literacy
and Communication
Our globalized, multicultural world requires leaders with
a keen understanding of national cultures. By learning
from other countries, culturally literate leaders build
cultural bridges, enabling them to leverage culture as a
tool for competitive advantage.
Robert Rosen (2000). Global Literacies: Lesson on Business Leadership
and National Cultures. New York: Simon & Schuster

The growing importance of world business creates a

strong demand for leaders who are sophisticated in
international management and skilled at working
with people from other countries. . . . Leaders are . . .
faced with the difficult challenge of convincingly pre-
senting their vision to a multicultural and highly
diverse workforce and implementing it in an uncertain
environment. This requires the ability to decide,
communicate, and interact in a culturally sensitive
and appropriate manner.
Deanne N. Den Hartog (2004). Leading in a Global Context: Vision
in Complexity, Blackwell Handbook of Global Management

254
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 255

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Define culture.
• Recognize major cultural differences.
• Connect and communicate across cultures.

Leaders need an understanding of and appreciation for cultural diver-

sity, called cross-cultural literacy here. It means being literate or
knowledgeable about the fundamental differences across cultures.
Realizing the value of cultural differences is a key component of emo-
tional intelligence and absolutely essential for leading in today’s
global environment. Technology has enabled cross-global communi-
cation and made working across time zones, geographies, and nation-
alities a given for most professionals today. In addition, organizations
seek diversity in order to compete, and leaders need to be better edu-
cated about culture to lead effectively and to take full advantage of the
value diversity provides.
We would hope the days of the “Ugly American” depicted in a book
of that name published in 1958 are gone, although numerous Web
sites suggest that is not the case, and examples abound of companies
and U.S. visitors to other countries committing cultural gaffes and
lacking sensitivity to cultural differences.
For example, one global computer company, which planned to
expand its business by partnering with companies in India, brought
the future partners to a meeting at its headquarters, where cowhides
were hanging in the elevators. How must the future partners have felt
riding in an elevator surrounded by the skins of an animal that they
hold sacred, with the slaughter of cows illegal in all but two states in
India? Does that mean the company should change its decor for this
one meeting? Perhaps not, but it should have a greater awareness of
the cultural differences of countries with which it plans to do business
on any regular basis.
While bad examples are always easy to find, since they are more
visible to the public, examples are becoming more numerous of com-
panies taking cross-cultural literacy seriously and establishing com-
prehensive cultural diversity training. For example, Royal Dutch
Shell, a global group of energy and petrochemical companies head-
quartered in the Netherlands, has a diversity vision statement and
conducts frequent diversity training sessions across all employee
groups. Shell uses the “Iceberg of Differences” (Exhibit 8.1) to demon-
strate how complex culture is and to illustrate how many cultural dif-
ferences lie below the surface.1
256 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 8.1
Waterline of ty Ge
The Iceberg of nici
Eth nd
er
Differences Visibility
Physical Rac e Age
Ability
y

Wealth
lit

La
a rk Social

Cu
on Wo e

ng
i l Status

ltu
at Sty

ua
N

re

ge
s
Gender, race, age, physical ability, nationality, religion, and language
are the tip of the iceberg, and of course, an understanding of these dif-
ferences improves a leader’s ability to interact with internal and exter-
nal audiences. An appreciation for all of the differences below the
surface will increase a leader’s emotional intelligence and greatly
improve his or her interpersonal skills and ability to communicate
effectively with today’s typically diverse workforce.
Countries, areas of a country, companies, and even functions within
a company can have different cultures, as can online and face-to-face
social networks. Men and women exhibit cultural differences, as do
generations. Often, these differences are thought of in a company con-
text as diversity. Fortunately, most companies have come to realize the
value of diversity and seek it; many are diverse naturally because they
are truly global and contain different nationalities throughout the
company.
This chapter will first define culture, then help you understand and
manage cultural differences, and conclude with how best to connect
and communicate across cultures.
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 257

Defining Culture
The term “culture” has numerous definitions, some rather narrow and
others much broader. For instance, some think of culture as associated
with levels of society or with nationality or geography. For anthropolo-
gists, culture is much broader: It is “the way of life of a people, or the
sum of their learned behavior patterns, attitudes, and material things.”2
It is the way people make sense of and give meaning to their world. It is
the frame of reference and the behavior patterns of groups of people. It
includes social characteristics as well as physical characteristics, gen-
der, age, profession, organizational function, and company structure
and style. Culture is not personality. Culture is learned and shared
equally by those of the same group, whereas personality is highly indi-
vidual and influenced by our genes and our environment.
A definition that is useful when talking about communicating
across cultures is that “culture is a fuzzy set of attitudes, beliefs, behav-
ioral conventions, and basic assumptions and values that are shared by
a group of people, and that influence each member’s behavior and
his/her interpretations of the ‘meaning’ of other people’s behavior.”3
The key words here are “interpretations” and “meaning.” Culture is the
lens through which we see others, understand them and their words,
and interpret the meaning of those words and respond.

The Layers of Culture

Geert Hofstede, a leading researcher on understanding cultural differ-
ences, provides a very useful way to look at the layers of the cultures to
which we belong (Exhibit 8.2).
Looking closer at the Hofstede’s layers of culture helps us realize
how complex culture can be. Most of us realize that someone from
Japan would differ from someone from Mexico or someone from
Germany would differ from someone from Australia in language and
behavior, but fewer realize that someone from northern Germany
would behave differently than someone from southern Germany and
someone from the Northeast coast of the United States would differ
from someone from the Midwest. Still fewer recognize that those who
use FriendFeed differ in meaningful ways from the Twitter crowd, as
do those who prefer MySpace over Facebook.
What we see are finer differences but differences worth realizing
when communicating. For example, in business dealings with someone
from New York, we would speak in English, but we would find the pace
quick and the communication style usually very direct, whereas in a
conversation with someone from Dallas, we would also speak English,
258 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 8.2 1. A national level according to one’s country (or countries for people who
The Layers of
migrated during their lifetime)
Culture
2. A regional/and or ethnic and/or religious and/or linguistic affiliation
Source: Hofstede, G. level, as most nations are composed of culturally different regions and/or
(1997). Cultures and ethnic and/or religious and/or language groups
Organizations: Software of
the Mind. New York: 3. A gender level, according to whether a person was born as a girl or as
McGraw-Hill. Used with a boy
permission of the author.
4. A generation level, which separates grandparents from parents from
children
5. A social class level, associated with educational opportunities and with a
person’s occupation or profession
6. For those who are employed, an organizational or corporate level
according to the way employees have been socialized by their work
organizations

but the pace would usually be a little shower and the communication
style would be more indirect.
Then, if we layer gender on top of these differences, we would prob-
ably see more differences in behavior and communication, and even
more if we added a generational difference. The behavior and commu-
nication style of a 25-year-old woman from New York would differ
quite a bit from that of a 40-year-old man from Dallas.
In fact, much has been made of the huge generational differences in
the newest group of individuals joining the workforce, the millennials.
Exhibit 8.3 shows some of the generalized differences we would prob-
ably find across generations.

EXHIBIT 8.3 Label Date of births Generalized Traits

A Brief Look at
Generational Traditionalists 1925–1945 Patriotic, dependable, conformisst,
Differences respect authority, rigid, socially and
financially conservative, solid work ethic
Source: Alsop, R. (2008).
The Trophy Kids Grow Up:
Baby Boomers 1946–1964 Workaholics, idealistic, loyal, competitive,
How the Millennial Genera- materialistic. seek personal fulfillment,
tion Is Shaking Up the value titles and the corner office
Workplace. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. Gen Xers 1965–1979 Self-reliant, adaptable, cynical, distrust
authority, resourceful, entrepreneurial,
tech savvy
Millennials 1980–2001 Entitled, optimistic, civic minded, close
(also called parental involvement, value work–life
Gen Y) balance, impatient, multitasking,
team-oriented
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 259

Anyone looking at Exhibit 8.3 and the description of his or her gen-
eration might say, “Wait; I am not like that.” What this layering discus-
sion shows us is the complexity of any discussion of culture, but it also
highlights the danger of overgeneralizing, or stereotyping. Generaliz-
ing is potentially useful but also can be dangerous in cross-cultural
communication. People from one country will resemble each other in
many ways, but they will also differ.
For example, in the United States are 9,408,802 square miles of
geography, a melting pot of cultures representing tremendous
diversity, and people brought up to be individualistic. We are also
looking at people who have been born and raised in one area and
never left it, and others who were born in another country, moved to
the United States as a teenager, and are fluent in English and their
birth language. We may also be looking at people with little educa-
tion and travel experiences and those well educated and well
traveled.
If we add to this mix different professional interests—such as
lawyers, doctors, accountants, philosophers—we cannot help but ques-
tion the value of any attempt to describe cultural differences, but there
is value.
To be sure, academic learning about culture can provide only a
basic level of cross-cultural literacy:

Productive cross-cultural relationships require each individual to

embark on a personal learning journey that initially can be even
more frustrating than it is rewarding. Academic learning is useful, of
course, but it is the direct knowledge accumulated in the day-to-day
act of conducting business across cultures that is ultimately most
meaningful. This is the kind of learning that allows people to
understand not simply the surface signs of cultural differences . . .
but, far more importantly, the invisible meanings beneath such
differences.4

Few would argue that, to understand a culture fully, we must live

it—breathing the air, speaking the language, existing as one with the
people. However, using standard, reliable frameworks to learn about
cultural differences, as well as being exposed to some guiding princi-
ples, will aid us in establishing a foundation on which to build a better
understanding and appreciation of culture and its impact on the way
we interact and communicate.
The next section provides those frameworks and principles and
should help you approach diverse audiences with greater confidence
and an appreciation for the differences. Understanding another culture
requires setting aside a tendency to judge others and being open and
flexible. In short, it demands that we draw on the best of our emo-
tional intelligence.
260 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Recognizing Major Cultural Differences

The many books on international communication and on traveling in
other countries, such as Roger Axtell’s numerous and useful “Do’s and
Taboos” of international business, provide guidelines on basic verbal
and nonverbal communication in most countries. They cover such top-
ics as gestures to avoid, dining customs, gift giving, and even exchange
of business cards.
Axtell’s books cover many social customs, answering important
questions such as the following:
• What are some customs related to lunch and dinner invitations?
• How are gifts viewed? Are they expected in business settings or
when visiting someone’s home in another culture? If they are
expected, what is acceptable?
• What are appropriate greetings?
• What is appropriate to discuss when? For example, are business
topics acceptable in informal social gatherings? On the other hand,
would it be polite to discuss families at business lunches?
• What gestures should be avoided? See Chapter 7 for more on gestures.
When visiting another culture, we should always review such do’s
and don’ts, but this section does not provide that kind of information
because it is so specific to the country being visited. Instead, it pro-
vides frameworks and questions to help you recognize major cultural
differences, so that you will better understand the diverse audiences to
whom and with whom you will be communicating on a deeper, more
universal level.
The frameworks and questions serve as tools to guide you to the
areas of differences, and the examples provided illustrate some of
those differences. The objective of this discussion is to move you closer
to an acceptance level, where you are mindful and respectful of the
many differences you will encounter in leading organizations.5
A number of frameworks help individuals define and organize the
most important cultural differences. It is difficult to cover all of the
most universal categories in which to place all the possible cultural dif-
ferences, but cultural frameworks can be highly useful to give insight
into cultural differences and to help us approach culture systemati-
cally and nonjudgmentally.
One useful cultural framework in a business or professional context
was developed by Mary O’Hara-Devereaux and Robert Johansen for
their book Globalwork. They argue that, “while the learning process is
endless, simple frameworks can help you develop a sense of compe-
tence. Understanding the various levels of diversity—physical, social,
professional, functional, even spiritual—provides a good beginning.
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 261

EXHIBIT 8.4 The Five Cultural Variables in

A Framework for Holographic Relationship
Cultural Variables
te
Source: O’Hara-Devereaux, Con xt
M., and Johansen, R. (1994).
Globalwork. Jossey-Bass
Publishers. Used by
permission of John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.
Equ
alit
y

La
n
gu
Time ag
e Pow
er

Learning to view each of these levels through the lens of language, con-
text, time, power/equality, and information flow adds invaluable
insights.”6 One advantage of their framework is that it shows the inter-
dependence of the variables, each crossing and interrelating with the
other (Exhibit 8.4).
These five variables are important to and applicable across all cul-
tures. If we add collectivism versus individualism and spirituality and
tradition, we have a very complete list of the differences we will see
across cultures:
1. Context
2. Information flow
3. Time
4. Language
5. Power and equality
6. Collectivism versus individualism
7. Spirituality and tradition
These are the variables anthropologists use most often when making
distinctions about culture.7 Understanding each of them will provide
you with a platform on which to begin your audience analysis and
determine your strategy for communicating and interacting effectively
with people from other cultures.
262 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Context
The first topic in almost any discussion of culture will be “context,” a
theory first explored at length by Edward T. Hall in his groundbreak-
ing work on culture. Context was used in chapter 2 to denote what is
going on around us that might affect the choices we make as part of a
communication strategy. In cultural studies, context emphasizes what
is going on outside and what is going on inside individuals that influ-
ences the way they interact with others and understand the words and
behavior of others. In short, context is anything that surrounds and
accompanies communication and gives meaning to it.8
Cultures and professions can be arrayed on a spectrum ranging
from low-context to high-context. Exhibit 8.5 shows the placement of
cultures on the high/low-context spectrum.
High-context cultures rely more extensively on interpersonal rela-
tionships to understand meaning and place less importance on verbal
messages and more on nonverbal, such as tone, gestures, and facial
expressions. They emphasize trust, intuition, and the importance of
getting to know people. These cultures tend to be community-oriented,
valuing group harmony and consensus over individual accomplish-
ments. Saving face is important to them. Their communication style
tends to be indirect.
As a result of the need to get to know people before doing business
with them, in high-context cultures, reaching agreements can take
much longer than in a low-context culture, which tends to be more
impatient and bottom-line driven. Japan and functions such as human
resources and corporate communication are high-context cultures. In
addition, many social networks tend to be high-context; for example,

EXHIBIT 8.5
By Culture High-Context By Profession
Cultures as Usually
Placed on the Japanese Human Resources
High/Low-Context Chinese [Communication]
Spectrum Arab
Marketing/Sales
Greek
Source: Cultures column Mexican Management
from Copeland, L. &
Griggs, L. (1986). Going Spanish Manufacturing Products
International: How to Make Italian
Friends and Deal Effec- R&D
tively in the Global Market-
French
Technical
place. New York: Random French Canadian
House. Used with permis- English Information Systems
sion. Profession/function
column, with additions in English Canadian [Computer]
brackets, from O’Hara- American
Devereaux, M. & Johansen, Engineers
R. (1994). The information
Scandinavian
German Finance
is used by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. German-Swiss [Accounting]
Low-Context
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 263

LinkedIn has a place for members to post questions and get a wide
variety of answers, and members can vote on the best answer. Many
such collaborative decision-making tools have arisen in a variety of
social networking spaces.
In contrast, low-context cultures depend on explicit verbal mes-
sages and rely less on interpersonal relationships for meaning in com-
munication. They tend to value facts and figures, are very direct and to
the point when communicating, and expect contracts and legal agree-
ments in business dealings. In fact, the attitude toward agreements
and contracts is one major difference between high and low context. In
the low-context cultures, contracts are seen as firm and inflexible.
Once two sides have shaken hands, and particularly after they have
signed the contract, the agreement cannot be modified without major
problems and legal intanglements. The United States and accounting
and finance functions exemplify low-context cultures.
Low-context cultures tend to use a more direct form of communica-
tion, whereas high-context cultures will be more indirect. Exhibit 8.6
demonstrates the range of cultures in terms of direct and indirect com-
munication styles. Cultures using a more direct style will usually
emphasize independence and individuality. They will be forthright,
appearing confident and authoritative. Their directness may be inter-
preted by some as being too aggressive when they state their opinions
without qualification. In fact, those used to a more indirect style, may
see the direct communicator as rude.
Indirect communication, on the other hand, will be used in cultures
valuing harmony and community togetherness. They will avoid con-
frontations and often state their opinion so indirectly that those from
direct cultures will not understand them. For example, they will not
say “no” directly; instead they may say, “perhaps” or “maybe,” which
leaves the direct communicator thinking the door is open, when in the
mind of the indirect speaker, it may be clearly closed.
Exhibit 8.7 illustrates some of the common differences between
low-context and high-context cultures that we might see in a profes-
sional setting. As discussed earlier in this text, all communication
exists in a context. Recognizing that the importance of context will dif-
fer from culture to culture is essential. For some cultures, context is
EXHIBIT 8.6 Spain Middle
Direct versus United East
Indirect Kingdom Mexico
Communication
Styles Direct Indirect

Source: Storti, C. (1999).

Figuring Foreigners Out. United States France Africa Japan
Intercultural Press.
Germany Russia Southeast
Asia
China
264 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 8.7 Areas High Context Low Context

Differences in
Low- and High- Space • Executive offices shared • Executive offices separated
Context and open to all and access controlled
Professional • May have several • Expect to meet with one
Environments people in their office at person alone and not have
one time, even with others lingering about
Source: Table created with
information adapted from
formal appointments during an appointment
O’Hara-Devereaux, M., and with someone
Johansen, R. (1994). Glob- • Stand close to each other • Set boundaries and will be
alwork the groupings and
some examples supplement in business conversations uncomfortable if someone
O’Hara-Devereaux and Jo- and may be offended if moves too close
hansen and draw on Hall & someone moves away
Hall (1989) and Samovar &
Porter. The information is Information • Do not expect or want de- • Heavy reliance on detailed
used by permission of tailed information and feel background information
Wiley and Sons, Inc.
irritated when pressed for it in written or verbal form
• Information shared with • Information highly central-
everyone ized and distribution con-
trolled by a few people
• Comfortable in a sea of • Overload if information
information flows in a fast, disorga-
nized manner
Relationships • Relationships more impor- • Objective (information
tant than objective data based) rather than subjec-
tive (relationships based)
• Overlap between business • Business and social
and social relationships relationships
compartmentalized
Status • Authority and status • Competence given
more important than equal/more weight than
technical skills position and status
• Invitations to functions • Business meeting invitation
based on person’s status based on competence
rather than competence
Meetings • Meetings often announced • Meetings with fixed
on short notice; key people agendas and plenty of
always accept advance notice
Decision • Each new factor and item • Reluctance to act
Making cautiously evaluated to be without a great deal of
sure of implications current information

more important than the words one individual might communicate to

another. For others, getting to the point with words is all that matters.
Again, it would be easy to overgeneralize about context differences. It
may be typical for a person from the United States or for an accountant
to rely less on context and more on the words that are exchanged, look-
ing for actual facts and figures and not for the meaning between the
words, the way the words are spoken, or the body language that might
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 265

accompany the message. However, this stereotypical expectation will

not be valid for everyone from the United States or for every accountant.

Information Flow
The importance of context in a culture, high or low, influences how
individuals approach exchanges of information and determines how
messages flow between people and levels in organizations. It also
controls who initiates communication and with whom, what kinds of
messages are sent, what channels are preferred, and how formal or
informal the exchange of information will be.
For instance, businesspeople in the Untied States are known for
their directness and “bottom-line” mentality. They want the “so what?”
right up front and do not want to read through a lengthy prologue to
get to it. Information flow refers to “how” and “how fast” information
is exchanged.
The following are some questions we should ask to understand bet-
ter the cultural expectations of information flow:
1. How fast does a message travel from one part of the organization to
another, from one person to another?
2. Can and does the information travel directly, or must it go through
levels or channels?
3. How much context is needed to ensure that the information is
understood?
4. How should information be linked and sequenced—or looped—to
produce the intended results?
5. What are the most effective means of packaging information to
produce the right responses?
6. Does the culture prefer words, graphics, or some combination?
7. How should the information be organized: directly or indirectly?
8. Does the culture prefer written communication to oral?
9. Is the culture comfortable with informality in presentations or
meetings?
With the rise of social media, corporations in many areas of the
world are feeling the pressure to make their organizations more trans-
parent and to provide more information freely to the public at large.
More and more, people expect to be able to connect with organizations
through a variety of technologies, and they expect the organizations to
respond in kind. This is having a powerful impact on information flow
in many companies, and the trend will likely continue.

Time
Henry David Thoreau, a North American writer influenced by Eastern
philosophical ideas and North American Indian culture, said, “Time is
266 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

but a stream I go a-fishing in.” This view of time is referred to in dis-

cussions of cultural frameworks as polychronic, that is, believing that
time is a state of being consisting of many events occurring at once.
Polychronic time is open-ended and flexible, and people are more
important than promptness and schedules. The opposite cultural view
of time is called monochronic.
People in monochronic cultures believe that time is linear, is divisible,
and consists of one event at a time. Time is a commodity and is meant to
be measured and managed, conserved or wasted, spent wisely or fool-
ishly. Events are scheduled sequentially, one at a time, and this schedule
takes precedence over relationships and people. High-context cultures
tend to be polychronic and low-context monochronic. For instance,
North Americans see time as a scarce resource, and the expression “time
is money” conveys the kind of value placed on time in U.S. business.
In addition to the polychronic/monochronic difference, cultures
also differ in how they view the past, present, and future. Some see
now as all there is and think it presumptuous to try to control or pre-
dict the future. Others value the past more. The typical North Ameri-
can is strongly oriented toward the future and devalues what is
happening now as irrelevant. The following questions will help in
uncovering differences in time orientation:
1. Does the culture emphasize promptness, or are people relaxed about
starting times and even offended by those who arrive “right on time”?
2. Are they involved in several activities at a time, or do they do one
thing at a time?
3. Do they take time commitments and deadlines seriously? How are
appointments and schedules viewed?
4. How important is the way things were done in the past?
5. Are they more focused on the task or on people?
6. Do they expect privacy and respect private property?
7. What are their usual working hours?
8. When do they typically eat lunch and dinner?
Again, social media and technology are changing people’s concepts of
time as a commodity. In some work cultures, for example, employees
with BlackBerries or other smart phones may be expected to be avail-
able at all times and to respond to messages and e-mails even long
after standard working hours. Responding in near-real time may be
valued, particularly in monochronic cultures.

Language
Language has been described as the “central influence on culture and
one of the most highly charged symbols of a culture or a nation. . . . A
language does not merely record and transmit perceptions and
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 267

thoughts; it actually helps to shape both.”9 According to Edward T.

Hall, “Culture is language; language is culture.”10 We cannot separate
language from culture.
Although language usually presents the most obvious differences
when people from different cultures come together, it is not just a
matter of someone speaking Spanish and someone else speaking Man-
darin. All cultural levels have language differences: industries, profes-
sions, functions, and even genders. As Deborah Tannen’s research has
found, men and women use language so differently at times that it is a
wonder they ever connect. Language includes words, syntax, and
vocabulary, as well as the various dialects and the jargon of disciplines.
Unfortunately, no easy way exists to solve the problems created by
language differences. This is one place where the old adage “A little
learning is a dangerous thing” bears out: “Without more than passing
familiarity with the language of a culture, it is virtually impossible to
scan the environment for business cues, negotiate, or evaluate perfor-
mance.”11 Learning just a little bit of a language and trying to use it in
a professional context could cause problems, although most cultures
would appreciate our interest and our attempt. In international busi-
ness negotiations, we should always consider hiring our own inter-
preter, even if we feel fairly comfortable with the language, to avoid
any misunderstandings or a contractual agreement we did not intend.

Power
Cultures differ tremendously in how they view power and equality.
Some believe in strict hierarchies with clear distinctions between lev-
els and formalized respect for people at the higher levels of an organi-
zation. Others see everyone as equal, and although a title may
command some element of respect, it is not as rigidly observed as in a
hierarchical culture. Some cultures respect age; others do not. Some
think education demands respect, while others see it as simply another
item for a résumé. In other words, titles and position matter more for
some cultures than they do for other cultures.
Hofstede discusses the differences in power perception and practice
in cultures as “power distance,” which he defines as “the extent to which
the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a
country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.”12 He
describes a major study measuring power distance from country to
country in which the researchers found that some cultures view the pos-
session of power by relatively few people and the resultant inequality as
the norm. Such cultures have high power distance values. Other cultures
see power as spread fairly evenly across all members and believe all peo-
ple are equal, resulting in low distance values.
The survey results indicated “high power distance values for Latin
countries (both Latin European, like France and Spain, and Latin
268 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 8.8 Low Power Distance High Power Distance

Some Differences
between High/Low • Inequalities among people • Inequalities expected and desired
Power Distance minimized
Workplaces • Interdependence between less • Less powerful people dependent on
and more powerful people the more powerful people
Source: Adapted from
Hofstede, G. (1997).
• More educated hold less authori- • Both more and less educated show
Cultures and Organizations: tarian values than less educated almost equally authoritarian values
Software of the Mind. New • Hierarchy means inequality of • Hierarchy reflects the existential
York: McGraw-Hill. Used
with permission of the
roles, established for convenience inequality between higher and
author. lower levels
• Decentralization is popular • Centralization is popular
• Narrow salary range between top • Wide salary range between top and
and bottom of organization bottom of organization
• Subordinates expect to be • Subordinates expect to be told
consulted what to do
• Ideal boss is a resourceful • Ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat
democrat
• Privileges and status symbols are • Privileges and status symbols for
frowned upon managers are expected and popular

American) and for Asian and African countries” and “lower power dis-
tance values” for the “U.S.A., Great Britain and its former Dominions,
and for the remaining non-Latin part of Europe.”13
This difference in how power and equality are viewed leads to tremen-
dous differences in how individuals approach reporting relationships
within organizations, how they function on teams, and how they inter-
act with one another on a daily basis. Exhibit 8.8 offers examples of
some of the differences found in low power distance and high power
distance workplaces.
The differences in how cultures view power affect leadership in par-
ticular. “Different cultural groups may have different ideas regarding
what leaders typically look like and how they should or should not
behave. In some cultures a leader is thought of as typically an
autonomous, strong, and decisive person; whereas in other cultures
other images of ideal leaders may prevail.”14
What might be considered leadership in one culture may be seen as
tyranny in another. Leaders who move outside of the culture they
know must be particularly mindful of how the culture they have
entered views power.
In addition, changes in technology and the emphasis on communi-
cating using social media place more pressure on organizations to be
open with information and with power. Organizations are having to
change power constructs or at least rethink them. Low power cultures
will be more receptive to social media and accept their use, whereas
high power cultures may try to hang on to traditional behavior and
restrict information sharing and communication.
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 269

The following questions will help in determining and appreciating

some of the differences in cultural perspectives on power and equality:
1. What is the attitude toward titles and positions?
2. Do individuals openly challenge authority?
3. Is the organization multilayered or flat?
4. How are decisions made (by one or many)?
5. Are subordinates consulted or told what to do?
6. What is the attitude toward individualism?
7. How is status displayed?
8. What is the attitude toward women in business?
9. What is the attitude toward age?
10. How open is the organization to social media? Is it an expected
way to work or is it discouraged?
A couple of cultural variables that cut across context, information
flow, time, language, and power are also important in understanding
culture These are questions of individualism versus collectivism and
spirituality and tradition.

Collectivism versus Individualism

The individualism versus collectivism cultural difference is included in
another popular framework for studying culture, that of Hofstede.
Hofstede breaks the cultural differences into power, uncertainty avoid-
ance, individual/collective, masculine/feminine, and long-term/short-
term orientation. Cultural emphasis on context, on how information is
shared, and how power is viewed are influenced by how individualistc
or collectivistic a culture is. Hofstedes explains the terms as follows:
Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between indviduals
are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his
or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to soci-
eties in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong,
cohesive ingroups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to
proect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.14

The major question to ask is, Does the culture emphasize the individual
(“I”) or the community (“we”)? If a person’s culture focuses on the indi-
vidual, he or she will understand and feel concern about his or her indi-
vidual needs, expectations, and welfare. On the other hand, persons
concerned with the community will be looking for how what happens
affects their group and family. The individually focused cultures will look
for messages relevant to them specifically, whereas the more collective
cultures will want to know what will happen to the group or community
One way to consider whether the culture emphasizes the individual
or the community is to examine the social media in which it gets
involved. If blogs are common and social networking is less popular,
270 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

the culture likely indentifies more with the individual. Likewise, if

more people are involved in a collaborative online culture, such as Sec-
ond Life, the focus may be more on the community.

Spirituality and Tradition

Spirituality and tradition include religion and traditional values as
defined by Inglehart in his Values Map. Inglehart found that tradi-
tional versus secular/rational values and survival/self-expression values
dominate all other cultural variables, explaining “more than 70 percent
of the cross-national variance.”16
The Traditional/Secular-rational values dimension reflects the contrast
between societies in which religion is very important and those in
which it is not. A wide range of other orientations are closely linked
with this dimension. Societies near the traditional pole emphasize the
importance of parent-child ties and deference to authority, along with
absolute standards and traditional family values.17

The religion/tradition value is an important variable in determining

behavior and how individuals will communicate and interpret mes-
sages. Many of the customs and ways of interacting with others depend
on belief systems, and often very traditional cultures will adhere strictly
to rituals that honor their beliefs. For example, in Islamic cultures, the
call to prayer (Adhan) is honored five times a day with a speaker heard
across the communities reciting the lyrical Arabic text of the Adhan. In
the Middle East, Friday is a non-work day, since it is a holy day, whereas
Sunday is still a non-work day in many traditional Christian countries.
Questions to understand how best to communicate with groups
expressing spiritual or other traditional values are as follows:
1. Does this cultural group believe in a higher being or some other
source of guidance or power outside themselves?
2. Are they more traditional in their beliefs and values or more secular?
3. What are the predominant religious influences?
4. What are the daily religious practices, expectations, and holidays
and how will these influence how they interact on a daily basis?
How persons answer these questions will reflect their value system and
will influence how they will respond to whatever messages we are
communicating to them. It will influence where they will look for
direction and how they will respond emotionally to authority messages
in particular.
Again, one of the dangers of any discussion of cultural differences
and classifications is stereotyping. The distinctions made in this dis-
cussion of all of the variables describe characteristics that are typical
of a group but will not necessarily be found in each member of the
group. The goal is to make each of us more sensitive to the filters that
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 271

are deeply embedded in our psyches that affect how we interpret the
meaning intended by others in their communication with us so that we
are open and flexible and thus better able to connect and to communi-
cate across the different cultures we encounter every day.

Connecting and Communicating across Cultures

By understanding and appreciating cultural diversity, leaders can bet-
ter know how to connect and communicate with all of the different
audiences that form the professional environment and most of the pro-
fessional world today. If we are leading others, no matter the national
or regional origin, race, gender, age, or whatever other cultural differ-
ence we will encounter, we want to be able to deliver our messages
appropriately and effectively.
First, it may be helpful to dispel a few of the myths about commu-
nicating and working in other cultures.

Common Myths About Culture

1. “We’re Really All the Same.” As the discussion of cultural variables demon-
strates, we are not all the same, and it can be dangerous to assume that we
are. We need to acknowledge and value the differences and avoid “ethnocen-
trism,” the tendency to believe that our own race or ethnic group is somehow
better or more important than any other and that all others need to be like
the culture to which we feel we belong.
2. “I Just Need to Be Myself in Order to Really Connect.” While we never
want to violate our own sense of identity and will even find it difficult if not
impossible to do so, we do need to make an effort to dress and communicate
verbally and nonverbally as is appropriate to the day-to-day customs. At
times, we may even need to go outside our own “comfort zone” in order to
communicate and connect on more than a surface level.
3. “I Have to Adopt the Practices of the Other Culture in Order to Succeed.”
We should “adapt to” instead of trying to “adopt” the practices of another cul-
ture. Adopting can result in our being misunderstood and perhaps even con-
sidered disrespectful, as if we were mocking the culture. Respect and honor are
keys here. We should base any decision to adopt practices of other cultures on
an in-depth understanding and a “thorough engagement with the culture.”
4. “It’s Really All about Personality.” While personality profiles, such as those dis-
cussed previously, are useful in helping usunderstand behavioral differences,
drawing a direct correlation between a personality type and a culture can result
in stereotypes that limit our understanding of cultural differences. Also, “while
the same range of personality types may exist within any given population, a
culture’s value orientations provide an overall framework for favoring one partic-
ular trait over another.” Assuming that personality is the source of unfamiliar
behaviors across cultures may cause a misreading of a cultural difference.
Source: Myths and directly quoted passages from Walker, D., Walker, T., and Schmitz, J. (2003). Doing Busi-
ness Internationally: A Guide to Cross-Cultural Success. New York: McGraw-Hill. Used with permission of
The McGraw-Hill Companies.
272 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Basicially, to connect and communicate, we should adopt the fol-

lowing approaches to any cross-cultural encounter, whether visiting
another country, interacting in a new social medium, or meeting some-
one in our own backyard:
1. Be open and respectful. All cultures are valuable and important, and
no one is better or right or wrong in the way they think or act; they are
just different. We need to be open and value these differences. We also
need to respect them, finding out what respect “looks like” to them.
2. Know the social customs. Use any of the numerous guides to the
social customs to avoid the obvious and potentially dangerous
gaffes caused by ignorance. Whether shaking hands, exchanging
business cards, or dining, when attempting to connect and commu-
nicate with individuals from a culture other than our own, we must
know the expectations and behave appropriately.
3. Learn as much about the culture, history, people, and even lan-
guages as reasonable. When we move outside our own culture into
another, we realize the value of learning as much as possible about
the culture. If we plan to do business with another country for any
length of time, we will ideally want to learn the language, while still
realizing that, if we are not fluent, we should use an interpreter
before entering into business discussions or decisions.
4. Obtain pointers and feedback from members of the culture. Hav-
ing colleagues and friends in different cultural communities is
invaluable, and we should call on them to help us and coach us.
5. Be patient, be flexible, and value the time needed to develop rela-
tionships. Remember, cultures differ in their view of time, and
when traveling for business meetings, for example, we need to allow
enough time and avoid being rushed. We also need to realize rela-
tionship building is important in high-context cultures, and we need
to build in adequate time for it to occur.
6. Keep a sense of humor. We have to be able to laugh at ourselves
and know others will appreciate our ability to do so as well.
7. Keep language simple and avoid jargon. All languages are full of
idioms and slang, so whenever working across language differences,
we need to keep our language as free of jargon and colloquialisms as
possible. For example, in English, we frequently use sports and war
metaphors. Many of these will not translate well.
Even though we can only obtain a very basic level of cross-cultural
literacy from reading about the differences across cultures, having
some understanding of the major cultural variables provides a founda-
tion on which to build the greater knowledge we will need if we are
communicating cross culturally. At a minimum, the cultural frame-
works, examples of some of the differences, and questions to help us
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 273

probe differences should provide useful tools for our analysis of our
audiences and for the development of our communication strategy.
This chapter provides a beginning and should have increased the
recognition of the importance and value of understanding and appreci-
ating cultural differences. Cross-Cultural literacy is essential in today’s
world and required for leadership communication and transforma-
tional leaders in particular. This chapter has provided an introduction
and basic foundation for leadership communication across cultures.

Further Reading
This chapter has referred to a number of excellent books on culture
that would be worth reading in their entirety and would definitely help
in further expanding an understanding of cultural differences:
Beamer, L., and Varner, I. (2001). Intercultural Communication in
the Global Workplace. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards Ethnorelativism: A Developmental
Model of Intercultural ensitivity. In M. Paige (Ed.), Education for
the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Hall, E. T. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences. Yarmouth,
ME: Intercultural Press.
Hall, E. T. (1989). Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books.
Hall, E. T. (1980). The Silent Language. Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press.
Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the
Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and Postmodernization:
Changing Values and Political Styles in Advanced Industrial
Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Also see
www.worldvaluessurvey.org.
Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, Culture, Change,
and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, R. (2000). When Cultures Collide: Managing Successfully
across Cultures. London: Nicholas Brealey.
O’Hara-Devereaux, M., and Johansen, R. (1994). Globalwork:
Bridging Distance, Culture, and Time. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rosen, R. (2000). Global Literacies: Lessons on Business Leadership
and National Cultures. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Tannen, D. (1990). You Just Don’t Understand. New York: Ballantine.
Walker, D., Walker, T., and Schmitz, J. (2003). Doing Business Interna-
tionally: A Guide to Cross-Cultural Success. New York: McGraw-Hill.
274 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Application 8.1 Case: OmniBank’s Diversity Efforts

Proactively You have recently been named the new president of OmniBank, a medium-
Managing size but rapidly growing suburban bank that meets the needs of individuals
and small businesses. During the interview process, you observed that,
Diversity
beyond the front office teller level, the more senior workforce at the bank is
very homogeneous—mostly male and predominantly Caucasian. You have
reviewed several marketing studies that profile your customer base and you
realize that you not only have many customers of different ethnicities but also
have a large number of international customers. In addition, you have a large
number of “starter” accounts for students in high school who will soon move
on to college—and may take their business with them if the bank does not
meet their remote banking needs.
As the new president, you decide it is important to launch a comprehensive
effort to improve both the diversity of the employees at the bank and the diver-
sity with which it interacts with its constituents. You value diversity and
believe that broadening your employee base and social networks as the bank
grows will benefit everyone involved. Besides, it makes good business sense.

Your Assignment
You decide to form a committee to jump-start your efforts in improving hiring
and networking diversity at the bank. In a group, list the steps you would take
to create this committee and establish its charter. Pay special attention to how
you would ensure that it accomplishes the goal of greater diversity, both at the
bank and in community outreach.

Application 8.2 The Case: PTI and Congoil

Creating You are the vice president of operations for Production Tankers, Inc. (PTI), a
International U.S.-based oil services contractor that provides converted tankers to produce oil
from offshore fields. PTI’s converted tanker Ocean Reliable (OR) has been pro-
Correspondence
ducing oil for Congoil P&P, a small but politically important division of a large
West African national oil company, for the past seven years at a field called Naa-
bila. Two years remain on the present contract. PTI hopes to renew the contract
with Congoil for use of the vessel at another field when the present contract
expires. You know in all honesty that other opportunities for the vessel are very
limited. PTI’s CEO has made the contract renewal a high priority for you and
your group. Congoil pays PTI a fee of $43,000 per day for lease and operation of
the OR, a rate that has allowed PTI to fully recover its initial investment in the
vessel. Oil production has been running at around 7,000 barrels per day, giving
Congoil a revenue stream on the order of $140,000 per day at current prices.
Congoil owns Naabila field, is in charge of production operations, and
bears all production costs. The large U.S. oil company Amproco serves as com-
mercial and technical advisor to Congoil as part of the agreement granting it
the rights to explore and produce other promising areas on the country’s con-
tinental shelf. Amproco receives no payment for its advisory role and does not
pay any share of the costs of operating Naabila field. Amproco is believed to
have some influence with Congoil, although the nature of the relationship
between the two companies remains rather obscure to outsiders.
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 275

Two years ago, as oil production at Naabila began to decline, Congoil asked
PTI to install a small natural gas compression system aboard the OR, so that it
could implement gas lift operations, a technique used to help sustain produc-
tion from aging fields. The need for gas lift had been anticipated, and PTI’s
contract with Congoil stipulated that, if a gas lift compression system were
ever installed, Congoil would reimburse PTI within 45 days for all documented
costs. These costs came to $2.5 million and, under the terms of the contract,
were invoiced to Congoil.
Gas lift operations began 18 months ago aboard the OR, but despite
repeated requests from your operations manager and PTI’s in-country business
development manager, Congoil has not yet reimbursed PTI the $2.5 million.
The difficulty seems to arise from Congoil’s belief that some provisions of the
contract are unfair and should be overlooked or set aside. Congoil’s general
manager, Syanga M’bweni Rugeiro, has maintained that installation of the gas
lift compressor represents a capital improvement to the OR, and thus PTI
should bear the cost. He and other Congoil officials have also objected to the
fact that Congoil is contractually bound to pay PTI the $43,000 day-rate even
if the vessel is not producing oil. They recall with considerable resentment an
incident almost four years ago when needed repairs in conjunction with an
extension of the original three-year contract required PTI to remove the OR
from Naabila and take it to port for a 57-day period—during which they con-
tinued to pay the day-rate.
As vice president of operations, you have profit and loss responsibility for
the OR and PTI’s other production tankers. PTI’s executives have made it clear
to you that collecting the $2.5 million, preferably with annual interest of 8 per-
cent, will have a material impact on the company’s earnings for the current fis-
cal year, estimated by analysts to be in the range of $18.5 million on revenues
of $390 million. Given the culture of PTI, you understand that securing pay-
ment from Congoil would be viewed very favorably and earn you additional
status with your peers and superiors.
You decide to write to Syanga Rugeiro requesting immediate payment of
the $2.5 million. You have known Syanga for over seven years, and while you
did not negotiate the original contract for the OR, you did negotiate the follow-
on contract at the end of the first three years, when PTI agreed to reduce the
original day-rate in exchange for the security afforded by a six-year extension.
You feel that you know Syanga about as well as most Westerners get to know
African officials, and you feel your relationship with him is sound. You know
that he received his geology degree from the local university and later spent a
year studying management at a British university. He speaks good English,
and your business relations have been cordial. You have talked with him about
his family and once even met his oldest son when Syanga brought him along
on a business trip to Houston. He asked your assistance in getting the boy
accepted into the engineering program at your undergraduate university,
something you were happy to do.
Despite all these interactions with him, however, you have never felt that
you understood Syanga very well. His Western education and business manner
seem like a thin veneer over a much more substantial base of traditional
African values and preferences. Your experience and some modest reading on
the subject have indicated to you that the local West African culture is collectivist,
276 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

high-context, high power distance, polychronic, and risk and uncertainty

avoiding. Decision making requires consultation among all affected parties,
but nothing happens until the highest-ranking official involved signals his
approval. You realize you have drawn most of these assumptions from your
reading, but you feel you have also seen some of it in Syanga’s actions. You feel
you need to appeal directly to him to pay the $2.5 million owed to PTI.
You decide also to write to Amproco’s assistant country manager, Carl Mou-
ton, asking for his help in getting Congoil to pay PTI the $2.5 million. You have
met Carl on several occasions and have a number of common friends in the
industry. Also, you have discussed the difficulties contractors can encounter
doing business in West Africa. You believe that Carl might be able to influence
Syanga to approve your request for payment.

The Assignment
In your role as PTI’s vice president of operations, select the appropriate writ-
ten media for this situation and for the cultures involved (consider text mes-
sage, e-mail, or snail mail memo or letter) and write two correspondences
responding to the situation described in the case:
1. To Syanga Rugeiro, requesting payment of the $2.5 million owed PTI and
2. To Carl Mouton, asking for his assistance in persuading Syanga to pay.
In addition, write a short (one page maximum) explanation of your communi-
cation strategy and how your knowledge of intercultural communication
issues influenced the decisions you made in organizing the information,
expressing your ideas, and developing an appropriate style and tone. In your
explanation, comment also on the choice of written media as appropriate for
your communication. If given the option, would you choose a medium other
than written to communicate these messages? Explain your response.
Syanga Rugeiro’s address is 26-30 Avenida Presidente dos Santos, Dist.
Norte 4, Kinuanda, Congola.

Source: This case and assignment were prepared by Charles R. McCabe. Copyright Charles
R. McCabe, 2002. Used with permission.

Application 8.3 For this assignment, you will work in groups to research, prepare, and deliver
Preparing an a 15-minute presentation with 5 minutes for questions and answers. The pre-
sentation will show how the culture of an individual nation or world region
International
affects the local business environment and practices. As a starting point for
Briefing your research and preparation, you should use the information in this chapter
on cultural variables and determine the characteristics of your selected coun-
try against each variable. For example, is the country high- or low-context?
How do they feel about power and equality? Your research should result in an
international communication audit for the nation or region you select. In addi-
tion, you might want to look at the Web site of a global company that sells its
products in many countries—Procter & Gamble, for example (http://www.pg.
com/en_US/index.shtml).
Your group should develop its presentation with a specific business-related
audience and purpose in mind; for instance, you might want to approach the
 Chapter 8 Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication 277

presentation as a briefing for employees assigned to a newly acquired foreign

subsidiary or a negotiating team about to embark on negotiations for an inter-
national merger. You should make your presentation appropriate in every
respect to this specific audience. You may take a creative approach.
To promote breadth of learning and avoid repetition, each group is encour-
aged to select a different nation or region.

Application 8.4 For this assignment, you are to work in groups to select a country in which a
Designing currently established company is not marketing its products. For example, you
might look at Dunkin’ Donuts and decide to market it in Germany. Each group
International
is to research, prepare, and deliver a presentation of 20 to 25 minutes, with
Communication 5 minutes for questions and answers, or 30 minutes total.
Programs The presentation will describe your marketing plan for the introduction of
your company’s product or service into a country other than your own. Your
primary objective is to show that you understand enough about the country
and its culture to argue that the country will be a successful target market for
the product or service that you have selected. The presentation will address the
business opportunity (the market), your product or service, the competitive
landscape, your positioning, and your communication strategy (paying special
attention to cultural differences).
The overall purpose of the presentation is to showcase to your CEO and
senior executive team your team’s approach to promoting and marketing your
selected product or service. They will want to see your rationale and your pre-
liminary plan for introducing and marketing the product or service.
Your group must decide on (1) the company, (2) the product or service of
that company, and (3) the country where the product/service will be intro-
duced. You must be able to make a case for the introduction of your product
or service; in other words, there must be a market for the product or service.
In addition, you must include your approach to the social media sphere and
justify why that approach will work.

Notes 1. This depiction of the Iceberg of Differences is used in Shell’s in-house

training. They have given us permission to use it here.
2. Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. Westport, CT; Greenwood Press.
3. Spencer-Oatey, H. (2000). Culturally Speaking: Managing Rapport through
Talk across Cultures. London: Continuum.
4. O’Hara-Devereaux, M., and Johansen, R. (1994). Globalwork: Bridging
Distance, Culture, and Time. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
5. The “acceptance” level of intercultural knowledge, as described by Milton
Bennett (cited below), is the fourth stage of the Developmental Model for
Intercultural Sensitivity. The stages are as follows: denial, defense, mini-
mization, acceptance, adaptation, and integration.
6. O’Hara-Devareaux X, M., and Johansen, R. (1994).
7. For more on any of the variables, see any of the books by Edward T. Hall,
a prolific researcher and writer on culture and the one to whom most
recent writers on the subject refer. O’Hara-Devereaux and Johansen rely on
278 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Hall for some of their examples. In addition, you will want to look
at Hofstede’s Culture and Organizations and Inglehart and Welzel’s
Modernization, Culture, Change, and Democracy, as well as their Value
Map. If you desire a more complex but also useful, framework, you should
look at the one provided by Walker, Walker, and Schmitz in their book
Doing Business Internationally.
8. O’Hara-Devereaux and Johansen have pulled much of Edward T. Hall’s dis-
tinctions on space under context, so this discussion will follow that com-
bination as well.
9. Condon, J. C. (1975). An Introduction to Intercultural Communication,
New York: Macmillan.
10. Hall (1959).
11. O’Hara-Devereaux and Johansen (1994).
12. Hofstede, G. (1997). Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New
York: McGraw-Hill, p. 28.
13. Hofstede (1997), p. 26.
14. Den Hartog (2004).
15. Hofstede (1997).
16. www.worldvaluessurvey.org/.
17. www.worldvaluessurvey.org/.
Chapter
9
Meetings: Leadership
and Productivity
There’s nothing better than an in-person meeting.
Nothing yet has replicated that, as far as I know. For
quick interaction, e-mail and phone are great. But for
really getting into something, a physical meeting is much
better.
Jeff Bezos, Amazon.com’s founder and CEO, The Wall Street Journal,
February 4, 2000

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Decide when a meeting is the best forum.

• Complete essential meeting planning.
• Conduct a productive meeting.
• Manage meeting problems and conflict.
• Ensure that meetings lead to action.
A Harvard Business Review article several years ago reported that “11
million meetings . . . take place every day in the United States.”1 Today,
that figure would probably be even higher with so many companies
moving to team-based workplaces. A survey conducted by UCLA and
the University of Minnesota found that “executives on average spend
40%–50% of their working hours in meetings.”2 Another survey cited
in the same article indicated that “surveyed professionals agree that as
much as 50% of that meeting time is unproductive and that up to 25%
of meeting time is spent discussing irrelevant issues.”3
Given the dominance of meetings in business and other professional
settings and how often people complain about them, leaders need to be

279
280 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

able to plan and conduct effective, productive meetings. Doing so

requires leadership communication skills and is important in setting
the precedent for the rest of the organization. As one specialist in
meeting management says, “Meetings matter because that’s where an
organization’s culture perpetuates itself. . . . Meetings are how an orga-
nization says, ‘you are a member.’ So if every day we go to boring meet-
ings full of boring people, then we can’t help but think that it is a
boring company. Bad meetings are a source of negative messages
about our company and ourselves.”4
To create a positive atmosphere around meetings in our organiza-
tions, we need to avoid the seven deadly sins of meetings.

The Seven Deadly Sins of Meetings

1. People don’t take meetings seriously.
2. Meetings are too long.
3. People wander off the topic.
4. Nothing happens once the meeting ends.
5. People don’t tell the truth.
6. Meetings are always missing important information, so they postpone critical
decisions.
7. Meetings never get better.

Source: The seven sins of deadly meetings. By Eric Matson and William R. Daniels. Reprinted from Fast
Company, 1997, p. 27. Used with permission.

This chapter will help leaders and other meeting planners avoid
these seven deadly sins and plan and conduct productive meetings by
determining when a meeting is the best forum for achieving the
required result; establishing objectives, outcomes, and agenda; per-
forming essential planning; clarifying roles and establishing ground
rules; using common problem-solving techniques; managing meeting
problems; and ensuring that follow-up occurs.
Meetings can be small or large, internal or external, frequent or infre-
quent. This chapter focuses primarily on small-group meetings intended
to accomplish tasks or move actions forward inside an organization
since these are the most prevalent types of professional meetings.

Deciding When a Meeting Is the Best Forum

Communication purpose and strategy should come first in planning
meetings, as in all communication situations. Meeting leaders or plan-
ners need to define a clear purpose and analyze the audience to deter-
mine whether a meeting is the best forum for what they want to
accomplish. One of the frustrations with meetings is that they often
seem unnecessary. Groups of all sorts can fall into a habit of meeting
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 281

daily or weekly or monthly just because they have always done it that
way. Beyond tradition or habit, they have no other reasons for meeting.
Even without what appears to be a specific business purpose, meeting
periodically can be beneficial. For example, meetings can increase team,
department, or company camaraderie. In company meetings, people see
others they may not ordinarily see and feel connected to a larger group.
Meetings with no specific business objective might have motivation,
recreation, or networking as their purpose—all potentially important in
certain organizational contexts. The frustration caused when attendees
feel as if a meeting accomplishes nothing could perhaps be minimized by
making it clear that the purpose for meeting is motivation, recreation, or
networking. On the other hand, perhaps instead of a “meeting,” what the
group or company really needs is a social gathering or party.

Consider Purpose
No set rules apply to answer the question “When is a meeting the best
forum?” Referring to the four typical purposes for communication
in professional settings—that is, to inform, persuade, instruct, or
engage—will help most of us decide. For instance, if our primary pur-
pose is to inform, we should ask if a meeting is required to convey the
information or would the Intranet, a blog or forum post, or an e-mail
accomplish this goal more efficiently and effectively? If we decide our
overall purpose is to instruct, is a meeting better for transferring the
skills than an online instructional program?

Consider Audience
Leaders will also want to consider the audience. How do most of their
colleagues and employees like to receive information? Does the orga-
nization have an online culture where people prefer to stay in their
offices and communicate through text messages or e-mails, even to the
person next door? Is the culture, on the other hand, one where people
move up and down the halls and gather in the coffee room? Are most
introverts, those who may prefer to work alone and may need meetings
to pull them out of their offices, or extraverts, those who need other
people to feel energized but can become distracted from tasks if meet-
ings occur too frequently?
With the purpose and audience settled, we can determine whether a
meeting is the best forum for this communication, using the following
questions to direct us in our decision:
• What is the purpose? What do I hope to accomplish?
• Will a meeting accomplish that purpose more efficiently? More
effectively?
• Can I describe exactly the outcome I am seeking from the meeting?
• Is our group more productive when we meet?
282 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Completing the Essential Planning

To ensure that meetings are productive, we must conduct the neces-
sary planning by answering the following questions:
• What are the purpose and expected outcome?
• What should be included on the agenda?
• Who should attend?
• What is the best setting?
• What is the best timing?
• What information will we need for the meeting?

Clarifying Purpose and Expected Outcome

Meetings often have multiple objectives, but effective meetings, like
good presentations and e-mails, usually have one main overall pur-
pose. Our main purpose might be to inform, but we could also intend
to persuade, engage, or even instruct in the same meeting. The purpose
of an informational meeting could be as significant as introducing a
new vision or as mundane as providing a progress report intended to
expedite a project. The purpose could be beyond the basic informing,
persuading, or instructing. We could have as our purpose to solve a
problem or make a decision. For example, a problem-solving meeting
could have as its goal to determine alternatives for launching a new
product in a new location; or for a decision-making meeting, the goal
could be to walk out of the meeting having decided how the launch of
a new product will occur.
The care leaders give to defining their purpose and objectives will
determine the success of the meeting. We should write out our purpose
and objectives very specifically, then, to start the meeting, tell the audi-
ence our intentions. We want everyone to know exactly why we are
meeting and what we intend to accomplish.
In addition to the objectives, establishing tangible end products
helps ensure that the meeting is productive. For example, a meeting to
discover and discuss the issues associated with introducing a new
product for the first time in South America might have the objectives
and end products presented in Exhibit 9.1.
If we have trouble defining an end product, our objective may not
be clear enough or tangible enough to accomplish in a meeting. If
attendees do not emerge from the meeting with end products, they
may feel frustrated with not accomplishing anything. Although it
takes some time and thought to list our objectives and end products,
doing so will ensure that we avoid a meeting in which people feel they
have wasted their time. It will move us toward conducting a produc-
tive meeting.
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 283

EXHIBIT 9.1 Objective End Product

Meeting Purpose
and Expected • Review past efforts at launching • Brief description of each with
Outcomes products in South America highlights of what worked and
what didn’t
• Identify any problems or • List of potential problems or road-
obstacles to product introduction blocks in current proposed launch
• Determine possible approaches • Matching list of problem-resolving
to overcoming problems approaches for each roadblock

Determining Topics for the Agenda

The agenda should follow directly from the objectives and end prod-
ucts and should contain the information shown in Exhibit 9.2.
In determining the agenda topics and the meeting tasks, leaders
need to estimate the time it will take to cover each topic and accom-
plish each objective as realistically as possible; then, they should add at
least five minutes to each topic to allow for transitions. They should try
to anticipate where possible delays might occur, and allow time to
cover each topic and complete each task as planned.

EXHIBIT 9.2 Date: March 5, 2010 Location: 3rd floor conference room
Sample Agenda
Meeting called by: Beth Shapiro Attendees: See distribution list

Facilitator: Alice Chang Please read: Memo from Beth on

expectations, deadlines, etc.
Note taker: Bill Smith Please bring: Memo, So. Am. Strategy Plan

Objectives

� Review past efforts at launching products in South America

� Identify problems or obstacles to product introduction
� Determine possible approaches to overcoming problems
� Assign tasks and establish deadlines

Agenda

Time Topic Responsibility

8:30–8:40 � Introductions and review of agenda Beth Shapiro

8:40–9:00 � Review of past launches in So. America Mario Cisneros
(presentation)
9:00–9:45 � Potential problems and solutions (brainstorming) Alice Chang
9:45–10:00 � Assignment of action items Beth Shapiro

Additional Information: This meeting will be the first of two. For this one, the goal
is to surface all ideas, so each person should come prepared to contribute. At the
end of the brainstorming session, we will decide as a group which solutions to
pursue and the facilitator will assign tasks to the appropriate team members.
284 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Selecting Attendees
Selecting the right attendees is important to the success of a meeting.
The attendees we invite should be the ones who can contribute to
achieving our objectives. The selected attendees will usually include
the following:
• Decision maker(s).
• The budget holder (if different).
• Those who must take action on the decisions.
• Those with expert knowledge affecting decisions.
• Representation from those affected by the decision.
Sometimes it is obvious who should attend. For example, for a project
team meeting, we would invite all team members. However, sometimes
attendance is less clear-cut, and we must make decisions on the atten-
dees. We can determine who should attend by asking the following
questions:
• Who can supply information or input to the discussion or decision
making?
• Who needs to accept the decisions, so that implementation occurs?
• Who is necessary for us to reach a decision?
• Who needs to understand the information or actions to implement
them?
• Who needs to feel part of the decision making?

Considering the Setting

Leaders will want to consider the best setting for the kind of meeting
they plan to lead. The setting considerations should include location,
equipment, and layout of the room. If they have flexibility on the loca-
tion, they should consider moving important meetings away from the
office to minimize interruptions. For on-site meetings, they should
establish ground rules that attempt to protect the meeting time as if it
were off-site.

Type of Meeting
We will want to plan ahead, so that the mechanics of meeting manage-
ment do not interfere with the smooth progress of our agenda. For
example, if we are planning an interactive meeting with discussion and
an exchange of information, we will need flip charts or whiteboards
and a room set up to allow people to see one another and to move
around easily. If we are planning an information-sharing meeting with
stand-up presentations and attendees sitting and listening, then we
need to arrange for computer projections and ensure a setup that
allows everyone to see the speaker and screen.
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 285

Seating Arrangements
Seating arrangements can be a critical part of room layout for some
meetings. In a round-table meeting intended to provide an update on a
team’s progress, the team leaders might want to seat the team together
on one side of the table with the audience on the other. However, if they
anticipate some hostility or disagreement from the audience, they
might intersperse team members with non-team members to suggest
the entire group is part of the team or equal participants in the meeting.
When arranging seating, we may also need to think about cultural
differences. In some cultures, the head of the organization always sits
at the head of the table with others seated according to rank, and the
head person may expect all attendees to remain standing until he or
she has taken a seat.
Virtual Meetings
If planning a virtual meeting, we will need to ensure that someone has
arranged for the phone conference or VOIP connection, as well as the
virtual meeting connection through a videoconferencing or Web con-
ferencing service. These arrangements need to be done far enough in
advance to ensure that connections are in place and all participants
are informed of the arrangements and what they are expected to do to
participate actively in the meeting.

Determining When to Meet

Setting a time for the meeting can be important. To accomplish our
goals, we want people when they are at their best. Few leaders would
call a team meeting on a Sunday morning after the Saturday night
company Christmas party; however, many do hold weekly staff meet-
ings first thing Monday morning, when people’s minds may be linger-
ing on weekend activities.
Leaders should think about people’s schedules and commitments as
much as possible. If they are leading regular meetings, they may want
to check with the attendees to get a sense of what works best for them.
They should, of course, aim for the meeting time and day that will
bring together the most productive group of people within the context
of the company and the culture.
Meetings should be no longer than it takes to get through the
agenda efficiently and productively. Most meeting planners say that 60
to 90 minutes is about as long as a group will remain attentive, and the
number is even lower for virtual sessions. Therefore, if the meeting
objectives will necessitate more time, we need to be sure to build in
breaks and look for ways to vary the activities. Lengthy meetings will
tax anyone’s attention and patience; however, if the purpose is signifi-
cant, everyone is participating, and the meeting is progressing, most
people are willing to endure the confinement for several hours.
286 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

If we have access to a collaborative workspace, such as Jive Clear-

space or Microsoft SharePoint, we may want to consider avoiding
lengthy meetings altogether and encourage collaboration using these
workspaces. See Chapter 10 for more information on virtual collabo-
ration among teams.

Establishing Needed Meeting Information

Leaders should anticipate and provide any information the group may
need before or during the meeting to accomplish the meeting purpose.
Too often, attendees end up running down the hall to gather informa-
tion after a meeting has started, which wastes time and suggests poor
planning. If the meeting leaders have clearly defined the purpose and
end products, they can review each one and determine what materials
will be needed to facilitate the discussion and accomplish each objec-
tive. They will probably want to send the agenda out a few days ahead
of the meeting, so that others responsible for materials will come pre-
pared. In addition, they will need to bring copies of the agenda with
them, since people often forget to bring them.
Finally, if the meeting is a virtual forum, it is particularly important
to plan ahead to ensure that all attendees are looking at the same infor-
mation. If, for instance, they are meeting to discuss the latest numbers,
they need to make sure the latest balance sheet has been sent and that
any particular columns being discussed are highlighted.

Conducting a Productive Meeting

If leaders have not done so beforehand, they should announce at the
start of the meeting the decision-making approach that they plan to
use, clarify leader and attendee roles and responsibilities, and establish
meeting ground rules. In addition, the meeting will be more produc-
tive if the attendees know and use common problem-solving tools.

Deciding on the Decision-Making Approach

The agenda will establish the order of the discussion, but how does the
group plan to make decisions? If attendees know the decision-making
approach ahead of time, it will make the meeting run more efficiently.
Company culture will often determine the decision-making approach
as well as the format of the discussion.
For instance, if the organization is very hierarchical and decisions
come from the top, meeting attendees will expect to wait for the leader
to make the decision. On the other hand, if the culture is open and
employees are encouraged to challenge each other and even the leaders,
the attendees will expect to speak out and be involved in a process that
builds to a vote or a consensus decision, which the leader then accepts.
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 287

Usually, the leaders will set the tone and establish the decision-
making approach for the organization, carrying it over into the meet-
ings. Their approach may be so pervasive and well understood that no
one needs to brings up the subject in a meeting; however, they may
want to use different approaches for different types of meetings or
problems, in which case they will need to make their approach clear
for each meeting.

Clarifying Leader and Attendee Roles

and Responsibilities
The leaders should define the meeting roles and responsibilities before
or after the meeting starts. Early definition of roles will help avoid con-
fusion. They might want to include the responsibilities in the agenda, as
in Exhibit 9.2. The roles recommended for most meetings are as follows:
• Leader
• Facilitator
• Note taker
• Timekeeper
In a small, uncomplicated meeting, one person might play multiple
roles, such as leader and facilitator or facilitator and timekeeper; how-
ever, it is usually better to separate the leader and facilitator roles, in
particular. The leader can then focus on the content of the meeting
while the facilitator looks after the process.
In assigning roles, leaders need to be sensitive to diversity issues and
people’s strengths and weaknesses. They do not want to stereotype atten-
dees into gender roles—for instance, always assigning the note taker
role to a female. They also do not want to ask someone to facilitate a
brainstorming session if that person tends to criticize every idea anyone
else suggests. None of the roles should be minimized. All are important
in helping a meeting progress smoothly toward its objectives.

Establishing Meeting Ground Rules

Ground rules should be established for every meeting, no matter how
small or uncomplicated. Robert’s Rules of Order served well in the past to
provide strict rules for conducting a meeting. It still serves as the basis
for ground rules in formal meetings, particularly for community and
civic organizations. Although the Rules may be considered too formal for
contemporary professional settings, leaders still need to establish either
standing ground rules for all of their meetings or specific ground rules
for each meeting. Quite often, organizations need both. An organization’s
standing ground rules may be based in its traditions or culture.
For instance, the organization may have an intensive problem-solving
culture in which all people are obligated to contribute in meetings, or
288 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

it may have an avoidance culture that conditions people to shy away

from any open conflict in meetings and avoid openly criticizing or
questioning one another. Both could influence how the meeting is
managed as well as the outcome.
Even the times that meetings start could reflect the culture, but an
organization’s leaders should never take for granted that everyone
knows the traditions. For instance, every experienced person in a com-
pany would know that meetings always begin 10 to 15 minutes late,
but those new to the company may see this as tardiness and be frus-
trated and even offended.
In most organizations, the group will need to determine the ground
rules at the beginning of each meeting. The facilitator should write
them out so that everyone can see them. They should be actionable.
They can be simple or elaborate. They should be specific to the com-
pany culture and the type of meeting.
The importance of ground rules cannot be overemphasized; how-
ever, they serve little purpose if all attendees do not see them as an
agreement, a contract that binds all present. If not enforced, the rules
will appear to the attendees as an empty exercise with no value. If,
however, ground rules are developed and enforced, the meeting will
definitely be more productive.
For virtual meetings, a company will probably need to establish
some special ground rules particular to the medium, such as the
following.

Example Ground Rules for Virtual Meetings

• Introduce yourself when you join the meeting.
• State your name prior to your comments throughout the call.
• Avoid any side conversations, since not all participants can hear them.
• Keep the speakerphone close to the person who is talking to avoid back-
ground noise.
• Avoid tapping pens or shuffling papers, since these sounds may be exagger-
ated on the other end, or use the mute button when you are not speaking.

Using Common Problem-Solving Approaches

An organization may already have preferred approaches to problem
solving, which everyone knows and uses in meetings. If not, leaders
may want to introduce some, since most types of meetings will be
much more efficient if attendees use common approaches to analysis
and problem solving, such as the 10 listed here.
The value in using common analytical tools or problem-solving
approaches is twofold: efficiency and creativity. The gain in efficiency is
particularly evident when a group or a team is confronted with a com-
plex or a politically sensitive problem. Having a common approach will
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 289

allow all attendees to work on the problem in a similar way, which will
save time and usually result in a better solution. Many of the approaches
discussed here are designed specifically to open up the thinking of a
group and thus increase creativity.
Shared knowledge of some approaches to analysis or problem solv-
ing allows the leader to say, “Let’s use brainstorming or the Six Think-
ing Hats to approach this problem.” All attendees will then be able to
jump right into the task.
Common analytical tools that work well in many different types of
problem-solving meetings are as follows:
1. Brainstorming.
2. Ranking or rating.
3. Sorting by category (logical grouping).
4. Edward de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats.
5. Opposition analysis.
6. Decision trees.
7. From/to analysis.
8. Force-field analysis.
9. The matrix.
10. Frameworks.

1. Brainstorming
The goal of brainstorming is to generate an exhaustive list of ideas
quickly. The characteristics of a brainstorming session are as follows:
• Each person is expected to contribute an idea.
• Ideas are not to be evaluated or judged in any way.
• Ideas must be recorded just as they are and be visible to all.
• Quantity, not quality, is important.
• The facilitator’s role is to keep the meeting moving and make sure
all ideas are captured.
• The group stops when the ideas stop coming or when time runs out.
At the end of the brainstorming session, the group will emerge with a
rather random, unorganized set of ideas. The next step will be to sort
and organize, perhaps using one of the next two problem-solving
approaches—ranking or sorting.

2. Ranking or Rating
Ranking or rating is performed with an existing set of ideas, perhaps
generated from a brainstorming session. As the name implies, ranking
involves selecting preferred ideas according to some clearly defined cri-
teria. For instance, if we are looking for ideas about where to market a
290 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

new product, we might generate 20 possibilities, then go back and

select the top five based on our company’s ability to implement them.
Next, we might want to use a matrix similar to the one discussed
here to evaluate the ideas according to value and difficulty, thus nar-
rowing the list of five to the best one or two of the lot according to
where they fall on the matrix. Again, the key to any useful ranking
exercise is having group-determined criteria that will produce agree-
ment on the best choices from the list.

3. Sorting by Category (Logical Grouping)

Sorting by category (logical grouping) requires a beginning list,
although we might add items as they occur in the discussion as well.
We also must have the categories of groups, which we should test to
ensure that they are logical. We can test the logic of our groups by ask-
ing the MECE questions:
1. Are the groups mutually exclusive?
2. Are they collectively exhaustive?
If the groups overlap at all, we will need to reconsider them and come
up with better categories. Once we have the categories, we can usually
place the items in them fairly easily; coming up with the categories will
often be more challenging than the actual sorting. The Pyramid Prin-
ciple, introduced in Chapter 2, demonstrates how to group ideas by
categories in a major line of an argument (Exhibit 2.10).

4. Edward de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats

Edward de Bono designed his Six Thinking Hats approach to problem
solving with the goal of encouraging open and complete thinking
about a problem by separating ego (thinking our own point of view is
best to solve a problem) from performance (the actual solving of the
problem).
The Six Thinking Hats approach creates what de Bono calls “paral-
lel thinking,” which is thinking that involves looking at the problem in
the same way. The example de Bono gives to illustrate parallel thinking
is to imagine several people looking at a house from the same point of
view—that is, all standing on the same side of the house. They would
then more likely see the house in the same or very similar ways versus
the differences that would occur if some people were looking at one
side of the house and others another side. De Bono uses six distinctly
colored hats to represent figuratively the six different ways of
approaching a problem (Exhibit 9.3).
To use the approach in a meeting, the attendees would decide figu-
ratively to wear the same hat for the discussion. For instance, they may
decide they want to get all the facts out on the table, and thus assume
the point of view of someone wearing the white hat; or they may feel
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 291

EXHIBIT 9.3
Characteristics of Red Emotions, intuition
de Bono’s Six
Thinking Hats
White Facts, information
Source: From Six Thinking
Hats by Edward de Bono.
Copyright 1999 by The
McQuaig Group, Inc. Yellow Benefits, positive values
Reprinted with permission
of The McQuaig Group.
Black Judgment, potential problems or
risks, devil’s advocate

Green Creativity, alternatives, ideas

Blue Cool, process control, organizing

they all need to think about the risks associated with an idea and all
assume the point of view of someone wearing the black hat. Ideally, the
group would spend time wearing all six hats to ensure that they are
looking at the problem from every point of view.
Using the hats encourages people to move outside of their usual way
of looking at a problem to see it from a fresh perspective. It also keeps
the meeting focused on the problem and less on the participants’ egos
or desire to present their point of view. The result is that, instead of a
debate, the meeting attendees achieve parallel thinking, which de
Bono says leads to more constructive problem solving.

5. Opposition Analysis
Opposition analysis requires the group to look at both sides of an issue.
Some common techniques are to list the pros with matching cons, list
advantages with matching disadvantages, and apply a test of meaning
by using an is/is not approach. For instance, if a company is struggling
with the wording of its vision statement, company leaders might assume
that not everyone defines the key words in the same way. They might
then take each key word and decide if it means this, not this.
For example, if the vision contains the word “world-class,” that term
can have different meanings to the group members involved in the dis-
cussion. If the company wants to establish a common meaning, the
facilitator could ask each member what “world-class” means and what
it does not mean. Working through every key word in a vision using
opposition analysis can be tedious, but it will elicit amazing differ-
ences in opinions, lead to greater clarity for all involved, and ensure
that the selected words provide the intended meaning.
292 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

6. Decision Trees
Decision trees, as discussed in Chapter 2, help break down a problem
into its parts. They are particularly useful in finding a way forward
through complex, many-faceted problems or issues. Decision trees
take many shapes. To generate ideas in writing, for instance, we might
state our recommendation or conclusion and then break out the major
arguments and facts to support the conclusion. In analyzing a prob-
lem, we can use the decision tree to analyze areas of uncertainty or
risk. For example, we might map out the decision to build a new coffee
shop in a certain area of town using a decision tree to assess the risks
as well as the opportunity.

7. From/to Analysis
From/to analysis is particularly useful in diagnosing change situa-
tions. It is similar to the force-field analysis discussed next, but it does
not include the driving forces or restraining forces. The “from”
describes the current situation, and the “to” matches changes that are
needed to transform each of the “from’s.” The from/to analysis is par-
ticularly useful in communicating specific changes in activities or
focus and works best if used with a framework designed for organiza-
tional diagnostics, such as the 7S framework. For instance, we might
take the items from the 7S framework that are most important to
change in an organization and develop a from/to for each one, as in
Exhibit 9.4.

EXHIBIT 9.4 Change situation: An IT group in a large medical facility needs to start
From/to Analysis
providing broader MIS support for all of its internal clients.
Using the 7S
Framework Selected 7S
Categories From To
Strategy Reactive, break-fix approach Proactive, full-service
consulting approach
Skills Understanding of hardware Understanding of consulting
and software process and how to build
client relationships
Ability to diagnose and fix Ability to anticipate and
technical problems design processes and systems
Style Reserved and behind More outgoing and
the scenes outspoken
Seen as followers Seen as leaders
Structure Hierarchical, clear reporting Flatter, open, challenging,
relationship and information communicating up, down,
sharing up and down only and across
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 293

8. Force-Field Analysis
Kurt Lewin, a leading social psychologist, developed force-field analy-
sis as a problem-solving tool to explore the problems and determine
approaches to facilitate change in an organization. To use this analyti-
cal approach, we would take the following steps:
1. Carefully describe the current problem.
2. Describe the end state we desire.
3. Describe the driving forces included in the situation and pushing it
in the direction it is currently heading.
4. Describe the restraining forces that are working against the driving
forces and thus inhibiting the desired changes.
For instance, if we applied the force-field analysis to a problem of high
turnover in our company, our analysis might be as illustrated in
Exhibit 9.5.
By isolating the driving forces, we gain a better understanding of
the problem, and then, by finding the restraining forces, we begin to
see the reasons for the problem and perhaps ways to solve it. For
instance, in the first bullet in Exhibit 9.5, internal competition is keep-
ing the teams from functioning as teams and the current compensa-
tion or reward system is causing the competition. To expect people to
function as a team yet reward them as individuals is unrealistic.
Therefore, to address the problem, the company would need to
change its compensation system.

EXHIBIT 9.5
Example of a Current Situation Desired Future State
Force-Field
� Johnson, Inc.’s employee � Johnson, Inc.’s turnover rate
Analysis turnover rate is the highest in one of lowest in industry
the industry
� Reputation for job satisfaction
� Our reputation is that we and enrichment
“churn and burn”

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

� Competition within the teams � Individual compensation structure
rewards individual not team sales
� Regional sales force confused
over responsibilities � Regional structure allows overlap
of some products
� Mentoring nonexistent
� Senior sales representatives
� Training inadequate
in field; no time for new recruits
� Short time frame to make quotas
294 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 9.6 Where Should MarTex’s Marketing Be Targeted?

Example of a
High
Matrix Problem-
Solving Approach
Customers

Competition Corporations

Government Entities
Value
of Reaching

Education
Agencies

Potential Business
Partners

Low Difficulty of High

Reaching

9. The Matrix
A matrix allows a group to evaluate or diagnose problems and the dif-
ficulties of making changes and can help a group decide on an
approach. A decision-making matrix usually consists of four boxes
with each axis assigned an evaluative label. Exhibit 9.6 demonstrates a
matrix that a group might create to determine where to place its mar-
keting efforts.
If leaders decide that a matrix will help the group in making a deci-
sion, they should first create the matrix by labeling the axes with the
characteristics that are the most important in helping to reach a deci-
sion. In this case, the decision hinges on two key questions:
1. What is the value of reaching certain groups?
2. What is the difficulty?
Then, the group can weigh the value against the difficulty and decide
which is more important at this time. In the example, the matrix has
helped the group identify the key question: Should a marketing plan
target customers first, even though that will be more difficult, or
should it go after an easier but lower-value target?
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 295

10. Frameworks
As most of us know well, a framework exists for just about everything
an individual might want to analyze. In business, from McKinsey’s 7S
framework for organizational diagnostics to the Four “P’s” of market-
ing, acronyms abound to diagnose or analyze problems. Frameworks
may be original or already in use. Often, the ones already in use work
well initially but require modification to fit the specific situation and
issues of a particular organization. If a group uses a framework, they
will want to be careful not to force it. If they do, they risk invalidating
the analysis.
Frameworks are useful and can be an excellent method for organiz-
ing analysis and problem solving. They serve as shorthand for discus-
sion and can help simplify a complex idea and make it manageable. In
addition, frameworks allow us to capture the elements of a complex
problem visually. Further, they not only allow and encourage the logi-
cal organization of analysis but also act as an effective communication
device to illustrate the topics or questions being addressed.

Managing Meeting Problems and Conflict

Leaders will be able to stop or at least minimize most of the usual
meeting problems by careful planning and by developing and enforc-
ing ground rules; however, some issues may arise despite the best plan-
ning and meeting processes. All meeting leaders and facilitators must
be prepared to handle problems in ways that will not interfere with the
meeting objectives or those of the broader organization.
The primary responsibilities of a meeting leader are to plan the
meeting, provide the content, anticipate problems, and ensure process
facilitation. Fulfilling the last responsibility may call for the use of a
skilled facilitator. A facilitator’s primary responsibility is to ensure that
process problems do not interfere with the success of the meeting.
Facilitators help keep the meeting focused on the objectives and
ensure redirection if it gets off track. Skilled facilitators should be pre-
pared to (1) handle some of the most common meeting problems, (2)
manage meeting conflict, and (3) deal with issues arising from cultural
differences.

Handling Specific Meeting Problems

Exhibit 9.7 contains some of the most common meeting problems and
methods to manage them. Careful planning and purposeful facilitation
will solve most of these process problems; however, problems some-
times arise during meetings that are tied more directly to the person-
alities of the leader and the attendees than to corporate culture or the
issues under discussion.
296 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 9.7 Problem Management Approach

Common Meeting
Problems and 1. Confused Create an agenda that includes objectives as well as
Approaches to Objectives and end products
Managing Them Expectations Send agenda out ahead of time and review it at the
beginning of the meeting
2. Unclear Roles and Communicate roles and responsibilities with agenda or
Responsibilities establish at the beginning of the meeting
3. Confusion Separate the leader and the facilitator role
between Process Call time-outs for process checks as soon as confusion
and Content is expressed
4. Drifting Off Topic Stop and review meeting objectives. If digression
continues, suggest
• Discussion continue after meeting
• Topic be placed on agenda for next meeting
• Topic be tabled, stored for future (write topic
down for all to see and make sure it is discussed
at end of meeting if time allows or at an agreed
future date)
5. Data Confusion Control handouts to ensure all have same version
or Overload Create simplified data packs specific to meeting
Exclude any data not directly relevant to objectives
6. Repetition and Control the discussion by reminding attendees
Wheel Spinning of objectives
7. Time Violations Start on time. Allowing delays at the beginning of
meetings cuts efficiency and sends the message that
the leader is flexible on time
Have a timekeeper
If time limits are repeatedly violated, reevaluate
agenda topics and time limits and build in
cushion time

Two common problems in particular that can interfere with creativ-

ity are negative thinking and resistance to the ideas of others or
changes of any kind.

Negativity
While a devil’s advocate can often stir up useful analysis, negativity—
criticizing ideas without good reasons—is deadly in a brainstorming ses-
sion, where it can destroy morale and shut down creative thinking com-
pletely. The leader or facilitator must address negativity immediately.
The best way to stop negativity is to establish a ground rule outlaw-
ing it. If no ground rules exist, then the facilitator will have to play a
very direct role in confronting the person who is being negative. He or
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 297

she may not even be aware of the negativity. If, however, the person
persists, the leader of the group may need to call the person aside after
the meeting, provide feedback on how counterproductive the negative
comments are, and see if there is something below the surface that is
causing the negative responses. Exhibit 9.8 illustrates a few common
negative comments. Imagine trying to have a constructive, creative dis-
cussion with such negative comments intruding into the meeting.
It is the facilitator’s responsibility to ensure that negative sentiments
do not shut down constructive and productive discussion, particularly
in brainstorming when looking for creative ideas. In fact, one test of
skilled facilitators is how well they can overcome resistance.

Resistance to Ideas
Resistance to the ideas of others is similar to negativism, but not as
blatant. Instead of blurting out an obviously negative comment, the
person may offer an opposing idea or present roadblocks. For some
purposes, the leader might want to encourage the contrary ideas and
even encourage someone to play devil’s advocate to inspire better ideas
as the group argues the pros and cons. If, however, the comments are
disrupting rather than helping the discussion progress, the facilitator
will need to step in and stop them. Exhibit 9.9 illustrates four tech-
niques to diffuse the situation so that the meeting can continue more
productively.

Managing Meeting Conflict

When the common meeting problems turn into direct conflict, per-
haps because of personalities or factions within the group, facilita-
tors need to be more aggressive in their tactics. They must be
prepared to manage the conflicts and the people involved before they
interrupt meeting progress and in some cases even intrude into the
overall working environment. Many approaches have been developed
for managing conflict.

EXHIBIT 9.8 That won’t work here. That’s impossible.

Common Nega-
We’re not ready for that. That’s not feasible.
tives That Can
It can’t be done. That’s too expensive.
Shut Down a
That failed last time we tried it. That’s not practical.
Discussion
I don’t like it. That is against company policy.
It is not in the budget. Not that again.
We’ll never sell that idea to _____. Another one of those management fads.
298 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 9.9 Technique What You Might Say

Techniques
to Manage Verify “What I understand you to be saying is . . .”
Resistance Clarify “I am not sure I understand your idea completely. Can
you explain it in another way?”
Align “Let’s look at the problem from your point of view . . .”
Probe “Tell me more about your concerns . . .”

One popular technique often used by negotiators calls on the indi-

viduals involved in the conflict to apply different levels of assertiveness
and cooperation. They can approach the problem by competing, com-
promising, collaborating, avoiding, or accommodating. The matrix
illustrates the trade-offs that occur when selecting any one of these
modes of conflict management (Exhibit 9.10).5

Collaborating
Any of the five modes can be used to allow the meeting to progress.
However, collaborating is usually the best choice to manage meeting
conflict because it calls on both sides to work together toward a com-
mon goal. Both sides can assert their points of view while still cooper-
ating at a high level. Neither side feels as if it is losing anything; thus,
both sides feel as though they have won, which results in a much more
positive atmosphere for the meeting.

Compromising
Although compromising allows the meeting to continue, it is usually
not a choice to use frequently or for longer-term conflict. On the sur-
face, a compromise seems to be a win for both sides, but the ability of
both sides to assert their opinions is only moderate and the level of

EXHIBIT 9.10 High

Conflict-Handling
Competing Collaborating
Modes
Source: From Deborah
Borisoff and David Victor,
Conflict Management: A
Communication Skills
Approach. Published by
Allyn and Bacon, Boston, Level of
MA. Copyright 1997 by Compromising
Assertiveness
Pearson Education.
Adapted by permission
of the publisher.

Avoiding Accommodating

Low Level of Cooperation High

 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 299

cooperation is moderate as well. Therefore, neither side is likely to feel

satisfied by the resolution; they will just accept it. If, however, a com-
promise is the only way to reach a resolution and will appease most of
the group, it is better than the remaining three modes.

Competing
Competing, avoiding, and accommodating may be appropriate in certain
situations, but any one of these modes will usually only work as a short-
term fix. In the competing mode one party wins, but the other loses. Thus,
it frustrates the loser and even affects the others in the meeting, since they
may side with the loser or at least feel sympathy for his or her position.

Avoiding
Avoiding is not an optimal approach for the long term because the
problem is just buried and both sides feel frustrated. Neither side
asserts the problems openly, and neither cooperates to achieve a solu-
tion. Avoiding the problem may work for a short time since it will
allow the meeting to continue; however, in a longer meeting, or in an
organizational context, avoiding problems will usually result in an
explosion or sabotage somewhere down the line.

Accommodating
Finally, in most organizational contexts, accommodating is not a good
approach as a long-term solution because the level of assertiveness is
so low that the conflicting parties may feel as if their opinions are not
of value. This approach will allow a meeting to progress, since the level
of cooperation is high, which means that the atmosphere of the meet-
ing will not be negatively affected in the short term. Also, in some cul-
tural contexts, cooperation and avoiding conflict may be preferred.
Anyone who has to be accommodating too often, however, will become
resentful and may eventually withdraw from the group.
Facilitators will find that they need to use all of these modes at one
time or another to keep the meeting moving toward their goal; how-
ever, all but collaboration—and, if managed right, compromise—are
short-term, quick fixes. If used over the long term, they can lead to dis-
sension within an organization or with teams or any group holding a
series of meetings.

Other Immediate Approaches

If none of these modes seem the best for the situation, the facilitator
may want to try one of the following methods of conflict management
to calm the situation, so that the meeting can continue:
1. Turn the question to the group.
2. Use the is/is not approach or a pro/con format.
300 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

3. Try listing points of agreement and disagreement.

4. Attempt to get at underlying assumptions.
5. Shift the discussion to the facts (put on the white hat).
Quite often, the white hat approach works well, since it takes the emo-
tions out of the moment, forcing the group to be more objective and to
look only at the facts.

Dealing with Cultural and Personality Differences

Chapter 8 contains a complete discussion of the importance of realiz-
ing cultural differences, but since meeting conflict may arise from cul-
tural differences, leaders will want to be aware of some of the specific
issues related to meetings. Recognizing some of these potential issues
will help in managing many of them. Exhibit 9.11 presents selected
variables used in Chapter 8 and describes how differing culturally
based expectations might disrupt a meeting.
These few examples illustrate only some of the obvious differences
leaders might encounter when facilitating a meeting in the global
workplace. No one can know enough about every culture to prevent
the occurrence of all the offending or marginalizing situations, but we
can be aware of the differences and lead or facilitate the meeting in
such a way that we help participants feel as comfortable as possible.

EXHIBIT 9.11 Cultural Variable Some Examples of Differences in Meeting Expectations

Cultural Variables
and Meeting Context Individuals from a high-context society or functional
Behavior area may expect meetings to include time for some
casual conversation and relationship building.
Information Flow People who expect information to come from one direc-
tion (top down, for example) may not feel comfortable
contributing in a problem-solving or brainstorming
session, for instance.
Time Polychronic people may find agendas and a timekeeper
artificial and uncomfortable. The time-is-money,
schedule-driven mentality in the United States, for
instance, would make them uncomfortable.
Language People with a different cultural experience than that in
the United States might find the bantering and joking
exchange of United States attendees offensive, to the
extent that they feel left out and isolated because of it.
Power Societies in which position is equated with power may
expect one leader, the person of highest position in the
organizational hierarchy, to control a meeting and may
be uncomfortable and even confused by the separation
of the leader from the facilitator, for instance, or by a
leader who takes a backseat for any reason.
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 301

Of course, individuals acclimated to the culture of the organization

and the country in which the meetings are occurring will have adjusted
and will conform, but new employees may not be used to the differ-
ences in customs and procedures. Again, if we analyze our audience
(prospective meeting attendees) and plan adequately for the meeting,
we will mitigate or eliminate entirely most of the potential disruptions.
In addition to the differences arising from national, regional, and
functional cultures, we may also encounter differences caused by per-
sonality. For example, in the MBTI, the Judging/Perceiving and Introvert/
Extravert dichotomies will often be the most visible sources of prob-
lems in meetings.
Since Judging personalities are most comfortable with structure and
schedules, they will like an agenda and will be uncomfortable if the meet-
ing leader does not provide and follow one. They also may take it person-
ally if people are late for meetings, as many Perceivers are inclined to be.
With Introverts, leaders will need to ensure that they are given an
opportunity, and in some cases even encouraged, to contribute, since
Extraverts tend to dominate the discussion.
Again, it is dangerous to generalize about personalities and how peo-
ple will behave in a given situation, but being aware of some of the dif-
ferences will help us to lead and facilitate our meetings more effectively.

Ensuring That Meetings Lead to Action

Number four in the seven deadly sins of meetings is that nothing hap-
pens once the meeting ends. Unfortunately, inaction following a meet-
ing is very common. A good meeting planner, however, can overcome
this inertia by performing four steps:
1. Assign specific tasks to specific people. Giving tasks to a group is
dangerous. The vagueness encourages moral equivocation, and iner-
tia triumphs. When assigned a specific task, an individual is much
more likely to deliver than a group is. Accountability is increased
when individuals are required to deliver.
2. Review all actions and responsibilities at the end of the meeting.
Too often, meetings just stop. Never let this happen. Allow time for a
review of actions and ensure that the responsibilities are clear to all
attending. Any next steps should be spelled out explicitly.
3. Provide a meeting summary with assigned deliverables included. If
the meeting includes a note taker, that person should write up the
minutes of the meeting, confirm all action items and responsibilities,
and send the minutes out to all attendees. The minutes do not need to
include every word uttered at the meeting, as they would in a tradi-
tional civic meeting run by Robert’s Rules, for instance, but they
302 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

should contain the main topics discussed and list every next step task,
the person responsible, and the timing if appropriate.
4. Follow up on action items in a reasonable time. The leader should
contact the responsible people shortly after the meeting to make
sure they are clear about what they need to do and to see if they
need help. This contact will serve as a gentle reminder and will be
enough in most situations to ensure delivery. However, if someone
habitually has trouble with deadlines, then the leader should con-
tact that person again as the deadline approaches.
Although these steps may seem like micromanaging, if the meeting
contained serious objectives, as it should have, then we are entitled to
expect some action to come out of it. Otherwise, we risk sending a
message that employees should not take meetings seriously, which will
cause them to feel that meetings are busywork, the first deadly sin
listed at the beginning of the chapter.
Having employees feel that meetings are a waste of time brings us back
to where this chapter started, asking, “Is a meeting necessary?” If we
decided that we needed a meeting to accomplish our purpose, we must
ensure that it moves tasks forward and makes actions happen. The follow-
up to all meetings is not micromanagement; it is simply good leadership.

Application 9.1: Think back to a recent small-group meeting that you attended. Jot down some
Evaluating key information about the meeting:
Experiences in 1. Who called the meeting?
Meetings 2. What was it about?
3. Was there an agenda?
4. Was the purpose of the meeting accomplished?
5. After the meeting, were minutes distributed that outlined tasks and deadlines?
6. During the meeting, what role did you play all or most of the time (leader,
scribe, facilitator, etc.)?
7. What could have been done to make the meeting more effective?
Now work with a partner to compare notes on the meetings you attended to
identify similarities and differences in meeting organization and outcomes.

Source: Case and exercise developed by Beth O’Sullivan, Rice University.

Application 9.2 Case: Wisconsin Frozen Delights

Planning a You have recently been named the new vice president for operations of Wiscon-
Meeting sin Frozen Delights, a regional ice cream manufacturing firm located just out-
side a large metropolitan area in Wisconsin. The following people report to you:
 Chapter 9 Meetings: Leadership and Productivity 303

• Assistant vice president of operations.

• Administrative assistant to the vice president.
• Director of operations.
• Manager of manufacturing.
• Manager of purchasing.
• Manager of shipping.
• Manager of human resources.
• Regulatory compliance officer.
During your first tour of the facilities, you observed a number of safety haz-
ards in the manufacturing areas and you noticed that the factory and adjacent
office areas do not have easy access for anyone with disabilities. You are con-
cerned that the building is not in compliance with regulations under the Amer-
icans with Disabilities Act and that there are possible Occupational, Safety,
and Health Administration (OSHA) violations.
The president has given you full authority to uncover safety concerns, deter-
mine areas in which employees have concerns about safety or disabled access,
and fix the problems to make the company a safe and healthy place to work.
You decide to call a meeting to set the tone for your new administration and to
discuss the safety concerns.

The Assignment
Complete the following steps:
1. Decide whom to invite to the meeting.
2. Develop your objectives and end products.
3. Establish the agenda for the meeting.
4. Write an e-mail or a meeting request inviting your selected attendees to the
meeting.
In addition, assume that your company has a collaborative workspace solution
that allows you to set up a project workspace for the team you are creating. In
this space, you can upload documents, create discussion lists, and create pro-
ject time lines and tasks. Write a brief overview of what you would set up in
the project workspace before this meeting and why.

Source: Case and exercise developed by Deborah J. Barrett and Beth O’Sullivan, Rice
University. Updated by Sandra Elliott, 2009.

Application 9.3 This exercise, using the OmniBank case from Chapter 8, is designed to provide
Conducting a an opportunity to practice some of the planning techniques and facilitation
Problem-Solving approaches discussed in this chapter.
Meeting Case: OmniBank’s Diversity Efforts
You have recently been named the new president of OmniBank, a medium-
sized but rapidly growing suburban bank that meets the needs of individuals
and small businesses. During the interview process, you observed that, beyond
the front office teller level, the more senior workforce at the bank is very
homogeneous—mostly male and predominantly Caucasian. You have reviewed
304 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

several marketing studies that profile your customer base and you realize that
not only do you have many customers of different ethnicities but you also have
a large number of international customers.
As the new president, you decide it is important to launch a comprehensive
effort to improve the diversity at the bank. You value diversity and believe that
broadening your employee base as the bank grows will benefit everyone
involved, and besides, it makes good business sense.

Your Assignment
You have decided to call a meeting to explore how to alter recruiting efforts for
new staff, so that your bank can become more diverse. You want the meeting
to be a brainstorming idea-generation meeting with active problem solving
that leads to practical solutions.
In groups of four or five, conduct a meeting using the agenda provided in
the following table:

Topic/Content Approach/Process Responsibility Timing

Objectives, end products, Develop and agree President,
agenda, roles, decision- facilitator, note
making approach taker, all
Recruiting ideas Brainstorming All
Selecting and agreeing Grouping—rank Facilitator, all
on best ideas order or voting,
then agreeing
Next steps Action plan Facilitator, all
Process review ⫹/⌬ Facilitator, all

Before starting the meeting, determine how much time you need to allow for
each topic. Following the meeting, conduct a ⫹/⌬ plus/delta), which is an
approach to evaluating your meeting success by looking at the pluses (what
worked) and the needed changes (what did not work so well).

Notes 1. Jay, A. (1976). How to Run a Meeting. Harvard Business Review, March–
April.
2. This survey was originally cited as follows: Introduction to Great Meetings,
3m.com/meetingnetwork/leadingroom/meetingguide_make.html, which is
no longer active. However, this statistic is quoted on several other Web sites.
3. Introduction to Great Meetings.
4. Matson, E. (1997). Quoting William R. Daniels, American Consulting &
Training, in The Seven Sins of Deadly Meetings, Fast Company’s Handbook
of the Business Revolution, p. 27.
5. Borisoff, D., and Victor, D. (1999). Conflict Management: A Communication
Skills Approach. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon discusses the use of the
conflict-handling modes developed by K. W. Thomas and R. Kilmann.
Chapter
10
High-Performing
Team Leadership
Teams are not the solution to everyone’s current and
future organizational needs. . . . Nonetheless, teams usu-
ally do outperform other groups and individuals. . . . And
executives who really believe that behaviorally based
characteristics like quality, innovation, cost effectiveness,
and customer service will help build sustainable competi-
tive advantage will give top priority to the development of
team performance.
Jon Katzenbach and Doug Smith (1993). The Wisdom of Teams Boston:
Harvard Business School Press.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Build an effective team.

• Establish the necessary team work processes.
• Manage the people side of teams.
• Handle team issues and conflict.
• Help virtual teams succeed.
Since teams are now so prevalent in all organizations, leaders need to
know how to build and how to manage them to achieve high perfor-
mance. Most people have experienced successful as well as unsuc-
cessful teams. Unfortunately, unsuccessful team experiences may
outnumber successful ones, a perception that has inspired an abun-
dance of information on how to achieve successful teams. A Google
search for the word “teams” yields 178 million hits on every imagin-
able kind of team from kayak racing to continuous improvement.
305
306 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Narrowing the search to include “business” with “teams” still yields

almost 222,000. A quick scan of the hits reveals that many are organi-
zations, universities, and individuals offering training in how to
develop a successful team. Obviously, many are seeking “the way” to
build and maintain a high-performing team.
While no one way is likely to guarantee good results for all organi-
zations, most of the skills leaders need to build and manage a high-
performing team tie directly to their leadership communication ability.
This chapter will guide you through the communication challenges
involved in leading a team. You will learn how to build an effective
team, establish necessary work processes, manage the people side of
teams, and handle team conflict. In addition, you will receive some
guidance on leading virtual teams, which are prevalent in today’s pro-
fessional world.

Building an Effective Team

Building an effective team raises both organizational and individual
leadership issues. In deciding to use teams across our organization, we
will want to look closely at the culture and compensation structure to
see if they both support teamwork. In the past decade, many compa-
nies have launched the use of teams without establishing the organi-
zational infrastructure for teams to succeed. If we are thinking of
forming a team for specific tasks, we first need to determine that a
team is the most effective and efficient approach to perform the task,
solve the problem, generate the new ideas, or generally move our orga-
nization forward in some way.

Deciding to Form Teams

Deciding to form a team is a process very similar to deciding to call a
meeting. Both meetings and teams can alienate participants if they are
not clearly the best approach. Before moving ahead to establish a
team-based organization or to form teams individually, we should be
able to answer yes to the following questions:
1. Is a team the best approach to achieve the organizational objectives
or a specific goal or targeted result?
2. Does the organization provide the necessary training in diversity,
team dynamics, problem solving, and process management to ensure
that team members know how to manage team issues and processes?
3. Are the employees accustomed to creating and following team
charters and ground rules, and do they know how to resolve team
conflicts?
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 307

4. Does the current company technology effectively support team com-

munication and collaboration? And do employees know how to use
that technology (particularly critical for virtual teams)?
5. Are team performance measures built into the company compensa-
tion and performance systems?
Ideally, the answer to each of these questions would be yes; realisti-
cally, that may not be the case. Being able to answer yes to all of the
questions will ensure a more productive environment for teams if our
company intends to take full advantage of a team-based structure
using teams throughout the organization. However, answering no to
all but the first question does not mean that a team is doomed to fail.
High-performing individuals working together in a team with a clear
objective and the commitment to achieve it can be an effective team
despite the environment. Having a supportive environment will simply
make our role in leading and managing teams easier.

Forming the Team

Once we have decided that a team is the best answer, we will need to look
closely at how we will form that team. Companies often decide who
should be on teams based on functional responsibilities, for instance. If
we have the freedom to select the members, however, Katzenbach and
Smith’s team basics framework is useful in establishing the characteris-
tics of a “real” team (Exhibit 10.1). In their team basics framework, the
apex topics—performance results, personal growth, and collective work
products—represent the outcome of the work of the team.
The other items in Exhibit 10.1 are the characteristics of what
Katzenbach and Smith consider a “real” team:
• Complementary skills (problem solving, technical/functional, inter-
personal).
• Accountability (mutual, individual, and small number of people).
• Commitment (specific goals, common approach, meaningful purpose).
Team members should have skills that complement rather than
duplicate each other, although teams may develop some of the
required skills after the team forms. All members need to recognize
and accept mutual as well as individual accountability for the team’s
work products. The size of the team matters and affects accountability,
since a team that is too large will end up dividing into subteams and
the work can become so diffused that accountability gets lost. Finally,
the team must have specific goals, a purpose that is important to the
organization, and a common approach to the work.
Having all of the team basics is more important to achieving high
performance than team-building exercises intended to mold a group
of individuals into a cohesive, committed, mutually responsible unit:
308 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 10.1 Focusing on Team Basics

Katzenbach and
Performance
Smith’s Team Results
Basics
Source: Reprinted by per-
mission of Harvard Busi-
ness School Press. From
The Wisdom of Teams by
Katzenbach, J.R., and
Smith, D. K. Boston, MA
1993. Copyright © 1993 by
McKinsey & Company, Inc.
All rights reserved. Skills Problem Mutual Accountability
solving

Technical Individual
function
Interpersonal Small number
of people

Specific goals
Common approach

Meaningful purpose

Collective Commitment Personal

Work Products Growth

“By focusing on performance and team basics—as opposed to trying

‘to become a team’—most small groups can deliver the performance
results that require and produce team behavior.”1
One of the first responsibilities of a team leader is bringing together
the right people or, if we do not get to select the members, deciding how
to work with the members we have to achieve the performance we seek.
As the team leader, we will be the one to communicate to the members
individually and collectively the reasons for their selection to the team,
the team purpose and objectives, and our expectations of them as a
team. The next section covers how best to communicate our expecta-
tions of the team as we work with them to establish the purpose, roles
and responsibilities, ground rules, and communication protocol.

Establishing the Necessary Team Work Processes

Once the selected team members know they are on our team, we will
want to schedule a launch, or kick-off, meeting. Teams tend to begin
their work more effectively if leaders take the time to hold an official
launch. Having a launch allows the team to address many of the team
work process steps discussed here. Although most teams will probably
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 309

want to jump right into the work without spending the necessary time
on process issues, leading them through development of the purpose,
goals, and approach (the commitment side of the team basics frame-
work) will help the team work more efficiently and effectively.
The primary causes of conflict in a team are poorly defined goals
and purposes and lack of clarity about the approach to the work and
problem solving. Chapter 9 on meetings discussed the importance of
using common problem-solving tools in meetings and provided some
useful examples that work well with teams. This section addresses the
issues of goals, purpose, and approach in a team launch by showing
how to create a team charter, action plan, and work plan.

Creating the Team Charter

One of the first steps for a team will be to create a team charter or con-
tract. A charter usually consists of the following:
1. Project purpose and goals.
2. Team member roles and responsibilities.
3. Ground rules.
4. Communication protocol.

Project Purpose and Goals

The leader or the organization may have already established the team’s
specific purpose, but to make sure the team members understand and
have internalized this purpose as a team, team leaders should ask them
to write down exactly what they see as their purpose for being a team.
Is it a broad, organizational purpose, or is it narrow and specific to one
problem or one person? Simply expressing the purpose out loud is not
enough. It must be written so that every member of the team can see it
and agree to it.
The goals must support and clearly link to the purpose. They should
be specific and measurable performance goals. For instance, the pur-
pose of the team might be to establish a marketing strategy and pro-
motional plan for MarTex, Inc. Then, the goals might be (1) to
establish a profile of MarTex’s current image, reputation, and market
perception; (2) to determine MarTex’s value proposition, key messages,
and target audiences; and (3) to develop a marketing communication
plan and materials to reach target audiences.

Team Member Roles and Responsibilities

The team should define all roles and responsibilities for each team
member at the first meeting. The basic process roles to consider are
similar to the roles in meetings: leader, facilitator, timekeeper, and note
taker. The team should consider whether the roles will rotate or if the
same person will perform the role throughout the project. In addition,
310 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

the team needs to assign someone to be the meeting minder (coordi-

nator) and/or work plan manager. This person is responsible for calling
meetings or sending out reminders and making meeting arrange-
ments. Depending on the size of the team and the project, the same
person could also maintain the work plan, updating and making
changes as needed and communicating them to the team.

Team Ground Rules

Teams need ground rules that all the members participate in creating
and agree to follow. The rules should be determined at the first team
meeting and become a permanent part of the team charter. The rules
will probably resemble those the team would establish for meetings,
but they will also be longer-term, governing the team’s interactions
between meetings as well. At a minimum, the team’s ground rules
should include topics such as those listed in Exhibit 10.2. Some exam-
ples are included as well.
Ground rules should fit the culture of the organization and the
personality of the team. Some teams like very strict rules with penal-
ties, while others prefer a more relaxed approach. The leader and the
team will want to determine what approach is best for this team.
Also, the team should build in periodic process checks to review the
ground rules and be prepared to adjust them if it appears they are not
working.

Communication Protocol
At the first meeting, the team members should decide how they plan to
communicate with each other on a regular basis. Will they use IM,
e-mail, or voice mail, for instance, or all, with each designated for a spe-
cific type of message? Is there a time of day or night that is off-limits for
calling a team member, or do some team members respond better and
faster to e-mail than phone mail? The team should consider the fol-
lowing questions in developing a team communication protocol:
1. What events or situations will trigger communication with each
other?
2. When will we contact a member of the team versus the entire team?
Do we copy the entire team on all e-mails? Are there some team
members who prefer no calls at home or do not want to receive calls
at a certain time?
3. Who will be the spokesperson for most team internal communica-
tion? For external communication (that is, with other groups within
the company or even outside the company)?
4. What information needs to be communicated to the team? Should
we provide regular updates on progress or limit communication to
issues, requests, or announcements?
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 311

EXHIBIT 10.2 Team Topics Example Ground Rules

Ground Rule Top-
ics and Examples Leadership One leader for the overall project, but lead persons
for Teams assigned on the work plan will assume leadership for
meetings on their topics.
Communication The team will follow the communication protocol for all
team communication.
Participation We expect all members to participate equally and
actively in all team activities and work.
Work Products All members will contribute their share of the work,
delivering end products complete and on time. The
team will follow work plan action items and time line.
Conflict We encourage healthy debate about content within the
Management meetings; however, the facilitator will directly address
and Resolution conflict that disrupts the team. Anyone who feels a con-
flict exists that is not being addressed has the responsi-
bility to bring it to the facilitator or team for resolution.
Preparation All members must be aware of agenda items for the day
and have their portions of the work completed before
the meeting starts.
Attendance We require attendance at all team meetings. If an unex-
pected conflict arises, the member is responsible for
sending in his or her work for the day and for notifying
the team. A team member who misses more than three
meetings risks being removed from the team.
Timing We expect all team members to be on time for meet-
ings. If teammates see they will be late, they must notify
the team coordinator. Too many late appearances could
result in being removed from the team.
Decision Making The team will determine any decisions by consensus
unless the team reaches an impasse, at which time the
facilitator or leader can table the item for a future
meeting, if appropriate, or call for a vote.
Laptops and We will try to refrain from using our laptops and cell
Cell Phones phones during team meetings. The exception is to retrieve
information needed by the team during the meeting.

5. How should we communicate everyday messages, work plan items,

end products, questions, emergencies, and the like? Which medium
does the team prefer to use for everyday communication? Do some
team members strongly prefer one medium over another?
6. To whom do we communicate problems, questions, concerns, and
so on?
7. Is there a shared workspace where communication with the team
can be centralized? If so, what should be placed in this workspace,
when, and by whom?
312 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Exhibit 10.3 provides an example of a typical team charter for an

internal team performing a marketing study.

Using Action and Work Plans

For a team project of any complexity or length, an action plan of over-
all phases is useful and a specific work plan of all action items and
end products with responsibilities and time lines is essential.
Although any plan has to be updated frequently as the project unfolds,
creating one at the beginning of the project is necessary for all team
members to know exactly what needs to be done, by whom, and by
when. It helps avoid duplication of effort, ensures that all needed
activities are included, and allocates adequate time for the planned
actions.

EXHIBIT 10.3 Example of a Team Charter

Team Charter for the MarTex Tiger Team (August 25, 2009)

Purpose: Goals:

To establish a marketing strategy 1. Establish a profile of MarTex’s current image, reputation, and
and promotional plan for market perception.
MarTex, Inc.
2. Determine MarTex’s value proposition, key messages, and
target audiences.

3. Develop a marketing communications plan and materials to reach

target audiences.

Team Member Roles and Responsibilities

In addition to contributing to problem solving, analysis, research, and document content, members will have
the following specific roles and responsibilities:

Amanda Shay Team leader Kick the team off and provide leadership overall.
Create drafts of documents.

Miguel Serrato Meeting facilitator, Create agendas, manage the meetings, communicate
coordinator, timekeeper meeting times and locations.

Tuyen Tran Work plan master, Create work plan, keep it up to date with changes,
costing expert distribute to team.

Mary Prescott Benchmarking/data Lead competitive image analysis.

gathering expert

Jane Sudduth Branding/ Lead brand identity and message analysis.

communication expert

Jodi Pliszka Design specialist Create sample promotional materials.

(continued)
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 313

EXHIBIT 10.3 (continued)

Team Charter for the MarTex Tiger Team

Ground Rules: Communication Protocol:

1. Meetings will start on time (penalties will be Who

enforced for lateness). � Miguel will contact members for all
meeting items.
2. Members must attend all meetings and be fully
prepared to participate. � Amanda will inform the team of any content
issues or other issues from the company perspective.
3. We will stick to our agenda. Any important topics She is to be the only team contact with senior
not on the agenda will be placed in the management.
“parking lot”* for future discussion.
What and to whom
4. No sidebars are allowed. � All team-related information (meetings, work plan,
questions, etc.) will be sent to all team members.
5. No negatives are permitted at any time.
� Correspondence on subteam work will go to
6. Work plan responsibilities must be fulfilled and members involved only.
on time.
How
7. Consensus approach will be used for decision � We will meet daily for the first week. Then, we will
making, although the leader has right to call meet as needed. Any team member may call a
for a vote if necessary. meeting if needed, but he or she must coordinate
through Miguel.
8. Any conflict will be handled immediately,
first by the facilitator and then by the whole � We will communicate primarily through e-mail
team if necessary. unless urgent; then, we will use phone mail.

� Documents will be sent through e-mail and will

always contain the initials of the last person
working on them and the date and time.

� Home phone calls are limited to extremely

important team business, such as a last-minute
emergency that will cause missing a meeting.

*“Parking lot” is the team’s name for items that are important but not for discussion at that meeting or time.

Action plans allow the team members to see the big picture of the
project easily and help them organize the individual tasks into blocks
of work that make it easier to manage the responsibilities and deliver-
ables. The first step in creating the action plan is to establish the major
phases of the project. A project of any complexity or length can usually
be mapped into three to five phases. Any more than five phases makes
the plan difficult to manage. The phases should correspond to the
goals of the project. After the team has determined the phases, they
can then list the major activities within each one and the overall tim-
ing for the phase. Exhibits 10.4 and 10.5 illustrate that the general
action plan activities become the headings for the more specific action
items in the work plan with specific responsibilites and deadlines.
314 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 10.4 MarTex Tiger Team Action Plan

Example of a
Team Action Plan
Value
Phases Current image, Marketing plan
proposition,
brand identity and materials
key messages

Actions � Determine � Conduct surveys � Develop

approach to and interviews marketing plan
perception
analysis � Identify gaps in � Create
perception and preliminary
� Assess current materials marketing
marketing and materials
promotional � Identify audiences
efforts � Pilot test plan
� Determine value and materials
proposition and
messages

Timing Sept 1–Sept 15 Sept 15–Sept 30 Sept 30–Oct 27

EXHIBIT 10.5 Example of a Team Work Plan

Phase 1 Goal: Establish a Profile of Mar Tex’s Current Image, Reputation, and Market Perception
Action Items Responsibility End Products Deadline
Determine approach to perception
analysis
• Create framework and approach Miguel & Amanda Framework 9/2
• Establish benchmarking criteria Mary & Jane Benchmarking criteria 9/5
• Determine how best to obtain Miguel & Amanda Perception plan 9/8
client and marketplace perceptions
• Create data instruments Mary & Tuyen Survey and interview 9/9
(survey interview guides) guide and schedule
• Test survey and interview guides Mary & Tuyen Revised version 9/12
• Determine who among competitors Miguel List of target competitors 9/12
to include
• Determine who among clients Amanda List of target clients 9/12
to include
Assess current marketing and
promotional efforts
• Research competitors’ current Tuyen & Jodi Portfolio of material 9/14
promotional efforts
• Analyze their marketing approaches Tuyen & Jodi Summary of approaches 9/14
• Obtain and evaluate their marketing Tuyen & Jodi Comparative matrix 9/16
materials compared to ours
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 315

The action plan phases should set up the main areas of work for the
work plan. In fact, the team might want to repeat the goals at the top
of the plan as a reminder for the team.

Delivering the Results

A team’s performance will depend on the team’s being able to deliver
the results of its work. That usually means delivering a presentation, a
report, or both. These tasks are often one of the major communication
challenges that teams face.

Creating Team Documents and Presentations

Creating a document or presentation as a team requires preplanning
and a clearly defined approach. Teams often struggle with dividing up
the labor and run into difficulties managing the versions of the docu-
ments and presentations. Teams usually use one of two ways to divide
the tasks:
1. Single-scribe aproach—one person on the team does all the writing,
with the others providing the content to the scribe.
2. Multiple-writer approach—the team divides the writing among the
team members according to the sections for which they have pro-
vided most of the content.

1. Single-Scribe Approach
The single-scribe approach ensures consistency in style and format.
However, one person ends up with tremendous control over the com-
munication’s content and style, as well as a heavy work burden at the
end of the project. With this approach, the fate of the team’s project
essentially rests in the hands of one member’s ability to communicate
the team’s ideas effectively.
In addition, despite the amount of work involved, scribes may feel
that other members of the team minimize their contribution to the
team effort. Thus, to ensure that the single-scribe method works well,
the members must share in the ownership of the document by reading
and contributing to the drafts. They should also make sure the scribe’s
contribution is recognized, and that he or she is included in all team
meetings.
When using the single-scribe approach, the team needs to build the
compilation step into the work plan and be very specific about what
each team member is expected to give to the scribe. Teams frequently
multitask, with different team members working on different tasks;
therefore, the team may want to assign one person to oversee the doc-
ument production deadlines, ensuring that the schedule is on target.
Despite the best intentions and scheduling, often the final compila-
tion of the document or presentation occurs at the last minute. If team
316 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

members submit material that is at radically different stages of comple-

tion, then the scribe has a huge challenge that could end up harming the
quality of the final product. For instance, if one team member brings an
outline, another brings a list of bullets, another goes off task and writes
on someone else’s material, and then another does what is expected and
writes out the entire section in detail, the scribe is forced to manage the
uneven contribution and fill in the blanks, perhaps without being in full
command of the content for each section. In addition, the compilation
time expands fourfold. Agreeing specifically to what each team member
will give to the scribe will help with efficiency and quality.

2. Multiple-Writer Approach
The multiple-writer, or collaborative, approach divides the writing
among team members. This approach has advantages and disadvan-
tages as well. One of the major advantages can be efficiency. When vari-
ous team members write individual sections of a document or populate
the content of a section of a presentation, the work will usually go much
faster than the single-scribe approach. The team members know the
content well and can ensure that it is complete and correct. Also, they
avoid the delays caused when a team member has to rewrite his or her
section because the scribe, who is often not close to the content, has
misrepresented the meaning in some way. Collaborative writing makes
the team labor more efficient and makes it seem more equitable. In the
end, the entire team feels greater ownership of the finished product.
However, the approach has some problems. One danger is that the
team may be confused about the precise scope of individual assign-
ments, resulting in duplication of effort or neglected tasks. The team
may have trouble dividing the sections equitably, and the resulting sec-
tions may be uneven and inconsistent. Also, the style and tone will
probably differ from section to section. If the differences are extreme,
the document can easily come across as fragmented and even incoher-
ent, and a presentation can seem like a compilation of separate presen-
tations rather than the coherent presentation of a team working as one.
To ensure that the writing is performed completely and evenly, the
team can divide the document into its different sections and assign
responsibilities for them using the pyramid or storyboard. A good
pyramid shows the major topics with no overlap. A storyboard can
serve a similar function for a team working on a presentation. How-
ever, the team members will still need to come together to ensure that
the agenda presents a coherent story of their work.
If the team has used the pyramid or a similar structural approach to
guide them, the major organizational topics at the first level of their pyra-
mid become the major section headings, or in a longer document, the
chapter titles or in a presentation the agenda items. Using the pyramid
from Chapter 2 as an example, the team’s outline would be as follows:
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 317

Launching a New Bank Card in China

I. Market Potential
A. Political Climate
B. Competitive Analysis
II. Profitability
A. Cost Analysis
B. Potential Revenue
III. Implementation Plan
A. Staffing Requirements
B. Marketing Plan Actions

From the outline, the team could assign sections to the team members.
To avoid formatting issues or time-consuming mechanical changes
in the compiling phase, the team needs to specify all details of format
ahead of time. For example, the team should decide on margins, spac-
ing, body and heading fonts, and the positioning of headings and sub-
headings in a document and select the background, layout, color
scheme, and style and size of fonts for presentations. If they have
selected a document or slide template early in the project, each writer
would simply be able to type in his or her content and not worry about
consistency in formatting.
Finally, to ensure that the document or presentation is consistent
and coherent, the team must take time at the beginning to agree on
style and format, but also allow time at the end to have one person do
the final proofreading after the entire team reviews the document.
Although this person does the final proofing, the entire team shares
the responsibility for the quality of the end product; therefore, every
member of the team should read the final document, with one person
giving it the final proofing and quality check before it is delivered.

Controlling Versions
Whether working alone or with a group, we need a method for con-
trolling the versions of our documents. Version control is essential
when creating a team document, since multiple team members will
touch the document at various times during the writing process.
To keep the versions straight, the team should decide together when
drafts are due, who is to receive them, and in what order they are to
circulate through the team. In addition, they should establish a track-
ing method for the versions. One approach is to insert the date and
time in the footer and use it as the file name while the document is in
drafting stages. Once they have finished all editing, they should make
sure to delete the footer from the final version. In addition to the time
and date, team members should get in the habit of inserting their ini-
tials in the footer and in the file name when saving the document. For
example, a team might use the footer “9:00 a.m. 17 05 09 AS” and the
318 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

file name “Brand Study 17 05 09 AS1” to designate the version as the

one completed by Andrew Smith at 9:00 a.m. on May 17, 2009.
Agreeing on a method for tracking the versions and establishing a
writing and version control plan will save time and help the team pro-
duce higher-quality communication. Such procedures will also help
teams avoid some of the conflict that can occur when individuals col-
laborate in the writing of a document.
With the advent of such shared workspaces as Google Documents, it
is far easier for a team to collaborate on documents and presentations.
However, these shared documents present their own challenges, since
changes to the documents are not saved in previous versions, and infor-
mation that is deleted cannot be reclaimed. Any team working with
such shared material should determine how and when to save previous
versions to ensure that vital information is not lost during edits.

Work Plan Specifics

The team will want to include all tasks to create and complete their
document or presentation in the action steps of their work plan. Teams
typically underestimate the time it will take to create and complete a
document or presentation as a team. They make this mistake because
they do not push far enough into the details of document or presenta-
tion creation and completion. On the work plan, for instance, a team
may be tempted simply to write “Create report” as their action step,
which does not begin to capture the many steps involved. Instead, the
work plan should contain steps, such as the following:

Typical Steps in Creating and Completing Documents or Presentations

1. Develop communication strategy.
2. Decide on medium (round-table or stand-up presentation, Web page, online
presentation, or formal written document).
3. Determine format and layout. If creating a presentation, this would include
selecting the PowerPoint template.
4. Develop outline, storyboard, or ghost pack.
5. Divide up slides or sections.
6. Create first draft.
7. Pull sections together into one document.
8. Test for coherence and reorganize if necessary.
9. Rewrite sections and complete any editing.
10. Read entire document or presentation as a team.
11. Perform final proofreading.
12. If a presentation, practice, allowing time for revisions if needed; if a
document, print and bind copy, if required, or publish online.

Listing all the steps will help the team better estimate the time
needed for the creation and completion of the document or presenta-
tion. The team should plan for this work just as they do for the
research and analysis. Otherwise, they risk not allowing enough time,
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 319

and the resulting rush may prevent them from delivering the high-
quality end product that is characteristic of a high-performing team.

Learning from the Team Experience

Teams should learn from the experiences of being on the team, reflect-
ing on the team work processes and looking at what worked and what
did not work so well. Teams working together over an extended period
of time may want to build in periodic process checks. Doing so allows
them to determine which processes are working well and which may
need to be changed. They should revisit their roles and responsibilities,
ground rules, and communication protocol. The sample form to assess
team process performance in the applications at the end of this chap-
ter provides structure for such a team process discussion.
In addition to periodic reviews during the work, the team will prob-
ably want to schedule time as a team to debrief on the experience at
the end of the project. Each team member can then learn from the
experience, and the team leader will be able to capture the lessons
learned from the team’s experience for the benefit of future teams in
the organization. If the team is using a shared workspace, leaders may
be able to take advantage of polls or surveys to get a general feel for the
overall success of the team.
The team leader will also want to provide feedback on the perfor-
mance of individual members and ask for feedback on his or her per-
formance as a team leader (see sample evaluation form in the
applications at the end of this chapter). The feedback may cover peo-
ple issues as well as work process activities, although many of the peo-
ple issues will be avoided if the team leader ensures that the team
attends to the work process activities.
The following list of steps for avoiding team trouble summarizes the
process steps discussed in this section.

Keeping Teams Out of Trouble

1. Have an official team launch, including an introduction to the team and the
creation of a team charter.
2. Obtain any needed training in team management, such as facilitation skills,
meeting management, problem solving, and conflict resolution.
3. Develop and post team ground rules and expectations for team behavior.
4. Educate team members about what to expect in team development, such
as the traditional stages of forming, storming, norming, and performing.
5. Anticipate the roadblocks to team performance early and deal with them.
6. Provide regular opportunities for feedback among team members and make
sure it is done properly.
7. Provide feedback to the team leader on what is working and what isn’t.
8. Build in team process checks to monitor the effectiveness of the team.

Source: Adapted from Bens, I. (1999). Keeping Your Teams Out of Trouble. Journal of Quality and Participa-
tion 22, No. 4, pp. 45–47.
320 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Managing the People Side of Teams

Teams bring together the best talent available to solve a problem;
however, sometimes these talented people clash. The previous section
covers the more mechanical side of managing team processes, but the
success or failure of a team often depends on the softer issues associ-
ated with the people and how well they work together. Just as emo-
tional intelligence is important for individuals, it is also important
for groups.
One way to improve the team’s emotional intelligence or ability to
work together smoothly is for the team to take time to know something
about each other’s current situation, work experiences, expectations,
personality, and cultural differences. This knowledge may not result in
team bonding or friendships, which are more the by-product of teams
than the goal, but since these softer issues influence how the person
behaves as a team member, the knowledge can help the team avoid
conflict and help the leader anticipate any problems or performance
roadblocks.
Shared workspaces, such as Microsoft SharePoint, provide an excel-
lent opportunity for this kind of sharing, offering such tools as profiles,
work groups, personal and group blogs, and virtual team rooms the
team members can use to find out more about those with whom they
are working.
Although team members will get to know each other through day-
to-day interactions while working together, the team members can
shorten the learning curve by discussing the following information at
the first team meeting:
1. Position and responsibilities.
2. Team experiences.
3. Expectations.
4. Personality.
5. Cultural differences.

Position and Responsibilities

What are the person’s responsibilities outside the team? If in an orga-
nizational setting, what is the position (not just title) of the individ-
ual within the organization? What does the person do for the
organization? What are his or her day-to-day responsibilities and
workload? As was discussed in Chapter 8, high- and low-context pref-
erences affect various functional groups within organizations as well
as cultures, and these differences will influence the person’s expecta-
tions of team dynamics.
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 321

Also, unless the individual is relieved of all other responsibilities to

work on the team, responsibilities outside the team will influence the
time and commitment available for the team, which could leave other
team members resentful, particularly if they are unaware of the extent
of the individual’s outside commitments. While work outside the team
is never an excuse for an individual not to carry his or her share of the
team work, the team benefits by knowing about the outside demands
both for the sake of understanding and for helping the team assign
team responsibilities. This knowledge is particularly useful, for instance,
when managing someone who tends to overcommit.

Team Experiences
How often have the members worked on a team and on how many
teams? If they are new to the team experience, they will need more
education in team dynamics, work approaches, and expectations.
What kinds of experiences have they had—positive and negative? The
team could perhaps learn from discussing both what worked well and
what did not work so well on other teams. A decidedly negative team
experience could affect a member’s attitude toward teams in general;
getting that out in the open can help mitigate negative attitudes.

Expectations
What do the members expect from the team and team experience? Do
their goals align with the team goals? Are their goals focused more on
the project or the process? Are they on the team only to advance their
careers? For example, a team member who sees working on the team
primarily as a way to garner management attention may pursue indi-
vidual goals rather than working for team goals. He or she may domi-
nate presentations to management or violate team communication
protocol by communicating with management without the team pre-
sent. The rest of the team will then become frustrated and even angry
with this attention-seeking team member.
Another example, frequently encountered in academic settings, occurs
when a team is divided between members who want to learn and get the
most out of a project or team experience and those who simply want to
receive the reward, in this case a good grade. When a team divided like
this makes work assignments, instead of giving those who do not know a
subject the opportunity to learn it, they assign the substantive work expe-
diently to the person most familiar with the subject to improve their odds
of getting the better grade. The people who are there to learn then become
frustrated because they feel their learning experiences are limited.
When team members have different expectations and goals, they
may work at cross-purposes. This again underscores the importance of
322 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

establishing goals at the beginning and making sure each member

accepts them.

Personality
Chapter 7 discussed the MBTI as a way to help understand individual
personalities and how they affect the way people work. Team perfor-
mance can benefit if the members understand how each other’s per-
sonalities may affect work behavior and group interactions. For
instance, if a Perceiver is frequently late (and while a type characteris-
tic is not an excuse), the other team members will at least know not to
take it personally.
Knowing the characteristics of different personality types on the
teams can contribute to the ability to lead and manage the team mem-
bers. It will help the team leaders understand others and how they take
in information and approach problem solving. For example, if leaders
know that a member is an Introvert and he or she withdraws from the
conversation, they will realize that the person is probably not angry or
upset, but simply thinking, and the leaders may want to do more to
encourage him or her to contribute.

Cultural Differences
Team members’ understanding of cultural differences can affect a
team’s ability to function. Some examples of particular team issues
that may arise from diversity are aligned with some of the cultural
variables presented in Chapter 8 and discussed in Exhibit 10.6.
Discussing these topics will serve as the first steps toward building
the team’s emotional intelligence. In research on the importance of
developing group emotional intelligence, Druskat and Wolff found that,
“to be most effective, the team needs to create emotionally intelligent
norms—the attitudes and behaviors that eventually become habits—that
support behaviors for building trust, group identity, and group efficacy.
The outcome is complete engagement in tasks.”2 Openly discussing
some or all of the five topics presented in this section—position and
responsibilities, team experiences, expectations, personality, and cul-
tural differences—will shorten the time the team needs to develop trust
and a group identity.
It seems obvious that the more team members know about each
other the better; however, too often, teams fail to take enough time
upfront to understand each other as people. Discussing these topics at
the team launch and working to develop the team’s combined emo-
tional intelligence will help the team avoid some of the conflicts that
typically arise.
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 323

EXHIBIT 10.6 Cultural Variables and Examples of Potential Team Issues

Cultural Variable Some Examples of Differences in Team Expectations

Context • Individuals from a high-context society or functional area may expect teams
to socialize some to allow time to build relationships. These individuals could
be offended if the social time included discussion of work issues.
• Some high-context people may be so dependent on nonverbal cues that
they find working electronically limiting. A high-context person may feel that
e-mails or shared work spaces fail to capture the meaning of the message
and need more direct interaction with others on the team.
Information Flow • Professionals from different cultures may expect information to flow in a cer-
tain way. Some, for instance, may not understand when the team’s commu-
nication protocol has established only one person as the main contact with
senior management; they may see that as face time for them with people of
power and resent the team setting limits on their interactions. Others may
not be comfortable with including all team members on e-mails when they
want to communicate with the team leader.
• Some cultures see information as something that is freely shared, and others
as a source of power they need to protect. Failure to share information
openly on a team can result in hard feelings and a lack of trust, which can
completely undermine the team’s working relationship and the quality of
their work.
Time • A polychronic person may find action plans and work plans too linear and may
not appreciate the importance of attempting to manage time so intensely.
• Some people may be very relaxed about meeting times and even deadlines
for deliverables, which can cause conflict and place teams in a bind.
• Team members may not share the same single-task focus, causing the single-
task person to fear that the multitasking individual is not committed to the
task or is not well organized.
Language • Persons from a different cultural experience than that in the United States,
for instance, might find joking exchanges offensive; they may see it as a way
to keep them from bonding with the team.
• Some may have problems with the amount of jargon that tends to emerge
in a team environment as well.
Power • Persons from cultures in which power and position are equated may not
recognize the team leader as a person of power if the leader is of the same
rank in the company and may resent that person’s attempts to lead the team
in any meaningful way, for instance, in resolving conflict or determining the
best solution when the team is divided.
• Some may have trouble seeing team members as equal partners in the project.
324 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Handling Team Issues and Conflict

Despite all of the best planning and time spent on process, teams will
likely experience conflict. Some of it will be useful and some not, but
the odds are that it will occur. As Katzenbach writes, an effective team
is “about hard work, conflict, integration, and collective results.”3
Working on a team is not easy, but the benefits can be very rewarding
for the team members, and the results can be much better for the orga-
nization. Obtaining the best results can depend on the team’s ability to
manage conflict. Just as individuals and teams must be able to dis-
agree in meetings, teams need to know how to manage conflict in their
overall team activities.

Types of Team Conflict

Internal team conflict will usually be one of four types:
1. Analytical (team’s constructive disagreement over a project issue
or problem).
2. Task (goal, work process, deliverables).
3. Interpersonal (personality, diversity, communication styles).
4. Roles (leadership, responsibilities, power struggles).

Analytical
Analytical conflict emerges when team members disagree about sub-
stantive project issues, approaches to problem solving, or proposed
answers to major questions. This type of conflict is usually construc-
tive for the team, since it leads to better answers and greater creativity.
It should be encouraged and recognized for the value it brings.
Deriving value from analytical conflict, however, requires that the
team separate personality from issues, which is not always easy. The
individuals involved must not take disagreements personally. They
must see someone’s questioning not as a personal attack but as a way
to explore and understand all sides of an issue. Putting on the “black
hats” (from de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats, discussed in Chapter 9) can
help team members think critically while removing any associations
with personal issues.
Further, a team that wants to be as creative as possible and explore
issues rigorously should have a ground rule encouraging members to
disagree. For this ground rule to succeed, team members must view
analytical conflict as constructive. If it takes on a destructive tone, there
is usually a problem below the surface that the team needs to confront.

Task
The second form of team conflict concerns tasks or, quite frequently, a
team member’s not attending to a task. For example, a team member
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 325

may not deliver the work product completed or may miss a deadline
for an action item. All team members could be at fault if they have not
been clear and specific about the expectations for the work product
(thus, the value of the end product column in the work plan). However,
the individual team member may be at fault if his or her commitment
level is not high enough to ensure that the task is done well and deliv-
ered on time. Having a ground rule that sets this expectation estab-
lishes the esponsibility for every team member to deliver work
products complete and on time. If they do not, this kind of conflict can
seriously hurt a team’s performance.

Interpersonal
Interpersonal conflict can be very disruptive to a team as well. Differ-
ences in personality types or cultural backgrounds often cause this
kind of conflict. Conflict can also emerge from differences in core val-
ues and even ethics. Personality conflict can arise over differences in
attitudes. For instance, if one team member has a playful, jocular atti-
tude toward life, and another takes everything very seriously, the joker
could offend the more serious teammate.
Personality conflict can also arise over goals and expectations. For
example, one team member may see the work the team is doing as a
valuable learning experience and enjoy the team problem solving and
give-and-take; another may see the team’s work as a means to an exter-
nal end, perhaps a way to gain a promotion or recognition, and thus
focus only on the end product, demanding team perfection. Unfortu-
nately, ground rules may not be enough to resolve these kinds of con-
flicts; the team will thus need to apply some of the approaches to
handling team conflict discussed later in this chapter.

Roles
Teams can usually minimize conflict over roles by taking time at the
beginning to establish the roles and responsibilities of each member. Role
conflicts can still occur if the team gets off course, or individuals start
intruding into one another’s task area. Conflicts can also occur if individ-
uals have different expectations of the leader’s role. One member may see
the leader as primarily a facilitator who keeps things moving along
smoothly, while another may see the leader as the one to take charge and
tell others what to do. Again, clarity about roles and clear ground rules
defining team interaction should help manage these kinds of problems.
Whatever the source of the conflict, if it is disruptive, the team
needs to address it or risk failing to accomplish planned objectives—
and certainly jeopardize obtaining results of the highest quality. The
conflict will become distracting and prevent the team from being pro-
ductive and turning out quality work. The methods and techniques
presented in the next section will help teams manage team conflict.
326 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Approaches to Handling Team Conflict

Most teams will use one of the following three approaches to manag-
ing conflict:
1. One on one: Individuals involved work it out between themselves.
2. Facilitation: Individuals involved work with a facilitator (mediator).
3. Team: Individuals involved discuss it with the entire team.

One on One
Quite often, a team will decide that the first step in the team’s conflict
resolution procedure will be to have the two individuals work out the
issues alone. However, this one-on-one approach may not be the best
approach. The approach should be based on the type of conflict and
the personalities of the individuals. For example, if the conflict is a
personality conflict and both individuals are Introverts, leaving them
alone to solve the problem will probably not yield much progress. Even
with an Introvert and an Extravert, the one-on-one approach may not
work in a personality conflict. On the other hand, if the problem
relates to a task and one member thinks another is not carrying his or
her load, the two might be able to discuss it and come to some under-
standing.
If the individuals decide to resolve the issue themselves, they should
follow common ground rules for conflict resolution. They may want to
use the following guidelines to manage the discussion:
1. Each person should start in a white hat mode, stating the facts as he
or she sees them.
2. Both should listen carefully to the other and not interrupt. Setting
a time limit for each person may help manage the exchange of
information and avoid the more aggressive person dominating too
much.
3. Then, both should explain how they see the issue in relation to the
team and how it may disrupt team functioning.
4. Next, the individuals should suggest approaches or ideas to resolve
the issues.
5. Finally, they should agree on an approach, write it out, and sign it.
Exhibit 10.7, developed by Deborah Borisoff and David A. Victor, pre-
sents a more detailed way of approaching one-on-one conflict man-
agement discussions.
Teams could use these steps in most conflict resolution situations,
but they will find that they will work particularly well for one-on-one
conflict, since they help the individual be more objective. A memory
device to help remember the steps is to think of them as the Five “A’s”
and make them action steps as demonstrated below Exhibit 10.7.
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 327

EXHIBIT 10.7 Steps Description

Steps to Integra-
tive Conflict Assessment • Allow yourself time to calm down and to evaluate
Management the situation
• Gather appropriate information or documentation
Source: From Deborah
Borisoff and David Victor, • Assess your compromise points
Conflict Management: A • Assess what the other party wants
Communication Skills • Make a preliminary determination of the appropriate
Approach. Published by
Allyn and Bacon, Boston, conflict-handling behavior for the situation,
MA. Copyright 1997 by relationship, environment
Pearson Education.
Adapted by permission of Acknowledgment • Listen to the other party’s concerns
the publisher. • Try to understand his or her viewpoint
Attitude • Avoid stereotyping and making predeterminations
• Try to remain objective
• Remain as flexible and open as possible
Action • Observe how the other party communicates verbally
and nonverbally
• Watch your use of language and nonverbal
communication
• Stick to the issues; don’t go off on tangents
• Don’t make promises you can’t keep
• Don’t present issues in a win-lose context
• Don’t sidestep the issues
• Be sincere and trustworthy
• Try to remain open-minded and flexible
• Use the appropriate conflict-handling behavior and
be able to revise your behavior according to how
the transaction progresses
• Listen, repeat, clarify information
Analysis • Make sure all parties’ concerns are articulated and
considered
• Summarize and clarify decisions
• Review procedure for implementing any changes

Chevron Chart of Five "A’s"

Adjust
Assess Acknowledge Act Analyze
Attitude

Facilitation
Having a third person work with the clashing individuals apart from
the team is often the best option. If the team decides to use this
approach, the facilitator should be skilled in managing conflict.
Research indicates that a facilitator can encourage constructive debate
and achieve resolution by taking the following steps:
328 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Steps to Facilitate Team Conflict

1. Identify and examine the differences to gain understanding of all perspectives.
2. Establish a rule that all involved must listen politely and not interrupt.
3. Have the individuals in conflict paraphrase each other’s concerns.
4. Openly address the concerns and translate what they are saying if necessary.
5. If translation is necessary, confirm your understanding of their message.
6. Invite constructive feedback as soon as issues are in the open.
7. Be assertive as a facilitator, intervening when misinterpretation or personal
attacks interfere.
8. Bring the discussion to closure, stating what has been agreed and what the
next steps will be.

Source: Adapted from Bens, I. (2000). “Facilitating Conflict.” Facilitating with Ease! San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass. Used with permission.

Team
When a team decides all members should meet to solve the problem,
they should have a very specific approach in mind and should select
one person to facilitate the discussion. They should also take care not
to appear to be “ganging up” on one person. If the problem involves
one person not performing his or her share of the work, the team
might want to select one member to meet with the slacker first, and
only then meet with the slacker as a team.
For the team meeting, the team should appoint a spokesperson to
present the team’s views, rather than having everyone confront the indi-
vidual. They should even use caution in how they sit around the table to
avoid all sitting on one side, with the offending party on the other, as if
in an inquisition.
If the problem is broader and involves several team members or the
team as a whole, the team should manage the discussion by following
these steps:
1. List the concerns, using facts not feelings (white hat again), trying
to capture any differences in perspective.
2. Describe how the conflict is at odds with or interferes with the
team’s purpose or objectives.
3. Reach agreement on what the main issue is as a team, ensuring that
all team members have a chance to be heard and all related issues
are on the table.
4. Keep the discussion focused on the facts of the main issue and avoid
any personal attacks or side issues.
5. Determine if the issue(s) can be resolved by a better understanding
of or better implementation of the team’s ground rules.
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 329

6. Then, write out what the team agrees to do and adjust the ground
rules to cover the issue if appropriate. Make sure all actions and
responsibilities are clear to everyone on the team.
7. Establish a fallback plan, should the conflict continue.
In all team conflict situations, teams should make sure their team
avoids the following mistakes to help keep the conflict from escalating.

Conflict Resolution Mistakes That May Cause Conflict to Escalate

1. Avoid forcing team members to choose from among given options or limited
alternatives.
2. Avoid becoming too dependent on having others resolve team problems—
because dealing with conflict may be difficult or awkward.
3. Avoid the temptation to ignore conflicts altogether.
4. Prevent individual team members from giving in to the group, who later act
as though they are victims of group pressure.
5. Prevent team members from talking about team issues outside the team
setting.

Source: Adapted from Fisher, K., Rayner, S., and Belgaard, W. (1995). Tips for Teams: A Ready Reference for
Solving Common Team Problems. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used by permission of The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

Finally, teams can prevent most, if not all, team conflict by clarify-
ing and agreeing on their project purpose and goals, defining team
member roles and responsibilities, establishing and following team
and meeting ground rules, developing a communication protocol, and
devoting time to improving their group emotional intelligence.

Helping Virtual Teams Succeed

More and more professionals are using virtual teams to connect to and
work with others around the globe. In fact, research shows that today
“most teamwork is virtual,” with it being rare “to find all team members
located in one place” in organizations.4 As one recent book on virtual
teams reported, “The boundary-crossing, virtual team is the new way to
work.”5 After September 11, 2001, with the increase in the worldwide
threat of terrorism and with the more recent downturn in the global
economy, many companies have cut back on business travel and started
focusing even more on the use of remote technologies and virtual teams.
It is thus important for all leaders to know how to help virtual teams
succeed. Although virtual teams are common, many organizations do
not know how to ensure that they function as effectively as a co-located
team would. Virtual teams require special effort, and it should not be
taken for granted that people who are effective in traditional teams will
also work well in a virtual team setting. There are marked differences.
330 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Defining Virtual Teams

Virtual teams are teams whose members are geographically dispersed
and who rely primarily on technology (telephone, Internet or intranet,
video- or Web conferencing, or some combination) for communication
and to accomplish their work as a team. The geographical separation
can range from global dispersion to simply being in different locations
within a single organization. Exhibit 10.8 illustrates one way to think
about the difference between traditional and virtual teams: A tradi-
tional team might be working around a computer; the virtual team is
in the computer or other technology.

Identifying Advantages and Challenges of Virtual Teams

Virtual teams provide several advantages for organizations today: low-
ering travel and facility costs, reducing project schedules, allowing the
leveraging of expertise and vertical integration, improving efficiency,
and positioning to compete globally.6 Some have even argued that vir-
tual team structures may lead to greater team creativity “as a result of
more openness, flexibility, diversity, and added access to information.”7
On the other hand, virtual teams also provide challenges, particu-
larly in communication:
1. Loss of context and nonverbals. Much of the context of commu-
nication, so important in high-context societies, is lost, particularly
if teams rely on voice or text technology only. Even members from
low-context societies will find virtual communication more of a
challenge, since they cannot see nonverbal cues, which represent as
much as 80 to 93 percent of the meaning people receive in face-to-
face communication.

EXHIBIT 10.8 Traditional team

Virtual Team vs.
Co-located Team • Face-to-face
• Communications primarily
in person
• Limited by time
and distance

Virtual team
• Geographically dispersed
• Communicating
through technology
• Unrestrained by distance
and time
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 331

2. Cultural differences. Cultural differences can become amplified,

and personality conflicts more pronounced. Virtual teams must
work harder to build relationships and get to know each other as
people.
3. Sharing information. Without a shared workspace, it is difficult to
share and discuss complex information (diagrams, balance sheets,
etc.). Web conferencing is improving but still not perfect, and teams
often encounter problems with different document versions and
with materials not being formatted for easy and quick focus on the
right information.
4. Trust. Connection and trust are difficult to build in a virtual envi-
ronment, and the lack of trust may put a virtual team on a “collision
course.”8

Addressing the Challenges of Virtual Teams

Since training can address some of the challenges of virtual teams,
organizations need to be prepared to provide additional resources and
training for the people working on virtual teams. They must be trained
in how best to use the technology on which their communication will
depend. They will need additional diversity training, since “culture is
pervasive and even more transparent in virtual working than in face-
to-face collaboration.”9

Using a Shared Workspace

Shared workspaces, such as Jive Software’s Social Business Software
and Microsoft’s SharePoint, provide virtual teams with a shared loca-
tion in which they can interact. Such tools have become increasingly
robust, offering a host of interactive tools. Exhibit 10.9 shows a screen-
shot of one such shared workspace. Note that a large number of “wid-
gets,” from blogs and microblogs to project time lines to discussion
boards, can be configured for this workspace.
Many companies use such shared workspaces today, and they are
becoming more prevalent, since they make it easier for a large, geo-
graphically diverse team to interact more personally with one another
and, therefore, foster better communication. In addition, such work-
spaces make it possible to gather all discussions, notes, brainstorming
activities, documents, slides, versions, and the like in one central loca-
tion that can be accessed by all team members at any time. Of course,
however, such tools can only foster such collaboration; clear goals and
work processes need to be in place to make these workspaces effective.

Structure and Work Processes

A virtual team needs to have even more structure than a traditional
team and must spend even more time on basic good team practices,
such as having a clear purpose and objectives, establishing ground
332 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 10.9 Example of Shared Workspace: Jive Clearspace Software

rules, creating work plans, and developing team communication pro-

tocols. Virtual team members will need to spend planning time talking
through the pros and cons of the meeting options as well as the com-
munication media as part of their team communication protocol
(Exhibit 10.10):
What are the advantages yet challenges—
• Of meeting in different places and at different times by using e-mail,
voice mail, or Web presentations that can be accessed when each
team member has time?
• Of meeting at different times and in the same places using a shared
electronic workspace?
• Of meeting at the same time and in different places with Web con-
ferencing?
And how often should they meet face-to-face? They need to determine
which option works best for their personalities, their cultural differ-
ences, the type of team tasks, and the team timing.
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 333

EXHIBIT 10.10
Virtual Team Different Time
Meeting Options
Different Place

Same Time
E-mail, voice mail, Different Time
fax, computer
Different Place conferencing
Same Place
Same Time
Conference calls, Shared electronic
videoconferences work space
Same Place used by the same
people but at different
times
Face to face

By establishing a shared workspace, team members can start to cre-

ate a team identity and perhaps begin to develop the connection that is
needed to succeed as a team. Such virtual “team rooms” provide a way
to meet and a routine for all to share in developing ideas and docu-
ments (the “same place/different time” way of working). The team will
need to implement procedures for using the space and for informing
colleagues about progress.

Trust and Commitment

Studies show that many virtual teams fail because of people problems.10
As previously mentioned, trust is vital to the success of a virtual team.
Unfortunately, trust is not something training can address. It is up to the
team members to build it with each other. Jill Nemiro’s research on the
importance of trust in virtual teams shows that it is difficult to establish
and takes time to develop: “Trust developed from a sense of account-
ability, from seeing that others followed through on what they said they
would do. Trust was also based on a belief in the expertise of others, and
on positive, ongoing experience with one another.”11
Just as with a co-located team, virtual team members must be com-
mitted to the team and the team’s work. They must deliver what they
promise, on time, and according to the team’s expectations. With a vir-
tual team, a high level of commitment is even more critical than with
a traditional team.
In summary, according to an article in The McKinsey Quarterly, a vir-
tual team needs the following to be successful:12
1. Shared beliefs.
2. A “storehouse of credibility and trust.”
3. A shared workspace.
334 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

The shared beliefs come from the team members discussing funda-
mental questions about how they plan to approach the problems,
examining areas of potential conflict, and taking time to resolve any
differences. To build a storehouse of credibility and trust, all team
members need to “pay careful attention to the way others perceive
them.” In addition, they need to “deliver on their promises, and do so
on time; consider other people’s schedules; deal straightforwardly
with colleagues; and respond promptly to e-mails and voicemails.”12
Creating a shared workspace means that they need to establish a vir-
tual team room through the technology available to them. It should
allow them to communicate easily and to share in developing ideas
and documents.
A virtual team needs to do all that a co-located team does and more to
succeed. They must devote time to the team process and people side of
teams. They must communicate frequently and have frequent electronic
meetings. Ideally, they should meet in person at least once, if not more.
Meeting in person at the launch can speed up the needed trust building.
In their in-person meeting, the virtual team should exchange information
on position and responsibilities, team experiences, expectations, person-
ality and learning styles, and cultural differences. If an in-person meeting
is not feasible, then they will need to devote technology-mediated time to
these topics.
Virtual teams are praised, but they are also condemned. On one side,
they are hailed: “The new workplace . . . will be a virtual workplace,
where productivity, flexibility, and collaboration will reach unprece-
dented new levels.”13 Others lament the loss of the “human moment”
and see decreased performance, confused collaboration, increased anx-
iety, and diminished creativity when people work virtually.14
Virtual teams, however, are here to stay, and their presence will prob-
ably increase. They make sense for most organizations today. They can
provide benefits for both the organization and the employees. For them
to succeed, however, organizations need to be able to answer the five
questions with which this chapter started, placing an even greater
emphasis on the middle three:
1. Does the organization provide the necessary training in diversity,
team dynamics, problem solving, and process management to
ensure that team members know how to manage team issues and
processes?
2. Are the employees accustomed to creating and following team
charters and ground rules, and do they know how to resolve team
conflicts?
3. Does the current company technology effectively support team com-
munication and collaboration? And do our people know how to use
that technology?
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 335

If the answer is yes, then the company has taken some of the basic
organizational steps to help virtual teams succeed. That leaves it to the
members of the team to do their part. If they follow the instruction
provided in this chapter for all teams—combining complementary
skills, establishing shared work processes and approaches, devoting
some time and attention to the people side of their teams, and con-
structively managing team conflict—the odds of having a high-per-
forming team are increased tremendously.
To conclude this chapter, it may be helpful to review the activity
phases of any team: getting started, doing the work, and delivering the
results. The activities within each phase can be thought of as the com-
munication challenges that leaders must meet to support the team.
Exhibit 10.11 (for which my colleague John Kimball Kehoe con-
tributed the idea and some of the content) provides a summary of the
challenges discussed in this chapter.
This chapter has discussed the best approach to ensuring that all
team activities run smoothly so that the team achieves its objectives.
It has provided team leaders and team facilitators tools to help them
build and manage a team. No doubt, leading a team and working on a
team present some challenges, but with the right approach, a team
can work through the challenges, achieve high performance, and, in
the end as Katzenbach and Smith say, “outperform other groups and
individuals.”

EXHIBIT 10.11 Work Phases Leadership Communication Challenges

Summary of Team
Work Phases and Getting Started • Selecting team members and communicating to them
Challenges individually and collectively the reasons for their selection
• Establishing the team charter and confirming the
understanding/acceptance of it by all team members
• Making sure that roles and expectations of team mem-
bers are clear and accepted
• Setting ground rules for the way the team will work
• Creating a team communication protocol
Doing the Work • Guiding or facilitating team meetings
• Giving feedback (positive and negative) as work is done
• Coordinating the work done by team members; mak-
ing sure everyone is kept informed
• Dealing with and resolving conflicts
• Keeping people outside the team informed of what the
team is doing when appropriate
Delivering the • Preparing the presentation or report of the team’s work
Results • Delivering the presentation or report
• Debriefing the experience of the team (what went well
and what did not)
• Closing out the team, if appropriate
336 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Application 10.1 Part 1—Team Assessment

Assessing Team Using the following form, assess the team work processes of a team that you
Performance have worked with for a while. Your answers are intended to help your team
reflect on its performance to date so that it can make any improvements that
and Developing
may be needed. After completing the assessment individually, you should com-
an Improvement pare your answers with those of other team members and discuss any differ-
Approach ences in scores.

Scale: Needs Improvement Average Excellent

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 How effective is your team in using tools

(agendas, team objectives, action plans, or
work plans)?

1 2 3 4 5 How productive are your team meetings?

1 2 3 4 5 How orderly and systematic is the team in

its overall approach to team projects?

1 2 3 4 5 How conducive is the team atmosphere to

effective communication?

1 2 3 4 5 How effective are your team processes?

1. Has your team established ground rules? Yes No

2. Do all members of the team have an equal opportunity Yes No

to participate?

3. Have all members of the team shared equally in team Yes No

responsibilities and workload?

4. Do all members function as team players (as opposed Yes No

to putting themselves before the team)?

Part 2—Team Performance Improvement Plan

1. Complete the following table as a way of assessing your current use of team
process tools. Make each item as specific and actionable as possible.

Team Tools Actions We Have Taken Actions We Plan to Take

Team Objectives
Team Ground Rules
Meeting Agendas
Action Plans
Work Plans
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 337

2. Complete the following table as a way of determining what you

want to continue or change about your current team processes.

Team Activities What Has Worked What Needs to Be Improved

Meeting Productivity
Project Management
Communications
Division of Labor
Team Learning

3. Working with your team, list the overall actions your team plans to take to
ensure that your team continues to perform well.

Application 10.2 Using a team you have worked with for some time, apply the following scale to
Assessing Team evaluate each team member, including yourself, according to the attributes
Members and listed. Write the number in the space provided, total the column, average the
contribution of this member, and place comments on strengths and weak-
Providing nesses against the attributes. You will need to complete a separate form for
Feedback each team member and for yourself.
After completing the forms, meet with your team and review the assess-
ments, using the following approach.

Approach to Providing Constructive Team Member Feedback

The goal of this exercise is to provide constructive feedback to your team
members to help them be better at working in a team environment.
You want to be honest and specific but, most of all, constructive in every-
thing you say. Note: You may want to review the information on giving and
receiving feedback in Chapter 7 before completing this portion of the exercise.
1. Using the evaluation form that you have completed for each individual in
your group, select one or two areas of strength and improvement for each
person in your group. You should also have a specific example for both.
2. Ask for a volunteer in your group to be the first recipient of the feedback.
3. Then, move from person to person in the group, presenting the strength
and then the improvement area for the first recipient. The person receiving
the feedback should listen only and not respond unless he or she needs to
ask a clarification question. After receiving the feedback, the recipient
should simply say, “Thank you.”
4. After everyone has delivered the feedback to the first person, move to the
next person to that person’s left until all people in the group have received
feedback.
For this exercise to be open and honest and to ensure that the information
leads to the team improving its approach to working together, it is better that
the individual team assessment and information provided in the team’s dis-
cussion remain confidential to the team; therefore, you should not discuss it
with anyone outside your team.
338 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

Scale: Needs Improvement Average Excellent

1 2 3 4 5

Evaluator: Name of Team Member Being Assessed:

Date:

Attribute Number Comments:

1. Positive attitude toward

team’s work

2. Completed equitable
amount of work

3. Participated actively in all

meetings

4. Cooperative (easy to work

with)

5. Team player (worked with

team, not alone)

6. Made meaningful
contributions to team
discussions, process, and
products

7. Good listener, responsive

to ideas of others

8. Good problem-solving
ability

9. Good at synthesizing
team ideas

10. Dependable (team could

count on him or her)

Total contribution of this

team member (total of
column divided by 10)

Application 10.3 Consider each of the following five scenarios and decide what may be causing the
Managing Team team’s problem (task, interpersonal, or roles) and what steps the team could take
Conflict to resolve the issues. Consider which of the suggested team conflict resolution
approaches would work best (one-on-one, facilitation, or team) and work out
how you would structure the discussion. You may want to go back to Exhibit 9.10
on conflict-handling modes and consider one of the approaches discussed there.
Work independently for about 10 minutes; then share your ideas with a
breakout group, rotating leadership of the discussion after each scenario. You
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 339

should assume that all the teams in these scenarios are working on a project
that will last several months, so they must resolve any issues they have—merely
appeasing one or more members would not be a viable long-term solution.
1. Team One has spent several hours discussing alternative process improve-
ment ideas to streamline the expense reporting system. Tonya frequently
interrupts others and is disrespectful of their ideas. She says, “I don’t know
why we have to spend so much time discussing alternatives when the
answers are so obvious! Let’s make a decision and get out of here”
What is causing this conflict and what should the team do to change the
disruptive behavior of their member?
2. Team Two is working on an ad hoc project to improve company morale.
They are meeting over lunch, since their regular schedule is so full. Two
members of the five-person team have brought food to the meeting, which
is held in the company’s small break room. Tom really objects because he
dislikes the strong smell of garlic and curry in the small room. He sends a
text to Mary (another team member) to complain, writing,
“SOS—can’t stand the smell!”
To which Mary rolls her eyes, sighs, and writes,
“4COL. Say something then.”
Their texting is disrupting the meeting and making other attendees uncom-
fortable.
What is the source of the conflict and what should the team do?
3. Team Three is approaching the end of a big project on which each person
has been working independently. They are meeting to bring together sec-
tions of a report, which is due in the morning. The leader is expecting all to
arrive with their analysis complete and with a deck of a few slides they can
merge into one 20-slide PowerPoint presentation. However, one member
comes in with his Excel sheets and computer, one shows up with 50 Power-
Point slides, and two others arrive with four or five completed graphs. As
each person presents his or her part of the work, the leader realizes they
will never make their deadline.
Why is the team in this predicament and how can they prevent this type of
misunderstanding from occurring in the future?
4. Team Four has a strong team charter and every member participates. On a
major project, the team decides to divide up the work and check in with
each other every few days. One member, Gary, is not sure he understands
his part of the work. He does his best to complete his section, but he has
also been having some personal problems that have kept him from focusing
on work for a few weeks, so he gives the group his portion of the project the
night before the deadline. The rest of the team members review his work
and decide it is unacceptable; they spend all night reworking his section
prior to delivering their interim report to the company president. As the
next phase of the project starts, the team is concerned that Gary’s work will
continue to be late and of substandard quality.
340 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

What may have led the team to this conflict and how should the team
approach Gary to resolve it?
5. Team Five meets on a regular basis every Wednesday at 7:30 a.m. before
work begins. Bashirah always arrives late, often bringing donuts and coffee
for the other members. She doesn’t seem concerned about being late, and
she does get right down to business, but one of the other members is really
becoming upset about this, saying, “I have to get up at 6:00 to be here on
time, but I can make it, why can’t she?”
How should the team handle this issue?

Source: Scenarios developed by Beth O’Sullivan and modified by Deborah Barrett, Rice Univer-
sity. Used with permission.

Application 10.4 The Case: Zarate Tech Goes Virtual

Launching a Zarate Tech has a sales group of 120 located in Chicago, Atlanta, Los Angeles,
Virtual Team London, and Sydney. The sales group generates and qualifies leads, meets with
existing and potential customers, negotiates deals, and offers technology solu-
tions, focusing primarily on customer relationship management (CRM). The
sales force conveys requirements to Zarate’s offices in Chicago and London,
matching staff capacity with the quantities and types of products needed. The
sales group also performs customer service functions, including tracking and
confirming delivery and quality of products and solutions. Overall, the sales
group moves $2.1 billion of products and consulting services each year.
Traditionally, the company’s philosophy was that the sales staff must remain
small and in close contact; therefore, they meet in person frequently in either
London or Chicago. They see their manufacturing facilities as marketing tools
to demonstrate the company’s commitment to quality, on-time delivery, and
products customized to meet specifications. Despite its focus on providing the
latest in CRM technology for its customers, the COO, Jan Ciampi, who oversees
Zarate’s accounting, finance, and information system, feels the company is
behind in its use of technology to manage its sales, sales group interactions,
and team communication and problem solving. While Zarate has e-mail, an
intranet, and a state-of-the-art internal accounting and telecommunications
system, the company rarely uses its technology for team interactions and com-
munication. Although all salespeople have laptops to use on the road, they use
them primarily for generating reports and handling e-mail.
You have recently been hired as the new vice president of worldwide sales
to help modernize the work processes of the sales group. Senior management
is particularly interested in your improving how the company communicates
across distances, shares and captures company information, and makes use of
computer technology for client and team meetings. They feel the sales group
spends too much time and money flying to meetings and even commuting to
work. They know some direct contact with customers is important as well as
internal meetings of the sales team, which usually consist of a sales rep, an
account manager, a technical engineer, a logistics coordinator, and an IT tech-
nician; however, they wonder if some of these meetings could be handled vir-
tually. They are also considering using a remote sales force structure, with the
 Chapter 10 High-Performing Team Leadership 341

salespeople working from their homes instead of coming into the office, which
they think would allow them to cut office overhead.
Last week at the company’s annual budget planning meeting in Chicago,
Ciampi announced the formation of a team to investigate how best to move
the sales group toward using virtual team technology and how to encourage
them to use the Intranet, Web technology, and Web conferencing to connect,
manage accounts, and work and meet directly online. You will be heading up
the team. Your charge is to determine what it will take to ensure that the sales
group accepts the new way of working and knows how to work effectively as a
virtual team.
Once you have decided whom to include from your sales group and from
the training, development, and communication departments, you need to draft
an e-mail or a meeting request announcing the project to the team and sched-
uling the team launch. One of your immediate challenges is that your team
will be scattered across all the offices, with many of them on the road con-
stantly, so you must confront the challenges of working virtually. In fact, you
realize that this team could end up serving as a model for how to work effec-
tively as a virtual team, but you also realize that motivating the sales group to
change from their current ways of working and providing the training they
need to work effectively using virtual technology will be a challenge.

The Assignment
Draft the e-mail or meeting request to your team establishing the project
objectives and inviting them to the team launch, which you have decided to
hold in person in the Chicago office. Then, establish an agenda for the meeting
and your approach to working as a team. Next, outline what you see as the
challenges to this project and some of the best practices in working virtually
that you think will help your team get off to a good start. Finally, note the type
of interactive tools you will want to include in the team’s shared workspace
and why these tools will be helpful.

Notes 1. Katzenbach, J. R., and Smith, D. K. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams: Creating
the High-Performance Organization. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
2. Druskat, V. U., and Wolff, S. B. (2001). Building the Emotional Intelligence
of Groups. Harvard Business Review 79, No. 3, pp. 80–91.
3. Katzenbach, J. R. (1998). The Work of Teams. Boston: Harvard Business
School Press.
4. Duarte, D. L., and Snyder, N. T. (2001). Mastering Virtual Teams. San Fran-
cisco: Jossey-Bass, p. xi.
5. Lipnack, J., and Stamps, J. (2000). Virtual Teams. New York: John Wiley,
p. 6.
6. Duarte and Snyder (2001), p. 4.
7. Nemiro, J. E. (2001). Connection in Creative Virtual Teams. Journal of
Behavior and Applied Management 2, No. 2 (Winter–Spring), also available
online at www:jbam.org/articlesarticle2_8.htm.
8. George, J. M. (1996). Virtual Best Practice: How to Successfully Introduce
Virtual Team-Working. Teams Magazine (November), pp. 38–45.
342 Section Two Organizational Leadership Communication

9. Simons, G. Meeting the Intercultural Challenges of Virtual Work.

www .diversophy.com/news_info/downloads.htm.
10. Lipnack and Stamps (2000).
11. www.jbam.org/articles/article2_8.htm.
12. Benson-Armer and Hsieh (1997), p. 25.
13. Townsend, A. M., DeMarie, S. M., and Hendrickson, A. R. (1998). Virtual
Teams: Technology and the Workplace of the Future. Academy of Manage-
ment Executive, p. 17.
14. Hallawell, E. M. (1998). The Human Moment at Work. Harvard Business
Review, January–February, pp. 1–8.
 3
Section
Corporate Leadership
Communication
Corporate

Internal Organizational
Relations
Core

External
Relations
Chapter
11
Leadership Through
Strategic Internal
Communication
Personal leadership is about communication, openness,
and a willingness to speak often and honestly, and with
respect for the intelligence of the reader or listener. Lead-
ers don’t hide behind corporate double-speak. They don’t
leave to others the delivery of bad news. They treat every
employee as someone who deserves to understand what’s
going on in the enterprise.
Louis V. Gerstner, Jr., (2002) Who Says Elephants Can’t Dance?
New York: Harper Collins.

Vision, though, is meaningless alone. To be an effective

leader, you must communicate consistently, vividly, and so
darn frequently that your throat gets sore. You can’t, as
we’ve said, communicate too much, especially when
you’re galvanizing change.
Jack and Suzy Welch, Obama: A Leadership Report Card, Business
Week, April 20, 2009.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Recognize the strategic and cultural role of employee communication.

• Assess internal communication effectiveness.
• Establish effective internal communication.
344
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 345

• Use missions and visions to strengthen internal communication.

• Design and implement effective change communication.
One of the major responsibilities of an organizational leader is com-
munication with employees. Fraser Seitel, former senior vice president
of public affairs for Chase Manhattan Bank, argues that it is the most
important responsibility: “Employee communications is the most
important part of a CEO’s many responsibilities. . . . If employees
believe in the CEO—trust him [her] and respect him [her]—then they
become agents to convince other publics of the goodness of the pro-
grams and the company.”1 By communicating effectively with employ-
ees, however, CEOs are not simply creating ambassadors of goodwill
for their companies; they are providing direction, establishing a posi-
tive and productive working environment, and influencing their bot-
tom lines.
Effective internal communication provides organizational direction
and employee motivation. Based on its research into 530 companies,
Ragan Communications found that “CEOs are not just communicating
because they want to be thought of as nice people. They have discov-
ered that effective internal communications will help them achieve
their vision for the company and will motivate employees to do their
best work.”2
Organizational direction comes from leaders’ having created and
effectively communicated a clear and meaningful vision. Developing
and communicating a vision is one of the most important communi-
cation tasks of leaders.
Individuals are motivated when, through words and actions, the
leaders carefully translate their vision and strategic goals into terms
that are meaningful to all, particularly inside an organization, where
employees contribute daily to seeing the vision become a reality. Moti-
vating employees requires targeting messages to reach them, listening
to them, and using emotional intelligence to connect with them. Lead-
ers who appreciate the importance of connecting with all employees
through communication and through their actions see results: “An
attractive communication climate can contribute significantly to the
long-term success of a company. Managers should, therefore, pay seri-
ous attention to the internal communication climate by providing each
employee the adequate information and the opportunities to speak
out, get involved, be listened to, and actively participate.”3
Direction setting and the creation of a motivated, supportive work-
force alone are reasons enough to pursue effective internal communi-
cation. Effective employee communication clearly results in higher
organizational performance and increased productivity.4
In addition, effective internal communication has a measurable finan-
cial impact. As one recent study of the ROI (return on investment) of 267
346 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

major corporations found, internal communication significantly influ-

ences financial performance: “Companies with the highest levels of
effective communication experienced a 26 percent total return to share-
holders from 1998 to 2002, compared to a ⫺15 percent experienced by
firms that communicate least effectively.”5
From daily information exchanges and interactions with employees
to creating and communicating visions, strategic objectives, or other
direction-setting messages, to helping employees understand and sup-
port major changes—internal communication requires leaders to use
all their best leadership communication abilities.
Thus, all of the basic and organizational-level abilities included in
leadership communication in this text are applicable to communicat-
ing effectively within an organization—in particular, projecting a pos-
itive ethos; creating meaningful, purposeful messages; analyzing and
understanding audiences; targeting messages to reach different inter-
nal audiences; developing communication strategies; and leading
through emotional intelligence and cultural literacy.
This chapter focuses on establishing leadership through communi-
cating effectively with an organization’s internal audiences. It describes
the strategic role employee communication can play by ensuring that
employees are well informed and, therefore, positioned to contribute to
the success of the organization. It also discusses how to develop and
use vision and mission statements to guide the organization and pro-
vides an approach to effective change communication, an essential type
of communication in today’s rapidly changing workplace.

Recognizing the Strategic and Cultural Role

of Employee Communication
For employee communication to play a strategic and cultural role in
an organization, organizational leaders must realize the importance of
keeping all internal audiences well informed and the value of integrat-
ing communication into the organization’s overall strategy, planning
processes, and day-to-day operations. All internal messages should
align with and reinforce the organization’s goals and objectives, with
the mission,vision, and guiding principles helping direct and define
the culture and the operational, performance, and financial goals help-
ing establish the expected results.
For example, if a leader’s objective is to eliminate the current func-
tional silo approach to decision making and bring the leaders of dif-
ferent groups together to collaborate and make decisions jointly for
the good of the organization instead of their individual units, the com-
munication objectives would be (1) to ensure that all functional groups
receive the same message that joint decision making is now a priority
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 347

and (2) to establish forums (meetings if appropriate) for collaboration

and joint decision making to occur. The organizational leader’s first
responsibility will be communicating his or her new vision and objec-
tives for working together clearly; the second will be influencing the
group leaders to to act on it.
Essentially, the leader in this situation will be inspiring cultural
change, a transformation in the way the group decision makers think
about their own operations and behave toward other group leaders. By
bringing about such change, the leader will be functioning as a transfor-
mational leader: “One primary factor that distinguishes transformational
leaders is that they work to change the organization. . . . The culture in
transformational organizations inculcates a sense of purpose, long-term
commitments, and mutual interests. Such cultures are based on shared
interdependence, as well as leaders and followers who can transcend
their self-interests for the good of the team and the organization.”6
Communication helps shape the culture of any organization, and effec-
tive internal communication is absolutely essential to bring about any
transformation in that culture. Leaders have to make their visions and
goals clear, and all communication with internal audiences needs to posi-
tion all employees to help achieve those goals. To be effective, employee
communication should accomplish the following basic objectives:
1. Educate employees in the organization’s culture, vision, and strate-
gic goals.
2. Motivate employee support for the organization’s goals.
3. Encourage higher performance and discretionary effort to achieve
those goals.
4. Limit misunderstandings and rumors that may damage morale and
productivity.
5. Align employees behind the organization’s performance objectives
and position them to help achieve them.
To accomplish these goals, messages need to be clear, consistent, and
targeted. Effective employee communication is both the product—the
messages that the organization wants to transfer—and the process—the
conduit for transferring the messages. Leaders need to pay attention to
both, and developing a communication strategy for all internal audiences
will help them do so.

Establishing Effective Internal Communication

Creating the internal messages to be sent to employees is a primary
leadership responsibility, as is attending to the other main components
of any good communication strategy. The Strategic Employee Com-
munication Model in Exhibit 11.1, a model based on the best practices
348 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 11.1
Strategic
Employee c Objectives
Communication Strategi
Model
Source: This model and the
research into the best prac- Supportive
tices on which it is based Management
appear in Barrett, D. J.
(2002). Change communi-
cation: Using strategic em-
ployee communication to Targeted Well-Positioned
facilitate major change.
Ongoing
Messages Staff
Corporate Communication: Assessment
An International Journal
7 (4), pp. 219–231. Used
with permission of Emer-
ald Press.
Effective Media/
Forums

The High-
I n t e gra
Performing t e d P r o c e ss es
Organization

in internal communication found in high-performing organizations,

can serve as one analytical technique to measuring and establishing an
effective approach to internal communication. It resembles the com-
munication strategy framework introduced in Chapter 2 in its compo-
nents, but it differs in being specific to developing a strategy for
internal communication.
First, the model shows the linking of the company’s strategy and
strategic messages and suggests the business process integration as a
band that ties together all the pieces of an internal communication
strategy. Then, it brings in the components of any communication
strategy, such as messages and media, and introduces other employee
communication components, such as supportive management and
well-positioned staff, which best practice research indicates are neces-
sary to have effective employee communication.7
To ensure a comprehensive internal communication approach, lead-
ers will find using such an analytical approach helpful. The model
serves as a framework for creating an internal communication strat-
egy. In addition, the definitions of each of the components provide
benchmarks against which to measure a program to establish possible
improvement opportunities.
At its core, the model shows that effective internal communication
consists of the following:
1. Supportive management
2. Targeted messages
3. Effective media/forums
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 349

4. Well-positioned staff
5. Ongoing assessment
The following definitions describe the best practice approach to each
component.

Supportive Management
What does it mean to have supportive management? In short, it means
that all employees in leadership positions model the communication
behavior they expect of those they supervise. If an organization wants
employees to see communication as important, leaders need to demon-
strate it. Such demonstrations may mean that managers are directly
involved in and assume responsibility for relaying important messages to
their direct reports, but they also openly communicate upward and across
their peer groups.
Showing management support for communication also means
including effective communication on performance reviews and rec-
ognizing those who excel in some way. The message that leaders want
to send to the organization is that communication is everyone’s
responsibility and is not to be limited to the activities of the communi-
cation staff. Since employees are much more likely to behave as they
see their leaders behave than to follow written principles, leaders need
to demonstrate support for and belief in the value of communication.
For example, if an organization wants to promote an open, free
exchange of ideas, it needs to encourage and establish media and
forums for communication to flow up, down, and across all employees.
The leaders need to accept good and bad news without penalizing the
messenger. In fact, the fear of speaking out can lead to ethical quan-
daries in some organizations where an employee witnesses something
that is questionable but is afraid to take the news to management. In
addition, it can lower employee productivity because they have no out-
let or recognition for improvement ideas.
Leaders in the organization set the tone for an open or closed culture.
Without leadership’s positive examples to establish a high priority for
open and honest communication, the channels of communication will
not flow freely and the rest of the organization will not see communica-
tion as important.

Targeted Messages
As has been emphasized throughout this text, effective communication
depends on making all messages specific to the audience receiving
them. Therefore, leaders need to analyze their many internal audi-
ences and work with other managers to establish groups by function
and level and then develop messages each group will understand.
While the core messages communicated within the organization must
be consistent internally and externally, leaders may need to present
350 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

messages to specific groups with a slightly different emphasis and

maybe even slightly different language. That does not imply that the
meaning changes, only the words that are used. The targeted messages
need to be relevant and meaningful for each targeted employee group
yet consistent with the company’s overall strategy and messages, such
as those found in the mission, vision, and guiding principles.
For example, in a large company, each business unit or division may
need to create a version of important messages for its employees or
convert the overall message from the corporate center into digestible
and actionable messages the employees can understand and act upon.
They may even have their own vision statement specific to their goals
in support of the company’s vision. This kind of specific message tai-
loring usually requires the help of individuals closest to the employee
groups, so after establishing the overall major messages for the orga-
nization, company leaders may want to enlist help in the wording of
the messages that follow to each group.

Effective Media and Forums

While most organizations have traditional media and forums for con-
veying information, they should not take for granted that all employees
receive the information through the expected or preferred channels.
Organizations may need to communicate internal messages through
several different media to reach all employees. Leaders need to look
critically at the media, decide when different situations require differ-
ent media, and survey employees to determine if they are receiving the
intended messages through the selected media.
For example, many organizations produce expensive and elaborate
employee newsletters and magazines periodically, yet if they were to
survey employees on how many read them, they might find that
employees do not see much value in them and that they would prefer
receiving something less elaborate and more frequent, such as e-mails,
IM, corporate blogs, or even recorded voice messages. Gordon
Bethune, the former CEO of Continental Airlines, was known for leav-
ing global messages for all employees every Friday in voice mail. These
informal, frequent messages were much more effective in reaching the
Continental employees than more formal publications or meetings.
With the overuse of e-mail today, some organizations may find that
it does not reach their employees with important messages. In that
case, they may want to look at using their intranet more effectively. For
example, one energy company, El Paso Corporation, has transferred
almost all of its internal messages to a well-designed and targeted
intranet and has found that it reaches more employees much more
effectively than it had through e-mails and hard-copy publications.
If employees prefer direct, face-to-face communication over indirect,
print, or electronic media, the organization will need to develop systems
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 351

and procedures to allow for frequent exchanges among employees at all

levels. For example, almost from its very beginning as a company, UPS
has held what it calls “three-minute” pre-work meetings every morning at
all regional locations to deliver important information for the day and to
solicit feedback. This way, they encourage frequent dialogue and make
sure they reach all employees with key messages, even those employees
not connected to voice mail and e-mail.

Well-Positioned Staff
Organizational leaders serious about ensuring that communication is
integrated into the company operations and strategy and effective in
reaching all employees with important messages will want to consider
the placement of the professional communication staff. Research indi-
cates that the communication staff must be positioned close to the
most important business issues and decisions and involved in the
strategic and business planning processes for internal communication
to be fully effective. They need to have a “seat at the table.” For most
organizations, that means that the highest-ranking communication
person must be at the same level as company presidents and vice pres-
idents. To understand the company’s strategy and to participate in the
decision making, the senior communication officer must be directly
connected to the highest levels of the organization.
If the organization is large enough to have several full-time commu-
nication professionals and wants to encourage communication up,
down, and across the organization, they should be located at all levels
of the organization. Having communication staff close to different
functions or within each group or business unit signals the importance
of communication and provides local expertise when messages need to
be tailored to these different groups. When isolated and seen only as
producers of communication products, the communication profes-
sionals will not be positioned to help the other leaders deliver and
measure the impact of either routine or major change messages.

Ongoing Assessment
For internal communication to be effective, leaders need to demon-
strate clearly that they consider good communication to be valuable
and important. As is well known, what matters in an organization is
what is measured. Therefore, organizations will want to include com-
munication ability and performance in the assessments of the employ-
ees. The organization should evaluate communication effectiveness as
part of each employee’s performance appraisal and give appropriate
recognition for excellence.
Employee evaluation forms should include questions on how well
employees are communicating to others in their department as well
as to people outside their groups. Are they being open and sharing
352 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

information frequently enough? Do they encourage others to commu-

nicate with them? How do they respond to bad news, for instance?
Such openness has been found to be one of the major deterrents to
unethical practices. It is not as easy to hide questionable activities if all
employees feel as though they are being held accountable for commu-
nicating everything that is going on within the company openly and
honestly.
In addition, the organization should assess companywide commu-
nication effectiveness formally and frequently against clearly defined
goals. Assessment procedures should include ascertaining whether
important messages are reaching all employees and how well these
messages are understood. In response to the assessments, leaders
should establish ways to ensure that improvement occurs when they
uncover breakdowns in communication.
The quickest way to obtain a picture of the “what” and the “how” of
internal communication is to survey a stratified sample of the organi-
zation. Depending on which channels work best for the organization
and the different groups in the company, the organization can send
these surveys out electronically through e-mail or set up a company
blog, forum, or poll on the company intranet. Web-based survey com-
panies, such as SurveyMonkey, make it very easy to send out surveys
electronically and to synthesize the results quickly. Phone surveys
work as well, again depending on the culture and the company’s pre-
ferred way of communicating.
Using the model or a similar analytical framework to develop an
internal communication strategy and aiming toward reaching some of
the best practices discussed in this section will help an organization
achieve improved internal communication. It is up to the leaders of the
organization to make communicating with employees a priority and to
set the tone for how the organization views employee communication.
Failing to approach internal communication strategically and realize its
importance will hinder any organization from building a strong and uni-
fied culture and limit any leader’s ability to accomplish his or her goals.

Assessing Employee Communication Effectiveness

Before attempting to reach internal audiences with important
messages, particularly ones intended to transform the organization,
leaders may want to determine how the organization’s internal
communication measures up against the best practices previously
described. The scorecard in Exhibit 11.2 is designed to help uncover
how an organization stands in relation to the best practices for inter-
nal communication. The scorecard uses the components presented in
the Strategic Employee Communication Model (Exhibit 11.1) and
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 353

EXHIBIT 11.2 Where are the company’s employee communication practices at present?
Scorecard of Place an “x” on the scale below to indicate your preliminary assessment:
Current Employee
Communication Strategic
Objectives Communication planning Not aligned
Source: Barrett, D. J. aligned with company’s
(2002). Change communi-
cation: Using strategic
strategic goals
employee communication
to facilitate major change. Processes
Corporate Communication: Communication integrated Not integrated
An International Journal
7 (4), pp. 219–231. Used
into yearly business planning
with permission of process
Emerald Press.
Management
Management accepts Does not accept
major responsibility in
communications

Messages
Targeted, Shotgun,
consistent, inconsistent,
strategic tactical

Media/Forums
Multiple channels Publication only, or
appropriate to culture other limited
and messages use of media

Communication
Staff Strategically Functionally
placed in functional areas isolated

Communication
Assessment Measured frequently Not measured,
and included in not included
performance appraisals

establishes a range of performances. The “x’s” will be mostly on the left

side for an organization with an effective employee communication
program in place. If, however, the “x’s” fall more on the right side of the
scale, the organization may want to look at improving those compo-
nents where they fall short.
To obtain a comprehensive appraisal of the current internal com-
munication practices, leaders, particularly ones new to an organiza-
tion, may want to ask a representative sample of the management
team and employees at different levels to complete the scorecard as
well. Where an organization falls on the scale beside each component
indicates how much time and effort the organization’s leaders will
need to devote if the organization needs to improve in its current
employee communication practices.
354 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

For example, if the current media are not reaching employees,

leaders will want to find more effective ones immediately. No matter
how clear, consistent, and targeted the messages, if they are not
reaching the intended audiences, they are useless. If they find that
key managers are uninvolved and unsupportive of communication
efforts, they may need to coach and encourage them to accept
responsibility and accountability for the success or failure of
employee communication.
Once leaders have pinpointed areas for improvement, they should
take steps to close the gaps and work toward establishing an effective
internal communication approach. Otherwise, they will be severely
limited in successfully achieving their vision and organizational goals,
particularly if those goals include cultural or any other major organi-
zational transformation.

Using Missions and Visions to Strengthen

Internal Communication
Missions, visions, values, and guiding principles are major strategic
messages that most organizations work hard to ensure their employees
understand. Leaders are expected to have a vision and to be able to
communicate it clearly and consistently. To quote from the Welches
again on U.S. President Obama: “Let’s start with vision, the ‘thing’
without which a person simply cannot lead. And look, whether you like
his politics or not, Obama’s obviously got it. From the economy to the
environment, education to health care, the President has articulated
his goals to the nation.”8
The ability to establish and communicate the mission and the vision
effectively strengthens a leader’s position in leading in any situation or
environment, but in an organization, the clear direction a good vision
provides helps ensure that the work everybody is doing is for the right
reason and to the right end. Communicating a vision to inspire, moti-
vate, and connect with audiences is a major objective of leadership
communication.
Instruction in leadership communication, therefore, must include
how best to create and deliver the vision, the mission, and the core
directional and transformational messages, so that they are strong and
meaningful, not simply feeble slogans good only for adorning T-shirts
or coffee cups. This section will help leaders create effective visions by
answering the following questions:
1. Why are missions and visions important?
2. What are missions and visions?
3. When are they most effective?
4. How do organizations build them?
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 355

Understanding the Importance of Missions and Visions

Leaders should not underestimate the power of a well-crafted, sincere,
and meaningful vision. In organizations, visions and missions are
needed to guide employees’ efforts toward achieving the organization’s
strategic, operational, and financial goals.
In their book Built to Last, James Collins and Jerry Porras argue that
visions play an essential role in a company’s performance, but to do so,
they must be clear, relevant, and directed toward delivering a genuinely
useful service or product. They found that the companies they labeled
“visionary” achieve the highest profitability: A single dollar invested in
general market stocks in 1926 would have grown to $415 by 1990. That
same dollar, invested in a “visionary company” with a clear, functioning
vision and mission statement, would have reaped $6,356.9
Effective mission and vision statements are important to an organi-
zation for the following reasons:
1. They inspire individual action, determine behavior, and fuel moti-
vation.
2. They establish a firm foundation of goals, standards, and objectives
to guide planners and managers.
3. They satisfy both the organization’s need for efficiency and the
employees’ need for group identity.
4. They provide direction, which is particularly important in times of
change, to keep everyone moving toward the same goals.
An organization’s success can be facilitated by having a clearly stated,
credible, intelligible, actionable, and meaningful vision and mission
statement. While organizational leaders usually develop and commu-
nicate the mission and the vision, all employees need to understand
and accept them.

Defining Missions and Visions

The words “mission” and “vision” are quite often used interchangeably;
however, they should not be, and doing so can result in confusion.
Since definitions differ slightly from organization to organization, lead-
ers may first want to establish their definitions. The following discus-
sion provides definitions and examples of both words.

Missions
A mission is a statement of the reason an organization exists that is
intended primarily for internal use. It should ensure that employees
understand the organization’s purpose by defining its basic products
or services. It should establish a single, noble purpose and an enduring
reality.
The following table contains a few mission statements to demon-
strate this definition:
356 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

Company Mission
Google “Google’s mission is to organize the world’s information
and make it universally accessible and useful.” www.google.
com/corporate/
Microsoft “At Microsoft, our mission and values are to help people
and businesses throughout the world realize their full
potential.” www.microsoft.com/about/default.mspx
AT&T Labs “Our mission is to exploit technical innovations for the
benefit of AT&T and its customers by implementing
next-generation technologies and network advance-
ments in AT&T’s services and operations.”
www.corp.att.com/attlabs/about/mission.html
Sun Microsystems “Sun’s mission is to create technologies and fuel
communities that enable sharing and participation.”
(Corporate Backgrounder at
www.sun.com/aboutsun/company/index.jsp)
United Way “To improve lives by mobilizing the caring power of
communities.” www.liveunited.org/about/missvis.cfm

Visions
A vision statement establishes the leader’s purpose and the organiza-
tion’s aspirations. It describes an inspiring new reality, achievable in a
well-understood and reasonable time frame. Organizations often use
visions for internal and external audiences, although their greatest
purpose is usually to guide internal actions. Motivational visions
should reflect the company leaders’ willingness to project into the
future. “Transformational leaders emphasize new possibilities and pro-
mote a compelling vision of the future. A strong sense of purpose
guides their vision.”10 A vision usually starts with the words “to
become” or “to create.”
The following table contains a few vision statements to demonstrate
this definition:

Company Vision
AT&T Labs “Our vision is to design and create in this decade the
new global network, processes, and service platforms
that maximize automation, allowing for a reallocation of
human resources to more complex and productive
work.” www.corp.att.com/attlabs/about/mission.html
Amazon “Our vision is to be earth’s most customer centric com-
pany; to build a place where people can come to find
and discover anything they might want to buy online.”
http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=97664&
p=irol-faq# 14296
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 357

Sun Microsystems “Sun’s vision is to see everyone and everything

participating on the network. . . . The Network is the
Computer.” (Corporate Backgrounder at
www.sun.com/aboutsun/company/index.jsp)
United Way “We will build a stronger America by mobilizing our
communities to improve people’s lives.” www.liveunited.
org/about/missvis.cfm

One way to differentiate a mission statement from a vision statement

is to think of the mission as the “here and now” and to think of the vision
as the future. What is most important, however, is that an organization
have a clear definition of its reason for being (mission) and of where it
wants to go (vision); whether one is called a mission and the other a
vision matters less than that both exist and that the organization knows
what they are and which is which.
Ensuring That the Mission and Vision Are Effective
To be useful in guiding employees, both the mission and the vision need
to be perfectly clear in their meaning and specific to the organization.
To test a mission, the leaders should determine if it has the follow-
ing characteristics:
• Inspirational and suggestive of excellence.
• Clear, making sense in the marketplace.
• Stable but flexible enough to last with only incremental changes.
• Beacons and controls when all else is up for grabs.
• Aimed at empowering employees first, customers second.11
To test the vision, the organizational leaders should ask if it does the
following:
• Suggests goals and provides a direction.
• Inspires and prepares for the future but honors the past.
• Applies specifically to the company, providing details that are
actionable.
Of course, a vision statement and a mission statement interact, which
means that a vision may give rise to a new mission, and a redefined
mission may require a changed vision for implementation.
Building an Effective Mission and Vision
In his essay “The Vision Thing,” Todd Jick explains three approaches to
building a vision:
• CEO/leader developed.
• Leader–senior team visioning.
• Bottom-up visioning.12
358 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

Depending on the organization’s culture, any of the three could

work effectively. If, for example, an organization is large and fairly
hierarchical company, the CEO/leader approach might work best and
even be expected. If, on the other hand, the organization is medium-
sized and has a team-based management approach, it might want to
use the leader–senior team visioning approach. Finally, if the organi-
zation is a nonprofit or a relatively small or flat organization, it might
ask a team of employees to develop the vision. For example, a team of
60 employee volunteers developed the Whole Foods Market’s “Declara-
tion of Interdependence,” which contains their motto, “Whole Foods,
Whole People, Whole Planet,” and their guiding principles.13
For many organizations, some combination of the three approaches
seems to work well. This combination approach consists of first having
the organization’s leaders and senior leadership team create initial
vision and mission statements and, then, having employees at different
levels participate in refining them.
A mission and vision that emerge at the end of an interactive process,
involving a cross section of the organization, will more likely resonate
meaning for employees at all levels of the organization. The danger of
developing a mission and vision in isolation at the top of the organiza-
tion is that lower-level employees may not fully understand the leaders’
intentions and will not feel any ownership of the statement.
A leader-led, interactive, employee-involved approach to building a
mission and vision would include the following steps.

1. Create the Initial Draft

Bring the “right” employees, usually a cross section of organizational
leaders, together to create the initial draft of the mission and vision.
To arrive at the mission, the leadership team should work through
the following questions:
• What do we do? Why do we exist?
• What are our core products, concepts, or services?
• What are our collateral products and services?
• Why is what we do important?
• What if our organization no longer existed?
• What is our value proposition?
To arrive at the vision, the team should work through the following:
• What does it take for us to succeed in today’s marketplace or social,
political, or economic environment?
• What will it take in the future?
• What are our current strengths and weaknesses?
• What are our major opportunities and threats?
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 359

• How might we increase the value we bring to our stakeholders?

• What do we want to become?
• How do we want competitors and the world to see us?
2. Clarify the Meaning
After the group has answered the preceding questions and completed
the first draft, they should look at it critically, word by word. One
approach is to take each word and ask what it means. For example, the
company vision might read as follows:
To be the market leader in providing high-performing, cost-effective com-
puter products and services to enable systemwide success for all of our
customers.

Then, the exercise to determine the real meaning behind most of the
rather abstract words in the vision might look as follows:

Word or Phrase Means Does Not Mean

Market Leader Recognized by peers A certain market share
for innovation percentage
High-Performing Fast, high-quality, free The fastest with complete
from defects, low compatibility with all
maintenance, compatible other hardware
with industry standards
Cost-Effective Competitive Lowest cost
Computer Central computing, client Peripheral computer equipment
Products and server, hardware with ser- such as printers, scanners,
Services vice and support for all our external drives, and so forth,
manufactured products with service and support for
other companies’ products
Systemwide Success for critical Success for interfaces and
Success enterprise-wide hardware compatibility with all other
manufactured products

3. Tell the World in 25 Words or Less What we Are and What we

Want to Become
The mission and the vision need to be more than slogans; at the same
time, they need to be concise enough that people can remember them.
Again, however, they must be meaningful; while some organizations
have created visions that capture a lot of meaning in just a few words,
it is very difficult to do so.
4. Develop the Strategic Objectives to Make the Vision Specific
and Actionable
The strategic objectives should be specific actions designed to help
(1) accomplish the vision and (2) bring a sustainable competitive
360 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 11.3 Now The Future

Relationship of
Mission to Vision
to Strategic
Objectives
Mission Vision

How we get
to the future

Strategic Objectives

advantage. They are usually measurable targets, divided into quantita-

tive goals (such as financial, market share, or productivity) and quali-
tative goals (such as personnel development or reputation). Exhibit
11.3 illustrates how the mission, vision, and strategic objectives relate
to each other.
Exhibits 11.4 and 11.5 illustrate how the strategic objectives should
support the mission and the vision. Strategic objectives help make a
vision more meaningful and actionable. Notice in Exhibit 11.4 that the
supporting relationship between the strategic objectives and the vision
is indicated by the use of the word “by.” Exhibit 11.5 provides two
examples, one from the United Way and the other from a global chem-
ical company.

EXHIBIT 11.4 Vision: To be the market leader in providing high-performing, cost-effective

Example Vision computer products and services to enable systemwide success for all of our
with Strategic customers by
Objectives
• Creating seamless integration of all system critical components.
• Providing products of a superior value at prices at or below all major
competitors.
• Supplying management of all products and support for all systems.
• Establishing partnerships to ensure customers have integrated, highly
reliable systemwide solutions.
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 361

EXHIBIT 11.5 United Way

Examples of
Mission, Vision, Mission
and Strategic To improve lives by mobilizing the caring power of communities.
Objectives
Vision:
We will build a stronger America by mobilizing our communities to improve
people’s lives.
To do this we will:
• Energize and inspire people to make a difference
• Craft human care agendas within and across our communities
• Build coalitions around these agendas
• Increase investments in these agendas by expanding and diversifying our
own development efforts and supporting those of others
• Measure, communicate, and learn from the impact of our efforts
• Reflect the diversity of the communities we serve

Major Chemical, Inc.

MISSION
A customer-driven organization, providing industrial chemical products and
creative solutions in select markets around the world.
VISION
Major Chemical Inc.’s vision is to become the preferred partner in providing
industrial chemical products and creative solutions for our customers by
Strategic Objectives
• Conducting business based on a foundation of environmental responsibility
• Running all operations efficiency but safely
• Generating profitable growth of 15% over the next five years
• Improving the satisfaction of our customers, employees, and shareholders.
• Conducting every aspect of our business guided by our values.
• Developing internal measures of how we are operating and how well we
“walk the talk” for our customers and employees

Instead of strategic objectives, often organizations will articulate

their values or guiding principles in support of their mission and
vision. Usually, these statements of values or principles will not be as
measurable as the strategic objective statements; however, they, too,
can provide specifics to guide work, as well as behavior. For example,
here is Microsoft’s statement of values:
As a company, and as individuals, we value integrity, honesty, openness,
personal excellence, constructive self-criticism, continual self-improve-
ment, and mutual respect. We are committed to our customers and
362 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

partners and have a passion for technology. We take on big challenges,

and pride ourselves on seeing them through. We hold ourselves ac-
countable to our customers, shareholders, partners, and employees by
honoring our commitments, providing results, and striving for the
highest quality. http://www.microsoft.com/about/default.mspx

5. Hold Cascading Meetings with Employees to Test the Mission

and the Vision
Cascading meetings offer a way to involve as many employees as possi-
ble in testing the mission and vision. These meetings or workshops usu-
ally start with the upper levels of the organization broken into functions
or divisions and then give way to cross-level, functional, or divisional
meetings. The first level of these workshops will usually focus on creat-
ing and refining the vision and making sure the group involved agrees
with the specific language and the meaning of that language to them.
The next round will usually involve a “working draft” of the vision,
so that the attendees will feel comfortable suggesting changes. After
this round, the leaders may want to regroup and consider which
changes to accept and then produce a draft of the vision that incorpo-
rates the suggested changes from the other employee groups.
The final round of vision workshops will include a cross section of
the next levels, functions, or divisions of the organization. If the orga-
nization is large, it will not be practical to involve all employees, so
leaders should select a representative group from the levels, functions,
or divisions. At this point, the vision should be considered “final” and
ready to roll out across the entire organization.
The major reason to approach the development of the vision in
face-to-face workshops of this sort is to begin to build support for it.
Involving the employees in this way makes them feel part of the
process. In addition, should the vision involve a major transformation
in the organization’s way of working or previous purpose, it can break
down some of the barriers to change and allow organizational leaders
to obtain important input from the employees in shaping a vision that
is actionable and meaningful at all levels.
With most companies, once a few levels or groups of the organiza-
tion have been involved and a good cross section of employees have
had a chance to react to the mission and vision, leaders can feel fairly
comfortable that the mission and the vision statements are acceptable
and ready for the outside world to see.
Although following the steps outlined in the vision development
process here takes time, the process will ensure the creation of a mis-
sion and a vision that will guide the actions of the organization.
Employees need to know why the company exists and where it plans to
go for their work to support the mission and contribute to accom-
plishing the vision.
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 363

Going through some sort of visioning discussion and particularly

following a cascading workshop approach can strengthen internal
communication by bringing forward agreements and disagreements
even among senior management so that the organization can create a
shared view of its focus and direction. In fact, in some cases, the
process of creating the vision may do more to galvanize the organiza-
tion by clarifying its direction than the end products of the process—
the mission and vision statements.

Designing and Implementing Effective

Change Communication
Organizational change is inevitable yet rarely easy. Many organiza-
tional change efforts fail to deliver the value the organization seeks.
For instance, mergers are one of the most frequent causes of major
organizational change, but only a few yield the anticipated or hoped
for results. A Harvard Business Review article reports that companies
spent $3.3 trillion in 1999 on mergers and acquisitions, yet “less than
half ever reached their strategic and financial goals.”14 The reason for
this failure will usually rest on the softer side of the merger, the side of
culture, process, and people.
The greatest difficulty leaders face in bringing about change involves
the people. To achieve successful change, leaders must confront the
challenges of reaching the employees through effective leadership com-
munication before, during, and after any major, organizationwide
change programs. Without effective employee communication and a rig-
orous approach to the leadership communication, a change program
has little chance to succeed.
In her book The Change Monster, Jeanie Daniel Duck says, “Com-
munication is always critical but never more so than when you’re
trying to get others to see and do things differently. . . . If leaders
want to change the thinking and actions of others, they must be
transparent about their own. If people within the organization don’t
understand the new thinking or don’t agree with it, they will not
change their beliefs or make decisions that are aligned with what’s
desired.”15
In “Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail,” Kotter lists
“undercommunication” as one of the major reasons change efforts do
not succeed. As he says, “Transformation is impossible unless hun-
dreds or thousands of people are willing to help, often to the point of
making short-term sacrifices. Employees will not make sacrifices, even
if they are unhappy with the status quo, unless they believe that useful
change is possible. Without credible communication, and a lot of it,
the hearts and minds of the troops are never captured.”16
364 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

The organization’s leaders bear the primary responsibility for success-

fully communicating the rationale for the changes, the implementation
plans, and the impact on the organization as a whole and on the indi-
vidual employees. The leaders will need to decide how much commu-
nication will be enough and to establish how to manage the change
communication effectively.
The following discussion goes through a leadership approach to
change communication that begins with determining the scope of the
communication program. Next, this section illustrates a best practice
approach to structuring a change communication program that
includes establishing a change communication leadership team and
using interactive change meetings.
Determining the Scope of Change Communication
The magnitude of the proposed organizational changes and the effec-
tiveness of the current internal communication practices will deter-
mine the scope of the change communication program. To determine
how comprehensive the communication program needs to be, the
organization’s leaders should first assess how effective the current
internal communication practices are and decide if they are strong
enough to support major change.
Again, the scorecard presented in Exhibit 11.2 or a similar instru-
ment can serve as a start to the assessment. If the current approach to
internal communication falls short in any of the dimensions included
in the scorecard, the organization will need to make some improve-
ments in internal communication before launching a change effort.
For example, if the media the organization currently uses are not
effectively reaching all employees, how will the organization reach
them with major change messages? If the leadership team currently
does not see communication as one of its primary responsibilities, how
can the organization depend on the team to communicate the change
messages effectively?
Internal communication practices need to be working well to facili-
tate all employees’ receiving, understanding, and accepting the change
messages.
Next, to establish the level of change being considered and thus, the
amount of communication necessary, leaders should ask the following
questions:
1. Is the proposed change a major transformation for the organization
or does it only consist of incremental adjustments?
2. Does the change involve the entire organization or is it focused on
one group or a narrow process?
3. How many people in the organization will be involved and affected?
If the changes are major and essential to the organization’s future suc-
cess or overall performance, the leaders will need to develop a complete
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 365

EXHIBIT 11.6 Level 3: Major Change

Levels of Change
All of the strategic
Communication
program plus
Effort Level 2: Strategic employee workshops
Strategic to redefine work
messages, using habits and change
Level 1: Basic employee behavior at
all media but
Targeted, relying primarily all levels with
strategic on interactive frequent program and
messages, meetings with performance feedback
mostly one- periodic program and assessment
directional, and performance
without assessment
periodic
assessment

change communication plan as part of the change program. Exhibit 11.6

demonstrates three possible levels of communication effort, depending
on the extent of the change proposed.
For a simple change in policy, for example, the organization could
probably succeed by using Level 1: Basic communication. The mes-
sages still need to be targeted, but little, if any follow-up assessment
would be necessary.
For a more complex change, such as the introduction of new per-
formance measures and reward systems across all groups, leaders
might choose the “strategic” level, using several media to ensure that
all employees receive the information on the changes and holding
meetings to ensure that managers, in particular, understand when and
how to use the measures. The leaders would probably follow up with
an assessment at some point to make sure all employees understand
the proposed changes and their impact on them.
For a major change, such as merging two companies, moving the
organization in a new direction, or developing new products or ser-
vices, leaders would probably want to select Level 3: Major Change and
develop a complete change communication program using the follow-
ing approach.

Structuring a Communication Program for Major Change

Exhibit 11.7 provides an example of a three-phased change communi-
cation plan for major change. Each of the three phases specifies actions
the leaders would want to take to develop and implement the change
communication strategy. Even though an organizationwide change pro-
gram would not flow linearly or as neatly as depicted in Exhibit 11.7,
organizational leaders would still want to create a simple overview map
of how they expect the change communication plan to progress.
366 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 11.7
Three-Phased Feedback
Change
Communication Phases Design Change Launch Change
Monitor Results and
Action Plan Communication Communication and
Make Adjustments
Strategy and Plan Ensure Understanding

Activities • Form change • Hold vision and • Make adjustments

communication strategic objectives in messages and
team (CCT) meetings plan
• Assess current • Begin message • Continue to
communications campaign reinforce change
messages
• Develop change • Launch cascading
communication employee change • Conduct job
strategy (media, meetings redefinition
messages, timing, meetings
spokespersons,
• Measure results
etc.)

Creating such a plan will be useful for thinking through program

staging issues and ensuring consideration of all important actions and
their timing. In addition, such an action plan can be useful in reassur-
ing the organization. It suggests order and a plan in all of the chaos
that usually accompanies major change.
As the discussion in Chapter 10 on team action and work plans
pointed out, action plans require frequent updating to remain accurate
in guiding activities. They evolve as the project unfolds; therefore, they
need periodic feedback loops to capture information coming in that
affects the plan once the change program is underway. In addition to
this high-level action plan, the leadership team will need a very detailed
work plan to specify all actions, responsibilities, and deadlines.

Phase 1: Design Change Communication

Strategy and Plan
The first phase of strategy development is critical to the success of any
change communication program. Leaders should use their best lead-
ership skills to guide the organization away from initiating changes
immediately without first determining what specific actions are
needed and how best to communicate them. Leaders should think
carefully about the specific changes the employees will need to under-
stand and make in their day-to-day jobs to accomplish the major orga-
nization wide change objectives. The from/to problem-solving tool
introduced in Chapter 9 will be useful in analyzing and capturing the
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 367

specific changes at all levels and of all types (see the example in
Exhibit 9.4).
The change leaders will need to develop a communication strategy
that includes audiences, media, messages, spokespersons, and timing,
at a minimum. Also, they may need to assess the current employee
communication situation to determine if they have the media/forums
currently in place to ensure that change messages will reach the
intended targets. They must know where the communication break-
downs are and how best to reach the organization with the key change
messages.
Before assessing the current communication practices or develop-
ing the strategy, the change leaders may want to put together a team to
help them, since major change requires a lot of leadership’s time and
attention. A change communication team (CCT) can assist in analyzing
the needs and implementing the change communication program. A
full-scale change communication program requires resources dedi-
cated to communication.
Depending on the organization and the type of changes, the leaders
will probably want the team to consist of a multilevel, cross-functional
group of employees and cross-cultural representative of the organization.
Having diverse, frontline, operational employees on the team provides
definite benefits if the organization is implementing change affecting all
employees. It can often mean the difference between the employees’
accepting the changes or rejecting them as another management fad of
the day. Such a team will often become part of the mechanism to ensure
that the changes remain after the “official” team no longer exists.
Although the CCT membership needs to reflect the culture and
structure of the organization, team members should have the follow-
ing basic characteristics:

• Representative of all levels, functions, geographic locations (if relevant).

• Respected and trusted by their peers.
• Open and honest communicators.
• Skilled at interacting with others and facilitating discussions.
Also, team members need to be able to break away from their regular
duties to dedicate the time needed. The team members need to be fully
dedicated, since they will need to work rapidly to make any needed
improvements in employee communication, develop the strategy, and
launch into aggressive communication with the entire organization.
Having a team dedicated to communication will make the change
program run much more smoothly. In addition to helping develop the
strategy, they can serve as change ambassadors who can reach deep
into the organization to ensure widespread understanding of the
change messages.
368 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 11.8 CEO/

• Champion change communication program
Sample Change • Support CCT and ensure implementation of change
President
Communication communication plans
Team Structure
• Coordinate all change efforts
Sr. Management
• Provide communication themes to the CCT
Team
• Support CCT and help with implementation of actions

• Conduct internal communication assessment

CCT • Develop change communication strategy and tactics
• Serve as communication ambassadors

Subteams

Message/ Media/
Strategy Vision Assessment
Materials Forums

• Perform in-depth analysis of topic areas

• Synthesize findings and coordinate with CCT

After change leaders have established the core CCT and the team
has completed the preliminary analysis and strategy development, the
team may want to break into subteams to focus on different aspects of
the change communication strategy. Exhibit 11.8 provides an example
of how a CCT might fit into the organization and how the subteams
might be organized. In this example, some of the subteams correspond
to the components of the strategic employee model, but others are out-
growths of the preliminary assessment and the specific areas deter-
mined to be priorities for change communication in this company. The
subteams will probably work independently, but to be most effective,
they need to interact frequently to avoid duplication of effort and
ensure that no issues remain unresolved.
A strong CCT serves as the linchpin of the development and imple-
mentation of the change communication strategy and plan. The team
can provide information from management to the organization, help
translate messages to employees at all levels, and bring credibility to
the change communication effort. One additional result of a CCT is
that having a cross-functional, multilevel team will help the organiza-
tion see communication as a responsibility of all employees.

Phase 2: Launch Change Communication and Ensure Employee

Understanding
The first step in launching the change communication plan is to start
communicating the change messages, getting them out to the organi-
zation through the media determined in the CCT’s analysis. If an orga-
nization already has an acceptable vision, the change leaders may
want to measure the organization’s understanding of it and reinforce it
before launching into delivery of the change messages. Often, however,
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 369

the vision no longer works for an organization undergoing major

changes, and the organization will need to create a new vision with
strategic objectives to support it. Since the change communication
needs to move fast to stay out in front of the rumor mill, the most effi-
cient approach may be for the organization’s leaders to convene and
develop a new initial vision that captures the organization’s new direc-
tion, but to be most effective, they would want to build the develop-
ment of the vision into the change process and use the leader-driven,
employee-involvement approach described previously in this chapter.
Allowing employee involvement in the creation of the vision during
major change will increase their understanding and acceptance of the
new direction and what the changes mean to them.
Once the vision is in place and the communication campaign
launched, the change leaders will want to start bringing the organiza-
tion into the change more directly and specifically. To do so means the
organization’s leaders and perhaps members of the CCT will need to
meet personally with all employees. These should be interactive meet-
ings in which to communicate the case for change and major change
messages. The format should allow for and encourage employee ques-
tions about and reactions to the proposed changes. The goal in these
meetings is to ensure that employees really understand the change
messages and know what they mean to them personally, as well as how
they are to perform their jobs. All employees need to feel part of the
change process, and the more they can contribute to the change dis-
cussions, the more they will start to internalize the proposed changes.

Phase 3: Monitor Results and Make Adjustments

As soon as the change messages have reached the entire organization
and meetings held with the employees to communicate with them
directly, the change leaders should plan to stop and assess the employee
understanding. It is a good idea to survey a cross section of the employ-
ees and conduct a few carefully planned focus groups.
The survey results will help the change leaders determine if they
need to make any changes in the messages or media and if they need
to conduct additional meetings. If the changes involve a major change
of focus in the organization, then the change leaders may find that
they need to conduct some job redefinition sessions that will allow
employees to understand better how their specific job activities will
need to change within the altered organization.
It helps employees to understand the changes if they can see the key
objectives as they are now and as they will be in the new organization
once the change program is completed. Again, a from/to analysis is
useful in determining the changes and explaining them to employees.
For example, a computer company might have the from/to for its
strategic objectives as illustrated in Exhibit 11.9.
370 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 11.9 Strategic Objectives From To

Example of a
From/To Table for Providing computer Hardware, software, and Hardware and solutions
Strategic products at superior solutions for all computers for servers and complex
Objectives value Value to us, but high enterprise systems only
cost to customer Low cost, high value
to customer
Creating integration Fragmented products and Connected components
services in isolated pockets within the enterprise
system

Once the employees can see the changes at a higher level, their
immediate supervisors will probably want to meet with them to
develop the specific changes in each job function. Again, the from/to
works well. The employees would look critically at what their job
entails now and what it will involve as a result of the change. For some
employees, the change may be small, which will be reassuring to them.
For those who have to make major changes in the way they work,
these sessions should help make those changes more tangible to them,
which again could be reassuring, since any ambiguity around the
changes would be removed.
Throughout the change process, the change leaders should involve as
many supervisors as possible in the change meetings and job redefinition
sessions. Not only does their involvement show their support for the
change program, but it also allows them to see employees at work in the
organization in ways that differ from day-to-day operations. Often, hid-
den talent emerges in interactive employee meetings. Organizational lead-
ers may want to elevate some of the high performers to different positions
in the organization during or after the change program. Also, the CCT
may want to recruit some of the employees who stand out to serve as
additional ambassadors and even facilitators for future change meetings.
Just as change leaders want to communicate aggressively at the
beginning of the change program to help employees understand the new
direction and the meaning of the changes, they will want to communi-
cate successes along the way and ensure that the organization hears
how well the change program is progressing. Finally, at the end of the
change program, the organization will need to measure the results.
Underlying any successful change communication program are the
continual signals along the way that change is happening and that
the change is making a positive difference in the way the organization
performs. The program will not be judged a success unless it makes
a meaningful difference not only for the employees but also for the
organization overall. Communication is the key to ensuring that the
organization sees and understands the differences being brought about
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 371

by the changes. Without a well-planned and well-executed change

communication strategy, no change program can succeed.
In conclusion, from the day-to-day exchanges to the major efforts
associated with organizational change, internal communication is
important to the success of any organization. The strategy for internal
communication consists of the basic components of any effective com-
munication strategy, such as audience analysis, targeted messages, and
appropriate media, but it is also much more than processes and prod-
ucts. Leaders need all their leadership communication abilities to
inspire, motivate, and guide employees to support their visions and
their goals for the organization.
Through internal communication, organizational leadership emerges
and succeeds in creating and transforming organizational culture. Inter-
nal communication holds an organization together. Good internal com-
munication enables the smooth operation of the organization when
interwoven seamlessly into all other processes of the organization. It is
up to the leaders to make internal communication a priority. Leadership
inside an organization depends on it.

Application 11.1 The Case: Huge Co. Revisited

Merging Benefits Huge Co. (you may want to review the facts in the Huge Co. case in Chapter 4)
has now developed the new benefits program for the software managers based
on the consulting company’s report, which incorporated an assessment of best
practices in the industry and consultation with benefits managers at both com-
panies. The new program has the following features:
• Life insurance options will be unchanged for employees from both pre-
merger companies. Huge Co. will pay for a base level of insurance (two
times salary) and the employee can elect to pay for additional coverage.
• A flexible spending account is a new key feature, under which employees
can set aside pretax dollars for medical spending or dependent care. This
will be a new feature for the CC employees.
• A vendor who is new to both companies will provide medical insurance, but
the new company offers a broader choice of physicians than either plan pre-
viously, and employees will retain several choices about the type of plan
they enroll in. Employees who actively participate in exercise classes and
other health maintenance activities will receive additional credit toward
health care deductibles.
• Dental/orthodontic insurance is optional and, if elected, is paid for by the
employee.
• Vision will not be offered, but would be covered under the flexible spending
account.
• The company will match 401K contributions up to 12 percent of salary, and
stock options will be offered to high-performing software engineers.
372 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

The change team (CT) has managed the major integration of the two com-
panies, and they have asked for your input on a task that has a smaller scope
but is essential to the continued success of the company: advising the software
engineers of both companies about their new plan. As Mariel Salinas, the for-
mer benefits manager at Computer Co., your new position will encompass all
the benefits for the two merged companies.
You believe the new plan is consistent with the mission and vision of the
merged companies and that it really is the “best of both worlds” in merging the
plans from the two companies. The new flexible spending account will be
attractive to the software engineers. Most of the other key features of the plans
remain fairly similar, with only a few key changes.

The Assignment
You, as Mariel, have been asked by the CT to develop a communication pro-
gram to roll out the new benefits to the approximately 5,500 software engi-
neers across the company, which still has offices in four countries. You are
expecting delivery of the booklets with all the key details of the plan within two
weeks, but the information is readily available on their Web sites right now.
You must consider the steps you will need to take to convey this information,
the media you will use, the sequence of events, and the content of the commu-
nications about the new plan. Develop the communication program to submit
to the CT. Remember that a key reason for the merger was adding the software
engineers from Computer Co. to the Huge Co. team; they need to understand
the new plan and to feel that they are valued members of the new team.

Application 11.2 The Case: The HADWIT International Services Company

Communicating
Bad News to HADWIT International Services Company
Internal
Audiences

Providing the highest quality data interpretation

across the globe.

In 1998, you decided to open a small oil field services company based in Houston,
Texas. Two friends from graduate school agreed to join you as investors, and you
agreed to manage the business. Your company, Have Data Will Travel Interna-
tional Services Company (HADWIT), provides geological/geophysical consulting
and computerized interpretation of the 3-D seismic data collected by surveyors
working from boats offshore in the Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea, and the
Pacific Rim. HADWIT data are critical to the exploration and production (E&P)
companies because they form the basis for decisions on where to invest in oil
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 373

and gas exploration and development. Many of your clients are major oil com-
panies—such as Shell, Exxon/Mobil, and BP/Amoco—as well as a number of
independents operating all over the world.

HADWIT’s Initial Success

You began operations with 20 employees and trained them well. You are now
up to 200 professionals with very specialized backgrounds in geology or geo-
physics and E&P data analysis. You wanted to develop a company known for
high-quality services, and you wanted a stable, loyal workforce to represent
you to the client. Your partners agreed with this philosophy, and you provided
above-average salaries, paid vacations, health insurance, and annual bonuses.
As the company expanded, you placed employees overseas in offices in Sin-
gapore and Aberdeen, Scotland, to meet clients’ on-site needs. Things were
going well: Employees were happy, and the investors were satisfied with their
return on investment. You credit some of the success to your fairly flat, team-
based organization (Exhibit 11.10).
You have been operating on a substantial profit margin. Until recently, you
had been billing out your professionals at 2 times their gross salary, but the
market will now support only 1.5 times gross salary, which leaves you with no
capacity for underutilization of people or resources. You have, however, been
very generous in the past with bonuses for completing projects ahead of sched-
ule and just for doing good work. In addition, your benefits package is beyond
industry standards, with your picking up 80 percent of the premiums.

Market Changes Creating Need for Cost Cutting

In 2009, however, the oil industry went into a downturn, with oil prices fluxat-
ing and a worldwide recession tightening the market for everyone. Even
though prices rebounded somewhat in 2008 just before the downturn, your
customers’ E&P budgets going into 2009 were strictly constrained; the ensuing
decline in HADWIT projects led you to cut costs by dismissing four employees
who were not performing up to par; cutting back on company perks, such as
cars and expense accounts; and reducing travel budgets. You have seen similar

EXHIBIT 11.10
CEO Jo Martinez, Asst.
The HADWIT
Team
MIS/Technology Operations Finance/Accounting HR/Administration
Phil Thomas Mary Brown Jim Davis Bob Harris

Pam Johnson
Kenneth Lee, Team Leader, John McCarter,
Team Leader, Houston Team Leader,
Singapore Aberdeen

Typical team members in each region:

- Geologists - Geophysicists
- Data analysts - Governmental reps
- Graphics specialists - Administrative assistants
- IT specialists - Log/seismic librarians
374 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

downturns, particularly after September 11, 2001. Now, with the collapse of
former corporate giants and a sluggish economy, the demand for your services
has fallen more; thus, HADWIT has experienced a serious loss of revenue cou-
pled with increased costs.
So far, the numbers this year are not looking good. In fact, you estimate that
profit will be down by around 25 percent this quarter and possibly even 50 per-
cent by the next quarter Your partners are losing patience with the last few
months of negative cash flow. Although they understand that HADWIT is a
market-driven business and you cannot increase demand for your services,
they think that your costs are still too high, and they want you to consider lay-
ing off a significant portion of your workforce.

CEO Contemplating Cost-Cutting Measures

To date, you have run a first-class operation and have spared no costs when it
comes to providing what your employees need, especially when they are over-
seas and out of the office, working in your clients’ facilities. In fact, compared
with your competitors’ costs, your research shows that your overhead for each
employee averages about 15 percent more per year. In addition, you have just
purchased the latest computer hardware and software, which allows you to (1)
work more efficiently, (2) provide data services others cannot, and (3) connect
virtually across the globe. While you know you can cut some of your overhead,
you fear that doing so will result in unhappy employees and dissatisfied cus-
tomers and will not be enough to turn the company around.
This brings you to the possibility of closing offices and laying off employees.
Most of the employees have been with the company for several years and all
are doing excellent work. In addition, many of your clients depend on having
the pick of your staff on-site anytime they want them; up to now, this “on
demand” team formation has never been a problem, since you have had the
staff to cover client preferences. Your company is built on the principle that
HADWIT should provide clients what they want, when they want it, and where
they want it. Thus, you expect that letting staff go will cause some clients to be
very uneasy about doing business with your company, particularly since most
of your employees have direct relationships with your major clients.
Your clients like having people on the ground in Singapore or Aberdeen.
Although they can adjust, it will take away from their flexibility and sense of
having a “local” service provider. Even though you may be able to convince the
customers that this is a short-term move that will not affect the quality or
speed of your services, some of them will not take the news well. You fear that
you even run the risk of losing them, which you certainly cannot afford, given
the current negative cash flow. You hope that you can convince your clients
that, since you have all the equipment you need to service any company any-
where in the world from your offices in Houston, they need not worry. Also,
since most of the consultants work on-site, you can still send your people to
work with clients in the North Sea, or in any other location, as long as the
client picks up per diem (daily) expenses.

Partners Demanding Drastic Measures

You have seen the oil industry recover from cycles like this one before, so you
hope that, if you can hold out a while longer, things will turn around; however,
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 375

you meet with your partners, and they want action now. After some heated dis-
cussion, you agree to start reducing your costs by 25 percent immediately,
which you know will mean you are going to have to let some portion of your
workforce go after all.
Your first step following the meeting with the partners is to look for additional
ways to cut costs without downsizing staff. You decide to decrease the company’s
contribution to health and dental insurance, cancel all bonuses, and eliminate
paid vacations. You consider even asking all employees to accept a 10 percent
salary cut for next year. Also, you decide that you will have to close your offices in
Aberdeen and Singapore, even though you know your clients will not be happy
about it. That means you will have to let 10 administrative support staff and some
geotechs go, in Aberdeen and in Singapore, and will need to relocate all of the
higher-level technical people to Houston, where you will centralize all operations.
After your initial analysis, however, you see no way to reach the targeted numbers
without a substantial reduction in staff. You are extremely concerned about the
effect these cuts will have on your company and your people.
You decide to hold a meeting with the management team, which includes all of
your direct reports (team leaders in each location, who will be protective of their
staff in each country and want to keep their locations open). In the meeting, you
want to work through all possible ways to reduce costs and look at which staff you
can cut. You also realize that, given the seriousness of the messages you will be
sending internally and externally, you need to devote some of your own time to
consider your most important audiences and the messages to send to them.

The Assignment
First, develop a communication strategy for all your internal audiences. Sec-
ond, write a memo to the management team, delivering the news about the
need to cut costs and downsize the workforce and inviting them to the meeting.
This memo is an opportunity for you to lay out any issues to be considered and
any concerns that you have about the situation, as well as tell them what you
expect them to do in general and in preparation for the meeting. Think care-
fully about this audience. While you will want to provide the truth about what
is to happen, you also need to try to allay their concerns as much as possible.
These are the leaders in your organization and some of your best people, and
you certainly do not want to lose any of them at this crucial time in the com-
pany’s history. Thus, you need to consider the tone you use and the information
these managers will want to have and need to hear. Third, develop an agenda
for the meeting establishing objectives, end products, and content.

Source: Case and assignment developed by Deborah J. Barrett and Beth O’Sullivan. Copy-
right 1999. Revised 2009. Used with permission.

Application 11.3 The Case: Rescuing Fly High

Developing a The management of Fly High knew they needed to turn the company around
Change immediately. They were constantly rated low in customer satisfaction polls, they
were the worst in handling baggage (more lost and more damaged than any of
Communication
their major competitors), the complaints from passengers had grown by 25 per-
Strategy cent, and the employee morale was at its lowest level ever. Fly High was losing
money and on the verge of having to lay off hundreds of its 50,000 employees.
376 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

The board was placing the company’s future in the hands of a new CEO and
the management team she was bringing with her. The board had essentially
cleaned house, but, then, it was not the first time new management had been
brought in to try to turn things around. Fly High had gone through constant
change in leadership at the top as well as frequent downsizing and reorgani-
zations, but they had not been able to turn the company around.
The company needed to make drastic changes and fast, and it needed to
make them across the entire company, from baggage handlers to pilots. From
the reservation desk to the hangars to the corporate offices and the rest of the
employees scattered across the globe, no one talked to or worked with anyone
else. In fact, the different locations seemed knowingly or unknowingly to work
against each other and against the goals of the total company. Some of the
middle- and lower-level management adopted an extreme command and con-
trol and silo thinking approach to managing, while others used a team-based,
participative, cross-functional culture. Employees had reached a point of com-
placency and cynicism. They lacked a performance ethic and felt management
was not open to their ideas about the company. Cutting across all the levels in
the organization was a lack of trust for Fly High management and now a lot of
skepticism that this new management team would make a difference.
Fly High needed a major change program across the entire company involv-
ing all levels of the organization; however, the internal communication was so
poor that they did not know where to begin. Communication across the orga-
nization or up or down the organizational chain of command was almost
nonexistent. A recent HR survey had revealed specific problems in internal
communications: Key messages across the company had changed so often that
employees were confused and unclear as to the company’s vision, many
employees felt afraid to express their ideas or concerns, and management
appeared isolated and nonreceptive to the employees at lower levels of the
organization. It was clear that the company seriously needed to improve inter-
nal communications before any change program could have impact.

The Assignment
As part of this new management team, you are charged with addressing the
communication challenges and establishing the change communication pro-
gram. Outline the steps you would take and develop an action plan for improv-
ing communication that will feed directly into the larger change program that
Fly High needs to undertake.

Notes 1. Ragan Survey of CEO Communications. (2001). A Ragan Research Report,

supported by the International Association of Business Communication, p. 6.
2. Ragan Survey of CEO Communication (2002), p. 7.
3. Smidts, A. Pruyn, A. T. H., and van Riel, C. B. M. (2001). The Impact of
Employee Communication and Perceived External Prestige on Organiza-
tion Identification. Academy of Management Journal 49, p. 1059.
4. Clampitt, P. G., and Downs, C. W. (1993). Employee Perceptions of the
Relationship between Communication and Productivity: A Field Study.
Journal of Business Communication 30, pp. 5–28; Downs, C. W., Clampitt,
P. G., and Pfeiffer, A. L. (1988). Communication and Organization Outcomes.
 Chapter 11 Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication 377

In G. M. Goldhaber and G. A. Barnett (Eds.), Handbook of Organizational

Communication. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, pp. 171–212; Frank, A., and Brow-
ness, J. (1989). Organizational Communication and Behavior: Communi-
cating to Improve Performance. Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart & Winston;
Jablin, F. M. (1979). Superior-subordinate Communication: The State of
the Art. Psychological Bulletin 86, pp. 1201–22.
5. Connecting Organization Communication to Financial Performance:
2003/2004 Communication ROI Study. (2004). Watson Wyatt Worldwide.
6. Tucker, B. A., and Russell, R. F. (2004). The Influence of the Transformational
Leader. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies 10, pp. 103–11.
7. The components of this model emerged from the best practices in employee
communication found in interviews conducted with and research conducted
on several Fortune 500 companies. While no company exemplified all the
best practice components exactly as presented in the definitions, they each
serve as the ideal components of effective employee communication. The
model was created by Deborah J. Barrett based on this research. The model
and some of the research have been presented by Deborah J. Barrett at Asso-
ciation for Business Communication and International Association for Busi-
ness Communication conferences. They are published in her article “Change
Communication: Using Strategic Employee Communication to Facilitate
Major Change. Corporate Communication: An International Journal 7, pp.
219–31, which appeared in 2002.
8. Welch, J., and Welch, S. (April 20, 2009). Obama: A Leadership Report
Card, Business Week, p. 96.
9. Collins, J., and Porras, J. I. (1994). Built to Last. New York: Harper.
10. Tucker and Russell (2004).
11. Peters, T. J. (1988). Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revo-
lution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, pp. 399–408. Peters uses these charac-
teristics in a discussion of effective visions, but many of them apply more
to missions as defined in this chapter.
12. Jick, T. D. (1989). The Vision Thing. Harvard Business School Case, pp. 1–7.
13. www.wholefoodsmarket.com.
14. Ashkenas, R. N., and Francis, S. C. (2000). Integration Managers: Special
Leaders for Special Times. Harvard Business Review, November–Decem-
ber, pp. 108–16.
15. Duck, J. D. (2001). The Change Monster: The Human Forces That Fuel or
Foil Corporate Transformation and Change. New York: Crown.
16. Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail.
Harvard Business Review on Change. Boston: Harvard Business School
Press. For information on communicating change across cultures, see Bar-
rett, D. J. (2005/2006). Successful Cross-Cultural Communication during
Major Change. International Journal of Knowledge, Culture, and Change
Management 5, No. 8. www.management-journal.com.
Chapter

12
Leadership Through
Effective External
Relations
A CEO is ultimately responsible for the growth of a com-
pany as evidenced by its financial performance, its capac-
ity for self-renewal, and its character. The only way you
can measure character is by reputation.
Roberto Goizueta, CEO, Coca-Cola, quoted in Fortune, March 6, 1995

To become well regarded, companies must deserve it. They

must develop coherent images and a consistency of posture
internally and externally. Identity and self-presentation
beget reputation.
Charles J. Fombrun, (1996) Reputation: Realizing Value from the
Corporate Image. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to do the following:

• Develop an external relations strategy.

• Build and maintain a positive corporate image.
• Work with the news media.
• Handle crisis communications.
A positive public image or reputation affects a company’s ability to
achieve all other measures of success. The companies with the best
corporate reputations outperform all others. The top five companies in
378
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 379

the Harris Interactive annual Reputation Quotient survey for 2008 list
of the best in corporate reputation—Johnson & Johnson, Google,
Sony, Coca-Cola, and Kraft Foods—combine good reputations with
strong financial performance.1
Hill & Knowlton, one of the leading public relations firms, found in
its 2006 study that “90 percent of analysts agree that if a company fails
to look after reputational aspects of its performance, it will ultimately
suffer financially, too.”2 The Harris Interactive survey included the fol-
lowing categories: “Emotional Appeal, Products & Services, Social
Responsibility, Vision & Leadership, Workplace Environment, and
Financial Performance,” and the companies with the best reputations
excelled in all of these areas.
Aon’s Global Risk Management Survey 2007, based on responses
from 320 organizations in 29 countries, found that “damage to reputa-
tion” is the number one risk among the top 10 risks listed by respon-
dents to the survey.3 Negative public sentiment hurts internal and
external reputations, resulting in lost morale among employees and
potentially, in tremendous financial loss to a company. Just look at the
damage to Domino’s Pizza caused by a prank by two Domino employ-
ees. They filmed themselves putting food up their noses and placing
nasal mucus on food they were supposedly preparing for delivery. They
then posted their video on YouTube. In a short time, through the
power of social media, “the video had been viewed more than a million
times on YouTube. References to it were in five of the 12 results on the
first page of Google search for ‘Dominos,’ and discussions about
Domino’s had spread throughout Twitter.”4
Despite the two apologizing for the prank and saying they never
delivered any contaminated food, Domino’s reputation was damaged
and their sales plummeted. According to one online survey, “The per-
ception of its quality among consumers went from positive to nega-
tive” overnight.5 Reputation is so important that Warren Buffet is
quoted as saying, “If you lose dollars for the firm, I will be under-
standing. If you lose reputation for the firm, I will be ruthless.” Obtain-
ing a positive reputation is challenging for any organization, but
regaining one that is lost can be next to impossible.
Managing the public’s perception of an organization is one of the
primary jobs of leadership, and in particular, the top leader’s personal
image affects the company image. Hill & Knowlton’s Corporate Repu-
tation Watch reports that 84 percent of the CEOs responding to the
survey believe that the CEO’s reputation “extremely influences” the
corporate reputation, and 77 percent report that CEOs are primarily
responsible for managing their company’s corporate reputation.6
Just as the leaders determine the personality of the organization on
the inside, they also shape the outside image. An organization has an
ethos, just as an individual does. The goal of organizational leaders is
380 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

to ensure that the company’s ethos is positive—that all external audi-

ences consider the company honorable, trustworthy, and ethical. Man-
aging external relations effectively is essential to achieving that goal
and essential to leadership communication in any organization.
Any communication activity that touches an organization’s outside
constituencies—such as advertising, sales promotions, direct market-
ing, or public relations—falls into the category of external relations. All
of these are important and influence how the public perceives the
organization. Also, these activities must all be coordinated as part of
an overall external relations campaign so that all messages are consis-
tent and delivered effectively.
However, the focus of this chapter is primarily on the activities usually
considered public relations, including press and media management,
philanthropic activities, community involvement, investor relations,
and external publications (for example, annual reports and company
magazines). Organizations must manage all aspects of external relations
very carefully. They all affect the organization’s public ethos. In most orga-
nizations, the leadership communication ability of the leaders has the
greatest impact on that external ethos through their involvement in public
relations.
This chapter provides guidelines to help manage external relations
in day-to-day encounters and in crisis situations so that the organiza-
tion projects a positive image. You will learn how to apply the com-
munication strategy model introduced in Chapter 2 to external
relations, how to shape a positive image, how to deal with the media,
and finally, how to manage crisis communications.

Developing an External Relations Strategy

Effective external relations require a sound communication strategy.
As leaders have done with other communication situations, they can
use the communication strategy framework, Exhibit 12.1, to guide
them in addressing the entire range of external audiences. With the
framework in mind, they should take the following steps to create a
strategy for external audiences:
1. Clarify the purpose and strategic objectives.
2. Identify major audiences or stakeholders.
3. Create, refine, and test major messages.
4. Select, limit, and coach the spokesperson(s).
5. Establish the most effective media or forums.
6. Determine the best timing.
7. Monitor the results.
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 381

EXHIBIT 12.1 Context

Communication
Strategy
Framework
Purpose
Timing
Feedback
Messages

Spokes- Media/
person Forum

Audience

Clarifying Purpose and Strategic Objectives

A company must have a strategy for all of its external relations activities:
managing the press and media, coordinating philanthropic activities
and community involvement, establishing relationships with financial
analysts or investor groups, and creating and managing all publications
and electronic interactions with all stakeholders. A central and consis-
tent purpose radiating from the very top of the organization should gov-
ern all external communication activities. As discussed in Chapter 7, the
CEO and his or her direct reports determine the personality of a com-
pany, and as discussed in this chapter, that personality influences the
corporate reputation, the ethos of the company. Given these lines of
influence, it is clearly the responsibility of the CEO and his or her staff
to establish a strategy for external relations.
Ideally, a company’s internal ethos and external image will be consis-
tent, with a few central themes permeating all day-to-day activities as well
as any crisis situations that may arise. The major corporate themes usu-
ally embody the vision, mission, and strategic objectives, as discussed in
Chapter 11. The logos, slogans, letterhead, business cards, Web site, blogs,
and any promotional materials, often called collaterals, reinforce these
themes. Although the logos and slogans are too abbreviated to capture all
of the company’s themes, they should reflect the major ones and certainly
suggest the personality of the organization. Leaders will want to approach
the development of all promotional materials strategically and analyti-
cally to ensure support for as well as consistency with the organization’s
strategic purpose and objectives.
For example, a few years ago, the Houston Grand Opera (HGO), one
of the premier opera companies in the world, decided to change its logo
382 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 12.2 The mission of Houston Grand Opera is to bring larger and more diverse
Mission Statement audiences together for exciting opera in a financially responsible way.
for the Houston
Grand Opera Supporting Principles of Houston Grand Opera will
Source: www.houston • Be defined by the excellence of its work.
grandopera.org
• Provide a memorable experience.
• Be artistically and administratively imaginative, balanced, and responsible.
• Make an impact locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally.
• Communicate a welcoming atmosphere, be accessible to all, and create
an atmosphere of inclusiveness.
• Hold discovery as a valuable goal in itself.

and image. It started by putting together a team to study the company’s

current reputation and future strategy. The HGO team determined that
the messages it wanted to send to the public were that HGO is “fun, for
everyone, and innovative.” The team surveyed subscribers and nonsub-
scribers to obtain the public’s perception of the opera company. After a
few months of synthesizing the results and discussing them internally,
HGO emerged with a new mission for the company (Exhibit 12.2).
After developing and testing the mission, HGO launched another team
to establish its new logo and look. At first, they met some resistance to
changing the logo, since HGO had used that logo for years, and the
traditional operagoers loved the look and feel of it (Exhibit 12.3). It had
dignity and suggested something solid and long-standing. However,
HGO’s general director at the time and several of the community leaders
who supported the opera felt that the logo needed to be changed to
reflect more directly HGO’s innovative leadership in the opera world.
After several months of surveys and focus groups, the team recom-
mended a new logo (Exhibit 12.3).
The new logo suggested a company that was both traditional and
innovative and captured the message of HGO’s being expansive yet

EXHIBIT 12.3 Previous Logo New Logo

Example of Logo
Change to
Emphasize New
Message
Source: Logos used with
permission of David Gock-
ley, director of the Houston
Grand Opera at the time of
the change.
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 383

inclusive. Through the new logo and the promotional activity that
accompanied it, HGO was able to reinforce its messages to its public:
HGO is innovative, is fun, and is for everyone. Soon afterward, the
connection of the mission and the logo to the strategy of the company
became obvious to the public when HGO unveiled a season with a per-
fect balance of traditional and innovative operas.
An organization’s messages to the public are intertwined with every-
thing that touches that public; to avoid confusion and unwanted associ-
ations, the messages communicated in all external materials should be
clear and consistent. With this foundation in place, the company can
then create specific messages for specific events as needed, from
announcing new products to handling crisis communications. All orga-
nizations must have central, overarching messages or themes that they
intend to deliver to the mass of individuals called their “stakeholders.”
Identifying Major External Stakeholders
An organization’s external stakeholders consist of any persons,
groups, or entities outside the organization that may be affected by
the its activities or interested in or influenced by its messages and
image. The stakeholders are all audiences for the organization’s mes-
sages. Depending on the company and industry, a list of stakeholders
include the following:
1. Media 9. Suppliers or vendors
2. Community 10. Trade associations
3. Customers 11. Unions
4. Investors 12. Interest groups
5. Analysts 13. Retirees
6. Board 14. Competitors
7. Partners 15. Government agencies
8. Distributors 16. Public at large
The list should include anyone even remotely touched by the orga-
nization’s products or services.
Once the organization has identified its stakeholders, it needs to
establish priorities for reaching each one with its general message as
well as specific messages tailored to individual groups. Again, the mes-
sages must be consistent, although they may differ slightly in their
wording to ensure that the audiences understand them. While compa-
nies need to be careful not to exclude any audience or minimize its
importance, priorities are necessary to an organized approach. Orga-
nizations need to determine how important as well as how difficult it
is to reach each stakeholder.
Asking the following questions will help in prioritizing the external
stakeholders:
384 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 12.4 High

Example Matrix
Analyzing Analysts
Stakeholders
Media Customers

Importance
Competitors

Government
agencies

Partners

Low Difficulty of High

reaching

1. Who shapes or influences business or community opinions?

2. Who are the high-profile leaders in the community?
3. Who is well respected? Who is feared?
4. Who has high levels of responsibility within the community?
5. Whom do others regard as important or powerful in the area?
6. Who is actively involved in the community?
7. Who is in a demographic group affected by the organization?
8. Who has a financial or an emotional stake in the organization?
9. Who has the most to gain or lose because of what happens to the
organization?
10. Who has a clear role in regulations or policies affecting the
organization?
11. Who can undermine the organization’s external relations campaign?
Exhibit 12.4 illustrates how an organization might use a matrix to
determine the importance as well as the ease of reaching the different
stakeholder groups.

Creating the Major Messages

What characterizes effective messages for external audiences? The 2008
Harris Reputation Quotient found that the following measures have
the greatest impact on corporate reputations: “Sincerity, correctness and
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 385

accuracy of information, and consistency.”7 To be most effective in build-

ing a positive reputation, leaders should ensure that all messages com-
municated to their external audiences conform to the following criteria:
• Honest
• Clear
• Consistent
• Meaningful
In addition, leaders need to realize that messages aimed at external
audiences are far more vulnerable to interference, interruptions, and
barriers than messages to internal audiences. Many external audiences
will be only weakly motivated to attend to the messages, and they will
often be ignorant of much of the knowledge organizations can assume
for their internal audiences. For example, while we may be able to
assume that an internal audience will know the jargon of our industry,
we cannot assume that outsiders will. Thus, using industry jargon can
become a barrier to communication. In addition, we would hope for
the best intentions from internal audiences; however, for external audi-
ences, assuming the best can be dangerous.
Leaders should be able to prevent the interruptions and overcome
the barriers to reach their external audiences successfully if they
ensure that all of their external messages conform to the listed criteria.
Honest
Not all audiences can see through false or deceptive messages, but an
organization can do more harm to its reputation by getting caught lying
than by telling an unpleasant truth. Honesty should be one of the under-
lying values and guiding principles of an organization’s communication
activities for external audiences as it is with internal audiences.
Clear
Assuming that our messages are clear is often not enough when deal-
ing with external audiences. Just as we must scrutinize important
internal messages, we should also test messages for external audiences
to ensure that they will understand the messages as intended. Compa-
nies often use focus groups for this purpose.
Consistent
Consistency is essential in the messages an organization delivers to its
public. Internal and external messages must be consistent. Also, mes-
sages delivered to different audiences through different networks must
be consistent. Consistency does not mean messages cannot be tailored
to the different stakeholders. The wording must be targeted to the spe-
cific audience, and it may differ slightly or the emphasis may shift to
accommodate the varying needs and interests of different stakehold-
ers, but the core message must remain the same.
386 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

Meaningful
Finally, the messages must be meaningful. Too often, companies water
down their external messages so much that they no longer communi-
cate any substance. This weakening of the message is particularly a
problem in a crisis, but it occurs at other times as well. In some cases,
the organization may not have taken the necessary time to determine
what it wants to communicate. In other cases, organizations are inten-
tionally equivocating or making the message ambiguous to avoid send-
ing a negative message, to sidestep possible legal problems, or to
obfuscate the facts.
A press release sent by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
printed in its entirety in Exhibit 12.5, makes ambiguous statements

EXHIBIT 12.5
Example of FDA Statement
Ambiguity in a Media Inquiries: 301-
Press Release FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE 827-6242
Statement Consumer Inquiries:
October 13, 2003 888-INFO-FDA
FDA Statement on Foodborne Illness Risk Assessment

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) today issued the following
statement:

The headline of a story on the risk of illness from food, “Food Attack Likely,
FDA Says” that ran under “Washington in Brief” in the October 11th
Washington Post mischaracterizes the FDA report.

FDA prepared this qualitative risk assessment to accompany two new final
rules, published October 10th, to improve food safety and security. It
discusses both unintentional and intentional contamination of the food
supply, because the goals of food safety and security are closely linked.

In drafting the risk assessment FDA relied heavily on the regular occurrence
of foodborne illness outbreaks from accidental contamination in reaching
the “high likelihood” prediction. The FDA report did not say there is a high
likelihood of a terrorist attack in the next year. It did say there is a high
likelihood of a significant foodborne illness outbreak in the next year (as
there is every year) and that one possibility is that the outbreak would come
from a terrorist attack. The actual “likelihood” of a significant terrorist
attack on the food supply in the next year is difficult to quantify precisely.

Finally, the report is not “declassified” as the article asserts. FDA compiled
the report, which was never classified, from the open literature.
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 387

while discussing problems caused by ambiguity in previous releases of

information to the public. What the FDA’s 12-page report contains is as
follows:
The agency has considered, for the purposes of risk characterization, the
known exposure to food that has been inadvertently contaminated and
the past incidents of deliberate contamination, as well as the evidence
that terrorists have targeted our food supply. In light of this information
and the uncertainties attendant to characterizing the risk of an act of
food terrorism, FDA has concluded that there is a high likelihood, over
the course of a year, that a significant number of people will be affected
by an act of food terrorism or by an incident of unintentional food conta-
mination that results in serious foodborne illness.8

What appeared in the newspaper is illustrated in Exhibit 12.6. When

an organization sends unclear messages, it risks misinterpretation by
the media and by the public. If, in addition, the organization has
obscured the information, intentionally or unintentionally, by embed-
ding the “sound bites” (concise messages designed to capture the

EXHIBIT 12.6
The Press’s
Coverage of the
FDA Story
Food Attack Likely, FDA Says
WASHINGTON IN BRIEF significant number of people will
Saturday, October 11, 2003; be affected by an act of food
Page A13 terrorism or by an incident of
Washington Post unintentional food contami-nation
that results in serious food-borne
There is a “high likelihood” illness,” the agency said in a
within the coming year of a declassified report.
deliberate attack or accidental The food supply was especially
outbreak in the U.S. food supply vulnerable because of the broad
that sickens a large number of range of biological and chemical
people, the Food and Drug agents that can be used, the
Administration said yesterday. FDA said.
Although no specific threats The agency said salmonella,
were identified, the FDA said it E. coli 0157:H7 and ricin pose a
came to the conclusion because significant threat because of their
of recent food-borne outbreaks easy dissemination in food.
and recent reports that al Qaeda Anthrax and botulism were
was plotting to poison the considered the most deadly.
food supply.
“FDA has concluded that there
is a high likelihood, over the
course of a year, that a
388 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

“so what?” in broadcast journalism) in long releases or complex

reports, as in the example here, the organization risks distorted mes-
sages being conveyed to the public.
Messages that an organization sends to the broadcast media for
transmission to the public need to be very brief so that they conform to
the length of the typical sound bite. The essential information—the
who, what, when, where, why, and how—must be covered in 10 to
20 seconds. Certainly, such conciseness can result in loss of substan-
tive meaning; therefore, to counter media dilution, organizations
should create the sound bites themselves. In addition to the sound bite
version, however, organizations should have at their fingertips the
details behind the “so what?” message.
Messages need to be concise and simple, but they also need to con-
tain enough real information to be meaningful to any audience. The
habit of using business jargon may interfere with clear communica-
tion, as discussed in Chapter 3. Other messaging faults can lead to
more serious consequences. Business pronouncements that contain
doublespeak (the use of ambiguous and often meaningless language)
or fluff not only will frustrate the public and leave the organization
open to misquoting and misunderstanding but cause the stakeholders
to feel as though they are being deceived, which can destroy a com-
pany’s ethos. For example, look at the following company announce-
ment of pending layoffs:

“As a result of our recently completed cost rationalization study,

Proteus, Inc., will be performing some staff reduction activities in order
to rightsize the organization and eliminate redundancies in the human
resources area. We expect these workforce adjustments to start right
away with some repositioning of staff and with termination services
provided for all those employees who may be displaced.”

No doubt the company is going to be firing employees, but by

choosing to attempt to obscure the bad news, the company risks creat-
ing a strongly negative impression with their stakeholders.
In summary, when developing external messages, an organization’s
leaders need to spend the time to ensure that all messages are honest,
clear, consistent, and meaningful. The time spent in the beginning will
be fully justified if it avoids confusion or negative communication to
any stakeholder. In the end, it is the organization’s reputation that will
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 389

suffer, and trying to correct misconceptions or a negative image is

much more difficult than spending the time upfront to communicate
with all stakeholders effectively.

Selecting and Coaching the Spokesperson(s)

Selecting the right spokesperson to deliver external messages can be
almost as critical as the messages themselves. Three major rules apply
to selecting spokespersons:
1. They must be at the right level for the problem.
2. They must project a positive ethos.
3. They should have received media training.
The rank of the spokesperson sends a message in itself. For instance,
if the person is too high-ranking for the message being delivered, it
could suggest that the issue being discussed is more important than it is.
If the person is too low-ranking, it could signal that the organization
does not view the issue as important enough to warrant the CEO’s time.
An example from a fairly recent crisis communication situation con-
cerns the Ford and Firestone/Bridgestone controversy, involving
rollover accidents in Ford Explorers. Some people were very critical of
Firestone/Bridgestone’s choosing a vice president, instead of the CEO,
to address the public, as Ford did. Although Firestone/Bridgestone
may have had very good reasons for its decision, the public felt that the
company did not view the accidents and resulting deaths as important
enough to justify the CEO’s time.
Next, the spokesperson must project a positive ethos. His or her cred-
ibility must be above reproach; otherwise, no message he or she delivers
will be received as intended. Ethos relates both to how the person
appears to the public and to how close he or she is to the situation. For
example, in a crisis situation involving a pipeline explosion, an engineer
on-site would have more firsthand knowledge and could answer the
media’s questions more specifically on the causes and mechanical prob-
lems; medical personnel would have better answers about the injuries;
and depending on how serious the explosion is, the highest-level execu-
tive may be needed to suggest the company’s concern for the injured.
Deciding on the spokesperson is not easy and can require almost as
much deliberation as is required for creating the messages.
Thinking back to the sources of ethos discussed in Chapter 1, it is
best to select the spokesperson based on the following three of French
and Raven’s sources of power:
1. Legitimate—position or title.
2. Referent—charisma.
3. Expert—knowledge.
390 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

Even if the spokespersons possess all the sources of ethos, however,

they should still receive media training before facing the press, open-
ing a Twitter account, or creating a blog or social network presence.
Many organizations provide formal training for any employees who
might have to face the media or the public at any time. That training
will usually include the who, what, when, and where of dealing with
the media and the public as well as coaching on projecting a positive
image (see “Working with the News Media” later in this chapter).

Establishing the Most Effective Medium or Forum

Deciding on the most effective medium or forum to ensure reaching
the identified stakeholders is yet another critical component of exter-
nal relations. An organization will often use several different media to
reach external audiences, depending on the importance and magni-
tude of the communication event. For example, when the SEC was
investigating Putnam Investments, Putnam used every available
medium to reach its stakeholders. They sent letters to investors and
e-mails to internal audiences; they crafted a carefully written press
release for the news media and conducted a press conference with
them; they posted releases, letters, and a video clip of two senior-level
executives explaining the investigation on their Web site; and they pub-
lished a “tombstone” (advertising statement). The table in Exhibit 12.7
provides an alphabetical list and describes each of the most frequently
used external media and the limitations on using each one effectively.
Today, it is not enough to simply send messages out and wait for a
reponse. The sending and the responding need to be immediate. The
damage done by the Domino’s Pizza’s prank is a perfect example of what
can happen if an organization is slow to become aware of negative press
or slow to respond: “Domino’s Pizza has become the latest company to
learn how quickly a brand can be tainted in a Web 2.0 world—and how
important it is to monitor social media. . . . If there’s a lesson here,
experts say, it’s that companies must have an active presence on the
Web—to monitor their brands continuously, perhaps enlisting loyal cus-
tomers to help deal immediately with any damage.”9 Many of the tradi-
tional media used in the past are limited in their reach and response
rate; thus, organizations must invest in current technology and leverage
the power and speed of all the available social media.

Determining the Best Timing

As Domino’s Pizza learned, timing is critical. With today’s technology,
being slow to respond makes the situation much worse. Domino’s sup-
posedly learned of the prank from a blogger. Then, the company
responded with a Twitter account, and the president conveyed “his out-
rage” on YouTube. Domino’s messages came 48 hours after the
employee’s video was posted and had already reached millions, too late
EXHIBIT 12.7 Characteristics and Limitations of External Media and Forums

Media/Forums Characteristics Limitations

Analyst’s briefings • Usually a presentation in person or • Require time to prepare materials and
as a phone or video conference. answers to anticipated questions and
• Include a short, prepared statement reliable financial analysis.
on financial performance with • Spokesperson must be well prepared
backup financial information and and credible.
time for Q&A.
Blogs • Usually informal, even casual, so • Reach a limited audience.
they foster connection. • Public feedback is unpredictable.
• Allows for public feedback and
discussion
Editorials (in online • Allow company to voice an opinion • Reach is limited to those who read
or hard-copy on newsworthy topics. newspapers.
news outlets) • Often, reliability of medium source • May be seen as biased.
adds credibility.
Fact sheets, or • Compilation of relevant information • Must be very carefully crafted to ensure
backgrounders for the press or for analysts. that the major messages are
• Usually contain information similar captured and enough supporting
to a press release but presented information is supplied to appear
in bullet form with highlights substantive.
emphasized. • Too short to provide much more
than the sound bites.
Hotlines • Easily established numbers for • Require coaching of respondents to
stakeholders to call with specific ensure consistency of responses.
questions or comments. • Need constant oversight.
Microblogs • Provide near real-time release of • Very short (140 characters), so they
(Twitter, information. can lead to misunderstanding.
FriendFeed) • Foster subscriptions • Immediacy can lead to carelessness.
• Allow information to be passed
on easily.
Podcasts or • Informative, focused, and short. • Difficult to quantify impact.
online videos • Inexpensive to produce. • Can damage image or brand.
• Quick to release.
• Foster subscriptions or sharing.
• Can build positive brand reputation.
Press conferences • Meetings to which media are invited. • Most influential media may not come.
• Company spokespersons present • Require careful planning and practice
prepared statements and usually for the participants, not only in
take questions. delivering the statements but also in
• May or may not be broadcast. anticipating the questions.
Press or media kits • Usually contain the following: • Limited in space or press tolerance, so
– Press release. information must be very carefully
– Fact sheet of company history. organized for selective reading.
– Relevant biographies and pictures.
– Contact information.
– Video clips.

(continued)
391
392 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 12.7 (continued)

Media/forums Characteristics Limitations

Press releases • Short, usually no more than a one- • If sent as a blast fax and not followed
page definitive statement intended up with personal contact, press
to be quoted by the media. releases have a hit-or-miss effect;
• Start with the most important therefore, they may not reach the
information and end with the least intended audience and may attract
(releases are cut from the bottom); no media interest or coverage.
also contain contact information.
• Intended for wide media distribution
quickly.
RSS feeds • Provide feeds of information that • Only reach audience of subscribers.
can be updated rapidly.
• Encourage subscriptions.
Social networks • Places where organizations can • Only reach those who opt in.
(LinkedIn, create groups and share information • If not maintained, can damage
Facebook) with “fans.” brand reputation.
• Provide means of interacting with
and reaching dedicated audience.
• Can build brand reputation.
Town hall • Local gatherings of selected • Need to be facilitated skillfully
meetings stakeholders. or can turn into gripe sessions
• Usually include prepared statements if the message being communicated
but allow for informal but controlled is bad news.
interaction between company
representatives and stakeholders.
Tombstones, • Notices published in newspapers • Expensive.
or advertising intended to reach the public with • May be dismissed by the public
statements a specific message from the as simply advertising.
company.
Web sites • May be specially designed Web • Creation should be by a Web site
sites for particular events or design expert.
additions to the company’s • To be effective, they should meet
current Web site. the necessary criteria of an effective
• Convenient method for reaching a site: easy to navigate and informative,
broad audience. with contact information.
• Allow for rapid dissemination of
information that can be very
persuasively crafted.

for their messages to do much more than fuel the story.10 In this case,
a rapid response was critical.
When organizations have the time to develop a communication
strategy for communicating external messages, such as in announce-
ments of new products or services or other news that can impact their
external stakeholders, they need to consider the context, asking what is
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 393

going on around their communication event that will influence how

their audience receives their message. For example, announcing a
major layoff at the same time as promoting and advertising an expen-
sive sponsorship of a major sporting event will cause many employees
to be even more resentful than they might have been if the announce-
ment had been better timed. Google’s announcement of its new e-mail
product on April 1 was certainly questionable timing, since it left many
thinking it was an April Fool’s joke.
Also, the organization needs to consider the sequencing of the mes-
sages around a communication event. For instance, if a company is
involved in a merger, it will need to consider the timing of every
announcement down to the minute for both internal and all external
stakeholders. Ideally, they will want their internal audiences to receive
the announcement first, which can be challenging, since often the best
timing for a merger announcement is not the best time to reach
employees—early enough on Monday to influence the stock price.
Depending on the company’s public profile, how and when the public
hears or sees the announcement will affect how they respond to it, just
as when the announcement hits the market will impact investors’
responses around the globe. Legal and regulatory requirements could
also affect the timing of any announcements related to a merger.
What the Domino story teaches is that organizations must monitor
all channels and know what stories about them are circulating through
all the social media channels and be ready to respond in real time. Just
as a crisis communication plan needs to be in place before the crisis, a
plan for managing negative stories does as well. Any delay only makes
the situation worse. However, when an organization can control the
timing, they should look at it strategically and consider the context and
their audiences.

Monitoring the Results

Organizations need to monitor their reputations constantly, but they
also need to measure specifically the impact of day-to-day and major
messages on their major constituencies. Larger, well-known compa-
nies will find their reputations monitored for them in yearly surveys,
such as Fortune’s “Most Admired List,” Harris Interactive’s “Reputation
Quotient,” or The Customer Respect Group’s online reports.
Two of the most common traditional methods used to obtain feed-
back from external stakeholders are focus groups and surveys (phone,
Web, or mail). Holding effective focus groups and conducting useful
surveys, however, require very careful planning and a clear and spe-
cific purpose. In-house employees must be proficient at survey meth-
ods and analysis to obtain reliable results. If they are not, a company
should hire a market research firm or one of the many PR, external
relations, or HR consulting firms that offer these services, since the
394 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

established firms have efficient and effective approaches to conducting

focus groups and surveys and to analyzing the results.
One method gaining in popularity is online community forums. An
example explored in Groundswell is a forum established by members
of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network, including M.D.
Anderson in Houston and Memorial Sloan-Kettering in New York.
They hired Communispace, “one of the most rapidly growing vendors
in the groundswell” to help them set up, monitor, and synthesize the
results from the forum. Communispace “recruits three hundred to five
hundred people in the client’s target market . . . that looks like any
other online social network, with profiles, discussion forums, online
chat, and uploaded photos.”11 No one sees the forum site except the
members, the moderators, and the organization.
For their efforts, the members receive gift certificates and agree to
spend an hour a week on the site; however, patients in the cancer com-
munity group reported they participate more for the information they
obtain from others with similar problems.12 The benefits are that the
organization can ask the groups whatever questions they want and can
ask and adjust them easily to the answers they receive. The results are
real-time and actionable.
Organizations must establish a procedure for frequently monitoring
the Web conversations about them through blogs, Twitter, online news
sources, and, depending on their product or service, even consumer
activist sites. Entering the organization’s name into a common search
engine will indicate the conversation about the company on the Web.
They may also want to subscribe to an online clipping service, which
will collect any media hits, whether broadcast, newsprint, or Web.
However companies decide to measure the results of their public
relations activities and their reputations, they need to make sure they
target all constituencies. They must have a strategy for routine as well
as periodic comprehensive assessments of their public perception. The
key is being proactive, anticipating responses, and planning ahead for
what, when, and how monitoring will occur.

Building and Maintaining a Positive Corporate Image

Reputation affects the bottom line, and even the strongest companies
will have difficulty surviving damage to their reputations. Leaders of
organizations must give high priority to establishing and maintaining
a positive corporate image and, today more than ever, that means
keeping the public, customers, and all other external stakeholders
happy. According to Li and Bernoff, in their book Groundswell,: “Your
brand is whatever your customers say it is. And in the groundswell
where they communicate with each other, they decide.”13
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 395

EXHIBIT 12.8 Type Company

Companies That
Are Considered Media Relations 1. Microsoft
Good at External 2. Coca-Cola
Relations IBM
GE
Source: Corporate
Reputation Watch (October
Disney
1997). The State of Corporate Public Relations 1. Coca-Cola
Corporate Communications,
written by Hill & Knowlton
2. Microsoft
and based on research 3. GE
conducted by Yankelovich
Partners. Used with permis-
Corporate Identity 1. Coca-Cola
sion of Hill & Knowlton. 2. IBM
3. Nike
Government Relations 1. Boeing
2. GE
3. Phillip Morris
4. AT&T
Investor Relations 1. Microsoft
Intel
2. GE
Coca-Cola

All companies can learn something about effective management of

external relations by looking at others that are considered good at it. In
The State of Corporate Communications, written by Hill & Knowlton and
based on research conducted by Yankelovich Partners, the corporate
communication chiefs identified the companies listed in Exhibit 12.8 as
good at managing the different types of external relations.
Many of the same companies are also included at the top of the Harris
Interactive Reputation Quotient of 2008 for effectively managing their
corporate communication: “Microsoft ranks in the top 5 positive rating
for 6 of the 8 measures [sincere, consistent, distinctive, transparent,
providing correct and accurate information, having common look and
feel, easily recognizable, and proving consistent messages] used to
describe perceptions of corporate communications of companies.
Coca-Cola, Johnson & Johnson, and Apple rank in the top 5 for 5 of the
8 measures.”14
Of course, an organization’s presence and use of the Internet also
has an effect on its reputation. For example, a Customer Respect
Group’s 2004 Online Customer Respect Study of the Top 100 U.S. Com-
panies looked at how well companies manage their Internet customer
relations. They established what matters to Internet customers and
found the following criteria at the top: simplicity, privacy, responsive-
ness, transparency, and attitude. Interestingly, responsiveness is very
low for some of the world’s most respected companies, despite the risk
396 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 12.9 Most Respectful (top 10) Least Respectful (bottom 10)
Most and Least
Respectful Web Hewlett-Packard Wellpoint Health Networks
Sites—Companies Medco Health Solutions Johnson Controls
and Scores Sprint Marathon Oil
Intel Plains All American Pipeline
Source: 2005 Online
American Express Northrup Grumman
Customer Respect Study
of the Country’s Largest UPS Boeing
100 Companies. www Bank of America Weyerhauser
.customerrespect.com.
Results reported in USA
Microsoft Honeywell
Today, June 29, 2005. Dell Morgan Stanley
Wachovia Berkshire Hathaway

of losing customers, yet Customer Respect Group found that 70 per-

cent of the consumers surveyed move their business to a competitor if
they do not receive a timely response. Exhibit 12.9 shows the most
respectful and least respectful Web sites out of the 100 largest U.S.
companies in the 2005 survey.
CustomerRespect.com found that 37 percent of the companies sur-
veyed did not respond at all to customer inquiries, while 41 percent
responded in 48 hours, 12 percent in 72 hours, and 10 percent in more
than 72 hours. Importantly, Customer Respect Group found a correla-
tion between the companies with a low “Customer Respect Index” and
a publicized lack of respect for shareholders and employees.15 They
argue that “respect for the customer, respect for investors, respect for
employees, are all borne out of self-respect and moral fiber.” In other
words, the lack of respect a company shows for its customers may sug-
gest a lack of respect for its investors and its employees and a funda-
mentally flawed ethical core. Whether the logic follows exactly may be
questionable, but the study shows that customer respect does affect
image and potential profitability.
Everything an organization does influences public opinion and rep-
utation; therefore, every organization should look carefully at building
and maintaining a positive reputation. In Reputation: Realizing Value
from the Corporate Image, Charles Fombrun identifies six ways compa-
nies can build and maintain a positive corporate image:
1. Design campaigns to promote the company as a whole.
2. Carry out ambitious programs to champion product quality and
customer service.
3. Maintain systems to screen employee activities for reputation side
effects.
4. Demonstrate sensitivity to the environment.
5. Hire internal communication staff and retain public relations firms.
6. Demonstrate “corporate citizenship.”16
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 397

This list reveals the importance of being proactive and comprehen-

sive in fostering a corporate reputation. The organization needs to be
perceived as one unit with one unified message, no matter how many
individual groups or business units exist or how globally diverse it is.
It needs to place a high priority on customer service and ensure that all
employees realize their importance as representatives of the company.
Shaping a positive corporate image involves every employee and the
total commitment of senior management. It also involves taking advan-
tage of the resources available to help, from internal communication pro-
fessionals to public relations firms. In fact, for a large, global company in
particular, the assistance of a strong public relations firm is invaluable.
These firms have the contacts in local communities and the news media
and the expertise to reach these as well as online outlets, and they can
often do more to build a reputation than a public advertising campaign.
Building and maintaining a positive corporate image requires having
an external relations strategy that is vigilant, vigorous, and comprehen-
sive. It involves developing a strategy for managing the press and media,
making meaningful and sincere philanthropic contributions, being
actively involved in the community, obeying all the legal and regulatory
requirements of investor relations, and ensuring that all external com-
munication vehicles carry honest, clear, consistent, and meaningful
messages to all stakeholders. One mistake in any of these areas can
cause repercussions from which a company may never recover.

Working with the News Media

The mistakes or missteps that tarnish a company’s reputation may be
uncovered by any number of possible means, including by disgrutled
employees in chatrooms or on corporate blogs, and spread through the
Web as quickly as they are started, but often the greatest amount of cov-
erage and how negative the spin of the story depend on the news media.
To increase chances for favorable treatment, it is important for organiza-
tions to establish a positive relationship with the media and for the orga-
nization’s leaders to know how to work effectively with them. Hill &
Knowlton’s 2002 Corporate Reputation Watch survey reported that CEOs
see media criticism as “the greatest threat to corporate reputation.” Any
leader of an organization should know why the media are important,
when to talk to them, and how to manage encounters with them.

Understanding the Media’s Role and Importance

Print, broadcast, and Internet media are the primary channels for
much that is communicated in our society. While some coverage is
given to business in almost all traditional media, certain newspapers and
TV news networks and programs provide more coverage of corporations
398 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

than others. A study by Media Tenor found that The Wall Street Journal,
The Washington Post, and USA Today publish most extensively on cor-
porate management, with The Wall Street Journal, not surprisingly, pro-
viding three times the coverage of the other two.17 Unfortunately, as
the Media Tenor study also found, the media are much more likely to
pick up a negative story than a positive one. As is well known, the big-
ger the story, the more media attention it attracts, and since the media
are businesses, they seek the news that will sell—and they sell it across
multiple networks, from Web pages and RSS feed to Facebook and
Twitter updates.
Since all major newspapers and most TV networks provide coverage
of major corporations and are definitely interested in sensational news
from smaller organizations, every organization needs to recognize the
importance of the media and take the time to interact with media rep-
resentatives and learn a little about their needs and interests.
In addition, companies need to understand the value of positive
public relations and realize that establishing a relationship with the
media, either directly or through a public relations firm, can open the
door to a tremendous amount of “free” publicity. Of course, “free” is
relative, since companies have to pay for public relations resources
and services; however, if handled effectively, a good public relations
campaign will usually reach more people more economically than an
advertising campaign. A public relations campaign can also achieve
more positive results, since most people are more skeptical of adver-
tising than they are of what they think of as “news.”

Deciding When to Talk to the Media

Interactions with the media can allow an organization to reach a large
and globally dispersed audience, present their point of view proac-
tively, and establish a positive public ethos. However, a company must
be cautious and think through the answers to these key questions
before deciding to talk to the media:
1. What will the company gain by talking to the media, and what
might it lose?
2. Why would the media be interested in our company or our story?
3. Could our story fall within the context of a negative story about
another company or topic?
4. Who is the reporter? Is he or she reputable and known for covering
“real” news or for doing features or lighter reporting?
5. Do we have all the facts that a reporter might seek on the story?
6. Will we be able to come across as knowledgeable and credible?
7. Will the coverage result in additional positive interest in our
company?
8. What are the ways an interview could turn negative?
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 399

Preparing for and Delivering a Media Interview

Any leader or high-level manager should receive training and, ideally,
specific coaching in preparation for an encounter with the media. The
training should include the following at a minimum: preparation for the
interview, performance during the interview, and steps to take afterward.

1. Preparation
Preparation is key to an effective interview. No one should go into an
interview without it. Interviewees must not only have the content well
under control but also know how to dress and how to appear credible
to the reporter. They should develop their strategy with a public rela-
tions expert. That strategy should include the description and under-
standing of the context, target audiences, strategic objectives, and
major messages. They should work with the content and know it well
enough that they need only minimal notes. Ideally, in a live interview,
they should be able to speak without notes. It is important to know
something about the reporter’s background and mode of operation in
interviews and to establish ground rules with him or her before the
interview starts. Finally, the interviewee should practice in a setting
similar to the one in which the interview will be conducted.
2. Performance During the Interview
If being interviewed over the phone, interviewees want to be very well pre-
pared and have their notes handy, although they should not sound as
though they are reading. They should keep all of their answers simple,
thinking in terms of sound bites. If they respond with long sentences or
complicated prose, the writer will do the cutting to get the sound bite, tak-
ing control of the message out of the interviewees’ hands and greatly
increasing the odds of their being misquoted. If given clear and concise
responses, the reporter will be more likely to quote the words exactly,
which will make it more likely that what is said is what is published or
broadcast. Also, interviewees should be very careful to stay focused on
their core message and not let the reporter take them away from it.
If the meeting with the media is a press conference, the interviewees will
have a prepared statement to deliver, but after that, they must be ready to
answer any questions that may arise. They should have full command of
information and subjects closely related to the main messages of their
statement. They may bring notes to the interview, but again, they need to
make sure they use sound bites that they know well. If they have to read
responses, they will not look confident, so any notes should be very brief
and include only facts and figures. Interviewees need to dress appropri-
ately and look pulled together. Most of all, they want to be themselves and
maintain their composure no matter what questions are thrown at them.
Exhibit 12.10 provides 10 rules for dealing with the media that
apply for any media encounter, but particularly when meeting with
them in person.
400 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

EXHIBIT 12.10 1. Talk from the viewpoint of the public’s interest, not the company’s.
TEN Rules of 2. Speak in personal terms whenever possible.
Effective 3. If you do not want some statement quoted, do not make it. There is no
Communication such thing as “off the record.”
with the Media 4. State the most important fact at the beginning.
Source: Adapted from 5. Do not argue with the reporter or lose your cool.
Burger, C. How to meet the 6. If a question contains offensive language or simply words you do not
press. From Harvard
Business Review, July- like, do not repeat them, even to deny them.
August 1975. Copyright © 7. If the reporter asks a direct question, he [or she] is entitled to an equally
1975 by Harvard Business
direct answer.
School Publishing
Corporation. All rights 8. If you do not know the answer to a question, simply say, “I don’t know,
reserved. but I’ll find out for you.”
9. Tell the truth, even if it hurts.
10. Do not exaggerate the facts.

As a final note for any encounter with the media, we need to

remember that nothing is “off the record”; we should never be misled
into believing that it is. We must aways be very careful what we say
and do in the presence of the media, and always tell the truth.
3. Steps to Take after the Interview
After the interview, reporters may or may not let the interviewees see
how they are going to report the statements. Most often, however,
reporters will not. If the story has a longer lead time and is more a pub-
lic interest piece than hard news, they may allow interviewees to see it.
Interviewees should certainly review it if possible. If the reporter does
not offer, then the interviewee should ask. If the story is breaking with a
short lead time, interviewees will have to trust that the reporter will
quote them exactly, emphasizing again the importance of being very
careful about what is said and of providing only sound bites. Whether
the interviewees have a chance to review the story as written or not, they
should still follow up by thanking the reporter and, if appropriate, com-
plimenting him or her on how well he or she conducted the interview or
on the importance of the topic. Building strong relationships with the
media is important and will serve all organizational leaders particularly
well should they ever face a crisis communication situation.

Handling Crisis Communications

At one time or another, most organizations will face a crisis. A situa-
tion requiring crisis communications involves “a specific, unexpected
and non-routine event or series of events that create high levels of
uncertainty and threaten or are perceived to threaten an organization’s
high priority goals.”18 If the company has established and maintained
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 401

a positive relationship with the media and their stakeholders, the job
of managing the crisis will be somewhat easier.19 In fact, “an important
part of crisis planning . . . entails identifying stakeholders prior to a
crisis and cultivating positive relationships with these groups. . . . The
organization’s leadership plays a fundamental role in establishing
value positions with key stakeholders before a crisis as well as after the
event.”20
Although establishing positive relationships with external audiences
prior to a crisis will help in all but the most extreme situations, no
amount of goodwill can guarantee the positive coverage that is necessary
to avoid permanent damage to a company’s reputation. History is full of
examples of companies handling a crisis well and not so well. Johnson &
Johnson’s effective handling of the Tylenol tampering incident is leg-
endary, while Exxon’s bungling of the Valdez oil spill is infamous.
More recently, the world witnessed how companies and a city
responded to one of the worst crises of modern times, the destruction of
the World Trade Center buildings in New York City. No one was un-
touched by the disaster, and examples of effective and ineffective commu-
nication efforts during the crisis abound, from the companies located in
or near the World Trade Center to organizations scattered across the
world, which had to decide how to reach their employees with the news
and how to answer their questions about performing their daily duties.
The following guidelines will help companies respond appropriately
in most crisis situations:
1. Develop a general crisis communication plan and communicate
it. No organizations should take for granted that they have no risk of
encountering a crisis. Nothing will replace preparation and a knowl-
edgeable, informed workforce to implement it.
2. Once the crisis occurs, respond quickly. Implement the plan imme-
diately. The first few hours are critical. While the organization needs
time to gather the facts, it must do so quickly so that it is the first to
the media and the public with the information they need and want.
It is a very good idea to have staff members ready to blog, Tweet,
and post information as it comes available, directing both the media
and the public to a central location (such as its Web site) for infor-
mation.
3. Make sure the organization has the right people ready to respond
and that they all respond with the same message. Corporate crises
of any significance require the organization’s top leaders to respond,
which usually means the CEO. In fact, one of the criticisms of Exxon’s
handling of the Valdez disaster was that the CEO sent two lower-level
executives to Alaska. Other executives should also be trained
to respond appropriately to the media in a crisis situation and should
be prepared to accept the responsibility for implementing the
402 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

communication plan. The people preparation includes at least mini-

mal training for all employees who might come in contact with the
media, even if that training consists simply of telling them where to
refer questions. The designated spokespersons should be accessible
and visible and should deliver a consistent message.
4. Understand the audience; try to see the crisis from their perspec-
tive. What do they want and need to know? What will be their major
concerns? Leaders want to focus on the facts but ensure that they
touch the feelings of the people on both sides of the crisis. All mes-
sages should be honest and compassionate.
5. Realize and leverage the value of the Web. Use of the Web during a
crisis is essential. Reporters as well as the public and even employees
go to the Web for information during a crisis; therefore, in any crisis
communication plan, every organization must use the Web as a virtual
crisis communication center for internal and external audiences.
6. Revisit the crisis communication plan frequently. Since situations
and people in companies change constantly, the organization must
build in periodic reviews and revisions of the plan. Any major
changes to the plan need to be communicated to the employees
responsible for its implementation. One way to make the plan easier
to update is to keep it on the company’s intranet.
7. Build in a way to monitor the coverage. Monitor blogs, microblogs,
and social networks, and use electronic clipping services to collect
media hits. Again, the Web can be a tremendous resource for measur-
ing the public’s response to the messages.
8. Perform a post-crisis evaluation. After a crisis, management should
look critically at what worked and did not work and collect the
lessons learned for the future. In addition, the organization needs to
develop a strategy for moving forward and quickly communicate it
once the crisis is under control.
Just as managing the crisis and most of the communication that
surrounds it falls to the organization’s leaders, often the CEO, estab-
lishing the direction out of the crisis is the CEO’s responsibility as well.
In his book Who Says Elephants Can’t Dance? Lou Gerstner, CEO of
IBM from 1993 to 2002, writes, “So there must be a crisis, and it is the
job of the CEO to define and communicate that crisis, its magnitude,
its severity, and its impact. Just as important, the CEO must also be
able to communicate how to end the crisis—the new strategy, the new
company model, the new culture.”21
All organizations, no matter the size, must have a crisis communi-
cation plan. Nothing will replace being prepared. When a crisis hap-
pens, it is too late to develop a communication strategy and select
target audiences, create appropriate message content, determine what
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 403

media to use or how best to use social media, and choose spokesper-
sons. Everyone must be ready to move quickly or the organization
risks its reputation, and a lost reputation damages the organization,
often irreparably.
To conclude, managing external relations effectively is essential for
organizational leaders; however, external relations do not exist in iso-
lation. Organizations must link all communication activities to ensure
that what the outside world sees and hears reflects what the inside
world lives. As one CEO said when interviewed in a survey of 2,000 top
private- and public-sector organizations conducted by Aon Consulting,
“The fundamental truth, which you only discover when you have gone
through the fires of hell, is that your reputation will always mirror the
absolute reality of who you are. . . . Anyone who thinks that they can
change their reputation without changing the company is mistaken.”22
Today, more than ever before, the public expects companies to demon-
strate social responsibility and to behave ethically in all they do inter-
nally and externally.23
All leaders of organizations must realize that their companies’ repu-
tations depend on their internal ethos and the perceptions of their
many external stakeholders. They cannot ignore the importance of
establishing and maintaining a positive reputation or the need to man-
age external relations to keep it.

Application 12.1 The Case: Spree Cruise Lines Revisited

Communication (Begin by reviewing the facts in the Spree Cruise Lines case from Chapter 2.)
with Customers Within several days after the cruise returned to New Orleans, Tara was able
to learn more about what happened on the ship. Approximately 350 passen-
after a Crisis
gers made their own arrangements to fly home and disembarked from the ship
in Cozumel, but the remainder stayed on board. The cruise line offered them a
shipboard voucher of $100 per person, but there were still some extremely
unhappy customers, and they shared their dissatisfaction openly on their
blogs, Facebook profiles, and Twitter and FriendFeed accounts.
Marcie Smith, the senior vice president of sales and marketing, has asked
Tara to draft a letter for her signature to be sent to all customers who were
aboard that cruise, whether they disembarked or stayed aboard. Since
research shows that many cruisers are repeat customers, upper management
approved an offer of a 50 percent discount on another three- to five-day cruise,
so that these passengers might give Spree Cruise Lines a second chance. The
cruise line set up a special booking phone number to accommodate the return
guests, 1-800-724-4000; the offer stipulated that new reservations must be
made within the coming year to qualify for the discount.
404 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

The Assignment
Draft the letter to go out to all the customers who were on the cruise, offering
them the discount and explaining the terms of the offer. Then, make at least
one additional recommendation to Marcie Smith about how to mitigate the
damage and improve the company’s image in the social networking sphere.

Application 12.2 The Case: Spree Cruise Lines Revisited, Again

Writing a Press Teams of mechanics greeted the Sensation upon its arrival back in NewOr-
Release leans. They were able to repair the ship sufficiently so that the propulsion sys-
tem would hold up for the next few cruises, which were already fully booked.
As the vessel departed for its next trip, teams of city engineers carried out tests
to determine whether the vibrations reported from the last trip were indeed
linked to the vessel’s departure from port. They concluded that the vibrations
were caused by the vessel: They had nothing to do with the malfunctioning
propulsion system that hampered the last cruise, but the vibrations did seem
to relate to the frequency set up when the engines were run at a particular
power level. The vessel’s captain could easily be directed to reduce power dur-
ing departures and entries into port.
Even though the vibration and frequency problems could easily be solved,
Spree’s vice president of operations decided to accelerate the timetable for the
dry dock, which had initially been planned to occur in several months. The
vessel would go into dry dock for a multimillion-dollar makeover, including a
new purser’s lobby, a new restaurant decor, upgraded passenger rooms, and a
complete engine system refurbishment. The dry dock would require about two
months, during which time one of Spree’s other ships, the Plentitude, would
serve the New Orleans market.

The Assignment
Draft a media plan, including the appropriate social media, that announces the
dry dock plans for the Sensation. Include any other information you feel
should be addressed and be prepared to discuss your reasoning for including
specific pieces of information in one medium and not another. For example,
what might you say on the corporate Web site or in a blog or Twitter account
versus in a press release sent out broadly to the media and the public? As you
know from the chapter, any messages to external audiences must be clear, so
be very careful with the language you use. Also, remember that all announce-
ments to external audiences, in particular, serve two primary purposes: (1)
They inform the public and (2) they create an image.
For the press release, you should follow these guidelines:
1. Answer the journalist’s questions of who, what, where, when, and why.
2. Place your most important information in the first sentence or two.
3. Since news editors cut press releases from the bottom up, you need to make
sure all of the most important information comes as early in the release as
possible, leaving the “nice-to-knows” to the end.
4. Place contact information (name and phone number) at the top.
5. Try to limit the release to one page, but if it runs over, type “more” in the
center at the bottom of the first page.
 Chapter 12 Leadership Through Effective External Relations 405

6. Leave adequate margins and double-space.

7. Use concise sentences (think in terms of sound bites) and proofread
carefully.
8. Use “-30-” to indicate the end of the release.
Releases through other social media will include much of the same informa-
tion, but you will not be able to provide as much detail in some of them.

Application 12.3 The Case: HADWIT, Revisited

Developing an Review the HADWIT case in Chapter 11, paying particular attention to the
External information on HADWIT’s relationship with its clients.
Communication The Assignment
Strategy Develop a complete communication strategy, including all the external audi-
ences you need to consider. After developing the strategy, create a notice to
clients for your Web page and prepare written correspondence directly to each
one personally. Use e-mail or a letter, whichever seems appropriate to you;
explain the changes you will be making at the company.

Notes 1. The Best Corporate Reputations. (1999). The Wall Street Journal; Annual
Reputation Quotient Survey results for 2005. www.harrisinteractive.com.
2. (2001). Corporate Reputation Watch. :Hill & Knowlton.
3. Aon’s Global Risk Management Survey: Some Multinationals Not Ready for
Risk. http://aon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=554 (accessed
May 2, 2009).
4. Video Prank at Domino’s Taints Brand. (April 15, 2009). New York Times.
www.nytimes.com/2009/04/16/business/media/16dominos.html?_r=4.
5. Video Prank at Domino’s Taints Brand (April 15, 2009).
6. Corporate Reputation Watch (2001).
7. The 10th Annual RQ: Reputations of the 60 Most Visible Companies. A Sur-
vey of the U.S. General Public (20,483 Interviewed) Harris Interactive.
December 31, 2008 – February 2, 2009. http://www.harrisinteractive.com/
services/pubs/HI_BSC_REPORT_AnnualRQ2008_Summary Report.pdf.
8. Risk Assessment for Food Terrorism and Other Safety Concerns. (October
7, 2003). www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/rabtact.html#i.
9. Levisohn, B., and & Gibson, E. (May 4, 2009). An Unwelcome Delivery.
BusinessWeek.
10. Levisohn and Gibson (May 4, 2009).
11. Li, C., and Bernoff, J. (2008). Groundswell: Winning in a World Trans-
formed by Social Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
12. Li and Bernoff (2008).
13. Li and Bernoff (2008).
14. Harris Interactive (2008).
15. Online Customer Respect: Study of Fortune 100 Companies (2002), p. 7.
16. Fombrun, C. J. (1996). Reputation: Realizing Value from the Corporate
Image. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
406 Section Three Corporate Leadership Communication

17. Media Tenor International, March 2003.

18. Seeger, M. W., Sellnow, T. L., and Ulmer, R. R. (1998). Communication,
Organization, and Crisis. In M. E. Roloff (Ed.), Communication Yearbook,
Vol. 21, pp. 231–275. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
19. Ulmer, R. R. (2001). Effective Crisis Management through Established
Stakeholder Relationships. Management Communication Quarterly 14, No.
4, pp. 590–615.
20. Ulmer (2001), p. 594.
21. Gerstner (2002). New York: HarperCollins.
22. Steve Marshall (2003), CEO of Railtrack, quoted in Corporate Reputation:
Not Worth Risking, p. 3.
23. Kitchen, P. J., & Laurence, A. (2003). Corporate reputation: An eight coun-
try analysis. Corporate Reputation Review 6 (2), pp. 103–117.
Appendix
A
Self-Assessment of
Leadership Communication
Capabilities*
Read through the list of skills and for each one check off your present
capability in the chart below.
1. Excel ⫽ mastered this skill and am excellent in it.
2. Competent ⫽ competent in this skill but could polish it some.
3. Need to Develop ⫽ need to develop further

3 Need to
Area and Capability 1 Excel 2 Competent Develop

Part I – Assessment of Core Capabilities

Audience Analysis and Strategy

1. Analyzing the context for communication
2. Analyzing audiences
3. Tailoring messages to different audiences
4. Selecting the most effective medium (channel)
5. Developing a complete communication strategy

Written Communication

1. Deciding on communication purpose

2. Clarifying purpose
3. Generating support for each purpose
4. Organizing written communication

* The format and some of the capabilities listed were inspired by an assessment in the book Client-Centered Consulting by Peter Cockman,
Bill Evans, and Peter Reynolds. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill.
407
408 Appendix A Self-Assessment of Leadership Communication Capabilities

3 Need to
Area and Capability 1 Excel 2 Competent Develop

Written Communication (continued)

5. Using formatting effectively
6. Using language correctly
7. Writing clearly
8. Writing concisely
9. Writing confidently
10. Using an appropriate tone
11. Writing correspondence (e-mails, memos,
text messages)
12. Writing formal reports
13. Writing executive summaries
14. Proofreading own work

Oral Communication
1. Delivering an impromptu presentation
2. Delivering an extemporaneous presentation
3. Organizing a presentation
4. Creating PowerPoint slides
5. Talking in small groups
6. Talking in large groups
7. Answering questions
8. Asking questions
9. Drawing others out
10. Summarizing and clarifying others’ ideas
11. Keeping to the topic
12. Summarizing a discussion
13. Dealing publicly with more senior people

Visual Communication Capabilities

1. Recognizing when to use graphics
2. Selecting and designing effective data charts
3. Creating meaningful and effective text layouts
4. Employing fundamental graphics content and
design principles
5. Ensuring that “so what?” is captured
6. Creating presentation visuals and slides
 Appendix A Self-Assessment of Leadership Communication Capabilities 409

3 Need to
Area and Capability 1 Excel 2 Competent Develop

Part II – Organizational Capabilities

Ethos/Image
1. Understanding how I am seen by others
2. Knowing how my personal style differs from others
3. Asking others to comment on my style
4. Assessing my own strengths and weaknesses
5. Setting goals for personal change
6. Willing to work on improving personal effectiveness
7. Influencing the behavior of others
8. Inspiring trust in others
9. Projecting confidence
10. Making ethical decisions
11. Creating an ethical environment

Emotional Intelligence 1: Dealing with Own Feelings

1. Being aware of own feelings
2. Identifying feelings
3. Asserting own ideas and rights
4. Stating own needs
5. Expressing feelings to others

Emotional Intelligence 2: Dealing with Others

1. Listening
2. Recognizing nonverbals
3. Being sensitive to others’ feelings
4. Asking people how they feel
5. Acknowledging people’s feelings
6. Helping others express their feelings
7. Dealing with anger
8. Dealing with hostility and suspicion
9. Being comfortable with conflict
10. Withstanding silences
11. Mentoring others
12. Coaching others
13. Networking
410 Appendix A Self-Assessment of Leadership Communication Capabilities

3 Need to
Area and Capability 1 Excel 2 Competent Develop

Emotional Intelligence 3: Observation and Feedback

1. Being aware of high and low participators
2. Noting if people are excluded
3. Recognizing who talks to whom
4. Being aware of who takes on leadership roles
5. Giving feedback on behavior in the group
6. Giving praise and appreciation
7. Providing constructive feedback to individuals or groups
8. Helping team members give each other feedback
9. Soliciting feedback from others
10. Receiving feedback without being defensive

Cross-Cultural Literacy and Communication

1. Realizing the value of cross-cultural literacy
2. Defining and appreciating cultural differences
3. Understanding differences in values and preferences
4. Recognizing general communication preferences
(direct or indirect, explicit or implicit, high or low context)
5. Understanding differences in attitudes toward
authority, time, risk, and change
6. Knowing customs common to cultures encountering
7. Communicating in social situations

Team Communication and Dynamics

1. Sensing tension in the group
2. Being sensitive to how people in the group are feeling
3. Being aware of how open or closed the group is
4. Identifying those issues which are avoided
5. Identifying and clarifying goals and objectives
6. Clearly defining the problem under discussion
7. Examining all facets of the problem
8. Exploring people aspects of the problem
9. Surfacing vested interests and feelings about the problem
10. Encouraging others to generate ideas
11. Using creativity to develop new ideas
 Appendix A Self-Assessment of Leadership Communication Capabilities 411

3 Need to
Area and Capability 1 Excel 2 Competent Develop
12. Evaluating options
13. Helping groups make decisions
14. Helping groups explore their commitment to
group decisions and/or agreements
15. Encouraging groups to develop action plans
16. Helping the team confront difficult issues
17. Drawing attention to unhelpful behavior
18. Helping the team deal with conflict or other tension
19. Supporting individuals against group pressure
20. Helping team members acknowledge each
other’s strengths
21. Facilitating team review and critique

Part III – Corporate Communication Capabilities

1. Developing an internal communication strategy

2. Developing a vision
3. Communicating a vision
4. Targeting messages to different levels in an organization
5. Creating a change communication program
6. Implementing a change communication program
7. Developing an external communication strategy
8. Managing corporate image
9. Analyzing external stakeholders
10. Developing targeted messages for all external
stakeholders
11. Communicating with the news media
12. Dealing with a communication crisis situation

Total marks in each column

412 Appendix A Self-Assessment of Leadership Communication Capabilities

Worksheet to Develop Personal Leadership Communication Development Plan

1. Using the information gained from completing the Self-Assessment of Overall Leadership Communication
Capabilities, assign a score for your improvement need in each Capability area (use the scale provided
next to the table) based on the number of checks under Excel, Competent, and Need to Develop.

Score Capability Area

Communication strategy
1 ⫽ substantial need to improve
Written communication 2 ⫽ some need to improve
Oral communication 3 ⫽ little need to improve
4 ⫽ no need to improve at this time
Visual communication
Ethos/image
Dealing with own feelings
Dealing with others
Observation and feedback
Cultural literacy
Team communications and dynamics
Internal corporate communication
External corporate communication

2. What do you consider your major communication strengths?

3. What do you consider your major communication weaknesses?

4. What leadership communication roles do you currently play in your organization?

 Appendix A Self-Assessment of Leadership Communication Capabilities 413

Part 2—Determining Your Leadership Communication Goals

Answer the following questions to help you develop your goals and plan.
1. What communication leadership roles would you like to play in the future (at your organization or in
your career overall)?

2. What are your short-term and long-term leadership communication improvement goals?

3. What new skill do you want to work on first, second, third, etc.?

4. What barriers do you anticipate having to overcome to reach your improvement goals?

5. How long do you think it will take you to achieve your goals?

6. How will you know you are succeeding?

7. How will you obtain feedback?

414 Appendix A Self-Assessment of Leadership Communication Capabilities

Part 3—Developing a Plan to Achieve your Goals

Using the table below, list your primary improvement goals, and then establish actions, deadlines, and
measurement for each. The more specific the goal, the more likely you are to achieve it.

Improvement Goal Action Steps to Achieve Goal Deadline Method to Measure Success
Appendix
B
The Business
of Grammar
Each specialization has a jargon. To know how to talk about style and
usage at an advanced level, you need to know the jargon of grammari-
ans. Also, the more you know about the foundation of a language, its
grammar, the more confident you will be in using it.
Grammar, just as any subject, needs to be reviewed periodically.
What follows is a brief review of traditional English grammar designed
to give you the basics of the business of grammar, so that you can be
proficient in the business of leadership communication.

Parts of Speech
Following Priscian’s Latin grammar in the 6th century AD, the first
grammarians broke the English language down into eight parts of
speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, con-
junctions, and interjections. The use of Latin grammar causes prob-
lems when we try to apply the different labels of the parts of speech
because the classification definitions are not consistent:
1. Three parts of speech are defined by meaning—noun, verb, and
interjection.
2. Four by function—adjective, adverb, conjunction, and pronoun.
3. One by function and form—preposition.
When you start paying attention to how words work in sentences,
you quickly realize that you can determine the part of speech by the
position of the word in the sentence. For example, if you were asked
what parts of speech the nonsense words “rehpog” and “gud” are in the
following sentence, you would recognize “rehpog” as a noun and “gud”
as a verb because of their positions and the context provided by the
other words: The rehpog gud a deep tunnel in the woods.

415
416 Appendix B The Business of Grammar

What follows is a brief explanation of the eight parts of speech.

1. Nouns. Nouns name persons, places, things, and abstractions. Prop-
erties of nouns are more appropriate for Latin, but in case you hear
the terms for the properties, the following definitions should help
you:
a. Number—singular (one) or plural (many). Plurals are indicated
by -s or -es, which will be pronounced s, z, ez, or iz.
b. Case—in Latin, there were five cases. Cases did in Latin what
word order does in English.
• Nominative or subjective—subject (David gave the report to
Mary.)
• Accusative—direct object (David gave the report to Mary.)
• Dative—indirect object (David gave Mary the report.)
• Genitive—possession -’s (David’s report is complete.)
• Ablative—preposition (from, with, in, etc.)

2. Verbs. Verbs show action or states of being. There are two kinds of
verbs:
a. Active verbs express action.
(1) Transitive active verbs require objects.
Example: The CEO gave her the report.

V I.O. D.O.
(2) Intransitive active verbs are complete without objects.
Example: He ran.

b. Linking verbs express a state of being. They may be followed by

predicate adjectives or predicate nominatives.
(1) Predicate adjective
Example: She is brilliant.
(2) Predicate nominative
Example: She is the boss.
Either active or linking verbs may appear with auxiliary (or helping)
verbs, such as can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, or would.
Five terms apply to verbs:
a. Person—who is performing the action or doing something.
First: person speaking (I, me)
Second: person spoken to (you)
Third: person spoken about (he, she, they)
 Appendix B The Business of Grammar 417

b. Number—how many are performing the action or doing something.

Singular Plural
I am We are
You are You are
S/he is They are
c. Tense—when the action is performed.
Present: I am; action taking place now
Past: I was; action that has taken place
Future: I will be; action that will take place
Perfect: I was to be; action that took place at one time
in the past; indicated in English by a verb
phrase: will go, was going, had gone, etc.
d. Mood—the attitude of the speaker or way in which the speaker
thinks about the action.
Subjunctive: conditional, contingent, possible, contrary to
fact; if he were (thought mood)
Imperative: command, request, prayer (will mood)
Indicative: statements and questions (fact mood)
e. Voice—indicated by the relationship between the verb and the
subject.
Active: The subject performs the action.
Example: He hit the target.
Passive: The subject is what is acted upon.
Example: The target was hit by him.
Another way to think about the passive voice is to focus on the actor in
the sentence instead of the subject. Ask yourself who is performing the
action and where he or she is positioned in the sentence. The actor is
before the verb in the active voice and after the verb in the passive voice.
Quite often, the passive voice will be constructed as it is in this sen-
tence without identifying the actor:
Examples: The target was hit. (By whom?)
The report will be written. (By whom?)
Verbals make up a subgroup of verbs. Verbals are formed from verbs,
but they function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The three types of
verbals are the following:
a. Gerund—an -ing form of a verb that functions as a noun.
Examples: Finishing the report was all that occupied Pierce’s mind.
Mary hoped the team’s completing the report ahead of schedule
would impress her boss. (Note the possessive before the gerund.)
418 Appendix B The Business of Grammar

b. Participle—a verb form ending in -ing if present tense and -ed,

-en, or -d if past that functions as an adjective.
Examples: A malfunctioning computer is worse than no computer.
A completed report is a relief.
c. Infinitive—the root form of the verb preceded by to that may be
used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Examples: To finish the report was all that occupied Pierce’s
mind. (noun)
He has a report to finish. (adjective modifying report)
He has gone to finish the report. (adverb modifying gone)
3. Pronouns. Pronouns take the place of nouns. A pronoun must refer to
a specific noun, called its antecedent or referent, in the same or a pre-
vious sentence. An English pronoun must agree with its antecedent in
person and number. Pronouns have the following gender properties:
masculine (he), feminine (she), neutral (it).
We have six types of pronouns in the English language:
a. Personal pronouns—refer to a specific person or thing men-
tioned previously.
First: I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours
Second: you, your, yours
Third: he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, its, they, them, their, theirs
b. Relative pronouns—can function as connecting words and refer-
ence words. As connecting words, they are used to relate subor-
dinate clauses to main clauses. As reference words, they refer to
and stand for their antecedents, making the repetition of the
antecedent unnecessary.
Simple relative pronouns: who, which, that
Compound relative pronouns: whoever, whomever, whichever,
whatever, whatsoever
c. Demonstrative pronouns—pointing words used to indicate
which one or ones: this, that, these, those.
d. Reflexive pronouns—used to indicate that the action is reflected or
comes back to the subject: myself, herself, themselves, ourselves, etc.
e. Indefinite pronouns—pronouns that do not refer to any particu-
lar person or thing. The most common ones are the following:
any, anybody, anyone
everyone, everybody, everything
some, someone, somebody, something
one, none, nobody
other, another, all, many, each, both, either
 Appendix B The Business of Grammar 419

Be very careful with agreement in number—singular or plural—

when using indefinite pronouns. They are the ones that often cause
mistakes in pronoun antecedent agreement.
Remember to say Everybody must file his or her report. Employ the
following verb test: Would you say, “Everybody is” or “Everybody are”?
Since the verb would be is, you know that the indefinite pronoun is
singular and requires a singular pronoun for reference.
All of the indefinite pronouns in the any and everyone groups are
singular. Some and none may be singular or plural depending on the
meaning in the sentence.
Example: Some of the employees were upset over the decision.
But—
Some of the confetti was left on the floor.
A related pronoun reference, which often causes problems in business
communication, is the reference to a collective noun, such as board, com-
mittee, corporation, department, or company. In the United States, collec-
tive nouns are usually thought of as singular and take singular verbs and
pronouns. For example, in the United States, a company is treated as sin-
gular and would be referred to by “it,” as in the following example:
“Brown & Partners, LLP, is considered successful in its market area.” In
other countries, such as Great Britain and Australia, a company is treated
as plural, which would mean that the previous sentence would read
“Brown & Partners, LLP, are considered successful in their market area.”
As with other differences across countries, you should usually follow the
conventions of the country in which the company has its headquarters.
f. Interrogative pronouns—used in questions: who, whose, whom,
what, which. A pronoun must agree in person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)
and number (singular or plural) with its antecedent noun.
Remember that who stands for people. Which stands for things
and objects and denotes properties.
Also, with pronouns, watch the cases. Is the pronoun perform-
ing the action or receiving it? Use I, who, he, she in the subjective
case (action performers) and me, whom, him, her in the objective
cases (action receivers).
Say: Divide the money between him and me.
Not: Divide the money between he and I.
You need to take care to use the correct case, since the incorrect pro-
noun is used often in casual conversation and, unfortunately, on the
radio and television as well. Trust your knowledge of the use of the
pronoun: Ask, Is it functioning as an actor or as a receiver? Do not be
misled by common misuse. Also, since the use of pronouns is a foun-
dation for our grammar, no amount of misuse will make it correct.
420 Appendix B The Business of Grammar

4. Adjectives. Adjectives modify (describe or point out) nouns and pro-

nouns by telling color, kind, size, amount, or other qualities.
5. Adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs,
telling when, where, how, or to what extent.
Modifiers in English do not have to agree with the nouns or
words they modify, but we do use endings to indicate degrees of
comparison.
a. Positive (no comparison): good, bad, large, useful
b. Comparative (comparison between two): better, worse, larger,
more useful
c. Superlative (comparison among three or more): best, worst,
largest, most useful
Most modifiers add -er and -est endings, a few use more or
most, and some, such as good and bad, have special forms. With
one-syllable words, you will usually add -er and -est, but there are
some exceptions, so be careful. With many two-syllable words and
practically all words with three or more syllables, you should use
more and most. Some modifiers, such as unique and ubiquitous,
are absolute in their meaning and cannot be used as comparatives
or superlatives. The phrases “more unique” and “most unique” are
illogical and should not be used.
Remember to place modifiers close to the word(s) being modi-
fied, so that the sentence is clear and not ambiguous. Watch for
dangling modifiers in particular.
Example: Balancing the books, the accounts had to be recal-
culated.
(Accounts cannot perform the task of balancing, thus the dan-
gling modifier.)
6. Prepositions. Prepositions show relationships between other words.
One way to recognize the largest group of prepositions, those
indicating position or direction, is to think of anything that you
can do to a log: across, around, at, beside, beyond, in, over, out,
through, to, and under.
Another commonly used group shows relationships of words or
phrases to other words in a sentence: as, of, except, for, besides, etc.
7. Conjunctions. Conjunctions join other words or connect two or
more grammatical units.
The three types of conjunctions in English are as follows:
a. Coordinating conjunctions: and, or, for, but, yet, nor, so
b. Subordinating conjunctions: after, as, although, as if, because,
before, even though, if, until, when, since, unless, whenever, where,
whereas, while
c. Conjunctive adverbs: however, therefore, nevertheless, thus, then
 Appendix B The Business of Grammar 421

A reminder about punctuating conjunctions: Coordinating conjunc-

tions require a comma before them if they join two independent
clauses (see examples that follow).
Example: Zhang finished writing the report last night, and she plans
to give the rest of the group copies today.
However, coordinating conjunctions should not have a comma if
they separate an independent and dependent clause:
Example: Zhang finished writing the report last night and plans to
give the rest of the group copies tomorrow.
Subordinating conjunctions make the sentence following them
dependent, so they only need a comma before them if the following
clause is nonessential to the meaning of the sentence:
Essential (no comma needed): Lee left the company because he
found another job.
Nonessential (comma needed): We need to finish the analysis by
tomorrow afternoon, because Ms. Johnson needs to take it with her to
the board meeting tomorrow.
Conjunctive adverbs require a semicolon before them and a comma
after them when they join two independent clauses. They require a
comma only if they start a sentence, and they need commas around
them if they serve as interrupters.
Examples: The analysts are reporting on the company’s perfor-
mance in the morning; however, the word on the street is that the
news will not be good.
The analysts are reporting on the company’s performance in the morn-
ing. However, the word on the street is that the news will not be good.
The analysts are reporting on the company’s performance in the
morning; the word on the street, however, is that the news will not
be good.
8. Interjections. Interjections express emotions: Ouch! Ah!

Sentence Structure
The parts of speech are combined to form the following larger structures:
1. Phrases are groups of two or more words that act as a single ele-
ment in a sentence but do not have a subject (what is talked about)
and predicate (what is said about the subject).
2. Clauses are groups of words with subjects and predicates. Clauses
are main (independent) if they can stand alone and still make sense
and subordinate (dependent) if they depend on a main clause to
make sense:
422 Appendix B The Business of Grammar

a. Independent clause
Example: The employees were pleased with the extra holiday this
year.
b. Independent clause followed by a dependent clause
Example: The employees were pleased with the extra holiday
until they were told that they would have to make it up next year.
c. Dependent clause followed by an independent clause
Example: Because the employees were pleased with the extra hol-
iday, management decided to make it permanent.
If a clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction (after,
although, as, as if, because, before, if, since, because, or whereas),
it is a dependent clause. A dependent clause cannot stand alone,
so when you have used a subordinating conjunction, always
make sure that your clause is attached to an independent clause.
3. A sentence is an independent clause that contains both a subject
(could be implied and not stated) and a verb. Sentences are tradi-
tionally said to convey a complete thought; that is, they make a
meaningful statement.
The three types of sentence structures are as follows:
a. A simple sentence consists of one independent clause by itself.
Example: We are going to work now.
b. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses, joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for,
so, yet) or a semicolon.
Examples: We are going to work now, and we would like you to
join us. We are going to work now; we would like you to join us.
Remember to use strong punctuation to separate two independent
clauses. A comma alone is too weak and would create a comma splice.
No punctuation between two independent clauses creates a run-on
sentence.
Comma splice: We are going to work now, we would like you to
join us.
Run-on: We are going to work now we would like you to join us.
c. A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause
and one or more dependent clauses.
Example: Although you would like to extend the lunch hour to
two hours, we are going to work now and want you to join us.
In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is usually set off by a
comma if it begins the sentence, as in the previous example.
If the dependent clause comes after the independent clause, as
previously mentioned, the punctuation depends on the conjunc-
tion and if the following clause is essential or nonessential.
 Appendix B The Business of Grammar 423

Examples: We are going to lunch now and want you to join us,
although you would like to extend the lunch hour to two hours.
We are going to lunch now and want you to join us before it is too late.
The four kinds of sentences are as follows:
1. Declarative—usual straightforward statement that may be active or
passive.
Example: We are going to work now.
2. Imperative—begins with you (stated or implied) and issues a com-
mand or request.
Example: Go to work now.
3. Interrogative—begins with a finite verb or a question word and
ends with a question mark.
Examples: Get to work now?
Who did you say was going to the meeting?
4. Exclamatory—ends with an exclamation mark.
Example: We are going to work now!

A Final Note on the Study of Grammar

English grammar and the rules that govern its use need to be reviewed
just as any other subject needs to be from time to time. People tend to
forget what they do not use regularly. Also, usage rules do change
because the way that we use our language influences the way we
expect it to be used, and there are some differences among academic,
journalistic, and business writing. Journalism, in particular, has influ-
enced usage because we hear and see the reporters and newscasters
daily. A knowledge of grammar helps you recognize the differences
between everyday, casual usage and the more traditional, correct
usage, and it develops your recognition for what can be changed and
what cannot. As you realize now after reviewing traditional grammar,
usage may vary, but the basic structure of a language—the grammar—
remains constant.
Certainly, you can use the language without understanding its foun-
dation or workings, just as most people use the computer without
knowing what makes it run or drive a car without knowing how the
engine works; however, by knowing how something works and the ter-
minology for its parts, you have a greater sense of freedom and control.
How often have you said or heard someone else say upon reading a sen-
tence with a mistake in it, “I don’t know exactly what’s wrong, but it just
doesn’t sound right”? Now, perhaps, you will not only recognize that it
is wrong but also know why and what options you have to correct it.
Appendix
C
Usage Self-Assessment
Instructions: Each of the following sentences requires adding or
changing punctuation (or a word or two) or correcting usage errors.
You should keep your changes to a minimum. Do just what is necessary
to correct any errors. Avoid completely rewriting sentences. Sentences
may contain more than one error.
You should allow approximately 30 minutes to complete the assess-
ment and should not go beyond a maximum of 45 minutes.
After completing the assessment, compare your responses to the
answer key that follows.
1. Our top executives, several of our account directors and myself met
to discuss the need for change across the company.

2. Everyone must complete their monthly report before they can

leave for the holidays.

3. Balancing the books, and completing performance appraisals is the

worst aspect of the job.

4. My boss thinks its selfish not to share all of my ideas with John,
I think its prudent.

424
 Appendix C Usage Self-Assessment 425

5. By having a clear vision and strategic direction, our clients will be

better served in the future.

6. In John Smiths new book Watching Giants Fall, the best chapter is
“Saving the Corporation”.

7. Since Engineering has lead the list in placement opportunities in

the past, many students select it as their major.

8. This approach will create shareholder value, and increase the mar-
kets confidence in our companies continued success.

9. Mary worked on the report to long, now its past the deadline set by
the home office.

10. The team members cannot expect to do good if they never practice
their speech, therefore, I do not understand why they think to con-
stantly complain will get them anywhere.

11. ABC Corporation decided to redesign their website so it appeals to

a wider customer audience.
426 Appendix C Usage Self-Assessment

12. Having been employed by Johnson, Inc., for 8 years, his dismissal
with only one day notice caught Bill completely off guard.

13. Scheduling all full time employees and to actually expect to need
part-time people as well is to optimistic in my opinion; we never
have received that many orders in the Summer, but their has been
more activity this quarter then ever before.

14. Three major newspapers, The New York Times, The London Her-
ald, USA Today, and The Washington Post, carried full-page ads for
the new e-commerce cite. It must have cost the company a small
fortune which is such a waste since no Web savvy person pays
attention to this anymore.

15. The board of directors ran out of time before our department could
deliver the quarterly report, therefore, we will have to come back
tomorrow at 10:00 am.

16. Ms. Zavier claims to have been VP for Operations at Jones and Porter,
Inc., from May, 1994 to June, 1998, but between you and I, she does
not seem to know that much about Operations management.

17. The team knew there was a problem when Mary exclaimed, “You
going out of town last weekend caused us to miss the deadline”!
 Appendix C Usage Self-Assessment 427

Answer Key
Instructions: After completing the usage self-assessment, compare
your responses to this answer key. The corrections are in bold to make
them more visible for you. The number in parentheses at the end of
each sentence is the number of corrections required in the sentence.
Other answers besides those provided here are possible.
1. Our top executives, several of our account directors, and I met to dis-
cuss the need for change across the company. (2) The way to test this
one is to say, “We met.” You would not say, “Us met”; thus, you need
to use a pronoun in the subjective case (in this case, “I”).

2. Everyone must complete their his or her monthly report before

they he or she can leave for the holidays. (2)
Or: All employees must complete their monthly report before
they can leave for the holidays.

3. Balancing the books, and completing performance appraisals is

are the worst aspects of the job. (3)

4. My boss thinks it’s selfish not to share all of my ideas with John,; I
think it’s prudent. (3)

5. By having a clear vision and strategic direction, our clients will be

better served in the future we will serve our clients better in the
future. (1)

6. In John Smith’s new book, Watching Giants Fall, the best chapter
is “Saving the Corporation ”. .” (4)

U.S. business communication standards call for periods and com-

mas to be placed inside quotation marks. Many other country stan-
dards do the opposite. Follow the standards of the corporate
headquarters.

7. Since E engineering has lead led the list in placement opportuni-

ties recently, many students still select it as their major. (2)
428 Appendix C Usage Self-Assessment

8. This approach will create shareholder value,- and increase the mar-
ket’s confidence in our companies y’s continued success. (3)

9. Mary worked on the report too long, ; now, it’s past the deadline set
by the home office. (4)

10. The team members cannot expect to do good well if they never
practice their speech,; therefore, I do not understand why they
think to constantly complain constantly [or complaining con-
stantly] will get them anywhere. (3)

11. ABC Corporation decided to redesign their its Web site so that it
appeals to a wider customer audience. (3)

Selection of “its” or “their” is country specific.

12. Having been employed by Johnson, Inc., for 8 eight years, Bill was
caught completely off guard by his dismissal with only one day’s
notice caught Bill completely off guard. (3)

13. Scheduling all full-time employees and to actually expecting to

need part-time people as well is are too optimistic in my opinion;
we never have received that many orders in the S summer, but
their there has been more activity this quarter then than ever
before. (6)

14. Three Four major newspapers, The New York Times, The London
Herald, USA Today, and The Washington Post, carried full-page ads
for the new e-commerce cite site. The ads must have cost the com-
pany a small fortune, which is such a waste, since no Web-savvy
person pays attention to this form of advertising anymore. (7)

15. The board of directors [if you capitalized it, count it as one error]
ran out of time before our D department could deliver the quar-
terly report, ; therefore, we will have to come back tomorrow at
10:00 a.m. (3)
 Appendix C Usage Self-Assessment 429

16. Ms. Zavier claims to have been VP [if you wrote it out, that is okay]
for Operations at Jones and Porter, Inc., from May 1994 to June,
1998, but between you and I me, she does not seem to know that
much about Ooperations management. (3)

17. The team knew there was a problem when Mary exclaimed,
“Your going out of town last weekend caused us to miss the
deadline”!
— !”(2)

Scale
0–10 ⫽ In good shape
11–18 ⫽ Need some review
19–25 ⫽ Need more review
26–52 ⫽ Need lots of review
Appendix
D
Successful Case Analysis
and Discussion
The ability to read and learn from cases is an important skill for any
business leader. Cases provide examples of good and bad business
decisions along with enough of the story for you to learn from the chal-
lenges and approaches in them. They also provide an opportunity to
test your business judgment and decision-making ability in the context
of real business problems.
As is typical of problems within an organization, a case rarely pro-
vides facts and information you would like to have before making a
decision. Therefore, you must be able to think critically and uncover
the assumptions underlying the case information.
You must also learn to be comfortable with ambiguity in the infor-
mation as well as in the “answers.” In fact, one of the most valuable
lessons to learn from case analysis and discussion is that there is no
one “right” answer. A good case is open to many interpretations and
the case problems to many possible resolutions.
Since case analysis and discussion are standard approaches to
learning in the business school classroom, this appendix is intended to
help you approach both with some of the traditional techniques
needed to succeed in the case classroom and to obtain the most out of
the case experience. The discussion here contains hints on how to do
the following:
• Perform a successful case analysis.
• Contribute to a case discussion.
• Organize a case analysis report.
• Stay within the ethical boundaries of case discussions.
• Get the most out of the learning experience that case discussions
provide.

430
 Appendix D Successful Case Analysis and Discussion 431

Performing a Successful Case Analysis

To prepare for a case discussion, you should approach the case analy-
sis as follows:
1. Skim the case quickly.
2. Write out what you see as the central problem(s) in the case.
3. Read the case through more carefully, highlighting key issues and
facts to support the central problem.
4. List the possible solutions to the case problem.
5. Select a solution and develop your defense.
6. Outline how you would implement the solution.
When reading the case, you should focus on exploring the problems
and pulling out the issues and the facts instead of focusing on specific
courses of action. You might find it helpful to think about approaching
a case as you would the analysis of a short story. Try looking for the
conflicts and sources of tension, outline the plot of the story, and
examine the motives of the characters involved.

Contributing to the Case Discussion

In the case classroom, you will want to sit where you are visible, if pos-
sible, which usually means sitting in the middle of the room at the case
discussion leader’s eye level. You want to avoid the far right or left
unless you are unprepared and want to lower the risk of the discussion
leader’s calling on you, although you should not show up to any case
discussion unprepared. Doing so wastes your time, your colleagues’
time, and the discussion leader’s time.
To benefit from the case experience, you must be prepared to con-
tribute positively to the discussion, whether in the classroom or with
your team. You should not assume a combative pose, although you can
and should challenge ideas. Instead of attacking people, challenge the
ideas and look for ways to work toward building on their point of view
or ideas. What most discussion leaders want to see is an active exchange
among class members, not simply a routine Q&A between the discus-
sion leader and the class.
Most case discussions will begin with the discussion leader’s asking
for someone to summarize the case. This type of contribution provides
a chance for you to speak up early in the discussion, before the rapid
exchange that soon erupts once the discussion gets started. If you are
new to the case discussion or perhaps hesitant to jump in, you may want
to take advantage of this opening opportunity to speak. The following
are usually considered legitimate contributions to a case discussion:
432 Appendix D Successful Case Analysis and Discussion

1. Summary of the case.

2. Your solution.
3. An alternate solution to one suggested by a classmate.
4. An explanation of any underlying assumptions in the case.
5. Transition to another area of the case.
6. Connections to other cases read for this class.
7. Clarification of relevant financial or quantitative information.
8. Application of an analytical approach.
9. Synthesis of key learnings from the case.
10. A summary of the discussion.
11. Suggested next steps.
Overall, you want to avoid broad generalizations or superficial
statements.

Organizing a Case Analysis or Report

If you are not given a suggested organizational structure for writing
your case analysis, you will probably want to use one of the following
popular structures:
1. Inductive or indirect.
• Strategic issues and problems.
• Analysis of problems.
• Recommendations.
2. Deductive or direct.
• Recommendation or solution.
• Support for solution or evidence for recommendation.
• Brief discussion of alternative solutions.
3. Issues and results (executive).
• Crucial strategic issues.
• Assumptions about issues.
• Recommended strategies.
• Justification for recommendation.
• Plan of action.
• Expected results.
4. Elimination of alternatives.
• Discussion of at least three alternative solutions.
• Summary of why only one is the best.
• Reinforcement of that one.
 Appendix D Successful Case Analysis and Discussion 433

5. Pros and cons.

• Introduction of two best solutions.
• Advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Conclusion, recommending the preferred alternative.
6. Thesis-antithesis-synthesis.
• Solution.
• Counters or objections to that solution.
• Combination with solution emphasized.
What is most important in writing your analysis is that you organize
it logically and make it easy for the reader to find your analysis of the
problems and clear explanation of any solutions.

Staying within the Ethical Boundaries of Case Analysis

Staying within the case ethical boundaries means you do not do the
following:
1. Pass along case notes or old case reports to students who have not
yet taken the course.
2. Discuss the case with someone who has not yet had the case in class.
3. Attempt to find out “what happened in the case” (as if what the
company did was the correct answer, or that someone else’s “right”
answer is right for you).
4. Contact a case company without permission to gather more infor-
mation about the case situation.
5. Identify the real company in a disguised case.
6. Take advantage of group members by letting them do the bulk of the
work instead of reading and analyzing the case yourself.

Getting the Most Out of the Case Experience

As with most learning experiences, you get out of the case method
what you put into it. To get the most out of the case experience, you
should do the following:
1. Prepare for the discussion by skimming, reading, thinking about the
case.
2. Emphasize the student-to-student learning over the teacher-to-stu-
dent learning.
3. Listen carefully to colleagues and synthesize their ideas and yours to
develop your own critical analytical abilities.
4. Develop your own personal system of case analysis.
5. Remember, case analysis is designed to sharpen your analytical skills.
Index
A Bar-On, R., 223, 252
Barrett, Deborah J., 52, 101, 149, 217,
Accommodating, 299 250, 303, 340, 348, 353, 375, 377
Action plan Bass, B. M., 27, 28
creating, 41–42 Beamer, L., 273
three-phased, 42 Beason, L., 77, 101
Adjectives, 420 Belgaard, W., 329
Adverbial clauses, 82 Bennett, Milton, 273, 277
Adverbs, 73, 82, 420 Bennis, W., 252
Advertising statements, 392 Bens, I., 320, 328
Affiliative leadership style, 225, 226 Benson-Armer, Richard, 342
Alboher, M., 151 Berkshire Hathaway, 14
Alderfer, C., 14 Bernoff, J., 103, 405
Alignment, for business documents, 137–138 Best, J., 217
Alsop, R., 258 Bethune, Gordon, 350
Amabile, T. M., 253 between, 82
Amazon, 279, 356 Beyond the Hype: Rediscovering the Essence of
Amelio, Gilbert, 102 Management (Eccles and Nohria), 152
American Management Association, 125 Bezos, Jeff, 279
Anderson, H. V., 181 Blackwell Handbook of Global Management, 254
Anderson, Richard, 102, 220 Blogs, 105, 125, 391
Aon Consulting, 379, 403 professional, 107–109
Apostrophes, 81, 83, 88 Boeing, 395
Apple Computer, 395 Borisoff, Deborah, 298, 304, 326, 327
Arditi, Aries, 194, 217 Boston Legal, 21
Aristotle, 11–12 Bowman, G. W., 28
The Art of Framing: Managing the Language of Boyatzis, Richard, 220, 224, 225, 227, 228, 234, 252
Leadership (Fairhurst and Sarr), 58 Brainstorming, 32, 289
Ashkenas, R. N., 377 Briggs, Katherine, 230
AT & T, 356, 395 Brogan, Chris, 151
Audience Browness, J., 377
analyzing, 42–47 Bryant, Adam, 102
attention in presentation, 165 Buffet, Warren, 14
expertise table, 43 Buildabetterblog.com, 108
impact of style on, 60–63 Built to Last (Collins and Porras), 355
motivation of, 11–12 Bullfighter, 74–75
presentations and, 154–155 Burger, C., 400
Avoiding, 299 Burley-Allen, Madelyn, 239
Avolio, Bruce J., 4, 27 Burns, J. M., 27
Axelrod, Alan, 2 Burns, Robert, 12
Axtell, Roger, 260 BusinessWeek, 225, 344
Ayman, R., 27 Business Wire, 122
but, 83
B Butler, J. K., 28

Bain and Company, 132 C

Bamlund, D. C., 28
Barach, J. A., 19 California, University of at Los Angeles; See UCLA
Barnett, G. A., 377 Cantrell, R. S., 28

434
 Index 435

Cartwright, D., 14 Collaborating, 298

Case analysis, 430–433 Collective nouns, 90
contributing to discussion, 431–432 Collectivism, 269–270
ethical boundaries of, 433 Collins, James, 355, 377
getting most out of, 433 Colon, 80, 84
organizing, 432–433 Colors, for graphics, 193–196, 198
performing, 431 Color Voodoo, 193
Cases Comcast, 109
Coaching Employees, 250–251 Commanding leadership style, 225, 227
HADWIT International Services Company, Commas, 80, 85–87
372–375, 405 after introductory phrases, 85–86
HADWIT Revisited, 405 with dates and time, 87
Huge Co. Revisited, 181, 371–372 with items in a series, 86–87
Merging Benefits at Huge Computer Company, Comma splice, 82, 422
146–149 Communication
OmniBank’s Diversity Efforts, 274, 303–304 concise, 68–77
PTI and Congoil, 274–276 context, 37–38
Refinery Managers Face Budget Challenges, 145 core, 9
Rescuing Flying High, 375–376 corporate, 10
Spree Cruise Lines, 52–56 defined, 5–6
Spree Cruise Lines Revisited, 403–404 establishing clear purpose, 30–37
Spree Cruise Lines Revisited, Again, 404–405 framework, 8–10
Superior Foods Corporation Faces a Challenge, 52 interruptions to, 6
Wisconsin Frozen Delights, 302–303 leadership, 6–10
Zarate Tech Goes Virtual, 340–341 organizational, 10
Cause/effect organization, 48 organizing effectively, 47–51
Cerner, 122 thinking and, 35–37
Change communication written, 104–110
employee understanding and, 368–369 Communication mediums, selecting, 104
monitoring results, 369–371 Communication strategy
program structure for, 365–371 analysis, 41
scope of, 364–365 determining, 37–42
strategy and plan, 366–368 questions for developing, 40
Change communication team (CCT), 367–370 Communication Strategy Framework, 38–39
sample structure, 368 Comparatives, 420
The Change Monster (Duck), 363 Comparison/contrast organization, 49
Charisma, 10–11 Competing, 299
Charts, 191; See also Graphics; Visual aids Complex sentence, 422–423
defined, 184 Compound relative pronouns, 418
selecting and designing, 199–202 Compound sentence, 422
Chase Manhattan Bank, 345 Compromising, 298–299
Chemers, M. M., 27 Computers, 96–97
Chicago Manual of Style, 131 Condon, J. C., 278
Chronological organization, 48 Conger, J. A., 27, 28
Churchill, Winston, 152 Conjunctions, 420–421
Cialdini, Robert, 13, 28 Conjunctive adverbs, 84, 420–421
Ciulla, J. B., 28 Consequentialist approach; See End results approach
Clampitt, P. G., 376 Content, of electronic communication, 122
Clauses, 421 Context, 113
Clawson, James G., 29 meetings and, 300
Clinton, Hillary, 174 in presentations, 154, 166
Coaching leadership style, 225, 226 teams and, 323
Coca-Cola Company, 378, 379, 395 Continental Airlines, 350
The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint (Tufte), 182, 192 Coordinating conjunctions, 84, 420–421
436 Index

Copeland, L., 262 Dodge, R. W., 151

Corporate Reputation Watch, 379 Domino’s Pizza, 107, 379, 390
Correspondence, 120–127; See also E-mail; Letters; Downs, C. W., 376
Memos Druskat, V. U., 341
CPF acronym, 113, 166 Duarte, D. L., 341
Cultural diversity Duck, Jeanie Daniel, 363, 377
meetings and, 300–301 Dutta, Soumitra, 108, 151
teams and, 322–323, 331 Duty approach, 20
Culture
collectivism vs. individualism, 269–270
connecting and communication across, 271–273 E
defining, 257–259
information flow, 264–265 Eccles, R. G., 27, 152, 181
language and, 266–267 Editing, 94–95, 169
layers of, 257–259 Editorials, 391
power and, 267–269 Electronic communication, 120–127
recognizing differences, 260–271 content, 122
spirituality and tradition, 270–271 guidelines for IMs and text messages, 125–127
time and, 265–266 legal and other issues, 122–125
variables in holographic relationship, 261 post titles, 121–122
Customer Respect Group, 395–396 subject lines, 121–122
tone, 122
The Elements of Style (White), 59
D Elizabeth I, CEO: Strategic Lessons from the Leader
Who Built an Empire (Axelrod), 2
Dangling modifiers, 81, 91–92 Elliott, Sandra, 56, 145, 217, 303
Daniels, William R., 280, 304 Ellipses, 88–89
Dashes, 80, 85 El Paso Corporation, 350
Data, representing with graphs, 202 E-mail, 105, 120–127; See also Correspondence
de Bono, Edward, 289, 290–291 common mistakes of, 126
Decision-making style, approaches to, 44–45 misuse of, 125
Decisions, making ethical, 19–21 Emotional intelligence, 222–229, 229–234; See also
Decision trees, 34–35, 292 Self-awareness
Deck, defined, 184 achieving, 234
Declarative sentence, 423 connecting to leadership styles, 224–229
Deduction, 48 improving, 234
Delta Air Lines, 102, 220 motivating and mentoring, 242–247
DeMarie, S. M., 342 understanding, 223–224
Democratic leadership style, 225, 226 Emotional Intelligence at Work (Weisinger), 229
Demonstrative pronouns, 418 Emotional Intelligence Consortium, 229
Den Hartog, D. N., 254, 277, 278 Emotional quotient, 221
Denis, D., 151 Employee communication; See also Strategic internal
Deontological approach; See Duty approach communication
Dependent clause, 422 role of, 346–347
De Pree, Max, 3, 16, 27, 220 End results approach, 19
Descriptive words, 73 Enron, 227
Dickson, G., 217 ePolicy Institute, 125
Discussion outlines, 105 Ethics
Documents, 138, 143–144; See also Reports connecting to ethos, 16–23
closings, 115–119 establishing environment for others, 22–23
creating and completing, 318 issues common in organizations, 18
development of, 114–115 positive ethos and, 16–23
openings, 111–114 Ethos, 10–16
organization and content, 110–111 achieving positive through tone and style, 60–68
 Index 437

Ethos—Cont. Four P’s of marketing, 295

connecting to audience motivation, 13–16 Frameworks, 295
creating positive, 17 Francis, S. C., 377
defining, 11–12 Frank, A., 377
ethics and, 16–23 Franklin, Ben, 85
projecting positive, 12–13 Fraser, Matthew, 108, 151
Exclamatory sentence, 423 Freedman, L. Bryn, 241
Executive summaries, 135 French, John, 14
example of, 136 Freud, Sigmund, 14
Expletives, 70 FriendFeed, 109, 257, 391
External relations From/to analysis, 292
characteristics/limitations of, 391–392
communication strategy framework, 381 G
crisis communications, 400–403
effective mediums/forums, 390 Gandhi, Mahatma, 11
identifying major stakeholders, 383–384 Gardner, W. L., 252
maintaining corporate image, 394–397 Gartner Group, 125
major messages, 384–389 Gary, L., 252
media interviews, 399–400 Gates, Bill, 14
news media, working with, 397–400 General Electric (GE), 395
purpose and objectives, 381–383 George, J. M., 341
results monitoring, 393–394 Gerstner, Louis V., Jr., 226, 344, 402
spokeperson(s) for, 389–390 Gerunds, 417
strategy, 380–394 Gestures, 172–174
timing of, 390–393 Gibson, E., 405
Exxon, 401 Gilsdorf, J., 78, 101, 151
Eye contact, 172, 175 Global Literacies: Lesson on Business Leadership and
National Cultures (Rosen), 254
F Globalwork (O’Hara-Devereaux and Johansen), 260, 264
Gockley, David, 382
Facebook, 103, 105, 107, 120, 125, 225, 257, 392, 398 Goizueta, Roberto, 378
Fact sheets, 391 Goldhaber, G. M., 377
Fairhurst, Gail T., 58, 101 Goleman, Daniel, 220, 224, 225, 227, 234, 252, 253
Faulty parallel structure, 81 Google, 356, 379, 393
Feedback, 244–247 Grammar
presentations and, 155–156 common errors in, 81–83
Ferrill, June, 57 parts of speech, 415–421
Fetter, R., 28 sentence structure, 421–423
Fielden, John, 63, 64 Graphics; See also Charts; Graphs; Visual aids
Firestone/Bridgestone, 389 conveying messages with, 191–192
FIRO-B, 230 defined, 183
Fisher, K., 329 emphasizing important ideas, 190
Five Factors, 230 illustrating relationships and concepts, 186–187
Fombrun, Charles J., 378, 396, 405 maintaining/enhancing interest, 190–191
Fonts, selecting for graphics, 196–198 presentation and, 168
Font size, for business documents, 138 reinforcing the message, 184–185
Font type, for business documents, 138 selecting colors for, 193–196, 198
Footers, for business documents, 143–144 selecting fonts, 196–198
Forbes.com, 107, 108 to structure the presentation, 185–186
Force-field analysis, 293 supporting assertions, 187–189
Ford Motor Company, 389 when to use, 184–191
Foreshadowing, 113 Graphs; See also Graphics; Visual aids
in presentations, 166 defined, 183
Fortune, 378, 393 ethically representing data, 202
438 Index

Greenleaf, R. K., 27 Information flow

Griggs, L., 262 meetings and, 300
Gronouski, J. A., 28 teams and, 323
Groundswell (Li and Bernoff), 103, 394 Inglehart, R., 273, 278
Group virtue approach; See Social contract approach Inspiring Leaders, 29
GROW model, 246 Instant messages (IMs), 104, 121
guidelines for, 125–127
Intel, 395
H Interjections, 421
Interrogative pronouns, 419
Haas, Christina, 151 Interrogative sentence, 423
Hairston, M., 101 Interviews, media, 399–400
Hall, Edward T., 237, 253, 262, 264, 273, 277, 278 Intransitive active verbs, 416
Hall, M. R., 264 its/it’s, 82
Hallawell, E. M., 342
Halverson, M., 217 J
Hampton, Larry, 215, 217
Harris, T. E., 253 Jablin, F. M., 377
Harris Interactive, 379, 393, 395 James, W., 14
Harvard Business Review, 13, 29, 44, 63, 220, 279, 363 Jargon, 73–75
Harvard Business School, 5 Jay, A., 304
Hawthorne Studies, 243 Jick, T. D., 377
Headers, for business documents, 143–144 Johansen, Robert, 260, 261, 262, 273, 277, 278
Headings, for business documents, 138–141 Johnson, Alan, 108
Hedlund, Dalva, 241 Johnson & Johnson, 379, 395, 401
Hendrickson, A. R., 342 Jones, L. W., 28
Herzberg, Frederick, 243, 253 Journalist’s questions, 34
High-context cultures, 262–264 Jung, Carl, 14
Hill & Knowlton, 379
Hocker, J. L., 14
Hoffman, E., 232, 252 K
Hofstede, Geert, 257, 258, 267–268, 273, 278
Katzenbach, Jon R., 305, 307, 308, 341
Hosmer, L. T.
Kehoe, John Kimball, 335
Hotlines, 391
Kennedy, John F., 11, 85
Houp, Kenneth W., 43, 151
Kienzler, D. S., 217
Houston Grand Opera (HGO), 381
Kilmann, R., 304
Hsieh, Tsun-Ya, 342
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 11
Humes, James C., 2, 152
Kitchen, P. J., 406
Kotter, John P., 29, 363, 377
I Kouzes, James M., 11, 17, 28
Kraft Foods, 379
Kramer, S. J., 253
IBM, 226, 395
Kroeger, Otto, 233
Idea mapping, 32–34
Kuzmenko, T. N., 27
Ideas
generating, 32–35
resistance to, 297 L
Imperative sentence, 423
Indefinite pronouns, 90, 418–419 Landsberg, Max, 246, 247
Independent clause, 422 Language
Individualism, 269–270 culture and, 266–267
Individual virtue approach; See Personal approach meetings and, 300
Induction, 48 teams and, 323
Infinitive, 418 Language rules, 77
 Index 439

Laurence, A., 406 Meetings—Cont.

Lawrence, M., 27 cultural and personality differences, 300–301
Lay, Ken, 227 decision-making approach, 286–287
Layout, for business documents, 137 determining topics for agenda, 283
Leadership ensuring action, 301–302
capability self-assessment, 407–414 essential planning, 282–286
defined, 4 establishing needed information, 286
identifying, 3–4 ground rules of, 287–288
projecting a positive ethos, 10–16 negativity and, 296–297
transformational, 4 planning, 280–281
Leadership Jazz (De Pree), 16 problems and conflict, 295–301
Leadership styles, 224–229 problem-solving approaches, 288–295
Leading without Power: Finding Hope in Serving productive, 286–295
Community (De Pree), 3, 220 purpose, 281
Lehman, J. A., 217 purpose and expected outcome, 282–283
Leonard, D., 78, 101, 151 roles and responsibilities, 287
Letters, 105, 120; See also Correspondence seating arrangements, 285
Levisohn, B., 405 selecting attendees, 284
Lewin, Kurt, 293 setting considerations, 284–285
Lewis, R., 273 seven deadly sins of, 280
Li, Charlene, 103, 405 timing, 285–286
Liedtke, Hugh, 59–60, 68 types of, 284
LinkedIn, 263, 392 virtual, 285, 288
Linking verbs, 416 Megerian, J. J., 252
Lipnack, J., 341, 342 Mehrabian, Albert, 253
Listening: The Forgotten Skill (Burley-Allen), 239 Memos, 105, 120; See also Correspondence
Listening skills, 239–242 sample, 119
barriers to, 240 Mentor, responsibilities of, 244
improving, 241 Mentoring, 243–244
levels of, 240 Microblogging, 105, 391
Lists, for business documents, 141–143 creating a plan for, 109–110
Logos, 11 Microsoft Corporation, 14, 356, 361, 395
Low-context cultures, 263–264 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 191
Miller, Robert B., 44, 57
Minnesota, University of, 279
M Minto, Barbara, 49, 57
Mintzberg, H., 27
Mahoney, R. M., 28 Missions, 354–363
Marshall, Steve, 406 defining, 355–357
Martinko, M. J., 252 ensuring effectiveness, 357–363
Maslow, Abraham, 14 understanding importance of, 355
Maslow’s Hierarchy, 242 MLA Style Manual, 131
Matrix problem-solving approach, 294 Monochronic time, 265–266
Matson, Eric, 280, 304 Montagno, R., 27
Mayer, J., 223 Moorman, R. H., 28
McCabe, Charles R., 276 Morand, D. A., 223, 252, 253
McDermott, R., 57 Morgan, N., 253
McKee, Annie, 220, 224, 225, 227, 228, 234, 252 Motivating, 242–243
The McKinsey Quarterly, 333 Ms., 93
McKinsey’s 7S framework, 295 Multiple-writer approach, 316–317
Media kits, 391 Myers, Isabel Briggs, 230
Media Tenor, 398 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 229–234, 230
Meetings; See also Virtual meetings legal ramifications of testing, 232
audience, 281 meetings and, 301
440 Index

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator—Cont. Participle, 418

taking, 232–233 Pascal, Blaise, 69, 101
using, 230–233 Passive voice, 70
value of knowing, 233–234 Pathos, 11
MySpace, 257 Pearsall, Thomas E., 43, 151
My Tech Opinion, 109 Personal approach, 20
Personal pronouns, 89–90, 418
Peters, Beth, 149
N Peters, T. J., 58, 377
Peterson, R. A., 28
National Semiconductor Corporation, 102 Petzinger, T., Jr., 101
Negativity, meetings and, 296–297 Pfeiffer, A. L., 376
Nelson, K. A., 18 Phillip Morris, 395
Nelson, M. D., 253 Phrases, 421
Nemiro, Jill E., 333, 341 Podcasts, 391
Networking, 247–249 Podsakoff, P. M., 28
New York Times, 102, 122, 127, 220 Policy statement, example of, 117
Nichols, R. G., 253 Polychronic time, 265–266
Nicolay, Nicole, 109 Porras, J., 355, 377
Niehoff, B. P., 28 Porter, R. E., 264
Nike, 395 Positives, 420
Nohria, N., 27, 152, 181 Posner, Barry Z., 11, 17, 28
Nominalizations, 75 Possessive nouns, 83
Nominative case, 82 Pounder, J. S., 27
Nonverbal communication Power
assessing use of, 239 culture and, 267–269
categories, 235 meetings and, 300
improving, 235–239 teams and, 323
Nouns, 81–83, 416 Power distance, 267–268
collective, 90 PowerPoint, 173, 175, 192, 194
creating documents using, 209–210
PowerPoint presentations, 175, 176; See also
O Presentations
creating text layouts, 202–205
Obama, Barack, 225, 354 designing templates, 208–209
The Office, 21 focusing on meaningful content, 206–207
Ogilvy & Mather, 226 inserting graphs, 210–212
O’Hara-Devereaux, Mary, 260, 261, 262, 264, 273, selecting the layout and template, 208
277, 278 using animation, 212–214
Opposition analysis, 291 using AutoContent Wizards, 206–207
Organizational change, 363–371 Prepositional idioms, 71
Orwell, George, 75 Prepositions, 420
O’Sullivan, Beth, 52, 144, 145, 149, 215, 217, 250, 302, Presentations; See also PowerPoint presentations
303, 340, 375 audience and, 165
confidence and, 170–178
creating and completing, 318
P delivery method, 156
delivery of, 157
Pacesetting leadership style, 226–227 determining strategy, 153–156
Pack, defined, 184 editing and proofreading, 169
Palin, Sarah, 174 effective delivery, 169–170
Parallelism, 91 eye contact and, 172, 175
Parentheses, 88 gestures, 172–174
Parenthetical expression, 81 graphics and, 168
Parker, J. D. A., 252 impromptu, 160–162
 Index 441

Presentations—Cont. Redundancies, 75–77

nerves and, 171–172 Reflexive pronouns, 82, 418
planning, 153–163 Relative pronouns, 71, 418
preparing for impact, 164–170 Repetition, 71–73
question/answer periods, 177–178 Reports, 105, 127–135; See also Documents
round-table, 156–161 executive summaries, 135
stance, 172–174 exhibits in, 131
stand-up extemporaneous, 159–160 formal content, 129
structure and format of, 162–163 formal full-length, 127–131
technology and, 177 progress, 133–135
three “P’s” approach to, 153 proposals, 133, 134
timing, 170, 176–177 purposes and types of, 128
voice and speech patterns, 174–175 research information in, 131–133
Press conferences, 391 table of contents, 130
Press kits, 391 Reputation: Realizing Value from the Corporate Image
Press releases, 392 (Fombrun), 396
Primal Leadership (Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee), Roberts, W. R., 28
224, 226 Robert’s Rules of Order, 287, 301
principle, 82 Roche, G. R., 253
Problem/solution organization, 49 Rogers, Carl, 29
Progress reports, 133–135 Roosevelt, Theodore, 249
Pronouns, 418 Rosen, Robert, 254, 273
correct use of, 83, 89–91 Round-table presentations, 156–161
indefinite, 90 Rowse, Darren, 108
personal, 89–90 Royal Dutch Shell, 255
Proofreading, 94–95, 169 RSS feeds, 392, 398
Proposals, 133, 134 Run-on sentences, 81, 422
ProtÈgÈ, responsibilities of, 244 Russell, R. F., 253, 377
Proteus, Inc., 388
Pruyn, A. T. H., 376 S
Psychological Testing at Work (Hoffman’s), 232
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Salovey, P., 223
Association, 131 Salutations, 93
Punctuation, power of, 80–89 Samovar, L. A., 264
Purpose, 113 Sarr, Robert A., 58, 101
in presentations, 166 Saturday Night Live, 21
Putnam Investments, 390 Say It with Charts (Zelazny), 182, 187
Pyramid principle, 49–50 Schmitz, J., 271, 273, 278
Pyramid principle (Minto), 49 Scott, Walter, 85
Scrubs, 21
Seeger, M. W., 406
Q Seinfeld, 21
Seitel, Fraser, 345
Question/answer periods, 177–178 Self-awareness, 229–234; See also Emotional
Quotation marks, 88 intelligence
Sellnow, T. L., 406
Semicolon, 80, 84–85
R Sentence fragment, 81
Sentences
Ranking, 289–290 kinds of, 423
Rating, 289–290 run-on, 81, 422
Raven, Bertram, 14 simple, 422
Ravenel, W. B., III, 101 structure of, 91–92
Rayner, S., 329 Sexist language, 92–94
Ready, D. A., 27 Shakespeare, William, 85
442 Index

Shelby, A. N., 28 SurveyMonkey, 352

Shirttailing, 171 Swift, Marvin H., 35–36, 57
Simons, G., 342
Simple relative pronouns, 418
Simple sentence, 422 T
Single-scribe approach, 315–316
Six Thinking Hats (de Bono), 289, 290–291 Tagliamonte, S. A., 151
Skilling, Jeff, 227 Takayoshi, Pam, 151
Slide, defined, 184 Tannen, Deborah, 267, 273
Small Business Administration, 244 The Tao of Coaching (Landsberg), 246, 247
Smidts, A., 376 Teams
Smith, B. N., 27 action and work plans, 312–315
Smith, D., 305, 307, 308, 341 building, 306–308
Snyder, N. T., 341 communication protocol, 310–312
Snyder, W. M., 57 cultural differences and, 322–323
Social contract approach, 20 documents and presentations, 315
Social media, interacting with, 107–110 document version control, 317–318
Social networks, 105, 392 establishing processes, 308–319
Solomon, R., 28 expectations, 321–322
Sony, 379 forming, 307–308
Sorting, 290 ground rules, 310
Sosik, L. E., 252 issues and conflict, 324–329
Spacing, for business keeping out of trouble, 320
documents, 137–138 learning from experience, 319
Spatial organization, 49 people side of, 319–323
Spears, L. C., 27 roles and responsibilities, 309–310
Speech patterns, 174–175 virtual, 329–335
Spencer-Oatey, H., 277 work plan specifics, 318–319
Stamps, J., 341, 342 Tebeaux, Elizabeth, 43
Stance, 172–174, 176 Technology, presentations and, 177
State-of-being verbs, 82 Texaco, 59
The State of Corporate Communications Text messaging, 105, 225
(Hill & Knowlton), 395 guidelines for, 125–127
Steidlmeier, P., 28 that, 71, 87
Stevens, L., 253 Thinking, communication and, 35–37
Storti, C., 263 Thomas, K. W., 304
Storyboard Thoreau, Henry David, 76, 265
creating, 50–51 Thoreau, William David, 89
example of, 51 Time
Strategic internal communication; culture and, 265–266
See also Employee communication meetings and, 300
assessing effectiveness, 352–354 teams and, 323
establishing, 347–352 Timing
model of, 348, 352–353 in oral presentations, 176–177
ongoing assessment, 351–352 of presentations, 155
strengthening, 354–363 Tombstones, 392
supportive management, 349 Tone, 60–68
targeted messages, 349–350 of electronic communication, 122
well-positioned staff, 351 Torre, Joe, 226
Strunk, W., Jr., 101 Town hall meetings, 392
Style, 60–68 Townsend, A. M., 342
Subordinating conjunctions, 420, 421 Transitions, in oral presentations, 176
Sun Microsystems, 356, 357 Transitive active verbs, 416
Superlatives, 420 Transmittal letter, sample, 118
 Index 443

Trevino, L. K., 18 The Wall Street Journal, 127, 279, 398

Tucker, B. A., 253, 377 Walt Disney Company, 395
Tufte, Edward R., 182, 183, 192, 199, 217 The Washington Post, 398
TweetLater, 110 Weasel words, 73
Tweets, 105 Web sites, 392
Twitter, 107, 109, 120, 225, 257, 379, 391, 398 Weisinger, H., 229, 252
Two and a Half Men, 21 Welch, Jack, 225, 227, 344, 354, 377
Twutter, 110 Welch, Suzy, 225, 344, 354, 377
Type Talk at Work (Kroeger), 233 Welzel, C., 273, 278
Wenger, E., 57
Western Electric, 243
U which, 71, 83, 87
White, E. B., 59, 101
UCLA, 279 who, 71, 87
Ulmer, R. R., 406 Whole Foods Markets, 358
United Way, 356, 357, 361 Who Says Elephants Can’t Dance?
Usage self-assessment, 424–429 (Gerstner), 344, 402
USA Today, 398 Why Business People Speak Like Idiots (Fugere,
Hardaway, and Warshawsky), 74
Wikipedia, 102
V Wikis, 121
Williams, Gary A., 44, 57
van Riel, C. B. M., 376 Wilmont, W. W., 14
Varner, I., 273 Wilson, Barbara A., 27
Verbs, 416–418 The Wisdom of Teams (Katzenbach and Smith), 305
plural, 83 Wolff, S. B., 341
Victor, David A., 298, 304, 326, 327 Writing, for social media, 77
Virtual meetings, 285, 288; See also Meetings Written communication, 104–110
Virtual reality exposure (VRE) therapy, 171–172 content and formatting
Virtual teams, 329–335 expectations in, 120–127
Visionary leaders, 224–225 expected content in, 127–135
Visionary leadership style, 225 formatting, 135–144
Visions, 354–363 individual, 106
defining, 355–357 organizing content, 110–119
ensuring effectiveness, 357–363 reviewing your own, 143
understanding importance of, 355 team, 106–107
Visual aids, 175–177; See also Charts; Graphics;
Graphs
defined, 183 Y
Vogel, D., 217
Voice, during oral presentations, 174–175, 176 Yankelovich Partners, 395
YouTube, 107, 379

W
Z
Wakeman, Denise, 108
Walker, D., 271, 273, 278 Zelazny, Gene, 182, 187, 216
Walker, T., 271, 273, 278 Zotero, 132