Sao Paulo State University - UNESP

FEB – School of Engineering – Bauru Campus

DEE – Electrical Engineering Department
PPEE – Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering

Manufacturing Process Monitoring

LADAPS – Data Acquisition and Signal Processing Laboratory

Prof. Paulo R Aguiar

Sensors for machining processes
Outline
• Measuring Techniques
• Typical single-sensor machining monitoring systems
• Acoustic Emission (AE)
Measuring Techniques
The measuring techniques for the monitoring of machining
operations have traditionally been categorized into two
approaches: direct and indirect.
In the direct approach the actual quantity of the variable, e.g., tool
wear, is measured. Examples of direct measurement in this case
are the use of cameras for visual inspection, radioactive isotopes,
laser beams, and electrical resistance. This type of measurement
requires stopping the machining operations.

R. Teti et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 59 (2010) 717–739

Measuring Techniques
Many direct methods can only be used as laboratory techniques.
This is largely due to the practical limitations caused by access
problems during machining, illumination and the use of cutting
fluid.
However, direct measurement has a high degree of accuracy and
has been employed extensively in research laboratories to support
the investigations of fundamental measurable phenomena during
machining processes.

R. Teti et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 59 (2010) 717–739

Measuring Techniques
direct methods

Sensor carrying out a shape and

roughness measurement on a camshaft
(Fraunhofer, Aachen)

CNC dimension measuring

http://buvocastings.com/cnc-measuring
Measuring Techniques
Through indirect measurement approaches, auxiliary quantities
such as the cutting force components can be measured. The actual
quantity is subsequently deduced via empirically determined
correlations.
Indirect methods are less accurate than direct ones but are also less
complex and more suitable for practical applications. In contrast to
the traditional detection of tool conditions, the approach is that
machining processes are being continuously monitored via sensing
devices to quantify the process performance or provide
information for process optimization using sensors.

R. Teti et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 59 (2010) 717–739

Measuring Techniques
Many methods can be found for tool condition monitoring, and
indirect methods that rely on the relationship between tool
conditions and measurable signals (such as force, acoustic
emission (AE), vibration, current, etc.) have been extensively
studied.
The major advantage of using AE to monitor tool condition is that
the frequency range of the AE signal is much higher than that of
machine vibrations and environmental noises, and thus does not
interfere with the process.

M.E. Nakai et al. / Expert Systems with Applications (2015)

Measuring Techniques
Indirect methods

Acoustic emission sensor

in grinding and dressing
(from mmsonline.com)

AE sensor in Wheel Balancer

(from Marposs.com)
 Typical single-sensor machining
monitoring systems

Abellan-Nebot , J. V., Subirón, F. R. A review of machining monitoring systems based on artificial

intelligence process models. Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:237–257.
Acoustic Emission (AE)
The class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are
generated by the rapid release of energy from localized sources
within a material, or the transient elastic waves so generated.
(ASTM E610).
Sources: Crack, Leak, Friction/Wear, Property Changes, Fracture
Principle of AE detection:

See this video about wave characteristics: https://youtu.be/R8kCskG7hKI

Acoustic Emission (AE)
The use of AE sensors to detect these elastic waves and to non-
destructively test on materials is called the AE method.
Quite some time before failure occurs, tiny deformations and
minute cracks will appear and spread in materials. By picking up
the trends in AE, the AE method can detect and predict flaws and
failures in materials and structures.
Typical non-destructive testing methods
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Radiographic Testing (RT)
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)
http://www.fujicera.co.jp
Acoustic Emission (AE)
The major difference between the AE method of NDT and the
other NDT methods is that this method is passive, whereas the
others, in a sense, are for the most part active.
With ultrasonic, radiographic or the other NDT methods, the
source of information is derived by creating some effect in or on
the material by external application of energy or compounds. AE
relies on energy that is initiated within the component or material
under test.

Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation, Chapter 10, Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic Emission (AE)
Features of the AE method
The AE method is used to detect frequencies in the ultrasonic
range (several tens of kHz to several MHz). Although AE
resembles ultrasonic testing, the AE method is different from other
non-destructive testing methods in that it detects the dynamic
energy that the flaws in the material themselves emit. The AE
method offers the following advantages:
• Can observe the progress of plastic deformation and
microscopic collapse in real time.
• Can locate a flaw by using several AE sensors.
• Can diagnose facilities while they are in operation.
http://www.fujicera.co.jp
Acoustic Emission (AE)
A comparison of UT and AE methods

http://www.fujicera.co.jp
Acoustic Emission (AE)
AE Source Mechanisms

1. Plastic Deformation: Dislocation motion, Precipitates, Twinning

etc.
2. Fracture: Ductile/Brittle fracture, Fatigue, Creep etc. Composites
(matrix cracking, fiber breakage, debonding, delamination)
3. Phase Transformation: Martensitic transformation,
Melting/Freezing, Sintering, Curing etc.
4. Chemical Reaction: Stress corrosion cracking (SCC), Hydrogen
induced cracking etc.
5. MAE (Magneto-Acoustic Emission): Ferromagnetism, Magnetic
domain wall motion.
6. Pseudo-AE Sources: Leakage, Particle impact, Cavitation,
Friction & Wear etc.
Acoustic Emission (AE)

http://francis.naukas.com http://www.cochlea.org
 Acoustic Emission (AE)
Detection of AE Emission of AE

Leighton TG (1994) Chapter 1: the sound field. In: Leighton TG (ed) The
acoustic bubble. Academic Press, New York, pp 1–66
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Burst and Continuous Emission

Burst Emission
• Discrete packets of acoustic energy generated.
• High amplitude, fracture etc.

Continuous Emission
• Superposition of the bursts emission.
• Low amplitude, dislocation etc.
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Burst and Continuous Emission

RAW Signal
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Basic Terms and Parameters
The AE event is a single dynamic process releasing elastic energy.
The local process producing AE event is called the AE source. The
electric signal detected at the output of the transducer is termed the
AE signal.

The AE measurements are usually carried out in the presence of

continuous background noise. Generally, a threshold level is set in
order to filter out the signal noise.
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Basic Terms and Parameters
In case of discontinuous signal, every AE event (hit) is evaluated
separately. The onset of the AE event is characterized by time ts,
when the AE signal first exceeds the threshold level. The end of
the event could be defined by using a dead-time td (hit definition
time – HDT in Physical Acoustic Corporation devices). The time
of the AE event termination te is set in, when the signal did not
exceed the threshold level during the last td period. The duration of
the event is defined as te – ts.
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Basic Terms and Parameters

Rúnar Unnþórsson, ”Hit Detection and Determination in AE Bursts”, Acoustic Emission - Research and
Applications, Chapter 1, Intech, 2013.
 Acoustic Emission (AE)
Hit Definition Time (HDT)
Long HDT

Short HDT
Threshold Hit 1
Voltage

Short HDT

Hit 2

Time

Long HDT
Hit 1

More in www.muravin.com
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Basic Terms and Parameters

Amplitude – maximum amplitude of the signal during its duration

Rise time – time elapsed between the onset of the event and
achieving the maximum amplitude.
Count - the number of times the AE signal exceeds the threshold
level
Duration – defined as te – ts.
Event energy – is the area under the acoustic emission waveform.
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Basic Terms and Parameters
Cumulative representation of these parameters could be also
defined, e.g., cumulative counts or cumulative energy.

The continuous signal is

mostly evaluated in terms
of the root mean square v
alue (RMS) of the signal
voltage and the count rate
– the number of threshold
crossings per a time unit.
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Acoustic Emission (AE)
Basic Terms and Parameters
Since the reliability of the AE measurements is very sensitive to
the proper setting of the set-up parameters (threshold, dead-time),
the up-to-date AE systems enable continuous sampling and storing
of AE signal, so-called data streaming. In this case, the controlling
computer acquires the raw data for later evaluation by the operator.
The advantage of this approach is that it avoids any data loss due
to incorrect system settings. Furthermore, the evaluation
parameters could be fit more precisely. On the other hand, the data
files are large (~1 Gb/min), which requires long computing time
during the post-processing.