PATTERN FORMATION

LOOP

In fingerprints, as well as in the usual application of the word “loop”, there cannot be a loop unless there
is a recurve or turning back on itself of one or more of the ridges. A pattern must possess several
requisites before it may be properly classified as a loop. This type of pattern is the most numerous of all
and constitute about 65% of all prints.

Loop is a type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges enters on either side of the
impression, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn from the delta to the core, and terminus or
tend to terminate on or toward the same side of the impression form which such ridge or ridges entered.

1. Essential Elements of a Loop

a) A sufficient recurve
b) A delta and core
c) A ridge count across a looping ridge

A) Sufficient Recurve – may be defined as part of the recurving ridge between shoulder of a loop. It
must be free of any appendages abutting upon the outside of the recurve at a right angle.

1. The shoulders of a loop are the points at which the recurving ridge definitely turns inward or
curves.

2. An appendage is an attachment or connection.

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3. An appendage striking the outside of the recurve at a right angle will spoil that recurve

4. Test for appendage. If you

can trace around the recurve and the appendage flows off smoothly, it does not spoil the
recurve, when a recurve is spoiled, use the next recurve outside of it, if it is free of
appendages.
 5. An appendage my form a new loop.

B. Delta and Core

In figure 60, there is a ridge marked "A" which enters on one side of the impression and, after
recurving, passes an imaginary line drawn from the core C to delta D, and terminates on the
same side of the impression from which it entered, marked "B", thus fulfilling all the conditions
required in the definition of a loop. X and Y are the type lines. It will be noted in figure 61 that
there is a ridge which enters on one side of the impression, recurves, and passes an imaginary
line drawn from the delta to the core. It does not terminate on the side from which it entered
but has a tendency to do so. In this case, all the requirements of the loop have been met, and
consequently it is classified as such.

In figure 63, a ridge enters on one side of the impression and then recurves, containing two rods
within it, each of which rises as high as the shoulder of the loop. From our study of cores, we
know that the top of the rod more distant from the delta is the core, but the recurving ridge
does not pass the imaginary line. For that reason the pattern is not classified as a loop, but is
given the preferential classification of a tented arch due to the lack of one of the loop requisites. Page2
The proper location of the core and delta is of extreme importance, for an error in the location
of either might cause this pattern to be classified as a loop.

C. Ridge Counting

It is the number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core is known as the “ridge
count”. Each ridge is counted which “crosses or touches” an imaginary line drawn from the delta
and the core. Neither delta nor core is counted. A red line upon the reticule of the fingerprint
glass is used to ensure absolute accuracy.

a. Rules in Ridge Counting

1. When the imaginary line crosses or touches the point of bifurcation of a ridge, two
ridges are counted.
2. When the imaginary line crosses or touches the point of bifurcation of an enclosure, two
ridges are counted.
 3. When the imaginary line crosses or touches an ending ridge, one ridge is counted.
4. When the imaginary line crosses or touches a short ridge, one ridge is counted.
5. When the imaginary line crosses or touches a long ridge, one ridge is counted.
6. When the imaginary line crosses or touches a dot (if as thick and as heavy as the other
ridges), one ridge is counted.
7. When the imaginary line crosses or touches a fragmentary ridge (if as thick and as heavy
as the other ridges), one ridge are counted.
8. When the imaginary line crosses or touches a point of convergence of two ridges, two
ridges are counted.
9. When the imaginary line crosses or touches a point of convergence of three ridges,
three ridges are counted.

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ARCH

In plain arches the ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or tend to flow out the other
side with a rise or wave in the center. It will be noted that there may be various ridge formation such as
ridges, bifurcation dots and islands involved in this type of pattern. But they all tend to follow the
general ridge contour; they enter on one side, make a rise or wave in the center, tend to flow out the
other side.

In tented arch, most of the ridges enter upon one

side of the impression and flow or tend to flow out
upon the other side, as in the plain arch type,
however ridge or ridges at the center do not.
There are three types of tented arches;

1. The type on which at the center form a definite angle; 90⁰ or less.
 2. The type in which
ne or more ridges
at the center form an up thrust in an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient
degree form a horizontal plane; 45⁰ or more.

3. The type approaching the loop type, possessing two of the basic or essential
characteristic of the loop but lacking the third.

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Tented arches and some forms of the loop are often confused. It should be remembered by the reader
that the mere converging of two ridges does not form a recurve, without which there can be no loop. On
the other hand, there are many patterns which at first sight resemble tented arches but which on close
inspection are found to be loops, as where one looping ridge will be found in an almost vertical position
within the pattern area, entirely free from and passing in front of the delta.

Figure 135 is a sketch of a pattern reflecting a ridge, A—B, entering

on one side of the impression, recurving, and making its exit on the
other side of the impression. The reader should study this sketch
carefully. It should be borne in mind that there must be a ridge
entering on one side of the impression and recurving in order to
make its exit on the same side from which it entered, or having a
tendency to make its exit on that side, before a pattern can be
considered for possible classification as a loop. This pattern is a
tented arch of the upthrust type. The upthrust is C. There is also an
angle at E. D cannot be termed as a delta, as the ridge to the left of D
cannot be considered a type line because it does not diverge from
the ridge to the right of D but turns and goes in the same direction

WHORL
The patterns to which numerical values are assigned in deriving the "primary" in the extension of the
Henry System of fingerprint classification used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation are the whorl-type
patterns, which occur in about 30 percent of all fingerprints.

The whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are present with a recurve in front in each.
Figures 191 to 193 reflect the minimum requirements for the whorl.

It is important to note that the above definition is very general; however, this pattern may be subdivided
for extension purposes in large groups where whorls are predominant. Even though this extension may be
used, all types of whorls are grouped together under the general classification of "Whorl" and are
designated by the letter "W".

The aforementioned subdivisions are as follows: The Plain Whorl, The Central Pocket Loop, The Double
Loop, and The Accidental.

The plain whorl

The "plain whorl" consists of the simplest form of whorl construction and is the most common Page2
of the whorl subdivisions. It is designated by the symbol "W" for both general classification and
extension purposes.

The plain whorl has two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit, which may be
spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas
must touch or cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area. A
recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage connected with it in the line of flow cannot
be construed as a circuit. An appendage connected at that point is considered to spoil the
recurve on that side.

Central pocket loop

The central pocket loop type of whorl has

two deltas and at least one ridge making a
complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval,
circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must not
touch or cross any of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area.
Double loop

Within the whorl group, the subclassification type "double loop" is used for extension purposes
only. In general classification it is designated by the letter "W".
The double loop consists of two separate loop formations, with two separate and distinct sets of
shoulders, and two deltas.
The word "separate," as used here, does not mean unconnected. The two loops may be
connected by an appending ridge provided that it does not abut at right angles between the
shoulders of the loop formation. The appendage rule for the loop applies also to the double
loop. An appendage abutting upon a loop at right angles between the shoulders is considered to
spoil the loop, while an appendage which flows off smoothly is considered to leave the recurve
intact.
The fact that there must be two separate loop formations eliminates from consideration as a
double loop the "S" type core, the interlocking type core, and the formation with one loop inside
another.
The loops of a double loop do not have to conform to the requirements of the loop. In other
words, no ridge count is necessary.
It is not essential that both sides of a loop be of equal length, nor that the two loops be of the
same size. Neither is it material from which side the loops enter.
The distinction between twinned loops and lateral pocket loops made by Henry and adopted by
other authors has been abandoned by the Federal Bureau of Investigation because of the
difficulty in locating and tracing the loops. Both types have been consolidated under the
classification "double loop."

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Accidental

Within the whorl group the subdivision type "accidental" is used for extension purposes only. In
general classification it is designated by the letter "W" and for extension purposes by the letter
"X".

The accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different types of pattern,
with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas; or a pattern which possesses some
of the requirements for two or more different types; or a pattern which conforms to none of the
definitions. It may be a combination of loop and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and central
pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop, or other such combinations. The plain arch is
excluded as it is rather the absence of pattern than a pattern. Underneath every pattern there
are ridges running from one side to the other, so that if it were not excluded every pattern but
the plain arch would be an accidental whorl.

This subclassification also includes those exceedingly unusual patterns which may not be placed
by definition into any other classes.

Whorl Tracing

The technique of whorl tracing depends upon the establishment of the focal points—the deltas.
Every whorl has two or more. When the deltas have been located, the ridge emanating from the
lower side or point of the extreme left delta is traced until the point nearest or opposite the
extreme right delta is reached. The number of ridges intervening between the tracing ridge and
the right delta are then counted. If the ridge traced passes inside of (above) the right delta, and
three or more ridges intervene between the tracing ridge and the delta, the tracing is designated
as an "inner"—I (fig. 280). If the ridge traced passes outside (below) the right delta, and three or
more ridges intervene between the tracing ridge and the right delta, the tracing is designated as
an "outer"—O (fig. 281). All other tracings are designated as "meeting"—M (figs. 282 to 287).
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 [Figs. 280-287]

Tracing begins from the left delta. In no instance is a tracing to begin on a type line. In figure 288,
tracing begins at the short ridge which is the left delta. It is true that inasmuch as the short ridge
ends immediately the type line is next followed, but this is only because the type line is the next
lower ridge. Its status as a type line is independent and has no bearing on the fact that it is being
traced. This point is illustrated further in figure 289. This pattern shows an inner tracing. It will be
noted that the delta is at the point on the first recurve nearest to the center of the divergence of
the type lines. It will be further noted that tracing begins at the point of delta on the left and Page2
continues toward the right, passing inside of the right delta, with three ridges intervening
between the tracing ridge and the right delta. This shows the tracing to be an inner tracing. If, in
this case, the type line were traced (which would be the incorrect procedure), only two ridges
would intervene between the tracing ridge and the right delta, resulting in an erroneous meeting
tracing. Figure 290 is another example of the application of this rule. This illustration is also an
inner whorl.
 [Figs. 288-290]

When the ridge traced ends abruptly, and it is determined that the ridge definitely ends, the tracing
drops down to the point on the next lower ridge immediately beneath the point where the ridge above
ends, continuing from there. Figure 291, therefore, is an outer whorl.

[Fig. 291]

In this connection it should be noted that the rule for dropping to the next lower line applies
only when the ridge definitely ends. Short breaks in a ridge which may be due to improper
inking, the presence of foreign matter on the ridges, enlarged pores, disease, or worn ridges
should not be considered as definite ridge endings. The determination of what constitutes a Page2
definite ending will depend, of course, upon the good judgment of the classifier. When the
question arises as to whether a break encoun[Pg 69]tered in the ridge tracing is a definite
ending, or whether there has been interference with a natural impression, the whole pattern
should be examined to ascertain whether such breaks are general throughout the pattern. If
they are found to be common, consideration should then be given to the possibility that the
break is not a definite ridge ending. Appropriate reference tracing should be done in all such
cases.

Whenever the ridge traced bifurcates, the rule for tracing requires that the lower limb or branch
proceeding from the bifurcation be followed. This is illustrated in 292.

[Fig. 292]
 Accidentals often possess three or more deltas. In tracing them only the extreme deltas are
considered, the tracing beginning at the extreme left delta and proceeding toward the extreme
right delta, as illustrated in figure 293.[Pg 70]

[Fig. 293]

In a double loop or accidental the problem of where to stop tracing is sometimes presented. The rule
is, when the tracing passes inside of the right delta, stop at the nearest point to the right delta on the
upward trend, as in figure 294. If no upward trend is present, continue tracing until a point opposite the
right delta, or the delta itself, is reached (figs. 295 and 296).

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[Figs. 294-296]