B.Tech.

(Sem-III) Theory Examination (2022-2023)

SENSOR AND INSTRUMENTATION
Solution-KOE-034

Section-A
Q-1
Sl. Solution
No.
a. 1) Static Characteristics: Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that are either constant
or varies slowly with time. These criteria are called static characteristics. Important static characteristics of
sensors include sensitivity, resolution, linearity, zero drift and full-scale drift, range, repeatability and
reproducibility. Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of the sensor relative to a unit change in the
input (the measured quantity.)
2) Dynamic Characteristics: Many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying quantities and
therefore, for such cases we must examine the dynamic relations which exist between the output and the input.
This is normally done with the help of differential equations. Performance criteria based upon dynamic
relations constitute the dynamic characteristics.

b. The choice of the transducers depends on the following factors.

1) Operating Principle
2) Sensitivity
3) Operating Range
4) Accuracy
5) Errors
6) Loading Effect
7) Environmental Compatibility
8) Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals
9) Usage and Ruggedness
10) Stability and Reliability
11) Static characteristic

c. Basis For
Thermocouple Thermistor
Comparison
Definition The thermocouple is a type of device used Thermistor is the thermal
for measuring the temperature resistor whose resistance
changes with the temperature.
Symbol

Sensing Voltage generate at the junction. Resistance

Parameter
Material Copper, iron, Constantan, Chromel, Manganese, nickel or cobalt
Alloys of metals like Chrome, chromium oxides, semiconductor
and nickel, platinum and rhodium, material.
tungsten and rhenium, rhodium and
iridium.
Accuracy High Very Low
 Temperature -50°C to 250°C -200°C to 1250°C
Range

d.

e. WHILE Loops
◮ The While Loop executes the sub diagram until the conditional terminal, and receives a
specific Boolean value. The default behavior and appearance of the condition a terminal is Stop if
True.
◮ When a conditional terminal is Stop if True, the While Loop executes its subdiagram until the
conditional terminal receives a TRUE value.
◮ When a conditional terminal is Continue if True, the While Loop executes its subdiagram
until the conditional terminal receives a FALSE value.
◮ The iteration terminal ‘i’ (an output terminal), contains the number of completed iterations.
The iteration count always starts at zero. During the first iteration, the iteration terminal returns 0.

f. Formula Node:
The Formula Node in Lab VIEW software is a convenient, text-based node you can use to perform
complicated mathematical operations on a block diagram using the C- syntax structure. It is most
useful for equations that have many variables or are otherwise complicated.

Example:
g.  The counter and timer functions let users measure either the frequency or the period of an input signal,
and the total number of pulses or cycles captured in a specified time period.
 The input to a counter is typically a pulse train. A counter measures the number of input pulses during
a given time period and then determines the frequency of the signal.A timer measures the time period
required for a preprogrammed number of cycles of input signals to occur

h.  Data Socket is an easy-to-use, high-performance programming interface that is designed specifically for
sharing and publishing live data in measurement and automation applications.

 Although a variety of different technologies exist today to share data between applications, including
TCP/IP and dynamic data exchange (DDE), most of these tools are not targeted for live data transfer to
multiple clients. With TCP/IP, you have to convert your data into an unstructured stream of bytes in the
broadcasting application and then parse the stream of bytes back into its original format in subscribing
applications.

 Data Socket is a single, unified, end-user application programming interface (API) for connecting to data
from a number of sources – local files, files on FTP or Web servers, and data items on OPC Servers.

i. Feature of Smart sensor

1. Automatic ranging.
2. Auto calibration of data through an in-built system.
3. Automatic data acquisition system and storage of data in local memory of the field device.
4. Auto linearization of non-linear functions.
5. Auto correction of offsets, time and temperature drifts.
6. Self-tuning control algorithms.

j.
Industrial robots use a large number of sensors to achieve good operation and control in industrial
automation production processes. For example, collaborative robots integrate torque sensors and
cameras to ensure the best perspective and safety. The use of industrial robots in mass production
environments has many proven benefits. Most importantly, robots automate tasks that previously
were done manually. Robots are able to work for extended periods of time with a high level of
 speed and repeatability, which significantly increases product quality and productivity while
minimizing costs.

Section B

Q2
a. The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also called linear variable displacement
transformer, linear variable displacement transducer, or simply differential transformer) is a type of
electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement (position). This is the most widely used
inductive transducer for translating linear motion to electrical signal. The output of the transformer is
obtained because of the difference of the secondary voltages, and hence it is called a differential
transformer.
Construction of LVDT
The P is the primary winding of the LVDT and S1 and S2 are the secondary winding of the transformer.
The secondary winding is wound on the cylindrical former. The secondary winding has an equal number
of turns, and it is placed identically on both the side of the primary winding.

The alternating current source is applied to the primary winding. The soft iron core is placed inside the
iron core. The displacement which is to be measured is attached to the arm of the iron core. The high
permeability metal is used for the core so that the harmonics are less and null voltage is easily obtained.
The LVDT works on mutual induction principle. The current is applied to the primary winding which
produces the magnetic field, and this field induces the current in the secondary windings
The output voltage of the secondary winding S1 is ES1 and that of the S2 is ES2. The secondary voltage
signal is converted into an electrical signal by connecting the secondary winding in series opposition as
shown in the figure below. The output voltage of the transducer is determined by subtracting the voltage
of the secondary windings.

The output voltage of the secondary winding is equal when the core is in the normal position.
When the soft core moved towards left the flux linked in S1 is more as compared to S2. The output
voltage of the winding S1 is more than the S2 but it is in phase with the primary voltage.

Similarly, when the soft iron core move towards right the magnitude of the flux linked S2 is more than
S1. The output voltage is -180ºC out of phase with the primary winding. The change in output voltage
is directly proportional to the displacement of the core. Any displacement will increase the flux of one
of the secondary winding and on the other hand, reduces the other.
 Characteristics of LVDT

Advantages & Disadvantages of LVDT

Advantages:
• The LVDT has low power consumption.
• It has higher sensitive.
• It has ruggedness.
• It has wide range.
• It has low hysteresis.
Disadvantages:
• Large primary voltage produces distortion in output.
• Temperature affects the performance.
• Sensitive to stray magnetic field.
• Large displacement is required for getting the considerable differential output.

b. Thermocouple:
The thermocouple is a temperature measuring device. It uses for measuring the temperature at one
particular point. In other words, it is a type of sensor used for measuring the temperature in the form of
an electric current or the EMF. The thermocouple consists two wires of different metals which are
welded together at the ends. The welded portion was creating the junction where the temperature is used
to be measured. The variation in temperature of the wire induces the voltages.
Working Principle of Thermocouple:
The working principle of the thermocouple depends on See back effect. Seebeck Effect – The Seebeck
effect occurs between two different metals. When the heat provides to any one of the metal, the electrons
start flowing from hot metal to cold metal. Thus, direct current induces in the circuit. In short, it is a
phenomenon in which the temperature difference between the two different metals induces the potential
differences between them. The Seebeck effect produces small voltages for per Kelvin of temperature.

Working of Thermocouple:
The circuit consists two dissimilar metals. These metals are joined together in such a manner that they
are creating two junctions. The metals are bounded to the junction through welding

Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The T1 and T2 are the temperatures at the
junctions. As the temperature of the junctions is different from each other, the EMF generates in the
circuit. If the temperatures of the junction become unequal, the potential difference induces in the
circuit. The magnitude of the EMF induces in the circuit depends on the types of material used for
making the thermocouple. The total current flowing through the circuit is measured through the
measuring devices.
The EMF induces in the thermocouple circuit is given by the equation

Where, Δθ – temperature difference between the hot thermocouple junction and the reference
thermocouple junction. a, b – constants
 Solution: Let series resistance be Rs
emf = I (Rm + Rs + Re)
Rs = (emf / I) - Rm - Re
Rs = (33.3 × 10⁻³) / (0.1 × 10⁻³) - 50 - 12
Rs = 333 - 62
Rs = 271Ω is the answer

c
Traditional versus virtual instruments:
A traditional instrument is designed to collect data from an environment, or from a unit under
test, and to display information to a user based on the collected data. Such an instrument may employ
a transducer to sense changes in a physical parameter such as temperature or pressure, and to convert
the sensed information into electrical signals such as voltage or frequency variations.
A virtual instrument (VI) is defined as an industry-standard computer equipped with user-friendly
application software, cost-effective hardware and driver software that together perform the
functions of traditional instruments. Simulated physical instruments are called virtual instruments (VIs).
Virtual instrumentation software based on user requirements defines general-purpose measurement and
control hardware functionality. With virtual instrumentation, engineers and scientists reduce
development time, design higher quality products, and lower their design costs. In test, measurement
and control, engineers have used virtual instrumentation to downsize automated test equipment (ATE)
while experiencing up to a several times increase in productivity gains at a fraction of the cost of
 traditional instrument solutions.

Figure – Traditional Instruments Block Diagram Figure – Software based Virtual Instruments

d
R-2R Ladder Type DAC:

The R-2R Ladder DAC overcomes the disadvantages of a binary weighted resistor DAC. As the name
suggests, R-2R Ladder DAC produces an analog output, which is almost equal to the digital (binary)
input by using a R-2R ladder network in the inverting adder circuit. Recall that the bits of a binary
number can have only one of the two values. i.e., either 0 or 1. Let the 3-bit binary input is b1b2b3.
Here, the bits b1 and b3 denote the Most Significant Bit (MSB) and Least Significant Bit (LSB)
respectively. The digital switches shown in the above figure will be connected to ground, when the
corresponding input bits are equal to ‘0’. Similarly, the digital switches shown in above figure will be
connected to the negative reference voltage, −VR when the corresponding input bitsare equal to ‘1’. It
is difficult to get the generalized output voltage equation of a R-2R Ladder DAC. But, we can find the
analog output voltage values of R-2R Ladder DAC for individual binary input combinations easily.
Example
Let us find the value of analog output voltage of R-2R Ladder DAC for a binary
Input, b1b2b3= 100.
Binary Weighted Resistor DAC:

A weighted resistor DAC produces an analog output, which is almost equal to the digital (binary) input
by using binary weighted resistors in the inverting adder circuit. In short, a binary weighted resistor
DAC is called as weighted resistor DAC.
Recall that the bits of a binary number can have only one of the two values. i.e., either 0 or 1. Let the 3-
bit binary input is b1b2b3. Here, the bits b1 and b3 denote the Most Significant Bit (MSB) and Least
Significant Bit (LSB) respectively. The digital switches shown in the above figure will be connected to
ground, when the corresponding input bits are equal to ‘0’. Similarly, the digital switches shown in the
above figure will be connected to the negative reference voltage, −VR when the corresponding input
bits are equal to ‘1’.
In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal of an op-amp is connected to ground. That means
zero volts is applied at the non- inverting input terminal of op-amp.
e.
A smart sensor is an analog/digital transducer combined with a processing unit and a communication
interface. It consists of transduction element, signal conditioning electronic and controller/processor
that support some intelligence in a single package. This integrated sensors which has electronics and
the transduction element together on one silicon chip, this system can be called as system-on-chip
(SoC).The main aim of integrating the electronics and the sensor is to make an intelligent sensor, which
can be called as smart sensor. Smart sensors then have the ability to make some decision.

Block Diagram of Smart Sensors

The detailed architecture of a smart sensor is shown in Figure below:

1. The components present in the architecture of a smart sensor are given as follows :
i. Transduction elements (transducers)
ii. Interfacing hardware (data acquisition system)
iii. Memory hardware
iv. Programming devices
v. Communication facilities
vi. Compensation facilities.
2. From the architecture, there are several amplifiers (A1, A2, A3 and A4) and sample and hold circuits
(S/H1, S/H2, S/H3 and S/H4) corresponding to different transducers (Transducer 1, Transducer 2,
Transducer 3 and Transducer 4) respectively.
Sample & Hold Circuit

3. To obtain the digital signal, the analog signals are sent to ADC via analog MUX. Any type of ADC
like flash type, successive approximation type or dual slope type ADC can be preferred based on
required conversion time constraint.
4. Offset compensation and correction circuits are also provided along with the processor.
5. These circuits are useful for the offset correction and zero compensation purpose against temperature
drift. For the data storage and retrieval, memory is also available in the smart sensor.
Section-C
Q3.
a. Strain Gauge
Let a tensile stress is applied to the wire, this produces a positive strain causing length to increase
and area to decrease. When the wire is strained there are change in its dimensions. Let ΔL= change
in length, ΔA= change in area, ΔD= change in diameter & ΔR= change in resistance.
b. Piezoelectric Transducer:
It is used for measuring the physical quantity like force, pressure, stress, etc., which is directly not
possible to measure. The piezo transducer converts the physical quantity into an electrical voltage
which is easily measured by analogue and digital meter. The piezoelectric transducer uses the
piezoelectric material which has a special property, i.e. the material induces voltage when the
pressure or stress applied to it. The material which shows such property is known as the electro-
resistive element.
The word piezoelectric means the electricity produces by the pressure. The Quartz is the examples
of the natural piezoelectric crystals, whereas the Rochelle salts, ammonium dehydration, phosphate,
lithium sulphate, dipotassium tartrate are the examples of the man made crystals. The EMF
develops because of the displacement of the charges. The effect is changeable, i.e. if the varying
potential applies to a piezoelectric transducer, it will change the dimension of the material or deform
it. This effect is known as the piezoelectric effect. The pressure is applied to the crystals with the
help of the force summing devices for examples the stress is applied through mechanical pressure
gauges and pressure sensors, etc. The deformation induces the EMF which determines the value of
applied pressure.
Section C
Q4
a. Hall Effect Transducers
The hall effect element is a type of transducer used for measuring the magnetic field by converting
it into an emf. The direct measurement of the magnetic field is not possible. Thus the Hall Effect
Transducer is used. The transducer converts the magnetic field into an electric quantity which is
easily measured by the analogue and digital meters.
Principle of Hall Effect Transducer The principle of hall effect transducer is that if the current
carrying strip of the conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, then the
EMF develops on the edge of the conductor. The magnitude of the develop voltage depends on the
density of flux, and this property of a conductor is called the Hall effect. The Hall effect element is
mainly used for magnetic measurement and for sensing the current.
The metal and the semiconductor has the property of hall effect which depends on the densities and
the mobility of the electrons. Consider the hall effect element shown in the figure below. The current
supply through the lead 1 and 2 and the output is obtained from the strip 3 and 4. The lead 3 and 4
are at same potential when no field is applied across the strip.

When the magnetic field is applied to the strip, the output voltage develops across the output leads
3 and 4. The develops voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the material.

The current and magnetic field strength both can be measured with the help of the output voltages.
The hall effect EMF is very small in conductors because of which it is difficult to measure. But
semiconductors like germanium produces large EMF which is easily measured by the moving coil
instrument.
The float is attached with a magnet such that its actuation varies the magnetic field distance far or near to
the Hall-element. As the liquid level goes up, the magnet moves closer to the sensor and hence the output
voltage is increased whereas this voltage decreases when liquid level goes down
b. Capacitive Level Sensor:
Change in capacitance with change in area of plates distance between plates and the dielectric
constant are used in detecting the level of liquids and solids in a container.
i) Variable area method: The variable area capacitive transducer is used for measurement of levels
of both solids and liquids. The electrical conducting container containing the materials is used as
one connection point of the transducer. The other point is a metal rod completely covered by
insulating material inside the container. The insulating material acts as the dielectric medium and
the capacitance varies linearly with the height of the material.

The relationship is given by:

Where, ɛ = Permittivity; F/m,

h = Height of material; m,
d1 = Diameter of the metal rod; m, and
d2 = External diameter of the insulator; m.

The container should be earthed to avoid any danger of electric shock to the personnel and to prevent
any errors due to external metallic objects.

ii) Capacitive voltage divider method

In case, the conductivity of a liquid is high, its surface can be used as one electrode of the capacitor.
The other electrode is a fixed reference plate parallel to the surface of the liquid. A system
incorporating these features is shown in Fig.1. This uses an auxiliary electrode
P1 placed at a fixed distance above the reference electrode P2. The two electrodes P1 and P2 are
electrically insulated from each other. An AC voltage is applied between the liquid and the electrode
P1.

Capacitance C2 is inversely proportional to the distance between the liquid surface and P2. Thus
the output voltage decreases with rise of liquid level and therefore the relationship between them is
non-linear.
 Fig. 1 Capacitive voltage divider liquid level gauge

iii) Variable dielectric constant method

If the liquid is non-conducting it can be used as a dielectric in a capacitor. The arrangement for
measurement of liquid level for non-conducting liquids is illustrated in the Fig.2.
An insulated metal electrode firmly fixed near and parallel to the metal wall of the tank. If the liquid
is non-conductive, the electrode and the tank wall form the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor with the liquid in between them acting as the dielectric. If the liquid is conductive
the rod and the liquid form the plates of the capacitor, and the insulation between them is the
dielectric. Where the tank is not of metal, two parallel insulated rods or electrodes, kept at a fixed
distance a part are used. The two rods act as two plates of a parallelplate capacitor.

Fig. 2 Dielectric liquid level gauge

The capacitance of this capacitor depends, among other factors, upon the height of the dielectric
between the plates. The higher the liquid level, the greater is the capacitance. The lesser the height,
the smaller is the capacitance. Thus, the capacitance is proportional to the height of the liquid in the
tank. The capacitance in the above cases may be measured and this measured capacitance is an
indication of liquid levels.
Advantage:
Capacitance level transmitters have following advantages: They are mechanically simple and
have no moving parts. They require very less maintenance. They are resistant to turbulence.
 Disadvantage:
One of the main disadvantages of capacitive sensors is the non-linearity exhibited because the
output is inversely proportional to the gap between the parallel electrodes. This can be improved
by using the sensor in touch mode, where the diaphragm is in contact with the insulating layer on
the lower electrode.

Section C
Q5

a. Structure in Lab VIEW

A structure is defined as a graphical representation of a loop (i.e., a loop is nothing but a set of code
blocks that are executed based on the condition match). In reality, structures have control over the
execution flow within a Virtual Instrument (VI). There are different types of structures available
within Lab VIEW
Case Structure: Case structures are widely used in the scenarios where the program or
the users have to take a decision. The decision is categorized into two options, i.e. True or False. At
any point of execution, only one condition (or case, i.e. True or False) will be executed. The case
structure functionality is explained with a block diagram below:
➢Firstly, draw the cases so that it has a true value and also a false value.
➢This can be selected from the main menu of case structure within Lab VIEW.
➢Within this explanation, we will be calculating the log value and we want the case structure to
monitor only for positive values.
➢The true condition block diagram is shown below where the user will have an option to enter a
value in ‘X’ from the front end of Lab VIEW ( which can be seen on the left-hand side of the block
diagram).

False condition case block diagram is shown below:

Execute the above program in Lab VIEW by entering a positive value from the front end of Lab
VIEW and after that, enter a negative value from the front end of the Lab VIEW.
In this case, the result of a true condition case structure is displayed in the front panel of Lab VIEW.

The result shows a negative value within the front panel of Lab VIEW.
Sequence Structure:

A sequence structure contains one or more sub diagrams, or frames, that execute in sequential order.
Within each frame of a sequence structure, as in the rest of the block diagram, data dependency
determines the execution order of nodes. Sequence structures are not used commonly in Lab VIEW.
Use the sequence structures to control the execution order when natural data dependency does not
exist and flow- through parameters are not available. There are two types of sequence structures—
the Flat Sequence structure and the Stacked Sequence structure

Flat Sequence Structure:

The Flat Sequence structure, shown as follows, displays all the frames at once and executes the
frames from left to right and when all data values wired to a frame are available, until the last frame
executes. The data values leave each frame as the frame finishes executing. Use the Flat Sequence
structure to avoid using sequence locals and to better document the block diagram. When you add
or delete frames in a Flat Sequence structure, the structure resizes automatically.

To convert a Flat Sequence structure to a Stacked Sequence structure, right-click the Flat Sequence
structure and select Replace with Stacked Sequence from the shortcut menu. If you change a Flat
Sequence to a Stacked Sequence and then back to a Flat Sequence, Lab VIEW moves all input
terminals to the first frame of the sequence. The final Flat Sequence should operate the same as the
Stacked Sequence. After you change the Stacked Sequence to a Flat Sequence with all input
terminals on the first frame, you can move wires to where they were located in the original Flat
Sequence.

•Stacked Sequence Structure:

The Stacked Sequence structure, shown as follows, stacks each frame so you see only one frame at
a time and executes frame 0, then frame 1, and so on until the last frame execute.
The Stacked Sequence structure returns data only after the last frame executes. Use the Stacked
Sequence structure if you want to conserve space on the block diagram. To convert a Stacked
Sequence structure to a Flat Sequence structure, right-click the Stacked Sequence structure and
Select Replace » Replace with Flat Sequence from the shortcut menu.
The sequence selector identifier, shown as follows, at the top of the Stacked Sequence structure
contains the current frame number and range of frames.
 Use the sequence selector identifier to navigate through the available frames and rearrange frames.
The frame label in a Stacked Sequence structure is similar to the case selector label of the Case
structure. The frame label contains the frame number in the center and decrement and increment
arrows on each side. Click the decrement and increment arrows to scroll through the available
frames. You also can click the down arrow next to the frame number and select a frame from the
pull- down menu. Right-click the border of a frame, selects Make This Frame, and select a frame
number from the shortcut menu to rearrange the order of a Stacked Sequence structure. Unlike the
case selector label, you cannot enter values in the frame label. When you add, delete, or rearrange
frames in a Stacked Sequence structure, Lab VIEW automatically adjusts the numbers in the frame
labels.

b. Role of Hardware and Software in Virtual Instrumentation:

Role of Hardware
 Input/Output plays a critical role in virtual instrumentation. To accelerate test, control and design,I/O
hardware must be rapidly adaptable to new concepts and products.
 Virtual instrumentation delivers this capability in the form of modularity within scalable hardware
platforms.
 Virtual instrumentation is software-based; if we can digitize it, we can measure it.
 Standard hardware platforms that house the I/O are important to I/O modularity.
 Laptops and desktop computers provide an excellent platform where virtual instrumentation can
make the most of existing standards such as the USB, PCI, Ethernet, and PCMCIA buses.

Role of Software:
 Software is the most important component of a virtual instrument.
 With the right software tool, engineers and scientists can efficiently create their own applications by
designing and integrating the routines that a particular process requires.
 You can also create an appropriate user interface that best suits the purpose of the application and
those who will interact with it.
 You can define how and when the application acquires data from the device, how it processes,
manipulates and stores the data, and how the results are presented to the user.
 When dealing with a large project, engineers and scientists generally approach the task by breaking
it down into functional solvable units.
 A virtual instrument is not limited or confined to a stand-alone PC.
 In fact, with recent developments in networking technologies and the Internet, it is more common
for instruments to use the power of connectivity for the purpose of task sharing.
 Every virtual instrument is built upon flexible, powerful software by an innovative engineer or
scientist applying domain expertise to customize the measurement and control application.
 Virtual instrumentation software can be divided into several different layers like the application
software, test and data management software, measurement and control services software as shown
 in Figure Layers of Virtual Instrumentation Software

Section C
Q6
a.
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS (DAQ or DAS):
Data acquisition system (DAS) is a computerized system that collects data from the real world,
converts it into the form of electrical signals and do required processing on it for storage, and
presentation on computers. The complete system is controlled and operated by a software
application. This software application is developed by using general-purpose high-level
programming languages like C, C++, java, etc.
These systems are used in industrial and commercial fields. They are used for collecting, storing
and processing of data.
The data acquisition system can be divided into two types:
1) Analog data acquisition system
2) Digital data acquisition system
The analog data acquisition system gives an analog output whereas the digital data acquisition
system gives a digital output. Analog DAS is used when wide frequency width is required or when
lower accuracies can be tolerated. Digital DAS is used when physical quantity being monitored has
a narrow bandwidth (i.e. when the quantity varies slowly). Also, high accuracy and low per channel
cost are required. These are more complex than analog DAS. The digital data have more advantages
over analog data. Some of
those are:
➢easy and fast processing,
➢easy and fast transmission,
➢easy display,
➢less storage space is required,
➢more accurate.
Due to these advantages, mostly the digital data acquisition system is preferred

A generalized data acquisition system block diagram is shown in Figure.

The function of each block is as under: Transducers: They are converting physical quantities (such
as temperature, pressure, etc.) into electrical quantities, or measuring
Electrical quantities directly. They collect data from the physical world. Signal.
Conditioning Unit: The signal produced by the transducers may or may not be very suitable for our
system to work properly. It may be very weak, very strong or may have some noise. To convert this
signal into the most suitable form, amplification, and Filtration is done respectively by signal
conditioning unit. So the signal conditioning unit converts electrical signals in the most suitable
form.

Multiplexer: The multiplexer receives multiple analog inputs and provides a single output signal
according to the requirements. If a separate channel is used for each quantity, the cost of installation,
maintenance, and periodic replacement becomes high. Therefore, a Single channel is used which is
shared by various quantities.
Analog to Digital (A/D) Converters: The data is converted into digital form by A/D converters.
After the conversion of data into digital form, it is displayed with the help of oscilloscopes,
numerical displays, panel meters to monitor the complete system. Also, the data can be either
permanently or temporarily stored or recorded according to the requirement. The data is recorded
on optical, ultraviolet, stylus or ink recorders for future use.

Objectives of Data Acquisition System

➢It must collect the necessary data at the correct speed.
➢It must use all the data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the system.
➢It must monitor the complete system operation to maintain on-line optimum and safe operations.
➢It must be able to summarize and store data for the diagnosis of operation and record purpose.
➢It must be flexible for future requirements.
➢It must be reliable and not have a downtime of more than 0.1%.
➢It must provide an effective human communication system.
b. Successive Approximation Method:

Successive Approximation type ADC is the most widely used and popular ADC method. The
conversion time is maintained constant in successive approximation type
ADC, and is proportional to the number of bits in the digital output, unlike the counter and
continuous type A/D converters. The basic principle of this type of A/D converter is that the
unknown analog input voltage is approximated against an n-bit digital value by trying one bit at a
time, beginning with the MSB. The principle of successive approximation process for a 4-bit
conversion is explained here. This type of ADC operates by successively dividing the voltage range
by half, as explained in the following steps.

1) The MSB is initially set to 1 with the remaining three bits set as 000. The digital equivalent
voltage is compared with the unknown analog input voltage.
(2) If the analog input voltage is higher than the digital equivalent voltage, the MSB is retained as
1 and the second MSB is set to 1. Otherwise, the MSB is set to 0 and the second MSB is set to 1.
Comparison is made as given in step (1) to decide whether to retain or reset the second MSB. The
above steps are more accurately illustrated with the help of an example.

Let us assume that the 4-bit ADC is used and the analog input voltage is VA = 11 V. when the
conversion starts, the MSB bit is set to 1.
Now VA = 11V > VD = 8V = [1000]2
Since the unknown analog input voltage VA is higher than the equivalent digital voltage VD, as
discussed in step (2), the MSB is retained as 1 and the next MSB bit is set to 1 as follows
VD = 12V = [1100]2
Now VA = 11V < VD = 12V = [1100]2
Here now, the unknown analog input voltage VA is lower than the equivalent digital voltage VD.
As discussed in step (2), the second MSB is set to 0 and next MSB set to 1 as VD = 10V = [1010]2
Now again VA = 11V > VD = 10V = [1010]2
Again as discussed in step (2) VA>VD, hence the third MSB is retained to 1 and the last bit is set
to 1. The new code word is VD = 11V = [1011]2 Now finally VA = VD, and the conversion stops.

It consists of a successive approximation register (SAR), DAC and comparator. The output of SAR
is given to n-bit DAC. The equivalent analog output voltage of DAC, VD is applied to the non-
inverting input of the comparator. The second input to the
Comparator is the unknown analog input voltage VA. The output of the comparator is used to
activate the successive approximation logic of SAR. When the start command is applied, the SAR
sets the MSB to logic 1 and other bits are made logic 0, so that the trial code becomes 1000.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Successive Approximation Type ADC

Advantages:
➢ Very high speed
➢ Conversion time is constant and independent of the amplitude of the analog input signal VA.
Disadvantages:
➢ Circuit is complex

Applications of analog to digital converter:

An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is used to convert an analog signal such as voltage to a digital form so
that it can be read and processed by a microcontroller. Most microcontrollers nowadays have built-in ADC
converters. It is also possible to connect an external ADC converter to any type of microcontroller.
Section C
Q7
a. Characteristic of Smart Sensors:

1) Self calibration
Smart sensors acquire information about a non-electrical quantity of interest (the measurand) and convert
this information to a useful electrical output signal. In order to do so, they combine a sensing Element and
the associated interface electronics on a single chip or in a single package. The sensing element performs
the conversion from the non-electrical domain of the measurand to an electrical signal, while the interface
electronics further process this signal to produce an output that can readily be used in a measurement or
control system. Errors introduced in these steps affect the performance and reliability of the overall system.
Therefore, it is very important to determine how large these errors are. The process of doing so is generally
referred to as calibration. Self-calibration means adjusting some parameter of sensor during fabrication,
this can be either gain or offset or both.
Self-calibration is to adjust the deviation of the output of sensor from the desired value when the input is
at minimum or it can be an initial adjustment of gain. Calibration is needed because their adjustments
usually change with time that needs the device to be removed and recalibrated. If it is
Difficult to recalibrate the units once they are in service, the manufacturer over-designs, which ensure that
device, will operate within specification during its service life. These problems are solved by smart sensor
as it has built in microprocessor that has the correction functions in its memory.
2) Multi-sensing (Testing) :
1. Some smart sensor also has ability to measure more than one physical or chemical variable
simultaneously.
2. A single smart sensor can measure pressure, temperature, humidity gas flow, and infrared, chemical
reaction surface acoustic vapour etc.
3) Self-Communicating
Communication is the means of exchanging or conveying information, which can be easily Accomplished
by smart sensor. This is very helpful as sensor can broadcast information about its own status and
measurement uncertainty.
4). Self-Diagnosis:
Smart sensors perform self-diagnosis by looking for signs of errors in internal signals. It can be difficult
for some sensors to distinguish between typical measurement deviations and sensor errors. This problem
is solved by calculating the minimum and maximum values for the measured quantity and storing multiple
measured values near a setup point. The effect of a sensor fault on the measured quantity is measured
using uncertainty techniques. This makes it possible to keep using a sensor even after a fault has occurred.
b.
Application of smart sensors: Smart city

A smart city is a city which functions in a sustainable and intelligent way, by integrating all its
infrastructures and services into a cohesive whole and using intelligent devices for monitoring
and control, to ensure sustainability and efficiency. In a world where population numbers are
constantly rising, significantly driving the consumption of resources causing resource shortages
and climate change, the incentive for innovative solutions is evident. Urban areas, in particular,
are responsible for the major part of resource consumption, instigating an increasing need to
create smarter infrastructures, in search of greener and more energy efficient urban dynamics.
Solutions to these issues comprise of improvements to a majority of components of urban
dynamics, as illustrated in Figure 1. It is predicted that the global economy will be significantly
disproportionate due the growth of cities, with forecasts that by 2050 more than 6 billion people
will live in urban areas. This growth will aggravate further existing energy and climate related
challenges. To solve these challenges, cities which are more resource efficient and technology
driven, are necessary.

Sensing is at the heart of smart infrastructures, which can monitor themselves and act on their
own intelligently. Using sensors to monitorpublic infrastructures, such as bridges, roads and
buildings, provides awareness that enables a more efficient use of resources, based on the data
collected by these sensors. Real-time monitoring eliminates the need for regular scheduled
inspections, therefore reducing costs; measuring energy consumption in households allows for
accurate load forecasting; and sensors deployed in roads for traffic monitoring collect data which
is necessary for the implementation of intelligent transportation systems (ITS). For these
approaches to be effective, sensors have to be deployed in very large numbers and they have to
be interconnected, so that the collected data can be sent to a central information system, where
intelligent decisions based on this data can be made. Application of smart sensor also in industrial
purpose, automotive, finger print recognition, telecommunication, biomedical and defense
sectors etc.