ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Electricity

All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms contain three main types of
particles (sub-atomic particles) – electrons, protons, and neutrons.
atom
electron

MAGNIFIED

Protons (P [●]) – positive (+ve) charge

Neutrons (N [●]) – neutral (no charge)
Electrons (E [●]) – negative (-ve) charge

Electricity is the study of the nature and behaviour of charged particles (usually
electrons).

There are two forms

Static Electricity: stationary or non-moving electric charge built up on an insulated material.

Current Electricity: the movement of electric charge.

Static Electricity

Introduction to Static Electricity

Fundamentals: The following information is essential to understand

electricity.
There are only two kinds of charges – positive (on protons) and negative
(on electrons). Electrons move most easily.
Objects or atoms become positively charged by losing electrons.
Objects or atoms become negatively charged by gaining electrons.
Like charges repel.
Unlike charges attract.
 Charge is conserved, i.e. it is neither created nor destroyed.
A neutral object has an equal and evenly distributed number of positive
and negative charges.
The charge of an object (Q) = number of extra electrons (n) × charge of
one electron (e = 1.6×10-19C). Q=n× e .
Questions
Calculate the charge of an object that has 4×1015 extra electrons.
Calculate the number of missing electron on an object which has a
charge of +4C.
Calculate the charge of an electron, if 500 electrons have a total
charge of 8×10-17C.
Conductors and Insulators: Not all objects allow electrons to pass through
them.
Insulators: Materials which do not easily allow the flow of electrons
through it. Generally: most nonmetals except graphite and water.
Conductors: Materials which easily allow the flow of electrons through it.
Generally: all metals plus graphite (pencil points) and water.
Ions: Usually atoms have equally numbers of protons and electrons, therefore
they are neutral. However sometimes atoms have different proton and electron
numbers.
These atoms are then called Ions. There are two types of ions:
Cations (Positive Ions): atoms which have lost electrons and therefore
have more protons than electrons.
Sodium Atom: 11p, 11e Sodium Ion: 11p, 10e

11P 11P
12N 12N

Anions (Negative Ions): atoms which have gained electrons and therefore
have less protons than electrons.
 Fluorine Atom: 9p, 9e Fluorine Ion: 9p, 10e

9P 10P
10N 10N

Electric Forces and Fields

Electric Forces Between Charges: If two electrically charge objects are close
enough together, then they will experience a force, i.e. a push or pull.
Direction (Push or Pull): Forces between charges following these rules.
Opposites attract and Like repels.
If they carry the same charge then they will repel each other, so they will
be pushed apart.
If they carry the opposite charge then they will attract each other, so they
will be pulled together
Two Positive Charges: will repel each other.
Repel

Two Negative Charges: will repel each other.

Repel

A Positive And A Negative Charge: will attract each other.

Attract

Magnitude (How Strong):

The Product (multiplication) of the two charges. The greater the
product of the charges, the greater the force will be. For example a 4 C
and a 5C will have a greater Force than a 9C and a 2C.
The Distance between the two charges. The greater the distance
between the charges, the smaller the force will be. For example the
force between two charges will be greater when they are 2 cm apart
other than when they are 1 m apart.
 Questions:
Draw arrows to show the force on the labeled object.
A B

[1] [3]
C D

[2] [4]
A positive object is placed 4cm from another negative object and
experiences a force of 10 N. What would happen to the force if the
distance is changed to
[1] 5 cm [2] 3 cm
Place these cases in increasing order of magnitude.

1C 2C 3C 1C
[1] [3]

0.5C 3C
[2]
Electric Fields: A field in physics is the area in which a force is experienced.
An electric field is the area in which an electric charge experiences a force of
electrical origin. An electric field is represented by arrows. The direction of the
field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive point of charge.
Representations of various electric fields are shown below.
 Around a Positive Charge: The field is out of the positive charge.
Around a Negative Charge: The field is into the negative charge.
Between a Positive and a Negative Charge: The field is out of the
positive charge and into the negative charge.
Between Two Positive Charges: The fields are out of both positive
charges but curve away from each other.
Between Two Negative Charges: The fields are into both negative
charges but curve away from each other.
Uniform Between a Positive and a Negative Plate: The field is parallel
(uniform) out from the positive plate and into the negative plate.
Charging Objects: Objects become charged, similar to atoms, by losing or gaining
electrons.
When they lose electrons, they become positive.
When they gain electrons, they become negative.
There are many methods of charging objects. Three of these methods are by
Friction, by Contact and by Induction.
By Friction (Rubbing): Friction involves rubbing of two objects. Though this
method works for all solids, it works best on insulators.
When the two objects are rubbed, the electrons move one to the other. The one
which loses electrons becomes positive. The one which gains electrons
becomes negative.
Liking for Electrons: The one which gains electrons depends on the
nature of the two materials rubbed. The table below helps to determine
which one becomes positive or negative. The materials at the bottom have
a greater liking for electrons than the ones at the top. A material will give
up electrons to one below it and become positive. A material will take up
electrons from one above it and become negative.

Examples: Determine which material will be positive and which will

be negative.
[1] If glass is rubbed with paper. Glass (+) and Paper (–).
[2] If rubber is rubbed with paper. Rubber (–) and Paper (–).
Question: Determine which material will be positive and which will
be negative. NB: Rubber = Hard Rubber.
 [1] Wood ( ) and Silk ( ).
[2] Nylon ( ) and Amber ( ).
[3] Human hair ( ) and PVC ( ).
[4] Teflon ( ) and Rubber ( ).
Diagrams: The diagrams illustrate charging by friction.
For a Rod That Becomes Positive: Glass is an example.
Before Rubbing After Rubbing

Glass rod (neutral) Glass rod (positive)

Rubbing

Paper (neutral) Electrons move from the glassPaper

to the(negative)
paper.

For a Rod The Becomes Negative: Rubber is an example.

Before Rubbing After Rubbing

Rubber rod (neutral) Rubber rod (negative)

Rubbing

Paper (neutral) Electrons move from the paperPaper

to the(positive)
rubber.

By Contact (Touching): Contact involves touching two objects. This method

works best for conductors. To charge by contact, simply touch the charged
metal with the neutral one or vice versa.
The charges will redistribute themselves so that both metals will carry the same
charge. Finally, separate the two objects.
Diagram: The diagrams below show charging by
Positive Objects:
Before Contact Contact After Contact

Positive Metal Neutral Metal

Both Metals are now positive They remain positive
 Negative Objects:
Before Contact Contact After Contact

Negative MetalNeutral Metal

Both Metals are now negative They remain negative

Questions: Answer the following questions

Indicate which of the following materials can be charged by contact?
[1] Steel [3] Wood
[2] Rubber [4] Cupper
An aluminium rod is rubbed with a cotton rag. Then it is touched with
a metal can.
[1] Use the table in Charging By Friction above to determine what
charge the aluminium rod becomes.
[2] What charge does the Metal Can get?
[3] After touching would the rod and the can repel or attract?
By Induction (Closeness): Induction involves bringing a uncharged and
charged object close to each other. It works best on conductors.
When a conductor is brought close to a charged object this causes the end of
the conductor which is closest to the charged object to gain the opposite
charge.
Diagrams: The diagrams below show charging by
Positive Objects:
Separate Brought Closer Earthed Earth Removed Separated

Negative RodNeutral Can

Electrons move away from
Electrons
the negative
move down
leaving
to the
theearth
frontthrough Since
positive.the earth the earth is removed electrons won’t
wire.

Negative Objects:
 Separate Brought Closer Earthed Earth Removed Separated

Positive RodNeutral Can

Electrons move towards
Electrons
the positive
movemaking
up from
thethe
front
earth
negative. Since
through the earth the earth is removed electrons won’t
wire.

Attracting Small Pieces of Neutral Objects: This is caused by a

temporary induction. It is the way charged pens are able to attract tiny
pieces of paper.

The charged pen (eg. positive) is brought close to the piece of paper.

The pen induce a negative charge on the top of the paper

The negatively charged top of the pen is attracted to the positively charge
pen.
moved close
neutral paper electrons move up
closer attraction

positive pen

moved close
neutral paper electrons move down
closer attraction
closer

negative pen

Questions:
Detecting Static Charges: Static charges are detected by devices called
electroscopes.
The most common electroscope is the Metal Leaf Electroscope.
Detecting the Presence of Charge: When a charged object is brought close to
the electroscope, it is temporarily charged by induction. This means that the
leaf and the rod will have the same charge and will hence repel each other. The
leaf will therefore rise. A neutral object will not cause any change.
Charging the Electroscope: Electroscopes are charged by contact. An object
with the intended charge of the electroscope is touch on it. So to give it a
 negative charge touch it with a negative object and to give it a positive charge
touch it with a positive object.
A charged electroscope will have a lifted leaf. A charged electroscope can be
used to test what charge an object has.
Detecting the Type of Charge: The charge an object has is detected with a
charged electroscope.
If an object with the same charge as the electroscope is brought close to the
electroscope then the electroscope will rise higher.
If an object with the opposite charge is brought close to the electroscope then it
will drop lower.
Uses and Hazards of Static Electricity
Uses: There are several uses of static electricity. Some are shown below.
Van de Graaff Generator: This is a device used to generate a very high
static charge. This charge is stored on a metal ball or dome.
I worked by using a rubber band to carry charges from the earth to the
metal dome.
It can be used to carry out important experiments and fun demonstrations.
To Extend the Coverage of Sprays: Sprays, such as Paints, Insecticides,
can be made to reach further by applying a static charge to them. The
nozzle is given a negative charge. As the droplets move through the nozzle
they are all given the same charge. As the leave the nozzle the repel each
other and spread further and evenly. Usually the object to be spray is given
a positive charge.
Photocopying: The surface (copying plate) on which the document is
placed is given a positive electrical charge. Light is then shined through
the document unto the surface (white allow light). The charge is destroyed
in the exposed areas (white areas). Negative powder that’s spread on the
surface sticks to the remaining positive. A piece of paper is placed over the
powder image and given a positive charge. The negatively-charged powder
is attracted to the paper. Heat fuses the powder image to the paper,
producing a copy of the image.
 Dust Removal from Factory Exhaust: As the waste gases passes through
the negative grid they become negative. As they move higher they are
attracted to the positive collecting plates. They are therefore removed from
the factory exhaust.

Hazards: Static Electricity can pose many dangers to humans.

Spark from Vehicle and Aircrafts: As the vehicle moves it is charge by
friction. If the charge becomes very great this may lead to a spark which
can ignite its fuel and cause explosion.
Shocks from Metallic Objects after Walking on Carpets: As we walk
upon the carpet our bodies become charge by friction. When we touch the
metal electron move and this causes the shock.
Damage to Electronics: As we move about, our hands become charged by
friction. When we touch the conductors in electronic devices, high charges
are discharged from our hands into the devices. These discharges can burn
the devices.
Lightning: The clouds become negatively charged by friction. The high
negative charge on the cloud induces a positive charge on the surface of
the earth. The electrons are attracted to the positively charged surface. The
electrons are discharged at high speeds to the earth.

1. Charged by Friction

3. Lightning Strike

2. Positive charge induced on Earth’s surface

Current Electricity

Electric current is the flow of electric charge (especially electrons).

More quantitatively “Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge per unit time.”

Intro To Current Electricity

Cause of Electric Current (Potential Difference or Voltage)

Electric current is caused by a potential difference.

Electrons move from a more negative potential to a more positive one.

positive potential Low electron concentration

electrons

negative potential High electron concentration

Potential difference (p.d.) can be described simply as the difference in electron

concentration between two points. Potential Difference is also called Voltage
(V).

However the more mathematical definition is “The potential difference

between two points is the work done (or energy used) to move one coulomb of
charge (Q) from one point to the other.”

In other words “it is work done per charge.”

W W E E
V= ∨V =
Q V ×Q Q V ×Q

Methods of Transfer of Electric Current

There are two main methods by which electricity flows.

Conduction – In this case the electrons move through the metal. This
occurs mainly in metals because they have free electrons. Insulators do not
conduct electricity because they lack free electrons.

electrons
wire electrons
electrons
 Electrolysis – This is the break down or splitting up of chemical as
electricity passes through them (electro + lysis(splitting)). Electrolysis
occurs in all ionic substance when in liquid form (dissolved in water or
melted). The electricity is transferred because the ions move and transfer
the electrons.

In the process the substance is split up.

An electrolyte is a liquid which allows electrolysis. Water is an electrolyte

when substances are dissolved in it.

An electrode is a conductor that is positive or negative and transfer

electricity to an electrolyte.

beaker

cations+ electrolyte

anode cathode
anions-

Effects of Electric Current

Heating – Irons, dryers, stoves, ovens, heaters, etc.

Lighting – Light bulbs, television, projectors, etc.

Magnetism – Electromagnets, Motors, Transformers, Loudspeakers, etc.

Chemical Changes – Electrolysis.

Motion – Motors.

Electrical Quantities

There are many quantities involved in electricity. These include: Current, Potential
Difference (Voltage), Charge, Energy, Power, resistance.

Current, Charge and Time

Charge (Q) refers to the quantity of charged particles (usually electrons). It is

measured in Coulombs(C).
 Current equals to the rate of flow of charge per unit time (t). That is: The
amount of charge passing a certain point in a circuit per (÷) unit time (second).

Unit = Amperes (A).

Q Q
I=
t I ×t

Question

30C of electrons flowed in 6s. What is the current?

A current of 0.5A flow for 1min. What is the charge that flowed?

The current in a circuit is 4A. How long will it take for 100C to flow?

Energy and Power

Electrical energy in an electrical circuit equals to the voltage multiplied by the

charge. Unit = Joules (J)

-4.5V||||||||||||||||||0||||||||||||||||||+4.5V

E
E=Q× V
Q ×V

Electrical Power is the current multiplied by the voltage. Unit = Watts(W)

E Q ×V Q
P= = = ×V =I ×V
t t t

P
P=I ×V
I ×V

Electrical Circuits

A circuit is a conductive pathway through which current may flow from the
negative electrical terminal to the positive electrical terminal.

Circuit Symbols: Symbols are usually used to draw electrical circuits in a

standard way. The symbols are shown below.
Circuit Components

Circuits must contain four main parts.

Load (Device): It uses the electricity by changing it to another form of

energy. Examples include resistors, light bulbs, motors, LEDs,
loudspeakers, etc.

Switch: It can turn the circuit on or off.

Connecting Wires: They allow current to pass through the circuit.

Power Supply: It creates the potential difference needed for current to

flow through the circuit. Every power supply has two terminals where
electric current may enter and leave the power supply. They are the
Negative Terminal (where electrons leaves the power supply) and the
positive terminal (where are electrons return to the supply).

Positive Terminal

LOAD
POWER
SUPPLY

Negative Terminal

There are two main types of power supplies: Direct Current (DC) and
Alternating Current (AC).

DC: This power supply has fixed positive and negative terminal.
Therefore the current it produces always flows in the same direction
(it is direct). They includes Electric Cells (batteries), Chargers, DC
Generators, Solar Cells and Rectifier Power Supplies.

Electric Cells a devices which contains chemicals that produce

electricity. There are two main types of cells:

[1] Primary Cells: These are electric cells which can only be used
once. It contains a chemical (called an electrolyte) and two
different metals (called electrodes), which are in the electrolyte.

One of the metals must be more reactive than the other and must
be reactive enough to react with the electrolyte.

The more reactive metal gives up its electrons, becomes positive

ion and enters the electrolyte. It is the negative terminal.

At the other metals positive ions take electrons from the metal and
become neutral atoms. This is the positive terminal.
 LOAD

The two main types of primary cells are: The Simple cell and The
Dry Cell.

{a} The Simple Cell: These cells are made from liquid
electrolyte. The diagram above is for a simple cell. They are
not very portable simple the liquid can spill.

{b} The Dry Cell: These cells contain electrolyte in a paste form
(Like toothpaste). This allows them to be portable since the
paste cannot spill. The cells that you buy are all dry cells.

Positive Terminal
Graphite Rod (Anode)
Manganese Oxide & Carbon
Paper Case
ZnCl2 & NH4Cl
(Electrolyte)
Zinc Case (Cathode)
Negative Terminal

[2] Secondary Cells: These are cells which can be recharged after
they have been fully discharged (used up). This is because the
chemical reaction which produces energy within them is
reversible. When current is supply to the secondary cell in the
 opposite direction to which it normally discharges then the
chemicals are returned to their original state. Thus the cell is
recharged and can be used again.

{a} Types: the two most frequently used types of secondary cell
are the Lead-Acid (used in vehicles) and the Lithium-Ion
(used in Phones and Laptops).

{b} Recharging: When recharging a secondary cell the charging

voltage must be atleast as much as the voltage of the cell. In
addition the current must flow in reverse to when the cell is
discharging (supplying current). The diagram below shows
how to recharge a secondary cell.

≥12V

12V

[3] Comparison

FACTOR PRIMARY SECONDARY

Rechargeable No Yes

Source Easily Source Difficult

Price Cheap Expensive

 Charge Retention Long Short

Long Term Cost High Low

Max Current Low High

Disposal Simple Special

AC: This power supply has terminals which alternates (switches back
and forth) between positive and negative. First Terminal A is negative
and terminal B is positive, then Terminal A switches to positive and
terminal B switches to negative. This means that the current first goes
from A to B then switches to go from B to A. In other words the
direction of the current keeps changing.

[1] Diagram

A A
B B

FirstThen

[2] Graph: Positive represents one direction and negative represent

the other.
 Voltage OR Current
Forward
Time

Backward

[3] Frequency and Period: An AC current can be describe by how

often it direction changes. The two properties used are Frequency
and Period. The diagram below illustrates frequency and period.
Voltage OR Current

Frequency

1 2 3 4

Time/s
0.25 0.5 0.75 1

Period

{a} Frequency (f): This refers to the number of times the current
changes direction in 1 second. Its Unit is Hertz (Hz). The
1
frequency of the AC in the diagram above is 4 Hz. f = .
T

{b} Period: This refers to the time taken to an AC current to

make one complete cycle. That means the time taken for the
AC to start from no current, then go forward, then return to
no current, then go backward, and then return to no current.
 Its Unit is Second (s). The Period of the AC in the diagram
1
above is 0.25 s. T = .
f

[4] Peak and RMS Values: An AC can also be described by its Peak
and RMS value. The diagram below illustrates peak and RMS.

Voltage OR Current
Period
RMS

Time/s

{a} Peak: This refers to the highest value of the voltage and
current of an AC power supply. So, Peak Current is the
Highest Current and Peak Voltage is the Highest Voltage.

{b} RMS: This is the abbreviation for Root Mean Square. This
represents the effect value of the Current or Voltage in a AC
circuit.

If VRMS & IRMS are the RMS Voltage and Currents

respectively, and VPEAK & IPEAK are the Peak Voltage and
Currents respectively, then the calculations are done as
shown below.

VRMS = 0.7 × VPEAK OR VPEAK = VRMS ÷ 0.7

IRMS = 0.7 × IPEAK OR IPEAK = IRMS ÷ 0.7

Circuit States: A circuit can be in one of three states.

Open Circuit: In this state, a circuit has a complete pathway from the
negative terminal of the power supply to the positive terminal of the power
supply. This circuit state allows for the flow of electric current.
 Close Circuit: In this state, a circuit has a break in the pathway from the
negative terminal of the power supply to the positive terminal of the power
supply. This circuit state does not allow for the flow of electric current.

Short Circuit: In this state, a circuit has a pathway from the negative
terminals of the power supply to the positive terminal of the power supply
that is empty. Most of the power returns to the power supply via the short
circuit and may overheat the power supply. Also, any other pathway only
receives very small currents.

Circuit Connections

Series Circuits: Series Connection describes two devices that are one-
after-the-other (in series) in a circuit. That means there is a pathway from
the negative terminal to the positive terminal that can pass through both
devices without doubling back. As an illustration when going from
Grenville to Sauteurs, Mt Rose and Mt Fendue are in series.

Parallel Circuits: Parallel Connection describes two devices that are side-
by-side (in parallel) in a circuit. That means there is no pathway from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal that can pass through both
devices without doubling back. The two device are on two separate
branches of the circuit. As an illustration when going from Grenville to
Sauteurs, Mt Rose and Hermitage are in series.

Complex Circuits: Compound Circuits are circuits which contained both

series are parallel connections. You may have a series connection inside a
parallel branch OR you may have a parallel branch in series to another
device.

Building Circuits

Diagrams from Pictures or Drawings

Draw Circuit Diagrams for the following

Diagrams from Real

Real from Diagrams

Resistance

Definition: Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current. If all

other properties of two circuits are equal, then the one with the higher
resistance will have the lower current, and the one with the lower resistance
will have the higher current. All materials have resistance. Good conductors
have low resistance and poor conductors have high resistance. Insulators have
infinite resistance therefore the current in them is zero.
 Electron Conductor Resistance

Resistors: Resistance is a very important property of circuits. Without a high

enough resistance the current may become too high and damage the circuit. So
resistance help control the current in a circuit in order to prevent damage or to
control the value of the output power (eg: controlling the speed of a motor). To
add resistance to a circuit, a resistor is used. A resistor is a device used to add
extra resistance to a circuit. There are two main types of resistors: Fixed
Resistors and Variable Resistors.

Fixed Resistor: These resistors have resistance that does not change. They
provide a fixed resistance. The picture below shows a fixed resistor.

The Resistor Colour Code: On the resistor show above are bands of
different colors. Each band represents a certain part of the resistors
value based on its position and colour.

Each colour represents a number: Black = 0, Brown = 1, Red = 2,

Orange = 3, Yellow = 4, Green = 5, Blue = 6, Violet = 7, Gray = 8,
White = 9, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10%.

Most resistors have four (4) bands. The first 2 bands represent the first
two digits of the value. The third band represents the number of zeroes
to place after the first two (2) digits. The fourth band represents the
maximum possible error (tolerance) of the obtained value.

In the resistor above the first two bands are Brown (1) and Green (5)
so the first two digits are 15. Then the third band is Red (2) so we
must place 2 zeroes (00) after the ‘15’, and this gives us a value of
1500 Ω. Finally the fourth band is Gold (5%), and the means that the
actually value of the resistance of the resistor can be 5% (5/100 × 1500
= 75 Ω) higher or lower than the obtained value - that is between 1425
Ω and 1575 Ω.

[1] Questions

{a} Work out the resistance of the following resistors.

i. ii.

iii. iv.

{b} Draw the resistor that have the following values

iii. 5 Ω with 5% tolerance

iv. 23 Ω with 10% tolerance

v. 140 Ω with 5% tolerance

vi. 97000 Ω with 10% tolerance

[2] Solutions

{a} Select the entire line below and change the text colour to
black to see the solutions.

i. Red (2) Green (5) Orange (000) Gold (5%) = 25000 Ω

with 5% Tolerance.

ii. Black (0) White (9) Black () Silver (10%) = 5 Ω with

10% Tolerance.

iii. Brown (1) Gray (8) Blue (000000) Gold (5%) =

18000000 Ω with 5% Tolerance.

iv. Violet (7) Red (2) Yellow (0000) Silver (10%) = 720000
Ω with 10% Tolerance.
 {b} Click on the picture below and delete it to see the solutions.

i. ii.

iii. iv.

Safety: Care must be exercise to ensure that the current through

resistor is not too high since this can burn the resistor.

Variable Resistor: These are resistors whose values can be changed. The
can be used to set or change the voltage in other parts of the circuit. To do
this they must be connected in series to that part. To increase the Voltage
in other part, decrease the resistance of the variable resistor. To decrease
the Voltage of the other part, increase the resistance of the variable
resistor.

The diagram below shows pictures of a variable resistor.

Ohm’s Law: This deals with the relationship between Current & Voltage.

Measuring Current and Voltage: The diagram below shows how current
and voltage can be measured.
V
A
 Measuring Current: Current is measured with an Ammeter.
Ammeters must be connected in series to the part of the circuit whose
current is to be measured. Ammeters have very low resistance so that
they do not significantly affect the current in the other parts of the
circuit.

Measuring Voltage: Voltage is measured with an Voltmeter.

Voltmeters must be connected in parallel to the part of the circuit
whose current is to be measured. Voltmeters have very high resistance
so that they do not significantly affect the current in the other parts of
the circuit.

Experiment: The following experiment investigates Ohm’s Law.

Aim: To investigate the relationship between Current and Voltage

across a resistor.

Apparatus: Power supply, switch, resistor, ammeter, voltmeter,

variable resistor, connecting wires.

Diagram:
V
A

Procedure:

[1] Setup the circuit as shown in the diagram above.

[2] Use the variable to set the voltage to 2V.

[3] Measure and record the Voltage (V) and Current (I).

[4] Repeat steps 2 and 3 from 4V, 6V, 8V, 10V, 12V.

[5] Draw the graph for Voltage vs Current.

[6] Find the gradient of the graph.

 Precautions:

[1] Read the ammeter and voltmeter so as to avoid parallax.

Expected results:
V/V 2 4 6 8 10 12
I/A 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Conclusion: Based on the graph obtained, it can be concluded that

Current through a resistor is directly proportional to Voltage across it.

Statement of Ohm’s Law and Formula

Law: The Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the

voltage across that resistor if resistance and temperature remains
constant.

I ∝ V → V ∝ I → V =k × I

Formula: V =R × I since the constant of proportionality is the

resistance.

V
Therefore R=
I

Determining Resistance: To measure resistance, simply measure the

voltage using a voltmeter (in parallel) and measure the current using an
V
ammeter (in series). Then simply use the formula R=
I

Other Conductors

Total Resistance: This represents the effective or combined resistance of a

group of devices that are connected in the same circuit. All the devices can be
replaced with one resistor with the total resistance and will provide the same
resistance to the circuit. For this reason it is also called Equivalent Resistance
or Effective Resistance. Total resistance is calculated based on how they are
connected.

Series: To find Total Resistance simple add up all the resistances.

R=R 1+ R 2+ R 3 +…
 R1+ R2+ R3

R2

R3
R1
Example: R = 3 + 8 + 9 = 20 Ω

8Ω

9Ω
3Ω
20Ω

Question: Calculate the total resistance

53Ω

79Ω
[1]

17Ω
25Ω
5Ω

1Ω

[2]

Parallel: To find Total Resistance simple add up all reciprocal of the

resistances. Then find the reciprocal if the sum.

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + …→ R=
R R 1 R 2 R3 1 1 1
+ + +…
R1 R2 R3
R1
R2
R3
 1 1 1 1 2+3+1 6 18
Example: = + + = = → R= =3 Ω
R 9 6 18 18 18 6

9Ω
6Ω
3Ω

18Ω
Questions: Calculate the total resistance for each circuit below.

14Ω 7Ω 84Ω 42Ω

20Ω
5Ω

[1] [2]

1 1 1 4+ 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 2+1+12+6 21
= + = = ⇒ R=4 Ω . = + + + = = ⇒ R=4
R 20 5 20 20 R 42 84 7 14 84 84

Complex: The method of finding the total of a complex circuit depends on

which connection is inside the other.

Parallel in Series: To find the Total Resistance - first find the total of
the parallel section (RP) and then adding it the other resistors that are
in series.

1 1 1 1
= + , R P= , R=R1 + R P + R4
R P R2 R3 1 1
+
R 2 R3
 R2
RP

R1

R4

R4
R1 RP

R3
R1+RP+R4

1 1 1 2+1+ 3 6 18
[1] Example: R P= + + = = , RP = =3 Ω
9 18 6 18 18 6

R=5+3+1=9 Ω

9Ω
18Ω
5Ω

1Ω

5Ω
6Ω 1Ω 3Ω

9Ω

[2] Questions: Calculate the total resistance for each circuit below
3Ω

2.8Ω
2Ω

{a}

{b}
3Ω
10Ω
5Ω

5Ω

2Ω

{c}
 Series in Parallel: To find the Total Resistance - first find the total of
the section (RS) and then adding it the other resistors that are in
Parallel.

1 1 1 1
R S=R2 + R3 , = + , R=
R R1 R S 1 1
+
R 1 RS

R1
R3

R2

RS
R1

[1] Example: R S=8+ 4=12 Ω

1 1 1 2+1 3 12
= + = = , R= =4 Ω
R 6 12 12 12 3

6Ω
4Ω
8Ω

12Ω
6Ω

[2] Question: Calculate the total resistance for each circuit below
50Ω

30Ω

20Ω
{a}

Properties of Current and Voltage in Series and Parallel Circuits

Series: Use the diagram below to understand the rules below.

I V1
R1
I

V V2

R2
R3

I V3 I

Current is the same throughout the circuit.

V
I=
R

Voltage splits up in the same ratio as the resistance.

V 1=I R 1 , V 2=I R 2 , V 3=I R3 , …

Total Voltage across the circuit is the sum of the voltage across each
resistor.

V =V 1+V 2+V 3 + …

Example

[1] The diagram below shows a circuit with 3 Resistors.

I
1Ω
I

12V
2Ω

3Ω

I I

{a} Calculate the Total Resistance (R).

{b} Calculate the Total Current (I).

{c} Calculate the Voltage across each resistor (V1, V2, V3).

Questions
 [1] The diagram below shows a circuit with 3 Resistors.

I
10Ω
I

60V

5Ω

I I

{a} Calculate the Total Resistance (R).

{b} Calculate the Total Current (I).

{c} Calculate the Voltage across each resistor (V1, V2, V3).

[2] The diagram below shows a circuit with 3 Resistors.

I
4Ω
I

55V
7Ω

11Ω

I I

{a} Calculate the Total Resistance (R).

{b} Calculate the Total Current (I).

{c} Calculate the Voltage across each resistor (V1, V2, V3).

Parallel: Use the diagram below to understand the rules below.

I
I1 I2 I3

V V V V3
R1

R2

R3

Voltage is the same across each resistor.

V =IR
 Current splits up based on the resistance.

V V V
I 1= , I 2= , I 3= , …
R1 R2 R3

Total Current is the sum of the current through each resistor. Total
current going into the parallel network is the same as the total coming
out.

I =I 1+ I 2 + I 3+ …

Example:

Questions: Solve the problems below.

[1] Below is shown a circuit.

30Ω
40V

6Ω

{a} Calculate the total Resistance.

1 1 1 1+5 6 1
= + = = = ⇒ R=5 Ω
R 30 6 30 30 5

{b} Calculate the total current.

V 40
I= = =8 A
R 5

{c} Calculate the current through each resistor.

40 4
I 1= = =1.33 A
30 3

40 20
I 2= = =6.67 A
6 3

Complex

Parallel in Series: Use the diagram to understand the rules below.

 I2 R1

I2 I3

V V2 V3

R2

R3
R4

I2 I2

[1] Total Resistance: R=R P + R 1+ R 2+ …

V
[2] Total Current: I =
R

[3] Current Through the Outer Resistors: I 1=I 2=I

[4] Voltage Across the Outer Resistors: V 1=I R 1

[5] Voltage Across the Parallel Section: V P=I R P

VP VP VP
[6] Current Through Parallel Resistors: I A= , I B= , I C=
RA RB RC

Series in Parallel: Use the diagram to understand the rules below.

I2
R1

I2 I3

V3
R2

R3

V V2=VP

R4

I I

1
R=
[1] Total Resistance: 1 1
+
RS R 1

[2] Total Voltage: V isusually given.

[3] Voltage Across the Outer Resistor: V 1=V

 V
[4] Current Through the Outer Resistor: I 1=
R1

V
[5] Current Through the Series Section: I P =
RS

[6] Voltage Across Series Resistors: V A =I P R A , V B =I P R B

Worked Examples:

[1] The circuit below shows 1 Resistor in Series to a Parallel Network

of another 2 Resistors.

I2
R3

R2
24V
R1

[2]

Questions:

Electricity in The Home

In the home electricity is very important. This is because as a form of energy it is

very versatile - that means it can be converted to any other form of energy.
Therefore it can be used to do almost anything in the home. It is used to run many
appliance and light bulbs.

Usually electricity is provided by the Electricity Company. The electricity first

passes through the Electric-meter which measures the energy usage. It then goes
through the Main-switch, which can be used to switch off the current and has fuses
(or circuit breakers) to protect the circuit. The electricity is taken through cables to
sockets, which allows for the connection of appliances, or to light bulb sockets.
Appliances can be connected to the sockets via plugs.
Electricity in the home is Alternating Current. In Grenada the frequency is from 5
to 50Hz and the RMS Voltage is 240V. However, in the United States their supply
and devices are 120V therefore their devices may burn if plugged into 240V.

Types of Wire

Live: This wire has a potential - that means it can cause a current if the
circuit is completed. This wire switches between negative and positive.
When it is negative it carries current in and when it is positive it carries
current out.

This wire is Brown in colour.

Neutral: This wire completes the circuit with the live. Its potential is 0V
therefore the direction of the current through it depends on the direction of
the potential of the live. When the live is negative the neutral carries
current out and when the live is positive the neutral carries current in.

This wire is Blue in colour.

Earth: This wire is for the safety of the appliance and it is also called the
ground wire. It is connected to the earth (ground) which is at 0V so it does
not return to the electrical line. Inside the device it is connected to the
metallic casing. If there is a break in the device’s wiring and the wire
touches the metallic casing, then the casing becomes live and is a possible
electrical shock hazard. If someone touches the body of the device and
there is no earth then they can get shock since the current will pass through
them to get to the earth. However, if the earth is present, then it is easier
for the current to pass through the earth wire to get to the earth. Therefore
the current will pass through the earth wire instead of the person’s body,
and they won’t get shocked.

This wire is Green & Yellow in colour.

Plugs and Sockets

Sockets: they provide means for devices connect to the main supply. The
three (or sometimes two) types of wires enter the socket. There is
sometimes a switch, which is always connected to the live wire. In
Grenada the highest current allowed through a circuit is 50A. Therefore
 too many high powered devices should not be connected to the same
socket.

Most Sockets have three (3) holes (Live, Neutral and Earth). The Earth is
at the Top, the Live is on the Left and the Neutral is on the Right.
However, if the socket is opened and turned over then the Neutral would
be on the Left and the Live on the Right. There are some sockets with only
two (2) holes (Live and Neutral).

Plugs: they allow devices to be connected to the sockets to receive electric

current from the main. Most plugs have fuses which will always be on the
live.

Most Plugs have three (3) pins (Live, Neutral and Earth). The Earth is at
the Top, the Live is on the Left and the Neutral is on the Right. However,
if the plug is opened and turned over then the Neutral would be on the Left
and the Live on the Right. There are some plugs with only two (2) pins
(Live and Neutral).

Circuit Control: Many times home and device circuits need to be switched
off. Sometimes this is because it is not in use. However at other times this is to
protect humans or the device. The main tools used to control home circuits are
switches, fuses and circuit breakers.

Switches: These are simple devices which turn off a circuit by breaking
the circuit. It must always be connected to the live wire. Switches are
found in devices and on sockets.

DEVICE OFF DEVICE ON

Fuses: Remember that electric current is a form of energy and as it travels

through conductors some of it is wasted. Therefore conductors become hot
as current travels through them. The higher the current a certain conductor
the hotter it becomes. This heat may burn or damage conductor. The
maximum heat a conductor can withstand depends on its size, shape and
melting point. Because of this, devices can burn if the current through
them is too high. Nevertheless each device needs a certain amount of
current in order to work (current rating) so device requiring high currents
have thicker wires than those using lower currents. Hence the current a
device can handle is usually only slightly higher than it needs.

However there are times when the current a device receives goes higher
than it needs and can handle. This can burn the device. In light of this fuses
can be used to protect the device. Fuses are simple devices with a wire that
can burn more easily than the device. The current they can handle must be
just slightly higher than the devices current rating. Thus they will not burn
when the current is normally. But, if the current goes higher than normal
then the fuse will burn before the device burns (because they burn more
easily). Thus the circuit is broken and the current stops. When this
happens, the fuse can be cheaply replaced. A simple analogy is like a
bodyguard jumping in front of the President to take a bullet.

Picture: Below are shown a picture and the circuit diagram of a fuse.

Illustration: The diagram below illustrates how fuses protect devices.

Current = 5A
Working Normally Without Fuse
Current Rating = 5A

Current = 7A
Burnt - Not Working
Current Rating = 5A
With Fuse

Current = 5A
Working Normally
Current Rating = 5A

Current = 7A
Working but Current Off
Current Rating = 5A
 Examples: Choose the correct fuse from the list of possible fuses.

[1] A Fridge has a current rating of 13A. Possible fuses are 10A, 15A
and 20A.

Answer is 15A - the fuse should be just higher than the current
rating of the device. 10A is lower than current rating. 20A is too
high (there is one closer).

[2] A TV rated 480W at 240V. Possible fuses are 1A, 2A, 3A and
4A.

480
Current Rating= =2 A
240

Answer is 3A. 1A is lower than the device’s current rating. 2A is

too exact (there must be space for slight increases). 4A is too
high.

Questions: Choose the correct fuse from the list of possible fuses.

[1] A drill has current rating of 1.5A. Possible fuses: 1A, 2A and 3A.

[2] A washing machine rated 960W at 240V. Possible fuses: 3A, 6A,
9A.

Circuit Breaker: Their function is similar to the function of fuses but

inside of burning the switch off when the current is too high. When the
current returns to normal and the circuit cools down they switch back on.
In this way you do not have to replace them. Some uses electromagnet to
while others use bimetallic strips.

Domestic Circuit Arrangement:

Fuse Box or Main Switch: This box is usually connected directly to the
electric meter. It is also called the Consumer Unit. It contains a main
switch which can be used to turn off the current to the entire house. The
home circuit is then branched into two (2): the Lighting Circuit and the
Socket Circuit. A 5A fuse is placed on the lighting branch and 50 A fuse is
placed on the socket branch. A Consumer Unit is shown below.
 Main Consumer Unit
Switch
Meter
309125
KWh

50A 5A

Entrant Ring
Lights
Unit Main

Simple Parallel for Lighting:

Ring-Main Circuit: Sockets in the home circuit is usually arranged in the

Ring-Main Circuit arrangement. This is a double parallel arrangement. In
this arrangement each socket receives two (2) live wires, two (2) neutral
wires and two (2) earth wires, as shown below. The cable with the three
types of wire goes to the socket and then continues to the next socket, and
so on, in a ring-like manner.

Benefits: Benefits of Ring-Main over Simple Parallel are listed below.

[1] It reduces the amount current passing through each wire.

[2] It offers two pathways to each device in each there is a break.

Diagram: Below is a diagram of the Ring-main Circuit.

 Meter Consumer Unit

Lights

Cost of Electricity: Electrical Usage of a consumer (home or business)

must be paid for to the Electric Company which supplies the electricity. In
Grenada this is Grenlec. Electrical Usage is a measure of how much
Electrical Energy is used. The Cost depends on the Electrical Usage.

Electric Meter: Electrical Energy used by a consumer is measured

with an Electric Meter. The Meter is read at the end of every month
and the difference between This Month and Last Month gives the
Usage for This Month.

Eg: End of April Reading = 9468 kWh; End of May Reading = 9570
kWh. Therefore May Usage = 9570 - 9468 = 102kWh

Definitions: The following are important to understand the formulas.

[1] Electrical Power: This is how fast the device is using electrical
energy. It must be in Kilowatts (kW) when dealing with Electrical
Cost.

[2] Time: This is how long a device is used for. It must be in hours
(h) when dealing with Electrical Cost.

[3] Electrical Energy: This is a measure of how much electricity is

used by a device or consumer. It must be measured in Kilowatt
 Hours (kWh). The way to calculate it differs: For a device is
shown below; For a consumer is shown above.

[4] Rate: This is how much the Company Charges per Kilowatts.

Formula: There are two formulas to calculate Electrical Cost for a

specific device.

Electrical Energy for a Device=Electrical Power × Time

Cost =Electrical Energy × Rate

Example: Calculate the Cost of Electricity for a Household which has

the following devices. A TV with Power 300W, used for 120 hours; 5
Lights each with a Power of 20 Watts, used for 360 hours; and an Iron
with Power of 2.4 Kilowatts, used for 75 minutes. The Rate is $0.56
per Kilowatt.

300
TV → P= =0.3 kW ; t=120 h ; E=0.3 × 120=36 kW h
1000

20
Lig h ts → P=5 × =0.1 kW ; t=360 h ; E=0.1× 360=36 kW h .
1000

75
Iron → P=2.4 kW ; t= =1.25 h ; E=2.4 ×1.25=3 kW h
60

Total Usage=36+36 +3=75 kWh

Cost =75 ×0.56=$ 42

Questions: Find the cost for each question below.

Electrical Safety and Saving

Safety: Electricity in the mains carries a voltage that can create a

dangerous (even fatal) current through the body. If a person comes
into contact with an exposed wire, then this current usually would
flow from the wire, through the person’s body and down to the earth.
Improper handling of electricity can also damage devices and homes.
Measures for safe handling of electricity are listed below.

[1] Keep hands dry when handling electrical devices especially plugs.

[2] Turn off the main switch when working on the mains circuit.
 [3] Do no connect too many high powered devices unto a single
socket or extension cord.

[4] Replace fuses with the correctly rated fuse.

[5] Do not use damaged or broken cable with missing insulation.

[6] Ensure that plugs and extension cords won’t be tripped over.

[7] Do not use electrical device while in water or handling water.

[8] Do not place or use electrical devices in water.

Saving: Electrical energy is costly and its production affects the

environment. Therefore it is necessary to ensure that electrical energy
is not wasted. Measures to save of electrical energy and prevent its
wastage are listed below.

[1] Turn off light when they are not in use.

[2] Do not leave transformers plugged on when not in use.

[3] Use energy efficient devices where possible.

[4] Do not open refrigerators regularly.

[5] Iron clothes in bulk rather than individually.

[6]

Electronics

Semiconductors: Some elements are between conductors and insulators. They

do not conduct electricity normally but if mix with another insulator special
insulator then they will conduct. They are called Semiconductors.
Semiconductors have four electrons in their outer shell so they form strong
covalent bonds involving all their electrons. Therefore none of their electrons
are free to carry electric current.
 Silicon Silicon Silicon

Silicon Silicon Silicon

Silicon Silicon Silicon

Types: New types of conductive sei conductors can be formed by mixing

the semiconductor with nearby elements in the periodic table. This is
called doping.

P-Type: If an element with only three electrons on its last shell (

) is mixed with the semiconductor then one of four electrons of
the semiconductor will not be pair. So there is a missing electron
(shown in gray, , below). These are called Holes, because they
can hold free electrons. The new semiconductor formed is called a P-
Type.

N-Type: If an element with only five electrons on its last shell (

) is mixed with the semiconductor then there is one more electron than
the four electrons of the semiconductor can pair with. So there is an
extra electron (shown as, , below). These are called Free
Electrons. The new semiconductor formed is called a N-Type.
 Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon

Silicon Boron Silicon Silicon Phosporus Silicon

Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon Silicon

P-TYPE N-TYPE

Diodes: these are simple electronic devices which are made up of a p-type
semiconductor connected to an n-type semiconductor.

The diagrams below shows a picture, illustration and circuit symbol for the
diode. All points in the same direction.

p n

Basics: Because of the nature, diode can only conduct electric current in
one direction. That direction is from the n-type to the p-type.

Forward Bias: When the negative terminal of the power supply is

connected to the n-type and the positive end of the power supply is
connected to the p-type, then current will flow through the diode. This
is called forward bias. The diagram below shows this.

Current Flows
p n

Reverse Bias: When the negative terminal of the power supply is

connected to the p-type and the positive end of the power supply is
connected to the n-type, then current will not flow through the diode.
This is called reverse bias. The diagram below shows this.
 No Current Flows
n p

I-V Graph

Current/A
Voltage/V
Mininum
Voltage

Functions: Because diode only allow current to pass through them in only
one direction, it can be use to change ac to dc. This is called rectification.
Devices that this are called rectifier.

Half Wave Rectification: This process uses a single diode. When the
voltage is forward across, then the current flows through the circuit.
When the voltage is reverse across the diode, then current does not
flow. Therefore only the forward half of the ac wave is received. This
why it is called half wave rectification.
Current / A

Time / s

Forward Bias Reverse Bias Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Current Flows No Current Current Flows No Current

Full Wave Rectification: This process uses an arrangement of diodes

as shown below. This arrangement allows current from the input
circuit to flow both when in forward bias and when in reverse bias.
 However it flows in only one direction through the output device. It is
called full wave rectification because the entire (full) wave is
obtained.

Input

Output
Current / A Device

Time / s
Input Input Input Input

Forward Bias Reverse Bias Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Current Flows Current Flows Current Flows Current Flows

LEDs: Some diodes emit light when current flows through it in

forward. These are called Light Emitting Diodes (LED). They are use
in Energy Saving Bulbs, Indicator Lights, LED Screens.

Transistors: These are special semiconductor switches that can be turned on

and off without any moving parts. Thus they are called solid state switches.
They are used to make most other more complex electronic devices. These
devices includes: logic gates, flash memory, computer chips.

Logic Gates: These are electronic devices which can give different output
based on the nature of the input. In other words they can make special
decisions based on the circumstances. This is called logic - hence the name
logic gates.

Each logic gate has one or more inputs and one output. The gate takes the
inputs analyses it and produces output. Tables called Truth Tables are used to
show the outputs of a particular gate based on its input.

Inputs and output can have either one of two (binary) states - ON or OFF. ON
is represent as 1 or True and OFF is represented as 0 or False.

Types: There are three basic types of logic gates - the AND gate, the OR
gate and the NOT gate. All other gates can be made from these three.
There are three other logics which are the opposite of AND and OR - they
are NAND (NOT AND) and NOR (NOT OR). They can be made by
attaching a NOT gate to the output of the respective type.

AND: This gate has two inputs (A and B) and one output (X). Its
output is ON only if both inputs A AND B are ON.

[1] Symbol: The symbol for the AND gate is shown below.

A
X
B

[2] States: The four possible states of inputs of the AND gate

0 0
0 0
0 1
1 1
0 1
0 1

[3] Truth Table: The truth table for the AND gate is shown below.
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR: This gate has two inputs (A and B) and one output (X). Its output
is ON only if atleast one of the inputs A OR B are ON.
[1] Symbol: The symbol for the OR gate is shown below.

A
X
B

[2] States: The four possible states of inputs of the OR gate

0 0
0 1
0 1
1 1
1 1
0 1

[3] Truth Table: The truth table for the OR gate is shown below.
A B X
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOT: This gate has one input (A) and one output (X). Its output is
ON if the input A is NOT ON.

[1] Symbol: The symbol for the OR gate is shown below.

A X

[2] States: The four possible states of inputs of the OR gate

0 1 1 0

[3] Truth Table: The truth table for the NOT gate is shown below.
A X
0 1
1 0

NAND: This gate has two inputs (A and B) and one output (X). This
is the opposite of an AND gate. It is formed by attaching a NOT to the
output of an AND gate ( ). Its output is OFF only if
both inputs A AND B are ON.
[1] Symbol: The symbol for the AND gate is shown below.

A
X
B

[2] States: The four possible states of inputs of the NAND gate

0 0
1 1
0 1
1 1
1 0
0 1

[3] Truth Table: The truth table for the NAND gate is shown below.
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR: This gate has two inputs (A and B) and one output (X). This is
the opposite of an OR gate. It is formed by attaching a NOT to the
output of an OR gate ( ). Its output is OFF only if
atleast one of the inputs A OR B are ON.

[1] Symbol: The symbol for the OR gate is shown below.

A
X
B

[2] States: The four possible states of inputs of the OR gate

0 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
0 0
0 1

[3] Truth Table: The truth table for the OR gate is shown below.
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
 1 0 0
1 1 0

Analysing Logic Circuits: Logic circuits are analysed using truth tables.
This analysis will provide information on how the circuit behaves based on
its inputs. Steps, examples and questions are given below.

Steps: To describe the steps to analyse a logic circuit a preliminary

example will be used. The circuit is shown below.
A D
B
X

C E

[1] Differentiate between Primary and Secondary Inputs: Primary

Inputs are those that are directly from the power source and have
not come from a gate. In the example above A, B and C are
Primary Inputs. Secondary Inputs are output of a gate that also
are inputs of other gates. In the example above D and E are
Secondary Inputs.

[2] Calculate the Number of Rows: If n = Number of Rows and i =

Number of Primary Inputs, then the Number of rows is calculated
by the formula: n=2i. In the example above; there are 3 Primary
Inputs, so i = 3. So n=23=8 . So this table must have 8 rows.

[3] Determine the Number of Columns: the must be a column for

each input and output. In the example above the total number .of
inputs and outputs is 6. So this table must have 5 columns

[4] Set up the Truth Table: Draw the table with the number of rows
and columns. There must be an extra row for the Heading. Place
the names of the Inputs and Outputs in the Heading Row - starting
with the primary inputs the secondary inputs then outputs. Fill out
the Primary Inputs with the binary values starting from 0 as
shown below. The table for the example above is shown below.
A B C D E X
0 0 0
 0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
[5] Deriving Outputs: Start with the Initial Outputs these would also
be Secondary Inputs. In the example above the Initial Output
would be D and E. D is the output of an NAND with inputs A and
B, so it would only be OFF when both A AND B is ON. E is the
output of a NOT gate with input C, so it is the opposite of C.
Finally derive the Final Output. In the example above X is the
Final Output. X is the output of an OR gate with inputs C and D,
so it would be ON once A OR B is ON.
A B C D E X
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0
Another Example

Complete the truth table for the logic circuit below.

A E
B
X
C
D F

There are 4 Primary Input; therefore Number of Rows = 24=16; and

Number of Columns = 7. The Table is shown below.

E is the output of an AND gate with inputs A and B.

F is the output of an OR gate with inputs C and D.

X is the Final Output of a NAND with inputs E and F.

A B C D E F X
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 1
 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Questions

[1] Draw and complete the truth table for the logic circuit below.
A C

B
D

[2] Draw and complete the truth table for the logic circuit below.
A D
B
X

C
E

[3] The diagram below shows the logic circuit for alarm system in a
car. A is ON if the door is open. B is ON if the vehicle is moving.
C is ON if the seatbelt is off.

{a} Draw and complete the truth table for the circuit.

{b} Describe in words two conditions under which the alarm will
sound.
 A D

B X

C E

[4] The diagram below shows a logic circuit for the alarm in a
machine. A is ON if the Temperature is high. B is ON if the
Speed of the machine is very high. C is ON if the Oil Pressure is
high.

{a} Draw and complete the truth table for the circuit.

{b} Describe in words two conditions under which the alarm will
sound.
A D
B
X

C
E

Other Uses: Logic Gates are in many devices computers, phones, remote
controls, cameras, calculators, robots, alarm, motion detectors, etc.

Uses of Technology

Storage and Access of Information.

Communication

Transportation

Agriculture

Processing Information at High Speed

Magnetism

Magnetism is the study of the nature and behaviour of magnets.

Simple Magnetism: This deals with the behaviour of Permanent magnets

Types of Materials: Materials are either magnetic or non-magnetic.

Magnetic Materials: These materials can become magnetized (made

magnets), are attracted to or are affected by magnets. Examples: Iron, Cobalt
and Nickel.

Types of Magnetic Materials: Not all magnetic materials are the same.

Ferromagnetic Materials: These are material is can be strongly

attracted to a magnet. They can also form strong magnets. The
magnetic materials referred to in this notes are strictly ferromagnetic
materials.

Paramagnetic Materials: These are materials that exhibit very weak

temporary attraction to magnet. The attraction is too weak to be
noticed, thus they are referred to as non magnetic. They cannot form
magnets.

Diamagnetic Materials: These are materials that exhibit very weak

temporary repulsion to magnets. The repulsion is too weak to be
noticed, thus they are referred to as non magnetic. They cannot form
magnets.

Magnetic Retention: This refers to how well magnets keep (retain) their
magnetism.

Soft Iron – easily becomes a magnet when close to another magnet

but loses its magnetism shortly when removed. Pure Iron is soft iron.
Uses – Electromagnets.

Hard Iron – does not easily become a magnet but keeps its
magnetism long once it is gained. Steel is hard iron. Uses – Permanent
magnets.
 Non-Magnetic Materials: These materials cannot become magnetised and
aren’t attracted to magnets. Examples: metals not listed above and all non
metals.

Magnetic Theory: The properties of magnets can be explained by theories.

Permanent Magnets: These are magnets which have stored their magnetism.
They do not need electricity or to be near a magnet to have their magnetism.

Domains: Magnetic materials are the made of tiny magnets called domains.

In an unmagnetised object, the domains are not all pointing in the same
direction. Therefore their fields are cancelled out.

Magnetic Material
Domain (South to North)

However when the object is magnetised they become aligned to the same
direction. Therefore their field is strengthened.

SN Magnet

The Fundamental Properties

They contain two poles.

They attract other magnets.

They repel other magnets.

They attract magnetic materials.

They can be produced by electricity

The earth is a magnet. If a magnet is hung freely its north pole will point
north.

Poles: Every magnet contains two poles.

North and South: The North (N) Pole is one part of the magnet and the
South (S) Pole is one the other end. NB: These are different from the North
Pole and South Pole of the Earth.
 The Earth as a Magnet: The Earth is a magnet. If a bar magnet is hung
on a string then its North Pole will point towards the North. This means
that the North Pole of the Earth is a Magnetic South Pole.

Diagram: The diagram below illustrates the earth as a magnet.

Geographic North

N
Geographic South

Usefulness:

[1] Compass: Since the North Pole of a magnet point North, then a
small light magnet can be used in navigation. Highlight the north
pole of the magnet. Then simply place the magnet so that it can
move freely. The North Pole will point to where North is.

[2] Protection from Solar Storms: The earth’s magnetic field

deflected harmful particle from the sun from causing severe
damage to the earth (especially humans). This creates beautiful
phenomena Aurora (Northern and Southern Lights).

Magnetic Forces and Fields: Magnets create fields which exert forces.

Forces Between Magnets: Magnets exert a force (push or pull) on each other.

Direction (Push or Pull?): The direction of the forces between two magnetic poles
follows the rules below. Opposites attract but Alike repel.

If they carry the same charge then they will repel each other, so they will
be pushed apart.

If they carry the opposite charge then they will attract each other, so they will be
pulled together

Two North Poles: will repel each other.

Repel
SN NS
 Two South Poles: will repel each other.

Repel
NS SN

A North Pole and a South Pole: will attract each other.

Attract
SN SN

Magnitude (How Strong?): The strength of the force between magnet

depends on two factors.

The Strength of the Magnets: Stronger magnets exert stronger forces

between each other than weak magnets.

The Distance Between the Magnet: The greater the distance between
two magnets the smaller the force will be. So if a North Pole and
South Pole are held 1 m apart the attraction will be weak. As they are
brought closer and closer the attraction increases until it becomes very
hard to keep them apart.

Magnetic Fields: Remember a field in physics is the area in which a force is

experienced. A magnetic field is the area in which a magnetic force is
experienced. A magnetic field is represented by arrows. The direction of the
field is defined as the direction of the force on a north pole. Representations of
various electric fields are shown below.

North to South: Out of the North and Into the South.

North to North: Out of Both.

South to South: Into Both.

Uniform: From the North Plate to the South Plate.

Magnetic Induction:

Testing a Magnet:

Handling Magnets: Magnets can be created and destroyed. So they must be

handled and stored carefully.
Making Magnets: There are different ways to create magnets. Each method
works because it helps to align the domains in the same direction.

Stroking Method: Place a steel bar flat on a table. Stroke along the steel
bar with one Pole of a magnet several times. Ensure to lift the magnet high
above the bar between strokes. The end where the stroking is started gets
the same pole as the one the is used to stroke the steel. This is shown in the
diagram below.

NSteel BarS SSteel BarN

Electrical Method: Connect a coil of several turns of wire to a D.C.
power supply. This shown in the diagram below. Leave for several seconds
then turn off the supply.

NS
A

The direction of the North Pole can be found by

the Right-Hand Grip Rule (as discussed below).

Demagnetizing Magnets: Magnetic Fields are demagnetized when actions

cause their domains to change polarity rapidly and lose their alignment.

Demagnetising
SN
Magnet Unmagnetised Rod
 Heating: When a magnet is heated, the atoms vibrate more rapidly. This
causes the domains to go out of alignment. Thus the magnet loses its
magnetism.

Hitting: When a magnet is hit or even dropped, the atoms vibrate more
rapidly. This causes the domains to go out of alignment. Thus the magnet
loses its magnetism.

AC: When a magnet is placed inside an AC coil the changing current

causes the magnetic field to change rapidly. This causes the domains to go
out of alignment. Thus the magnet loses its magnetism.

Storing Magnets: Magnets slowly lose their magnetic strength due interaction
with other magnet field and the repulsion of domains. Therefore magnets must
be stored properly to reduce the loss of magnetism. The magnets must be
stored in pairs with their opposite poles touching. Soft iron bars (called
keepers) can be used on the ends. For single magnets, soft iron bars can be used
to replace the magnet. The temperature should be cool (at most room temp.).
This is shown below.

Keeper
Keeper
Electromagnetism: This deals with the relationship between Electricity & Magnetism.

Introduction: Electricity has magnetic properties. Every current carrying

conductor (wire) has an electric field around it. Wires can be arranged in different
ways to produce special magnetic fields. The most common is the solenoid (coil).

Discovery:

Magnetic Field Around Current Carrying Conductors

Rules: Two main rules are used to determine the magnetic field around a
conductor.

Right Hand Screw Rule: This rule can be use when the Curved Direction
and a Straight Direction depend on each other. The Direction in which the
screw Turns represents the Curved Direction and the Direction of the
Motion of the screw represents the Straight Direction. So if the screw is
turned clockwise then it moves down. However, if the screw is turn
anticlockwise it moves up. This is shown below.

Direction of Motion

Direction of Turn

Right Hand Grip Rule: This rule can be use when the Curved Direction
and a Straight Direction depend on each other. The Thumb points in the
Straight Direction. However the Other Fingers point in the Curved
Direction. This is shown below.

Straight Direction

Straight Direction

Straight Direction

Arrangements: There are different ways to arrange wires to create magnetic

fields. Three of these are shown below.

Straight Wire: A straight wire has a magnetic field around it. The
magnetic field forms a cylinder around the conductor. The direction of the
magnetic field can be determined by the Right-Hand Screw Rule or Right-
Hand Grip Rule as discuss below.

Magnetic
Field

Current

Using the Right-Hand Screw Rule: If the direction of the current in

a straight conductor is treated as the direction that a screw is moving,
then the direction of the magnetic field will be the direction in which
the screw is turning.

If the Current is Down, then the Magnetic Field is Clockwise around

the conductor. If the Current is Up, then the Magnetic Field is
AntiClockwise around the conductor.

Using the Right-Hand Grip Rule: If the thumb is pointed in the

direction of the conventional current then the remaining fingers will
point in the direction of the magnetic field.

If the Current is Down, then the Magnetic Field is Clockwise around

the conductor. If the Current is Up, then the Magnetic Field is
AntiClockwise around the conductor.

A Loop: The magnetic field around a loop is caused by the interactions

between the two parts of a single conductor. Since it is a loop the current is
up in one end and down in the other. This is shown below.
 A Solenoid: A solenoid is a cylindrical coil containing many loops. As the
fields of the loops interact, they form a continuous field with a North Pole
on one end and a South Pole at the other end. This is shown in the diagram
below.

Using the Right-Hand Grip Rule: If the Other Fingers is pointed in

the direction of the conventional current then the Thumb will point in
the direction of the North Pole.

Uses: The solenoid can be used to make a permanent magnet or an

electromagnet.

[1] It can be use to produce permanent magnets by placing a piece of

hard iron within. The hard iron becomes magnetized and keeps its
magnetism after it is removed.

[2] It can also be used to produce electromagnets by placing a soft

iron within. The soft iron helps to concentrate the magnetic field.

Electromagnets: These are devices which use electricity to create a magnetic field.
A wire is made into a solenoid (coil) and a piece of soft iron is placed inside. When
the current flow in the coil then it becomes a magnet. However when the current
stops then the magnetism stops.

Increasing the Strength: The strength of a electromagnet can be increased by

Increasing the Current:

Increasing the Coil Density:

Using a Soft Iron Core:

Benefits of Electromagnets: there are several uses of electromagnets.

It can be produced without the need of permanent magnet.

It can be switched on and off by switching the current on and off.

It can be used to produce very strong magnetic fields

Uses of Electromagnets: Electromagnets have many uses:

Electromagnetic Cranes: These use electromagnets to lift metallic (iron,

cobalt or nickel) objects from a pile of rubble. When the electromagnet is
turned on it attract and holds the metals. It is then moved to where it is
wanted and the the electromagnet is turned off to drop the metal.

Electric relays: The electric relay is a circuitry which uses one circuit to
control another, especially a larger one. When the current flows in the first
circuit it magnetizes the electromagnet and it attracts the L-shaped soft
iron armature. This turns it on the pivot so it closes the second switch. The
second circuit is now on.
 d
2nd Circuit
Loa

2nd Switch
Pivot

Soft Iron Armature

Electromagnet
1st Circuit
1st Switch

Electric Bells: This device uses a set up which cause an electromagnet to

switch on and off very quickly. This creates a rapid vibration of a hammer
which hits a gong.

The circuit is switched on the current flows to the electromagnet and it

attracts the soft iron armature. The hammer hits the gong but the contact at
C is now broken. The electromagnet loses it magnetism and no longer
attracts the armature. The spring pulls the hammer back remaking the
contact at C. The circuit is now the way it started and the cycle repeats.

Spring

Separatable Contacts

Hammer
Gong

Chimes: This is a device which makes two sounds similar to a doorbell.

When the current is of the spring keeps the wooden strike at the top as
shown in the first diagram. When the switch is pushed, the coil becomes
magnetic and the magnetic field of the coil pulls the striker downward to
strike Plate A. This shown in the second diagram. When the switch is
 released, the spring pulls the striker back up to strike Plate B. This is
shown in the second diagram.

Electric Motors, Loudspeakers and Electric Meters: These devices use

electromagnets to provide magnetic field which cause motion when there
is a current in them. This is explained in Electromagnetic Force below.

Generators, Microphone and Transformer: These devices use

electromagnets to provide magnetic field which cause a current when there
is motion in them. This is explained in Electromagnetic Induction below

Electromagnetic Force: This is the force on a current carrying conductor which is

in a magnetic field.

Principle: Whenever current moves through a magnetic field it will experience

a force. This force is called an Electromagnetic Force. This force will cause a
wire or free-moving charge to move.

This force is caused to an interaction between the original magnetic field and
the one created by the current. This is illustrated below. Below the wire will
move down because the stronger magnetic field over it will push it towards the
weaker field under it.
The size of the Force on the Wire depends on its Angle to the Magnetic Field.
The Greater the Angle, the Greater the Force will be. Thus the Force is
Greatest when the wire is Perpendicular to the magnetic field and it is Smallest
when the wire is Parallel to the magnetic field. The Force also depends on the
Current. The Greater the Current, the Greater the Force will be.

Maximum ForceSmaller ForceNo force

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: The direction of the Force depends on the

direction of the Current and Magnetic Field. If the hand is placed in the way
shown below and the Index Finger point in the direction of the Magnetic Field
and the Middle Finger is point in the direction of Conventional Current, then
the Thumb will point in the direction of the Force.

Force

Magnetic Force
Field
Magnetic
Field

Current
Current

Examples:

Questions: Use Fleming’s Left Hand Rule to answer these questions.

Devices: Many Important devices use electromagnetic force. Most devices

which use current to cause motion will use Electromagnetic Force.

Electric Motor: This is a device which rotates (spins) when a current is

applied to it.
Diagram: The diagram below is for a very simple motor.

Parts: Each part of the motor is essential to its operation.

[1] Brushes: Provide contact between the split-rings and the power
supply, so that current can enter the coil.

[2] Split Rings (Commutator): Provide contact between the coil and
the brushes so that current can enter the coil. It has two splits and
it rotates with the coil. Thus it switches the side of the power
supply that each arm of the coil receives current from.

[3] Coil: Creates a magnetic field that interacts with the magnetic
field to produce electromagnetic forces that cause it to rotate.

[4] Magnets: Provides a magnetic field.

Operation: The current enters the coil from the brushes to the split
rings. The current moves from the Left Side to the Right Side

When A is on the left and B is on the Right, the current goes in at A

and out at B. Thus A will move Up and B will move Down. These two
different forces in opposite direction are called a couple and the work
together to cause the coil to rotate. As the coil rotates the split rings
rotate with it.
 When the coil is vertical the split in the ring are in contact with the
brushes so no current enter the coil. However, inertia keeps the coil
rotating so the A and B switch sides.

Now that A is on the right and B is now on the left side. So the current
is now in at B and out at A. Thus A moves down and B moves up.

So the coil continues to rotate in the same direction. The cycle

continues. The left side always moves up and the right side always
moves down

Microphone: This device works similar to a motor but instead of rotating,

it vibrates up and down. Notice that its arrangement allows the two arms of
the coil to move in the same direction even though their currents are in
opposite directions. This because the magnetic field are also in opposite
directions.

It produces sound from electrical signals. Sound is a back and forth

vibration of air. The current that enters the coil behaves like sound in that
it moves back and forth. Therefore the coil vibrates up and down. The
Diaphragm connected to it produces sound as it vibrates.

Electric Meter: These devices measure current or voltage. They have

coils which rotate when current flows through them - similar to the motor.
However they are prevented from moving right around, by spring. The
higher the Current or voltage, the greater the force on the coil and the
further it will move. Thus the needle connected to the coil that rotates as
the coil rotates.

Electromagnetic Induction: This is the creation of a current on a wire that is

moving through magnetic field; or when a wire is in a changing magnetic field.
Principle: Whenever a conductor is moving through a magnetic field or the
wire is in a changing magnetic field, a current will be induced on the wire.

The size of the Current in the Wire depends on its Angle of Motion to the
Magnetic Field. The Greater the Angle, the Greater the Current will be. Thus
the Force is Greatest when the wire is moved Perpendicular to the magnetic
field and it is Smallest when the wire is moved Parallel to the magnetic field.
The Current also depends on the Motion. The Faster the motion, the Greater the
Current will be.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: The direction of the Force depends on the
direction of the Current and Magnetic Field. If the hand is placed in the way
shown below and the Index Finger point in the direction of the Magnetic Field
and the Middle Finger is point in the direction of Conventional Current, then
the Thumb will point in the direction of the Force.

Force

Magnetic Force
Field
Magnetic
Field

Current Current

Devices: Many important device use Electromagnetic Induction. These devices

use Motion or a changing magnetic field to create current.

Electric Generator: This is a device the produces current when it is

rotated. It is the opposite of the motor.

Diagram: The diagram below is for a very simple motor.

Parts: Each part of the generator is essential to its operation.

[1] Brushes: Provide contact between the split-rings and the load, so
that current can leave the coil.

[2] Split Rings (Commutator): Provide contact between the coil and
the brushes so that current can leave the coil. It has two splits and
it rotates with the coil. Thus it switches the side of the load that
each arm of the coil gives current to.

[3] Slip Rings: Provide contact between the coil and the brushes so
that current can leave the coil. It is made of two complete rings
and does not rotate with the coil. Thus it ensures that each side of
the load is always connected to the same arm of the coil.

[4] Coil: Moves through the magnetic field to produce a current as it

rotates.

[5] Magnets: Provides a magnetic field.

Operation: The DC and AC generator operate similarly except in that

the current is allowed to change directions in the AC Generator but is
kept in the same direction in the DC Generator.

[1] DC Generator: The coil rotates in a clockwise direction. A

moves up while B moves down. Therefore the generated current
 is In through A and Out through B. Thus the current goes Into the
Left Side and comes Out from the Right Side.

When the coil is vertical, it is now moving parallel to the

magnetic field and thus no current is generated.

When A is on the Right Side it will be moving Down and B will

be on the Left Side moving Up. Therefore the generated current
will be Out through A and In through B. Thus the current still
goes Into the Left Side and comes Out from the Right Side.

Hence the current always goes in the same direction due to the
Split rings.

[2] AC Generator: The coil rotates in a clockwise direction. A

moves up while B moves down. Therefore the generated current
is In through A and Out through B. Thus the current goes Into the
Left Side Ring and comes Out from the Right Side Ring.

When the coil is vertical, it is now moving parallel to the

magnetic field and thus no current is generated.

When A is on the Right Side it will be moving Down and B will

be on the Left Side moving Up. Therefore the generated current
will be Out through A and In through B. However, the current
now goes Out from the Left Side Ring and comes Into the Right
Side Ring.

Hence the current switches directions due to the Slip rings

because each Arm of the coil is always connected to the same
Ring.

Loudspeaker: This device work similar to a generator but instead of using

rotational motion, it uses up and down motion. It is the reverse of the mike.

It produces electrical signals from sound. Sound is the back and forth
vibration of air. The sound makes the diaphragm to vibrate. The coil
connected to it will also vibrate. This produces a current that goes back
and forth similar to the vibrating coil.
Transformers: These are devices that use to change voltage. They have
two coils: a Primary (Input) Coil and a Secondary (Output) coil which are
not touching. These coils are usually wound on a soft-iron core. Current
enter the primary coil and is induced on the secondary coil. This happen as
the alternating current moves to and fro in the primary coil. This produces
an ever changing magnetic field. As the magnetic field cut the secondary
coil, a current is induced on them.

Transformers use only alternating current because they need changing

currents in order to produce a magnetic field that cuts the secondary coil.

IP IS

VP NP NP VS

Primary (Input) Secondary (Output)

Types: There are two types of transformers

[1] Step down Transformers: There is more turns in the primary

coil than in the secondary coil. It decreases the voltage. Eg: 240V
to 120V.

VP =
VP
½VP

[2] Step Up Transformers: There is less turns in the primary coil

than in the secondary coil. It increases the voltage. Eg: 20V to
240V.

VP VS = 2VP
Equations: There are three properties of transformers that are related
to each other. They are the Number of Turn (N), Voltage (V) and
Current (I).

NP = Primary Number of Turns, NS = Secondary Number of Turns;

VP = Primary Voltage, VS = Secondary Voltage;

IP = Primary Current, IS = Secondary Current;

NP VP
=
NS V S

N P IS
=
N S IP

V P IS
=
V S IP

Uses: There are several uses of Transformers.

[1] Stepping Down 240V for 120V Devices:

[2] Stepping Down Chargers and Power Supplies:

[3] Stepping Up from Batteries:

[4] Stepping for Long Distance Transmission:

[5] Wireless Charging: Transformers

Examples: See the examples below

Questions: Answer the following

[1] A transformer has 1000 turns in the Primary Coil and 250 turns in
the Secondary Coil.

{a} What type of transformer is this?

{b} Calculate the Secondary Voltage if the Primary Voltage is

460V.

{c} The Ouput current is 2A, what is the Input Current?

N P V P N P IS V P IS
= = =
N S V S NS I P V S IP
Production, Transmission and Distribution of Electricity: This is done in
Grenada by Grenlec. The diagram below shows an overview of the whole
process.

Production: This is done by AC generators which produce electricity at

approximately 1000V. The generators are turned by Steam Engines.

Burning Diesel fuel in a furnace is used to heat water. The water boils into
steam. The steam turns a turbine. The turbine turns the generator. The
generator produces electricity.

Diagram:

Reason for Producing AC: Alternating Current offers greater

flexibility than Direct Current. Some of these are described below.

[1] Use in Transformer: The electricity produced must be stepped

up for transmission and stepped down for distribution by
transformers. However transformers can only use AC. Hence AC
must be produced.

[2] Use in Three-Phase: The value of AC varies significantly. This

variation can be used to obtain higher voltages than the normal
voltage. These high voltages are needed for heavy machinery,
such as in the School’s Woodwork Lab and in Factories.

Transmission: After the electricity is produced, it must be stepped up to

11000V, by a transformer at a Transmission Substation. This is important
for efficient transmission to towns and villages. The electricity is then fed
into cables and carried the areas where it is needed. The cables are usually
called ‘High Tension Wires’ here in Grenada.

Diagram:

Reason for Stepping-Up: The Power produced at the power station is

fixed. Therefore if the Voltage is stepped up by a transformer then the
Current will step down (P = IV). So transmitting High Voltage will
mean transmitting Low Current. Having a low current in the line
 means that only a small amount of power is wasted in the line (P =
I2R). Hence most of the power will be delivered to the consumers.

This is illustrated below. Imagine 100000W of Power is produced at

the Power Station. The Resistance in the lines is 10Ω.

P=100000 W

V L=100000 V

P 100000
I L= = =1 A
V 100000
2 2
P L=I R=1 × 10=10 W

P=100000 W

V L=10000 V

P 100000
I L= = =10 A
V 10000
2 2
P L=I R=10 ×10=1000W

Distribution: When the electricity is near consumers; it is then stepped

down to 240V by a Pole Transformer. The electricity is then carried by
two wires. The homes are then connected to these two wires by a Cable.