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Mathanalysis1 04

This document discusses key concepts in analysis including sequences, metrics, and proofs. It provides examples of different types of sequences and metrics. Specifically, it defines sequences as mappings from natural numbers to a set, and discusses properties like subsequences. It also defines metrics as functions that satisfy symmetry, non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, and the triangle inequality properties. Examples of common metrics on Euclidean spaces are given. The document emphasizes doing proofs in this course to help students learn this important skill in analysis.

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17 views

Mathanalysis1 04

This document discusses key concepts in analysis including sequences, metrics, and proofs. It provides examples of different types of sequences and metrics. Specifically, it defines sequences as mappings from natural numbers to a set, and discusses properties like subsequences. It also defines metrics as functions that satisfy symmetry, non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, and the triangle inequality properties. Examples of common metrics on Euclidean spaces are given. The document emphasizes doing proofs in this course to help students learn this important skill in analysis.

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ARE211, Fall 2003

LECTURE #1: TUE, AUG 31, 2003 PRINT DATE: AUGUST 29, 2004 (ANALYSIS1)

C ONTENTS

1. Analysis 1

1.1. References 1

1.2. Sequences 1

1.3. Distance/Metrics 3

1. A NALYSIS

Heavy emphasis on proofs in this section. Remember that it was the proofs that killed last year’s class, and
there was no quick way of helping them to do them. So we’ll do a lot of them this semester. The best topic
to learn how to proofs in is analysis.

1.1. References

Chapter 12 in Simon-Blume
Chapter 1 and 2: Elementary Classical Analysis, by J. Marsden (on Reserve)

1.2. Sequences

The natural numbers, denoted N, are 1,2,3,4 ..., going on for ever.
1
2 LECTURE #1: TUE, AUG 31, 2003 PRINT DATE: AUGUST 29, 2004 (ANALYSIS1)

A sequence is a mapping from the natural numbers to a set S, i.e., f : N → S; f (n) is the n’th element of the
sequence. Typically, we suppress the functional notation: instead of writing the image of n under f as f (n)
we denote it by xn and write the sequence as {x1 , x2 , ..., xn , ...}, i.e., f (n) = xn .

A sequence {y1 , y2 , ..., yn , ...} is a subsequence of another sequence {x1 , x2 , ..., xn , ...} if there exists a strictly
increasing function τ : N → N such that for all n ∈ N, yn = xτ(n) . Note that τ maps the domain of the
subsequence into the domain of the original sequence. For example, consider the sequence {3, 6, ..., 3n, ...}
and the subsequence {6, 12, ..., 6n, ...}. In this case, the function τ we need is τ(n) = 2n, i.e., for all n,
yn = x2n : e.g., y1 = x2 = 6, y2 = x4 = 12. That is, you construct a subsequence by throwing out elements of
the original sequence, but keeping an infinite number of the original elements and preserving their order.

Examples:

(1) {1, 2, 3, 4...}


(2) {1, 1/2, 4, 1/8...}
(3) {−1, 1, −1, 1...}
(4) {1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4...}
(5) sequences aren’t necessarily maps from N into scalars. We could have a map from N into the set of
continuous functions.
 For example, consider the sequence of continuous functions { f1 , f2 , ... fn ...},
−1 if x ≤ −1/n






where fn = nx if − 1/n < x < 1/n




1 if x ≥ 1/n

(6) sequences don’t necessarily have a closed form representation, i.e., you can’t necessarily write down
a formula that expresses the sequence. For example, if you started generating random numbers and
continued forever, you would have a sequence.

Note that the difference between a sequence and a set of comparable size is that the order of the elements
in a sequence matters, while the order of the elements of a set does not. Thus, the sequences {1, 2, 3, 4...}
and {2, 1, 3, 4...} are different, while the sets {1, 2, 3, 4...} and {2, 1, 3, 4...} are the same. Moreover, the set
{1, 1, 1, 1...} is just the singleton set {1}, while the sequence {1, 1, 1, 1...} is quite different from the scalar
1.
ARE211, Fall 2003 3

1.3. Distance/Metrics

Analysis is all about how close things are to each other. Does a sequence converge to a point? There
are lots of notions of closeness in mathematics, some of them more intuitive than others. So long as we are
considering closeness in the context of Euclidean space, most notions of closeness are essentially equivalent.
However, once we get to consider closeness in the context of functions, there is a vast variety of quite
different notions. Mathematicians have an abstract notion of what is a legitimate measure of closeness.

Definition: : a metric or distance function on a set S is a function d : S × S → R satisfying, for all x, y ∈ S:

(1) d(x, y) = d(y, x) (symmetry)


(2) d(x, y) ≥ 0 (nonnegativity)
(3) d(x, y) = 0 iff x = y (two elements are a positive distance apart iff they are different from each other)
(4) d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y), for all z ∈ S (the triangle inequality)

The last property of a metric is the one that has the most bite, and the one that really captures the spirit of
distance: it states that the shortest distance between two points is a straight line.

Examples of metrics

(1) on R: d(x, y) = |x − y|.


(2) on Rn : d(x, y) = ∑ni=1 (xi − yi )2
p

(3) on Rn : d(x, y) = 
max{|xi − yi | : i = 1, ..., n}.
1 if x 6= y

(4) on Rn : d(x, y) = (we’ll call this the discrete metric).
0 if x = y

An example of a function that is not a metric is e(x, y) = min{|xi − yi | : i = 1, ..., n}.



1 if x 6= y

Let’s check that the function d(x, y) = is indeed a metric. It clearly satisfies the first three
0 if x = y

properties. What about the triangle inequality. First observe that if x = y, then d(x, y) = 0. Since d(x, z) +
d(z, y) is necessarily nonnegative, then inequality holds. Now suppose that x 6= y so that d(x, y) = 1. In this
case, for all z, either z 6= x or z 6= y in which case either d(x, z) or d(z, y) is 1 so the inequality is satisfied.
4 LECTURE #1: TUE, AUG 31, 2003 PRINT DATE: AUGUST 29, 2004 (ANALYSIS1)

Now let’s check that the function e(x, y) = min{|xi − yi | : i = 1, ..., n} is not a metric. Well it fails the
third condition, since e((1, 1), (1, 2)) = 0, but (1, 1) 6= (1, 2). More fundamentally it fails the last condition:
set x = (1, 1), y = (2, 2), z = (1, 2), e((1, 1), (2, 2)) = 1 but e((1, 1), (1, 2)) = e((1, 2), (2, 2)) = 0 so that
d(x, y) > d(x, z) + d(z, y).

If S is a space of functions, condition 3 is not a happy condition. You often would like two functions that
aren’t equal to be of distance zero from each other: e.g., two probability density functions defined on [0, 1]
that differ at only one point. If you insisted on condition 3, you would never be allowed to do this. For this
reason, we define a function to be a pseudo-metric if it satisfies all axioms except 3. E.g., if S is the set of
integrable functions mapping RtoR, then the function ρ : S × S → R defined by ρ( f , g) = ( f (x) − g(x))dx
R

is a pseudo-metric but not a metric.

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