1. Define cytoplasm and organelle.

- Cytoplasm, interior of a cell, jelly-like fluid that

surrounds organelle . Organelle, is a small molecular structure
that executes unique functions within a cell.

2. Describe the structure of the cell membrane. What functions

does it perform?

- Cell Membrane also called as Plasma Membrane. The outermost

component of the cell. Cell Membrane encloses the Cytoplasm.
Cell Membrane form a boundary between material inside the cell
and material outside the cell. It supports the cell content.
Selective barrier. Communication between cells.

3. Describe the structure of the cell membrane. What functions

does it perform?

- The cell membrane is a small, semi-permeable membrane that

forms the cell's cytoplasm. Protect the cell from its
surroundings. It also detects some compounds and molecules that
can or can't reach the cell.

4. Define osmosis and osmotic pressure.

- Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a

selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell membrane,
from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower
water concentration. The osmotic pressure is pressure exerts
by osmosis, which is the force required to prevent movement of
water across cell membrane.

5. What happens to cells that are placed in isotonic solutions?

In hypertonic or hypotonic solutions? What are crenation and
lysis?

- If the cells are placed at Hypotonic Solution it has a lower

concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell. The solution has less
tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell. Water moves by
osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell. If the cell swells
enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis.
- If the cells are placed at Isotonic Solution the cell will
neither shrink nor swell.
- Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the Hypertonic
Solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or crenation.
- Crenation is the loss of water from an animal cell due to
osmosis . Lysis is the rupture of the cell wall due to too
much water moving into an animal cell due to osmosis.

6. What is endoplasmic reticulum? Compare the functions of

rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum is a series of membranes forming sacs
and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear membrane into
the cytoplasm. Rough ER – involved in protein synthesis and is
rough due to attached ribosomes. Smooth ER – has no attached
ribosomes and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular
detoxification, and it stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle
cells.

7. Describe the Golgi apparatus, and state its function.

- Golgi Apparatus also called as Golgi Complex. It consists of

closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs. The
functions of Golgi Apparatus is to collects, modifies,
packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by
the ER. It forms vesicles, some of which are secretory
vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles. And it also formed
vesicle have several destinations.

8. Describe the structure and function of mitochondria.

- Mitochondria is a small organelles responsible for producing

considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2 ) metabolism.
Mitochondria carry out aerobic respiration, a series of
chemical
reactions that require O2 to breakdown food molecules to
produce ATP. Mitochondria generates most of the chemical
energy needed to power the cell’s biochemical reaction.

9. Name the components of the cytoskeleton, and give their

functions.

- Microtubules – hollow structures formed from protein

subunits, perform variety of roles including helping to
support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division,
and forming essential components of certain organelles.
- Microfilaments – small fibrils formed from protein subunits
that structurally support the cytoplasm, determining cell
shape, involved in cell movement(microfilaments in muscles)
- Intermediate filaments – are fibrils formed from protein
subunits that are smaller in diameter than microtubules but
larger in diameter than microfilaments.(keratin)

10. Describe the structure and function of cilia, flagella,

and microvilli.

- Cilia are a short hair-like structures that are used to move

the entire cells or substance along the outer surface of the
cell. They are responsible for the movement of materials over
the top of cells, such as mucus. Cilia are cylindrical
structures that extend from the cell and are composed of
microtubules.
- Flagella, have a structure similar to that of cilia but are
much longer, and they usually occur only one per cell. Sperm
cells each have one flagellum, which propels the sperm cell.
- Microvilli are specialized extensions of the
cell membrane that are supported by microfilaments. Microvilli
are numerous on cells that have them and they increase the
surface area of those cells. They are abundant on the surface
of cells that
line the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function.

11. Describe what happens during interphase and each stage of

mitosis. What kinds of tissues undergo mitosis?

During INTERPHASE a cell spends most of its life cycle in

interphase performing its normal functions. During interphase,
the DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is
replicated. The two strands of DNA separate from each other,
and each strand serves as a template for the production of a
new strand of DNA.

- PROPHASE, during prophase the chromatin condenses to form

visible chromosomes. Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form
to assist in breaking the centromere between the chromatids
and move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell. The
nuclear membrane dissolves.
- METAPHASE, during Metaphase, the chromosomes align near the
center of the cell. The movement of the chromosomes is
regulated by the attached spindle fibers.
-ANAPHASE, at the beginning of Anaphase, the chromatids
separate and each chromatid is called a chromosome. Each two
sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward
the centriole at one poles of the cell. At the end of
anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole
of the cell and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
-TELOPHASE during telophase, the chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to form two separate nuclei,
one in each newly formed daughter cell. The chromosomes begin
to unravel and resemble the genetic material during
interphase. Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are produces.

Stage of Mitosis

-Prophase , mitosis begins with prophase, during which

chromosomes recruit condensin and begin to undergo a
condensation process that will continue until metaphase. In
most species, cohesin is largely removed from the arms of the
sister chromatids during prophase, allowing the individual
sister chromatids to be resolved. Cohesin is retained,
however, at the most constricted part of the chromosome, the
centromere. During prophase, the spindle also begins to form
as the two pairs of centrioles move to opposite poles and
microtubules begin to polymerize from the duplicated
centrosomes.
-Prometaphase, prometaphase begins with the abrupt
fragmentation of the nuclear envelope into many small vesicles
that will eventually be divided between the future daughter
cells. The breakdown of the nuclear membrane is an essential
step for spindle assembly. Because the centrosomes are located
outside the nucleus in animal cells, the microtubules of the
developing spindle do not have access to the chromosomes until
the nuclear membrane breaks apart.Prometaphase is an extremely
dynamic part of the cell cycle. Microtubules rapidly assemble
and disassemble as they grow out of the centrosomes, seeking
out attachment sites at chromosome kinetochores, which are
complex platelike structures that assemble during prometaphase
on one face of each sister chromatid at its centromere.
-Metaphase, next, chromosomes assume their most compacted
state during metaphase, when the centromeres of all the cell's
chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle. Metaphase
is particularly useful in cytogenetics, because chromosomes
can be most easily visualized at this stage. Furthermore,
cells can be experimentally arrested at metaphase with mitotic
poisons such as colchicine. Video microscopy shows that
chromosomes temporarily stop moving during metaphase.
-Anaphase, the progression of cells from metaphase into
anaphase is marked by the abrupt separation of sister
chromatids. A major reason for chromatid separation is the
precipitous degradation of the cohesin molecules joining the
sister chromatids by the protease separase.Two separate
classes of movements occur during anaphase. During the first
part of anaphase, the kinetochore microtubules shorten, and
the chromosomes move toward the spindle poles. During the
second part of anaphase, the spindle poles separate as the
non-kinetochore microtubules move past each other.

12. Define cell differentiation. In general terms, how does

differentiation occur?

- Cell differentiation is a sperm cell and an oocyte unite to

form a single cell, then a great number of mitotic divisions
occur to give the trillions of cells of the body. The process
by which cells develop with specialized structures and
functions is called differentiation. During differentiation of
a cell, some portions of DNA are active, but others are
inactive.
- The method in which a cell transition from one type of cell
to another is cellular differentiation. The cell usually
switches into a more specialized form. During formation of a
multicellular organism, differentiation happens several times
as it transitions from a basic zygote to a complex structure
of tissues and types of cells.

13. List the principal hypotheses of aging.

- CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING, the major hypothesis that attempt

to explain how aging occurs concentrate on molecules within
the cell
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids
 It is estimated that a least 35% of the factors affecting
aging are genetic.
-Existence of a Cellular clock, the existence of a cellular
clock that, after a certain passage of time or a certain
number of cell divisions, results in the death of a given cell
line. The tips of chromosomes are called telomeres and they
are DNA sequences that cap chromosomes. After about 70 or 80
replications, the telomeres are dramatically reduced and the
cell can no longer reproduce.115
-Presence of death genes, there are “death genes”, which turn
on late in life, or sometimes prematurely, causing cells to
deteriorate and die.
-DNA Damage, through time, DNA is damaged, resulting in cell
degeneration and death.
-Free Radicals, one of the major sources of
DNA damage, atoms or molecules with an unpaired electron. DNA
is also susceptible in direct damage, resulting in mutations
that may result in cellular dysfunction, and ultimately, cell
death.
-Mitochondrial Damage, Mitochondrial DNA damage may be more
sensitive to free-radical damage than is nuclear DNA.
Mitochondrial DNA damage may result in loss of proteins
critical to mitochondrial
function. Mitochondria is the primary source of ATP One
proposal suggest that reduced caloric intake may reduce free-
radical damage to mitochondria.
-Tumors,are abnormal proliferations of cells. They are due to
problems occurring in the cell cycle. Some tumors are benign
and some are malignant(cancer). Malignant tumors can spread by
a process,