CC-04

Q 1. what is set theory? explain the following set theory concepts

a) relation and their types
b) properties of relation
c) functions and operation on function
d) Cartesian product of a set
e) equivalence relation
f) order pair

Set theory is a branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which are collections of objects. It provides a
foundation for various mathematical disciplines, including algebra, analysis, and topology. Let's explore the set
theory concepts you've mentioned:

a) Relation and Their Types:

- Relation: A relation between two sets A and B is a subset of their Cartesian product, denoted by R ⊆ A × B.
In simpler terms, a relation is a set of ordered pairs where the first element belongs to the first set (A) and the
second element belongs to the second set (B).
- Types of Relations:
1. Reflexive Relation: Every element is related to itself.
2. Symmetric Relation. If (a, b) is in the relation, then (b, a) is also in the relation.
3. Transitive Relation. If (a, b) and (b, c) are in the relation, then (a, c) is also in the relation.

b) Properties of Relation:
- Reflexivity: A relation is reflexive if every element is related to itself.
- Symmetry: A relation is symmetric if, for every pair (a, b) in the relation, (b, a) is also in the relation.
- Transitivity: A relation is transitive if, whenever (a, b) and (b, c) are in the relation, (a, c) is also in the relation.

c) Functions and Operations on Functions:

- Function: function is a special type of relation in which each element in the domain is associated with
exactly one element in the codomain.
- Operations on Functions:
Functions can be combined through operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, leading
to new functions.

d) Cartesian Product of a Set:

- The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b)
where a is in A and b is in B.

e) Equivalence Relation:
- An equivalence relation is a relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. It divides the set into
equivalent classes, where elements within a class are related and elements in different classes are not related.

f) Ordered Pair:
 - An ordered pair (a, b) is a pair of elements where the order of the elements is significant. It differs from an
unordered pair or a set, as the order matters in an ordered pair.

Q 2. what is asymptotic notation? (worst time, best time, average time complexity).

Asymptotic notation is a mathematical notation used in computer science and algorithm analysis to describe the
limiting behavior of a function as its input size approaches infinity. It is particularly useful for analyzing the efficiency
of algorithms in terms of their time and space complexity. There are three commonly used asymptotic notations: Big
O (O), Omega (Ω), and Theta (Θ).

1. **Big O (O) Notation:**

- **Definition:** Big O notation represents an upper bound on the growth rate of an algorithm's running time or
space complexity. It provides an upper limit, often in terms of the worst-case scenario.
- **Example:** If an algorithm has a time complexity of O(f(n)), it means that the running time of the algorithm
grows at most proportionally to the function f(n) for large values of n.

2. **Omega (Ω) Notation:**

- **Definition:** Omega notation represents a lower bound on the growth rate of an algorithm's running time or
space complexity. It provides a lower limit, often in terms of the best-case scenario.
- **Example:** If an algorithm has a time complexity of Ω(g(n)), it means that the running time of the algorithm
grows at least proportionally to the function g(n) for large values of n.

3. **Theta (Θ) Notation:**

- **Definition:** Theta notation provides both upper and lower bounds on the growth rate of an algorithm's
running time or space complexity. It describes the tight relationship between the growth rate and the input size.
- **Example:** If an algorithm has a time complexity of Θ(h(n)), it means that the running time of the algorithm
grows exactly proportionally to the function h(n) for large values of n.

**Worst Time Complexity:**

- The worst-case time complexity (often denoted as O) represents the upper bound on the running time of an
algorithm in the most unfavorable conditions. It gives an idea of the maximum time an algorithm may take.

**Best Time Complexity:**

- The best-case time complexity (often denoted as Ω) represents the lower bound on the running time of an
algorithm in the most favorable conditions. It gives an idea of the minimum time an algorithm may take.

**Average Time Complexity:**

- The average-case time complexity (sometimes denoted as Θ) represents the expected running time of an
algorithm averaged over all possible inputs. It provides a more realistic estimation of the algorithm's performance.

Q 3. what is recurrence relation? explain

a) substitution method

b) recurrence tree

c) master's Theorem
**Recurrence Relation:**

A recurrence relation is a mathematical formula that defines a sequence based on its previous terms. It expresses
the relationship between the terms of a sequence by describing each term in terms of smaller or simpler
subproblems. Recurrence relations are commonly used to model the time complexity of algorithms in computer
science.

a) **Substitution Method:**

The substitution method is a technique used to solve recurrence relations. It involves making an educated guess
for the form of the solution and then proving the correctness of the guess using mathematical induction. The
process typically involves three steps: making a guess, proving the guess correct, and solving for any remaining
constants.

b) **Recurrence Tree:**

The recurrence tree is a graphical way to represent the expansion of a recurrence relation. Each level of the tree
corresponds to a term in the recurrence relation, and the nodes at each level represent the subproblems
generated during the recursive calls. The leaves of the tree correspond to the base cases of the recurrence.
Analyzing the height and cost of each level in the tree helps in understanding the overall time complexity of the
algorithm.

c) **Master Theorem:**

The Master Theorem is a tool for analyzing the time complexity of algorithms that follow a divide-
and-conquer structure, typically expressed through a recurrence relation in the form:

T(n)=aT(n/b)+f(n)

where:

• a is the number of subproblems in each recursive call.

• b is the factor by which the input size is reduced in each recursive call.
• f(n) is the cost of the work done outside the recursive calls.

The Master Theorem provides a simple framework to determine the time complexity of such
algorithms without solving the recurrence relation explicitly. It categorizes the solutions into specific
forms based on the characteristics of a, b, and f(n). The resulting time complexity is given directly in
terms of the dominant term in the recurrence relation.

Q 4. What is graph? explain the following

a) substitution method
b) graph representation in computer science
c)isomorphic graph
d) planar graph
e) graph coloring
 A graph is a mathematical structure that consists of a set of vertices (or nodes) and a set of
edges connecting pairs of vertices. Graphs are widely used in computer science, networking,
and various other fields to model relationships and connections between entities.

a) Substitution Method:

• The substitution method is a technique used in the analysis of algorithms to solve recurrence
relations. It involves guessing a bound and then using mathematical induction to prove the
guess correct.

b) Graph Representation in Computer Science:

• In computer science, graphs can be represented in two main ways:

1. Adjacency Matrix: A 2D array where the entry A[i][j] is either 1 or 0, representing
whether there is an edge between vertex I and vertex j.
2. Adjacency List: A collection of linked lists or arrays where each vertex has a list of its
neighboring vertices.

c) Isomorphic Graph:

• Isomorphic graphs are two graphs that have the same structure, meaning they have the same
number of vertices connected in the same way. In other words, the graphs can be redrawn to
look identical.

d) Planar Graph:

• A planar graph is a graph that can be embedded in the plane (or on a surface such as a sphere)
without any edges crossing. Such graphs have applications in network design, circuit layout,
and geographical mapping.

e) Graph Coloring:

• Graph coloring is a way of assigning colors to the vertices of a graph such that no two adjacent
vertices have the same color. The minimum number of colors needed for such an assignment is
called the chromatic number of the graph. Graph coloring has applications in scheduling, map
coloring, and register allocation in compilers.

Q 5. What is Tree? Properties of tree and explain spanning tree?

In computer science, a tree is a widely used data structure that resembles an inverted tree in nature. It
consists of nodes connected by edges, and it has the following properties:

1. Nodes: A tree is made up of nodes, each containing a value or data.

2. Edges: The edges connect pairs of nodes and establish relationships between them. In a tree,
there is exactly one path between any two nodes.
 3. Root: The tree has a distinguished node called the root. It is the topmost node in the hierarchy
and serves as the starting point for traversing the tree.
4. Parent and Child Nodes: Each node in a tree, except the root, has exactly one incoming edge
from another node, called its parent. Nodes with the same parent are called siblings. Nodes
with no children are called leaves or terminal nodes.
5. Depth: The depth of a node is the length of the path from the root to that node. The depth of
the root is 0.
6. Height: The height of a tree is the length of the longest path from the root to a leaf node.
Alternatively, it can be defined as the maximum depth of any node in the tree.
7. Subtree: A subtree is a tree formed by selecting a node and all its descendants, including that
node itself.
8. Binary Tree: A binary tree is a tree in which each node has at most two children, referred to as
the left child and the right child.
9. Binary Search Tree (BST): A binary search tree is a binary tree where the left child of a node
contains values less than the node, and the right child contains values greater than the node.

Spanning Tree: A spanning tree of a connected, undirected graph is a subgraph that is a tree and
includes all the vertices of the original graph. In other words, a spanning tree is a tree that spans all
the vertices of the graph without forming any cycles.

Q 6. Explain the Hamiltonian and Euler algorithm for finding the shortest path in a graph?

The Hamiltonian and Eulerian paths are concepts related to graph theory, but they are not algorithms
for finding the shortest path in a graph. Instead, they focus on different types of paths and circuits
within a graph.

1. Hamiltonian Path and Cycle:

• Hamiltonian Path: A Hamiltonian path in a graph is a path that visits each vertex
exactly once. If the path starts and ends at the same vertex, it is called a Hamiltonian
cycle.
• Hamiltonian Algorithm: There is no known efficient algorithm that always finds a
Hamiltonian path or cycle in a general graph. The problem of determining whether a
Hamiltonian cycle exists in a graph is NP-complete, meaning that it is computationally
hard in the general case.
Hamiltonian paths and cycles have applications in optimization problems, such as the Traveling
Salesman Problem (TSP), where the goal is to find the shortest path that visits a set of cities
exactly once and returns to the starting city.
2. Eulerian Path and Circuit:
• Eulerian Path: An Eulerian path is a path in a graph that traverses each edge exactly
once. If the path starts and ends at the same vertex, it is called an Eulerian circuit.
• Eulerian Algorithm (Hierholzer's Algorithm):
• For Eulerian paths and circuits to exist, the graph must satisfy certain conditions.
Specifically, all vertices in the graph must have even degrees (an even number of
edges incident to each vertex), or exactly two vertices must have odd degrees.
 • Hierholzer's Algorithm is an efficient algorithm for finding Eulerian paths and
circuits in a graph that meets the degree conditions.
Eulerian paths and circuits have applications in network design and analysis, where the goal is
to traverse each edge exactly once.

Q 7. Explain well Formed Formula and Tautologies.

Well-Formed Formula (WFF): A Well-Formed Formula, often abbreviated as WFF, is a syntactically

correct arrangement of symbols and operators in a logical language. In other words, a WFF is a string
of symbols that adheres to the grammar rules of a specific logical system. These rules define how
symbols can be combined to create meaningful expressions. WFFs are fundamental in formal logic
and mathematical logic.

For example, in propositional logic, where statements are combined using logical connectives (like
AND, OR, NOT), a WFF could be something like (p ∧ q) ∨ (¬r). This is well-formed because it follows
the syntax rules of propositional logic.

Tautology: A tautology is a statement or formula that is always true, regardless of the truth values of
its individual components. In other words, a tautology is a WFF that evaluates to true under all
possible assignments of truth values to its variables. Tautologies are a key concept in logic and are
used to express statements that are universally valid.

For example, in propositional logic, the formula p∨(¬p) is a tautology because, regardless of whether
p is true or false, the entire expression is always true. This is known as the Law of Excluded Middle.

Another example is the tautology ( p ∧ q)→p, often referred to as the Law of Simplification, which
asserts that if both p and q are true, then p must be true.