https://www.inosr.

net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al

INOSR Experimental Sciences 13(1):1-14, 2024. ISSN: 2705-1692

©INOSR PUBLICATIONS INOSRES1.14.1110
International Network Organization for Scientific Research
https://doi.org/10.59298/INOSRES/2024/1.14.1110

Revolutionizing Energy Harvesting: Harnessing Ambient

Solar Energy for Enhanced Electric Power Generation
Mundu, M. M.1, Nnamchi, S. N2 and Ssempewo, J. I.3
1
Department of Electrical, Telecommunication and Computer Engineering, Kampala International
University, P.O. Box 20000, Kampala, Uganda. Email: [email protected], ORCID;
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1345-9999.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kampala International University, P.O. Box 20000, Kampala,
Uganda. Email: [email protected], ORCID; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6368-2913.
3
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Design Art and Technology,
Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. Email: [email protected], ORCID;
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9897-211x.

ABSTRACT
The escalating demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources has propelled the exploration of ambient solar
energy as a pivotal avenue for cleaner power generation. This review paper delves into the intricacies of solar energy
harvesting technologies, providing a comprehensive analysis of principles, efficiency metrics, material
advancements, and versatile applications. Focusing on the photovoltaic effect as the cornerstone of solar cells, the
critical impact of semiconductor material selection and bandgap engineering on efficiency is thoroughly examined.
Key performance measures such as fill factor, open-circuit voltage, and short-circuit current are emphasized for their
pivotal role in evaluating system efficiency. The adaptability of solar energy solutions is exemplified through diverse
applications, spanning from portable electronics to large-scale solar farms. Looking towards the future, this review
envisions a promising trajectory for solar energy harvesting, driven by continual advancements in technology,
material science, and efficiency measures. The insights gleaned from this comprehensive examination are poised to
catalyze the development of more efficient and accessible solar energy harvesting technologies. This, in turn,
promises to play a significant role in the global transition towards a greener and more sustainable energy landscape,
contributing substantively to sustainability, climate mitigation, and an enhanced quality of life worldwide.
Keywords: Solar energy harvesting, solar cells, material selection, panel orientation, storage techniques, system
integration, case studies.

INTRODUCTION
The rising global demand for sustainable and pioneering solution in the realm of sustainable
renewable energy sources has emerged as a critical energy, addresses not only the intensifying global
concern. This is due to a combination of elements energy demand and environmental apprehensions but
such as heightened environmental awareness, the also the finite nature of fossil fuel reserves [7, 8]. By
essential requirement for energy security, and the capturing energy from ambient sources, it markedly
urgent need to combat climate change [1, 2, 3]. diminishes dependence on conventional power grids,
Within the extensive array of renewable energy simultaneously reducing the associated carbon
alternatives, solar power distinguishes itself as an footprint [9, 10, 11]. Moreover, the continuous
exceptionally abundant and easily accessible resource. advancement of energy harvesting technologies not
The sun radiates an extraordinary quantity of energy, only leads to the development of more efficient
surpassing current worldwide energy consumption systems, but also catalyzes innovations in materials
rates by a significant margin [4, 5, 6]. Consequently, science, electronics, and energy conversion
the harnessing of this formidable resource has become techniques, thereby propelling overall progress in the
a focal point in the pursuit of a cleaner and more domain of renewable energy technologies [12, 13,
sustainable energy paradigm. Energy harvesting, as a 14]. Scientifically, solar energy harvesting, the
1
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
process of converting sunlight into usable electrical solar energy harvesting to the forefront of renewable
power, hinges on the utilization of solar cells. These energy solutions. Moreover, understanding solar flux
devices, often fabricated from semiconductor is important for designing efficient collectors.
materials, facilitate the direct conversion of photons Importantly, increasing the collector’s area or
into electrons, generating a flow of electrical current. reducing the Earth-Sun distance can significantly
Over the decades, significant strides have been made enhance the potential energy available for harvesting.
in advancing solar cell technology, leading to The Solar Flux (𝐹) is calculated using the Equation
improvements in efficiency, durability, and cost- (1).
effectiveness. These advancements have catapulted
𝐺𝑆𝑐 𝐴
𝐹= 2 (1)
𝐷

This equation calculates the solar flux, which is the surface normal. Solar irradiance is the power per unit
amount of solar energy arriving at a unit area per unit area received on a surface. The cosine term accounts
time [15, 16]. It depends on the solar constant (𝐺𝑆𝑐 = for the angle at which sunlight strikes the surface. At
1361 𝑊𝑚−2 ), the area of the collector, 𝐴 (𝑚2 ), and 𝜃 = 0° (direct overhead), irradiance is at its
the distance between the Earth and the Sun 𝐷, (𝑚). maximum. However, as the angle of incidence
An increase in collector area or a decrease in Earth- deviates from the perpendicular, the effective
Sun distance leads to higher solar flux. Additionally, irradiance diminishes due to the increased path length
Equation (2) relates solar irradiance to solar flux and through the Earth’s atmosphere.
the incident angle (𝜃) between the sunlight and the
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (2)

Understanding how incident angle affects irradiance power per unit area received from sunlight. It relates
is important for optimizing collector orientation. the total power (𝑃) incident on a surface to its area
Equation (2) emphasizes the importance of (𝐴).
positioning collectors for maximum energy capture.
More so, the solar irradiance, 𝐼 (𝑊𝑚−2 ) represents
the energy flux density (Equations (3)), quantifies the

𝑃
𝐼= (3)
𝐴

Higher solar irradiance values indicate a greater the usable electrical power generated by the solar
potential for energy generation. This is influenced by panel. It depends on the efficiency (𝜂), solar energy
geographic location, time of day, and atmospheric collected (𝐸), and the duration of sunlight exposure.
conditions [17]. Furthermore, Equations (4) gives
𝐸
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜂 × (4)
𝑡

Equations (4) guides system design and output performance of an energy harvesting system.
expectations. Apart from quantifying, the actual Consequently, the harvested energy (𝐸) is given by
usable electrical power extracted from incident Equation (5).
sunlight, Equation (4) is fundamental in assessing the

𝐸 = 𝐼 × 𝐴 × 𝜂𝑠𝑐 × 𝑡 (5)

It highlights the importance of optimizing solar cell helps to estimate the total energy harvest potential of
efficiency (𝜂𝑠𝑐 ) and exposure duration (𝑡, (𝑠)) for a solar panel. It’s important for system sizing and
maximizing harvested energy. Additionally, the solar determining energy output for specific time frames.
energy collected (𝐸) is the total energy obtained from The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is given
the sun over a given period (𝑡), considering the by Equations (6). It relates to optimizing the
surface area of the solar panel and the duration of operating point of the solar panel for maximum power
sunlight exposure (Equations (5)). This equation
2
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
output. It considers the open-circuit voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑐 ) and
resistances (𝑅𝑠 and 𝑅𝑠ℎ ).
𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 × (6)
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑠ℎ

The MPPT technology ensures that solar panels energy harvesting is paramount for practical
operate efficiently, especially in varying light applications. As technology progresses, there is a
conditions. It maximizes energy extraction. These relentless pursuit of more efficient materials and
equations offer a comprehensive framework for designs for solar cells, with a focus on enhancing their
understanding the various factors influencing the power conversion efficiency [18, 19, 20]. This
conversion of ambient solar energy into usable continual quest for efficiency improvement not only
electrical power. They serve as essential tools for extends to solar cells but also encompasses the
designing, optimizing, and assessing the performance broader energy harvesting systems, such as improved
of solar energy systems. Converting ambient solar energy storage technologies [21, 22]. The
energy into electric power is a important process in optimization of these systems aims to minimize
harnessing renewable energy. This involves energy loss during storage and distribution, making
capturing sunlight and transforming it into usable them more practical and effective for real-world
electrical energy through photovoltaic technology. applications [23, 24]. Table 1 visualize the various
Equations (1), (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6) provide the efficiency aspects within the context of energy
quantitative framework for evaluating the potential harvesting, highlighting the importance of
and performance of ambient solar energy harvesting optimizing each one to enhance the overall
technologies. Achieving the highest efficiency in effectiveness of the technology.
Table 1 Efficiency Aspects in Energy Harvesting Technologies
Efficiency Aspect Explanation Key Considerations
1. Power Focuses on the efficiency of converting Material properties, design
Conversion absorbed energy into usable electrical power. optimization [25, 26].
Efficiency
2. Energy Addresses how efficiently energy is stored and Battery technology, charge-
Storage later released for use when needed. discharge cycles [27, 28].
Efficiency
3. Transmission Examines losses during energy transmission Conductive materials, grid
and and distribution, striving to minimize them. infrastructure [29, 30].
Distribution
4. Overall System Considers the combined efficiency of all Integration of components, system
Efficiency components within an energy harvesting design [31, 32].
system.

A critical aspect of the energy harvesting scenario is is to comprehensively survey and evaluate diverse
the translation of cutting-edge research into tangible energy harvesting technologies, with a specific
applications [33, 34]. Energy harvesting emphasis on harnessing ambient solar energy. It aims
technologies hold the potential to inspire a more to assess efficiency measures, explore integration
sustainable future by mitigating the environmental strategies, and examine practical applications across
impact of energy production. By reducing our reliance industries. Additionally, the review will evaluate
on fossil fuels and minimizing carbon emissions, environmental and economic impacts, highlight
energy harvesting contributes significantly to emerging trends, and address current challenges,
combating climate change. Furthermore, the providing a valuable resource for researchers and
widespread adoption of these technologies can lead to practitioners while advocating for sustainable, clean
increased energy independence, reducing energy solutions. Ultimately, this paper strives to
vulnerabilities related to energy supply and security advance knowledge in the field and contribute to a
[35, 36, 37]. Accordingly, the objective of this review greener, more environmentally-friendly future.

3
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
Solar Energy Harvesting
Solar Cells’ Fundamentals and Types
Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells, are light, strike the surface of a semiconductor material,
devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity such as silicon, and knock electrons loose. These free
through a process called the photovoltaic effect. This electrons can then flow as an electrical current
effect occurs when photons, which are particles of (Figure 1).

Accumulated Electron
negative Front flow
charge electrical
Photon
contact

       n-type
 
semiconductor
  Holes  Photon   Depletion
E Current
   Electrons   layer flow

 p-type
semiconductor
       

Back
Accumulated positive
electrical
charge
contact
Figure 1 Working Principle of Solar Cell
Solar cells are the basic units that directly convert framework for understanding the conversion of light
sunlight into electricity, forming the foundation of into electricity, as well as a tool in advancing the
solar energy harvesting systems [38, 39]. efficiency and effectiveness of solar energy harvesting
Quantitatively, Equations (4), (5) and (6) provide a technologies.
𝐸 =ℎ⋅𝑓 (4)

Equation (4) relates the energy of a photon (𝐸) to its incident photons is important for optimizing the
frequency (𝑓), as described by Planck’s constant (ℎ = design of solar cells to efficiently capture and convert
6.62607004 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠). Clearly, the energy of light into electricity. Moreover, photons with higher
frequencies possess greater energy.
𝐼𝑝ℎ =𝐺⋅𝐴⋅𝑞⋅𝜂 (5)

Equation (5) quantifies the current generated by the fraction of incident photons that generate electron-
photovoltaic effect (𝐼𝑝ℎ ), considering factors like hole pairs. Further, Equation (5) emphasizes that the
incident light power (𝐺 (𝑊𝑚−2 )), cell area exposed generated current is directly proportional to the
to light (𝐴), electron charge (𝑞 = 1.60217663 × incident light power and cell area.
10−19 𝐶), and quantum efficiency (𝜂) representing the

𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐼𝑝ℎ + 𝐼0
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛 ( ) (6)
𝑞 𝐼0

Additionally, Equation (6) links the open circuit with higher temperatures leading to a decrease in
voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑐 ) of a solar cell to temperature (𝑇 (𝐾)), voltage. Additionally, the reverse saturation current
electron charge (𝑞 (𝐶)), and the reverse saturation affects the voltage at open circuit. Accordingly, there
current (𝐼0 ), providing insights into its voltage are several types of solar cells used for generating
characteristics. In Equation (6) 𝑘𝐵 = 1.380649 × solar power. Table 2 presents different types of solar
cells, each type of solar cell has its own set of
10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1 is the Boltzmann constant. Evidently, the
advantages, making them suitable for different
open-circuit voltage is influenced by temperature,
applications and environments. The choice of solar
4
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
cell type can impact the overall performance and cost-
effectiveness of a solar power system.
Table 2 Comparison of Different Types of Solar Cells
Solar Cell Type Material Efficiency Appearance Applications
Range
1. Monocrystalline Single crystal 15 – 20% Dark color, Residential, commercial
Solar Cells silicon rounded edges installations
2. Polycrystalline Multiple 13 – 16% Blue-speckled Various applications including
Solar Cells crystal appearance large-scale installations
structures of
silicon
3. Thin-Film Solar Various (e.g., Variable Highly Portable devices, building-
Cells amorphous (typically flexible and integrated installations
silicon, CdTe, lower than adaptable
CIGS) crystalline
silicon)
4. Amorphous Non- 6 – 10 % Thin layers Consumer electronics, certain
Silicon (a-Si) Solar crystalline on flexible building-integrated applications
Cells silicon substrates
5. Cadmium Cadmium 9 – 11% Thin films on Large-scale photovoltaic power
Telluride (CdTe) and tellurium glass or plants
Solar Cells compound flexible
substrates
6. Copper Indium Copper, 15 – 22% Thin layers Commercial, residential
Gallium Selenide indium, on various installations
(CIGS) Solar Cells gallium, and substrates
selenium
compound
Source: [40 – 44].
Photovoltaic Systems
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are composed of adoption of renewable energy sources. However,
interconnected solar cells that work collectively to efficiency and performance measures are fundamental
convert sunlight into electricity [45, 46]. These parameters used in PV systems in evaluating the
systems encompass a range of components and effectiveness of solar energy harvesting [47, 48].
configurations designed to harness and utilize solar They provide quantifiable measures of how efficiently
energy efficiently. They play an important role in the a solar cell or module converts incident solar energy
widespread adoption of solar power as a renewable into usable electrical power. Reliably, efficiency is an
energy source. Table 3 provides a detailed overview important factor, denoted by 𝜂, and is calculated as in
of the functions and associated advantages of key Equation (7). It is the representation of the ratio of
components within a PV system. Each component usable electrical power output (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) to the incident
plays a vital role in the process of converting sunlight solar energy input (𝑃𝑖𝑛 ), expressed as a percentage.
into usable electricity, contributing to the widespread
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝜂= × 100% (7)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

Higher efficiency implies more effective utilization of into electrical power (Equation (8)). Where, 𝑉𝑚𝑝 is the
available sunlight, leading to greater electrical power voltage at the maximum power point, 𝐼𝑚𝑝 is the
output. Similarly, the fill factor (𝐹𝐹) is a measure of current at the maximum power point.
how effectively a solar cell converts available sunlight
𝑉𝑚𝑝 × 𝐼𝑚𝑝
𝐹𝐹 = (8)
𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐

The open-circuit voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑐 ) is the maximum to any load and the short-circuit current (𝐼𝑠𝑐 ) is the
voltage a solar cell can produce when not connected maximum current a solar cell can deliver under short-
5
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
circuit conditions. Both the 𝑉𝑜𝑐 and 𝐼𝑠𝑐 are influenced solar cells and modules with high efficiency and
by material properties, cell design, and environmental effectiveness. This knowledge forms the foundation
conditions [49]. Consequently, the optimization of for driving advancements in solar energy harvesting
these performance measures is essential for designing technologies, ultimately leading to a wide array of
applications across various industries and sectors.
Table 3 Functions and Advantages of Photovoltaic System Components
Component Description Functions
1. Solar Panels Core components containing individual Generate electricity from sunlight by
solar cells that convert sunlight into DC absorbing photons and creating electron-
electricity. hole pairs [50, 51].
2. Inverters Convert DC electricity generated by solar Convert DC to AC for use in homes and
panels into AC electricity, which is standard businesses [52, 53].
for most household appliances.
3. Battery Store excess electricity for later use, Store surplus energy for use during low
Storage enhancing self-consumption and energy production periods [54, 55].
reliability.
4. Charge Regulate the flow of electricity between Control the charging process to protect
Controller solar panels and battery banks in off-grid batteries from damage. Regulate the flow
systems, preventing overcharging. of electricity to prevent overcharging or
deep discharge of batteries [56, 57].
5. Balance of Various components including mounting Ensure proper installation, operation, and
System structures, racking systems, etc. maintenance of the photovoltaic system
Components [58, 59].

Additionally, a PV System Components is shown in Figure 1.

The sun gives off light
even on cloudy day
1

The PV cells on
the panels turn
the light into DC
electricty
2
3 The current
Charge flows into an
5 inverter which
controller
converts it to
AC electricity
Export any ready to use
unused
electricity to the Battery The current is fed
grid bank
6 through a meter
9
  and then into the
4 home consumer
 
unit

7 Plug in and
Power Main switch on to use
meter switch the free
electricity
8
generated

Figure 2 Photovoltaic System Components

Methodology for Solar Energy Harvesting
Harnessing solar energy efficiently demands a well- material selection and bandgap engineering, the
structured methodology encompassing critical steps criteria for choosing semiconductor materials with
and considerations. The process can be broadly optimal bandgap energies are paramount [60]. This
divided into four main components. Firstly, in ensures effective absorption of sunlight and the
6
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
generation of electron-hole pairs. Techniques for and converting harvested energy is essential for a
bandgap engineering further fine-tune material reliable and continuous power supply. This involves
properties to enhance energy conversion. Table 4 employing a range of techniques, such as advanced
provides an overview of common semiconductor battery technologies, energy-dense capacitors, and
materials used in solar cell technology, along with sophisticated power electronics [62, 63]. These
their bandgap energy, absorption coefficient, and methods are instrumental in transforming captured
applications. energy into a usable form and storing it for later use.
Moreover, achieving optimal panel orientation is Lastly, uninterrupted integration with energy
essential for maximizing energy yield. This involves storage systems is important for balancing energy
aligning solar panels to receive the maximum solar supply and demand. This process ensures a stable and
radiation throughout the day. Tracking systems, dependable energy supply, even during periods of
including both single-axis and dual-axis tracking, limited or no sunlight. It can be achieved through
play a dynamic role in continuously adjusting panel various means, including grid-tied systems or
angles to face the sun, further optimizing energy standalone off-grid configurations [64, 65].
capture [61]. More importantly, efficiently storing
Table 4 Semiconductor Materials for Solar Cells
Semiconductor Material Bandgap Energy Absorption Applications
(𝒆𝑽) Coefficient (𝒄𝒎⁻¹)
1. Silicon (Si) 1.1 ~104 − 10⁵ Photovoltaics, Integrated
Circuits
2. Gallium Arsenide 1.43 ~105 − 10⁶ High-efficiency solar cells,
(GaAs) Space applications
3. Cadmium Telluride 1.5 ~104 − 10⁵ Thin-film solar cells
(CdTe)
4. Copper Indium 1.0 − 1.7 ~104 − 10⁵ Thin-film solar cells
Gallium Selenide
(CIGS)
5. Perovskite Variable Variable Emerging photovoltaics
6. Gallium Nitride (GaN) 3.4 − 3.5 ~104 − 10⁵ Optoelectronics, Solid-
state lighting
7. Organic Photovoltaics Variable Variable Flexible and lightweight
solar cells
Source: [66 – 68]
By following this comprehensive methodology, technologies for various applications, contributing
researchers and engineers can systematically significantly to a more sustainable and resilient
implement and optimize solar energy harvesting energy future.
Applications of Solar Energy Harvesting
Solar energy harvesting technologies find diverse sustainable monitoring and data collection [71, 72].
applications across various sectors. The versatility of Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) is another
these technologies enables them to address a wide significant application. BIPV incorporates solar
range of energy needs. One prominent application is panels into building architecture, transforming
in portable and wearable electronics. Devices like structures into active energy generators. Modules can
smartphones, smartwatches, and fitness trackers are be integrated into roofs, windows, and facades,
equipped with miniature solar panels that convert providing both an aesthetic and functional solution
ambient light into electrical power, offering a for sustainable energy generation. BIPV systems
sustainable and convenient way to recharge these contribute to reducing reliance on external power
devices and extending their operational lifespan [69, sources and lowering overall carbon footprints [73,
70]. Moreover, solar energy harvesting plays an 74]. In remote or off-grid areas where traditional
essential role in the Internet of Things (IoT) power infrastructure is unavailable or impractical,
revolution. IoT devices and sensor networks, used in solar energy harvesting offers a reliable and
agriculture, healthcare, and environmental sustainable solution. Off-grid power systems utilize
monitoring, integrate solar panels for autonomous solar panels to generate electricity, which can be
operation. This eliminates the need for frequent stored in batteries for later use. This approach is
battery replacements, enabling long-term, widely employed in applications such as remote

7
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
telecommunications, rural electrification, and disaster sectors. Solar energy harvesting is a key component
relief efforts, providing essential power in areas of the shift towards a greener and more distributed
without access to a centralized grid [75, 76]. These energy system, where personal devices and large-
applications emphasize the versatility and scale facilities can generate their own power from
adaptability of solar energy harvesting technologies renewable sources.
in meeting diverse energy needs across industries and
Solar Energy Harvesting: Challenges and Solutions
While solar energy harvesting holds immense acceptance and maximizing the benefits of this
potential, it is not without its challenges. Addressing sustainable energy source. Here, we outline key
these challenges is important for widespread challenges and potential solutions:
Table 5 Challenges and Solutions in Solar Energy Harvesting
Challenges Description Solutions
1. Efficiency Enhancing solar cell efficiency Research on advanced materials, novel designs,
Improvement for better energy conversion. and manufacturing techniques.
Tandem cells and multi-junction approaches
show promise.
2. Environmental Managing production and Sustainable manufacturing, recycling, eco-
Impact disposal to reduce friendly materials, and responsible disposal
environmental impact. practices.
3. Cost Addressing the initial Advancements in manufacturing, economies of
Considerations investment barrier for solar scale, and government incentives for
systems. affordability.
4. Technological Integrating solar systems with Standardization efforts, smart grid technologies,
Integration existing infrastructure. and advanced control systems for integration.
Sources: [77 – 80]
Solar Energy Harvesting in Urban Environments: Uganda
In East Africa, particularly in Uganda, the successful Another noteworthy success story is the ‘KCCA Solar
integration of solar energy in urban environments is Street Light Project’ in Kampala, implemented by the
exemplified by initiatives such as the ‘SolarNow’ Kampala Capital City Authority. Through the
project in Kampala city [81]. This program provides installation of solar-powered street lights in key
affordable solar solutions to urban households and urban areas, this initiative has not only enhanced
businesses, mitigating energy access challenges and visibility and safety but also yielded reductions in
reducing reliance on traditional grid systems. By energy costs and carbon emissions. These endeavors
offering a range of solar products, including panels, highlight how solar energy can effectively enhance
lighting, and appliances, SolarNow has markedly urban infrastructure, creating more sustainable and
elevated the quality of life for urban residents while livable cities in the region [82, 83].
contributing to a more sustainable energy future.
Developing Patterns in Solar Energy Harvesting
The future of solar energy harvesting is shaped by a satellites equipped with large solar arrays can capture
range of promising patterns and developing unobstructed sunlight and transmit the generated
technologies. Among these, thin-film and organic energy wirelessly back to Earth [88, 89]. While there
solar cells are gaining prominence for their flexibility are technical challenges to overcome, such as efficient
and potential for cost-effective large-scale production energy transmission and satellite deployment, this
[84, 85]. These cells hold the promise of technology holds immense potential for meeting
revolutionizing the solar energy industry by Earth's energy demands in a sustainable and
improving efficiency and durability. Additionally, uninterrupted manner. Furthermore, the pursuit of
perovskite solar cells have garnered substantial artificial photosynthesis and solar fuel production
attention for their exceptional efficiency and potential represents a groundbreaking avenue in solar energy
for cost-effective production [86, 87]. Despite research. This technology seeks to mimic the natural
existing challenges related to stability and scalability, process of photosynthesis to generate storable fuels
ongoing research is focused on overcoming these using sunlight as the primary energy source. By
hurdles, positioning perovskite solar cells as converting solar energy into hydrogen or other
frontrunners in the next generation of photovoltaic renewable fuels, artificial photosynthesis has the
technology. Another visionary development is the potential to revolutionize energy storage and
concept of solar energy harvesting in space, where distribution [90, 91]. Ongoing research endeavors
8
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
are focused on developing efficient catalysts and costs, and expand the reach of renewable energy
scalable processes to make artificial photosynthesis a sources. While challenges persist, ongoing research
viable and sustainable energy solution. In summary, and development are set to propel these technologies
these emerging technologies signify a promising to the forefront of the global energy scenario, paving
trajectory for solar energy harvesting, offering the way for a more sustainable and resilient future.
innovative approaches to enhance efficiency, reduce
CONCLUSION
This review explores the fundamental concepts, particularly solar energy, holds great promise.
efficiency measures, material developments, and Advances in solar cell technology, material science,
adaptable uses of solar energy harvesting. The study and efficiency measurements are expected to lead to
reveals that solar cells, operating on the photovoltaic highly efficient and cost-effective solar panels,
effect, rely on careful selection of semiconductor contributing to a more sustainable and resilient
materials and precise bandgap engineering to energy. The integration of solar energy harvesting
optimize their performance. Efficiency and with emerging technologies like IoT and smart cities
performance measures, such as fill factor, open-circuit will enable autonomous and self-powered systems
voltage, and short-circuit current, are critical in across various industries. The extension of solar
assessing the effectiveness of photovoltaic systems. energy solutions to underserved areas will provide
Moreover, the wide range of uses, from powering off-grid power, facilitate rural electrification, and
small gadgets to driving large-scale solar farms, support disaster relief efforts, enhancing the quality
demonstrates the adaptability of solar energy of life for communities worldwide.
solutions. The future of energy harvesting,
REFERENCES
1. Wang, D. D., & Sueyoshi, T. (2018). Climate 6. Mundu, M. M., Nnamchi, S. N., Ukagwu, K.
change mitigation targets set by global J., Peter, B. A., Nnamchi, O. A., & Ssempewo,
firms: Overview and implications for J. I. (2022). Numerical modelling of wind
renewable energy. Renewable and Sustainable flow for solar power generation in a case
Energy Reviews, 94, 386–398. study of the tropical zones. Modeling Earth
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.06.024 Systems and Environment, 8(3), 4123-4134.
2. Keleş, S., & Bilgen, S. (2012). Renewable 7. Londoño-Pulgarin, D., Cardona-Montoya,
energy sources in Turkey for climate change G., Restrepo, J. C., & Muñoz-Leiva, F.
mitigation and energy sustainability. (2021). Fossil or bioenergy? Global fuel
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, market trends. Renewable and Sustainable
16(7), 5199–5206. Energy Reviews, 143, 110905.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.05.026 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110905
3. Fashina, A., Mundu, M., Akiyode, O., 8. Spittler, Gladkykh, Diemer, & Davidsdottir.
Abdullah, L., Sanni, D., & Ounyesiga, L. (2019). Understanding the Current Energy
(2018). The drivers and barriers of Paradigm and Energy System Models for
renewable energy applications and More Sustainable Energy System
development in Uganda: a review. Clean Development. Energies, 12(8), 1584.
Technologies, 1(1), 9-39. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12081584
4. Gokon, N. (2023). Progress in Concentrated 9. A Novel Concept of Reducing Carbon
Solar Power, Photovoltaics, and Integrated Footprint through Green Energy Recovery
Power Plants Towards Expanding the at NRL (Huge Power Generation at No
Introduction of Renewable Energy in the Extra Cost). (2021). Petroleum and Chemical
Asia/Pacific Region. Current Industry International, 4(1).
Sustainable/Renewable Energy Reports. https://doi.org/10.33140/pcii.04.01.02
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40518-023- 10. Bolshev, V. E., & Vinogradov, A. V. (2023).
00226-1 Review of Methods for Reducing Power
5. Islam, M. T., Huda, N., & Saidur, R. (2019). Losses in Electric Grids Containing
Current energy mix and techno-economic Renewable Energy Sources.
analysis of concentrating solar power (CSP) Elektrotekhnologii I Elektrooborudovanie V
technologies in Malaysia. Renewable Energy, APK,70(2(51)),57–67.
140,789–806. https://doi.org/10.22314/2658-4859-2023-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.03.1 70-2-57-67
07
9
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
11. Nnamchi, S. N., Mundu, M. M., Ukagwu, K. Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 166, 69–77.
J., & Oyagbola, I. A. (2022). Development https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.03.0
and adaptation of relative sunshine hours 21
models for the equatorial latitudes: a case 21. Liao, Z., Zhao, G., Xu, C., Yang, C., Jin, Y.,
study. Modeling Earth Systems and Ju, X., & Du, X. (2018). Efficiency analyses
Environment, 8(1), 1191-1201. of high temperature thermal energy storage
12. Ghoniem, A. F. (2011). Needs, resources and systems of rocks only and rock-PCM capsule
climate change: Clean and efficient combination. Solar Energy, 162, 153–164.
conversion technologies. Progress in Energy https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.12.
and Combustion Science, 37(1), 15–51. 065
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2010.02.006 22. Slocum, A. H. (2015). Symbiotic offshore
13. Bowen, C. R., & Arafa, M. H. (2014). Energy energy harvesting and storage systems.
Harvesting Technologies for Tire Pressure Sustainable Energy Technologies and
Monitoring Systems. Advanced Energy Assessments, 11, 135–141.
Materials,5(7).https://doi.org/10.1002/aen https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2014.10.004
m.201401787 23. Optimization Strategy Considering Energy
14. Mundu, M. M. (2021). Modelling and Storage Systems to Minimize Energy
navigation of solar electric power potential and Production Cost of Power Systems. (2018).
generation in the four regions of International Journal of Renewable Energy
Uganda (Doctoral dissertation, Kampala Research,v8i4.https://doi.org/10.20508/ijre
International University, College of r.v8i4.8537.g7524
Environmental Science and management). 24. Suresh Babu Maddina, R.
15. Kopp, G. (2023). Daily solar flux as a Thirunavukkarasu, & N. Karthik. (2023).
function of latitude and time. Solar Energy, Optimization of Energy Storage Unit Size
249,250–254. and Location in a Radial Distribution
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.11. Network to Minimize Power Loss Using
022 Firefly Algorithm. Journal of Advanced
16. Nnamchi, S. N., & Mundu, M. M. (2022). Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering
Development of solar isodose lines: Technology, 31(3), 25–42.
Mercatorian and spatial guides for mapping https://doi.org/10.37934/araset.31.3.2542
solar installation areas. Heliyon, 8(10). 25. Liu, Y. (2023). Monitoring and Data
17. Scolari, E., Sossan, F., & Paolone, M. (2016). Acquisition System for a 3kW Grid-
Irradiance prediction intervals for PV Connected Photovoltaic System. Electric
stochastic generation in microgrid Power Components and Systems, 1–11.
applications. Solar Energy, 139, 116–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325008.2023.22
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.09. 74938
030 26. Fassler, R. (2017). Efficiency Regulations:
18. Li, N., Sun, Z., Liu, R., Xu, L., Xu, K., & Song, Driving power conversion efficiency
X. M. (2016). Enhanced power conversion designs. IEEE Power Electronics Magazine,
efficiency in phthalocyanine-sensitized solar 4(1),19–24.
cells by modifying TiO2 photoanode with https://doi.org/10.1109/mpel.2016.264251
polyoxometalate. Solar Energy Materials and 8
Solar Cells, 157, 853–860. 27. Panzeri, G., Piegari, L., Faifer, M., &
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.08.0 Magagnin, L. (2021). A pulsed discharge
05 system with an intermitting partial charge
19. Mundu, M. M., Nnamchi, S. N., & Nnamchi, for improved battery efficiency. Journal of
O. A. (2021). Development of a model for Energy Storage, 36, 102367.
estimation of sunshine hour data for different https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102367
regions of Uganda. Journal of Renewable 28. Hannan, M. A., Wali, S. B., Ker, P. J., Abd
Energy and Environment, 8(1), 69-76. Rahman, M. S., Mansor, M.,
20. Rajamanickam, N., Soundarrajan, P., Ramachandaramurthy, V. K., ... & Dong, Z.
Jayakumar, K., & Ramachandran, K. (2017). Y. (2021). Battery energy-storage system: A
Improve the power conversion efficiency of review of technologies, optimization
perovskite BaSnO3 nanostructures based objectives, constraints, approaches, and
dye-sensitized solar cells by Fe doping. Solar
10
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
outstanding issues. Journal of Energy Assessments, 57, 103303.
Storage, 42, 103023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103303
29. Singh, S., & Singh, S. P. (2018). Energy 37. Shahsavari, A., & Akbari, M. (2018).
saving estimation in distribution network Potential of solar energy in developing
with smart grid‐enabled CVR and solar PV countries for reducing energy-related
inverter. IET Generation, Transmission & emissions. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Distribution, 12(6), 1346–1358. Reviews,90,275–291.
https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-gtd.2017.0973 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.065
30. Mikulski, S., & Tomczewski, A. (2021). Use 38. Zhang, S., Pang, X., Yue, Z., He, Y., Yan, J.,
of Energy Storage to Reduce Transmission Shen, W., Cheng, Q., Mei, Y., & Li, J. (2021).
Losses in Meshed Power Distribution Sunlight-heating and electricity-heating
Networks. Energies, 14(21), 7304. interfacial evaporation membrane driven by
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217304 sunlight and electricity from photovoltaic
31. Gürbüz, H., Demirtürk, S., Akçay, H., & panels for steam production. Solar Energy
Topalcı, M. (2023). Thermal stabilization Materials and Solar Cells, 230, 111274.
and energy harvesting in a solar PV/T- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2021.111
PCM-TEG hybrid system: A case study on 274
the design of system components. Energy 39. He, X., Guo, Y., Li, X., & Liu, J. (2020). Light
Conversion and Management, 294, 117536. harvesting enhancement by hierarchical
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.1 Au/TiO2 microspheres consisted with
17536 nanorod units for dye sensitized solar cells.
32. Saha, S., Sayem, N. A., Khan, M. M. A., & Solar Energy, 207, 592–598.
Biswas, P. K. (2021). Overall performance of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.07.
steam system used in garment industries in 004
Bangladesh: a case study–based approach. 40. Bagher, A. M., Vahid, M. M. A., & Mohsen,
EnergyEfficiency,14(2). M. (2015). Types of solar cells and
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-021- application. American Journal of optics and
09929-0 Photonics, 3(5), 94-113.
33. Ambient Energy Sources, Applications and 41. Solanki, C. S. (2015). Solar photovoltaics:
Ambient Energy Harvesting in Cognitive fundamentals, technologies and applications. Phi
Radio. (2016). International Journal of Science learning pvt. Ltd.
and Research (IJSR), 5(4), 2359–2361. 42. Ranabhat, K., Patrikeev, L., Antal'evna, R.
https://doi.org/10.21275/v5i4.nov163158 A., Andrianov, K., Lapshinsky, V., &
34. Ruzlaini Ghoni, Mohd Tarmizi Ibrahim, Nik Sofronova, E. (2016). An introduction to
Fakhri Nek Daud, Ammar Husaini Hussian, solar cell technology. Journal of Applied
Shaiful Rizalmee Wahid, Ahmad Farid Engineering Science, 14(4), 481-491.
Ridhwan Zakaria, & Hamdan Azmi Abdul 43. Lu, K. (2023). Comparison and Evaluation of
Aziz. (2023). The Cutting Edge of Vibration Different Types of Solar Cells. Applied and
Energy Harvesting Technology. Advanced Computational Engineering, 23(1), 263–270.
Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering https://doi.org/10.54254/2755-
Technology, 30(1), 168–184. 2721/23/20230664
https://doi.org/10.37934/araset.30.1.1681 44. Elblbeisi, M., & Shabat, M. (2023).
84 Comparison between different solar cells
35. Coram, A., & Katzner, D. W. (2018). based on perovskite types. Israa University
Reducing fossil-fuel emissions: Dynamic Journal for Applied Science, 6(2), 42–55.
paths for alternative energy-producing https://doi.org/10.52865/hamr3393
technologies. Energy Economics, 70, 179–189. 45. Mundu, M. M., Nnamchi, S. N., & Ukagwu,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2017.12.02 K. J. (2020). Algorithmized modelling,
8 simulation and validation of clearness index
36. Zheng, J., & Zeng, B. (2023). Unleashing the in four regions of Uganda. Journal of Solar
influencing factors of solar energy adoption Energy Research, 5(2), 432-452.
to combat climate change: A roadmap 46. Nnamchi, S. N., Nnamchi, O. A., Sanya, O.
toward sustainable energy technologies. D., Mundu, M. M., & Gabriel, V. (2020).
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Dynamic analysis of performance of
photovoltaic generators under moving cloud
11
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
conditions. Journal of Solar Energy energy storage systems. Journal of Energy
Research, 5(2), 453-468. Storage, 71, 108183.
47. Muhamad, M. M., Kibirige, D., Uzorka, A., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108183
& John, U. K. (2022). Design and Simulation 56. Dorel, S., Gmal Osman, M., Strejoiu, C. V., &
of an Inverter Drive System with a Display Lazaroiu, G. (2023). Exploring Optimal
for a Renewable Energy System in the Rural Charging Strategies for Off-Grid Solar
Isolated Communities of Uganda. Journal of Photovoltaic Systems: A Comparative Study
Power and Energy Engineering, 10(12), 1-14. on Battery Storage Techniques. Batteries,
48. El Hammoumi, A., Chtita, S., Motahhir, S., & 9(9), 470.
El Ghzizal, A. (2022). Solar PV energy: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9090470
From material to use, and the most 57. Yamegueu, D., Azoumah, Y., Py, X., &
commonly used techniques to maximize the Zongo, N. (2011). Experimental study of
power output of PV systems: A focus on electricity generation by Solar PV/diesel
solar trackers and floating solar panels. hybrid systems without battery storage for
Energy Reports, 8, 11992–12010. off-grid areas. Renewable Energy, 36(6),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.09.054 1780–1787.
49. Auf der Maur, M., & Di Carlo, A. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2010.11.0
Analytic approximations for solar cell open 11
circuit voltage, short circuit current and fill 58. Liu, C. (2023). Electrical Power Quality,
factor. Solar Energy, 187, 358–367. Availability, And Energy Efficiency.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.05. Engineering and Technology Journal, 08(06).
056 https://doi.org/10.47191/etj/v8i6.02
50. Green, M. A., Keevers, M. J., Thomas, I., 59. Wyss Porras, J. E., Shimada, S., Yoshino, J.,
Lasich, J. B., Emery, K., & King, R. R. (2015). & Kobayashi, T. (2016). Evaluation of the
40% efficient sunlight to electricity Photovoltaic System Installation Impact to
conversion. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research an Electric Power Grid Part 2: Impact
and Applications, 23(6), 685–691. analysis of photovoltaic installation to an
https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2612 electric power grid by applying a nonlinear
51. Günes, S., Abdel-Mottaleb, M. S. A., Hoppe, analysis model. Labor E Engenho, 10(1), 17.
H., & Ayuk Mbi Egbe, D. (2015). Solar Cells: https://doi.org/10.20396/lobore.v10i1.864
From Sunlight into Electricity. International 1655
Journal of Photoenergy, 2015, 1–1. 60. Chaudhary, O. S., Denaï, M., Refaat, S. S., &
https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/173963 Pissanidis, G. (2023). Technology and
52. Rodrigo, P., Velázquez, R., & Fernández, E. Applications of Wide Bandgap
F. (2016). DC/AC conversion efficiency of Semiconductor Materials: Current State and
grid-connected photovoltaic inverters in Future Trends. Energies, 16(18), 6689.
central Mexico. Solar Energy, 139, 650–665. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186689
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.10. 61. Al Garni, H. Z., Awasthi, A., & Wright, D.
042 (2019). Optimal orientation angles for
53. Rezaei, O., Mirzapour, O., Panahazari, M., & maximizing energy yield for solar PV in
Gholami, H. (2022). Hybrid AC/DC Saudi Arabia. Renewable Energy, 133, 538–
Provisional Microgrid Planning Model 550.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.
Considering Converter Aging. Electricity, 10.048
3(2),236–250. 62. Zhang, S., Wu, Z., Liu, Z., & Hu, Z. (2023).
https://doi.org/10.3390/electricity3020014 An Emerging Energy Technology: Self‐
54. Roberts, M. B., Bruce, A., & MacGill, I. Uninterrupted Electricity Power
(2019). Impact of shared battery energy Harvesting from the Sun and Cold Space.
storage systems on photovoltaic self- Advanced Energy Materials, 13(19).
consumption and electricity bills in https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202300260
apartment buildings. Applied Energy, 245, 63. Hou, H., Xu, Q., Pang, Y., Li, L., Wang, J.,
78–95. Zhang, C., & Sun, C. (2017). Efficient Storing
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.0 Energy Harvested by Triboelectric
4.001 Nanogenerators Using a Safe and Durable
55. Cárdenas, B., & Garvey, S. (2023). A directly All‐Solid‐State Sodium‐Ion Battery.
charged thermal store for compressed air
12
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
AdvancedScience,4(8).https://doi.org/10.100 building integrated and applied photovoltaic
2/advs.201700072 (BIPV/BAPV) systems. Renewable Energy,
64. Diyoke, C., Ngwaka, U., & Ugwu, K. (2023). 139,815–829.
A comprehensive analysis on the grid-tied https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.1
solar photovoltaics for clean energy mix and 21
supply in Nigeria’s on-grid power. Journal of 74. Zomer, C., Custódio, I., Antoniolli, A., &
Energy Systems, 7(1), 1–17. Rüther, R. (2020). Performance assessment
https://doi.org/10.30521/jes.988844 of partially shaded building-integrated
65. Jamal, T., Urmee, T., & Shafiullah, G. (2020). photovoltaic (BIPV) systems in a positive-
Planning of off-grid power supply systems in energy solar energy laboratory building:
remote areas using multi-criteria decision Architecture perspectives. Solar Energy, 211,
analysis. Energy, 201, 117580. 879–896.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.10.
580 026
66. Paranthaman, M. P., Wong-Ng, W., & 75. Sadik-Zada, E. R., Loewenstein, W., &
Bhattacharya, R. N. (Eds.). Dumbuya, F. S. (2023). Modernization
(2016). Semiconductor materials for solar through solar off-grid electrification? A
photovoltaic cells (Vol. 218). Switzerland: mixed picture for rural Sierra Leone. The
Springer International Publishing. Electricity Journal, 36(7), 107316.
67. Kouhnavard, M., Ikeda, S., Ludin, N. A., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2023.107316
Khairudin, N. A., Ghaffari, B. V., Mat-Teridi, 76. Alqahtani, B. J., & Patino-Echeverri, D.
M. A., ... & Sopian, K. (2014). A review of (2023). Identifying Economic and Clean
semiconductor materials as sensitizers for Strategies to Provide Electricity in Remote
quantum dot-sensitized solar Rural Areas: Main-Grid Extension vs.
cells. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Distributed Electricity Generation. Energies,
Reviews, 37, 397-407. 16(2),958.https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020
68. Avrutin, V., Izyumskaya, N., & Morkoç, H. 958
(2011). Semiconductor solar cells: Recent 77. Fashina, A., Mundu, M., Akiyode, O.,
progress in terrestrial Abdullah, L., Sanni, D., & Ounyesiga, L.
applications. Superlattices and (2019). The drivers and barriers of
Microstructures, 49(4), 337-364. renewable energy applications and
69. Bindra, A. (2017). Energy Harvesting: A development in Uganda: a review. Clean
Sustainable Ambient Source to Ultralow Technologies, 1(1), 9-39.
Power Devices [From the Editor]. IEEE 78. Boddupalli, N., Singh, G., Chandra, L., &
Power Electronics Magazine, 4(4), 4–8. Bandyopadhyay, B. (2017). Dealing with
https://doi.org/10.1109/mpel.2017.275994 dust – Some challenges and solutions for
0 enabling solar energy in desert regions.
70. Esen, V., Sağlam, A., & Oral, B. (2017). Light Solar Energy, 150, 166–176.
sources of solar simulators for photovoltaic https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.04.
devices: A review. Renewable and Sustainable 032
Energy Reviews, 77, 1240–1250. 79. Lau, D., Song, N., Hall, C., Jiang, Y., Lim, S.,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.062 Perez-Wurfl, I., Ouyang, Z., & Lennon, A.
71. Nguyen, M., Nguyen, C., Tran, H., & (2019). Hybrid solar energy harvesting and
Nguyen, H. (2023). Energy harvesting for storage devices: The promises and
devices in wireless sensor networks: A challenges. Materials Today Energy, 13, 22–
Review. EAI Endorsed Transactions on 44.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2019.0
Internet of Things, 9(2), e2. 4.003
https://doi.org/10.4108/eetiot.v9i2.2953 80. Avezova, N. R., Vokhidov, A. U., Farmonov,
72. Akkaş, M., Sokullu, R., & Ertürk Çetin, H. A. A., & Dalmuradova, N. N. (2019).
(2020). Healthcare and patient monitoring Renewable Energy: Challenges and
using IoT. Internet of Things, 11, 100173. Solutions. Applied Solar Energy, 55(2), 149–
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2020.100173 152.https://doi.org/10.3103/s0003701x19
73. Hadavinia, H., & Singh, H. (2019). Modelling 02004x
and experimental analysis of low 81. SolarNow BV - Uganda | Kenya. (n.d.).
concentrating solar panels for use in https://www.solarnow.eu/
13
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://www.inosr.net/inosr-experimental-sciences/ Mundu et al
82. Projects-TASS.(2019).TASS. 87. Fan, J., Jia, B., & Gu, M. (2014). Perovskite-
https://tass.co.ug/projects/ based low-cost and high-efficiency hybrid
83. Gillard, R., Oates, L., Kasaija, P., Sudmant, halide solar cells. Photonics Research, 2(5),
A., Gouldson, A. (2019). Sustainable urban 111. https://doi.org/10.1364/prj.2.000111
infrastructure for all: Lessons on 88. Leverone, F., Pini, M., Cervone, A., & Gill,
solarpowered street lights from Kampala E. (2020). Solar energy harvesting on-board
and Jinja, Uganda. Coalition for Urban small satellites. Renewable Energy, 159, 954–
Transitions. London and Washington, DC.: 972.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.
http://newclimateeconomy.net/content/cit 05.176
ies-working-papers. 89. Keser, M. F., & Idare, B. (2019). Designing
84. Liu, H., Huang, Q., Hou, G., Jiao, B., Wang, anti-reflective microlens arrays for space
G., Zhang, W., Zhang, D., Zhao, Y., & solar cells. Solar Energy Materials and Solar
Zhang, X. (2016). Cost-effective hollow Cells,200,110003.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
honeycomb textured back reflector for solmat.2019.110003.
flexible thin film solar cells. Solar Energy 90. Bonke, S. A., Wiechen, M., MacFarlane, D.
Materials and Solar Cells, 155, 128–133. R., & Spiccia, L. (2015). Renewable fuels
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.04.0 from concentrated solar power: towards
40 practical artificial photosynthesis. Energy &
85. Buonomenna, M. G. (2023). Inorganic Thin- Environmental Science, 8(9), 2791–2796.
Film Solar Cells: Challenges at the https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ee02214b
Terawatt-Scale. Symmetry, 15(9), 1718. 91. Boretti, A. (2021). Concentrated Solar
https://doi.org/10.3390/sym15091718 Energy with Thermal Energy Storage for
86. Turan, B., Huuskonen, A., Kühn, I., Hydrogen Production by Three-Step
Kirchartz, T., & Haas, S. (2017). Cost‐ Thermochemical Water-Splitting Cycles.
Effective Absorber Patterning of Perovskite Energy & Fuels, 35(13), 10832–10840.
Solar Cells by Nanosecond Laser https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.1c
Processing. Solar RRL, 1(2). 01510
https://doi.org/10.1002/solr.201700003

CITE AS: Mundu, M. M., Nnamchi, S. N. and Ssempewo, J. I. (2024). Revolutionizing Energy
Harvesting: Harnessing Ambient Solar Energy for Enhanced Electric Power Generation.
INOSR Experimental Sciences 13(1):1-14. https://doi.org/10.59298/INOSRES/2024/1.14.1110

14
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.